Nanomaterials in Clinical Therapeutics
Synthesis and Applications
Edited by Mainak Mukhopadhyay and Arindam Kuila
This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Wiley Global Headquarters
111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty
While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781119857235
Cover image: Pixabay.Com
Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Nabya Nehal, Anushka Mathur, Modhumita Ganguli and Priyanka Singh
4.1.1
4.1.2
Sharmili Roy, Monalisha Ghosh Dastidar, Vivek Sharma, Beom Soo Kim and Rajiv Chandra Rajak
5.1
5.3
5.5
6.3
Swarnalok
6.4
6.6.3
6.6.4
7.3
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
8.6
8.7
Bhattacharya
11 Instrumentation for the
Andrea Komesu, Johnatt Oliveira, Débora Kono Taketa Moreira, Yvan Jesus Olortiga Asencios, João Moreira Neto and Luiza Helena da Silva Martins
12
Monika Yadav, Sneha Upreti and Priyanka Singh
12.2.1.5
12.2.1.6
12.2.1.7
12.2.3.4
12.2.5.1
Part 3: Application of Nanomaterials
Kaliyaperumal Rekha, Nalok Dutta, Muthu Thiruvengadam, Mohammad Ali Shariati, Muhammad Usman Khan, Muhammad Usman, Mihir Bhatta, Kunal Ghosh, Shaheer Arif and Muhammad Naeem
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.5
Rituparna Saha and Mainak Mukhopadhyay
16.3
16.4
16.6
16.7
Preface
Nanotechnology-based applications is a rapidly growing field encompassing a diverse range of disciplines that impact our daily lives. Nanotechnology is being used to carry out large-scale reactions in practically every field of biotechnology and healthcare. The incredible progress being made in these applications is particularly true for the healthcare sector, where they are used in cancer detection and treatment, medical implants, tissue engineering, and so forth. Expansions in this discipline are expected to continue in the future, resulting in the creation of a variety of life-saving medical technology and treatment procedures.
The primary goal of this book is to disseminate information on nanotechnology’s applications in the biological sciences. A broad array of nanotechnological approaches utilized in different biological applications are highlighted in the book’s 17 chapters, including the employment of nanotechnology in drug delivery. The first three chapters provide an overview of the history and principles of nanotechnology. The synthesis, characterization, and applications of nanomaterials are covered in the next 10 chapters. The last four chapters discuss the use of nanomaterials in clinical research.
A number of well-known scientists contributed to the book, whose knowledge of the subject will benefit students and researchers in fields such as environmental biotechnology, bioprocess engineering, renewable energy, chemical engineering, nanotechnology, biotechnology, and microbiology.
We are grateful to Linda Mohr and Martin Scrivener at Scrivener Publishing for their complete cooperation and assistance in the timely publishing of this book. We would also like to express our gratitude to the writers and the publication staff for their efforts throughout the COVID19 epidemic.
Dr. Mainak Mukhopadhyay Dr. Arindam Kuila
June 2022
Introduction to Nanotechnology
Rekha Sharma1, Kritika S. Sharma2 and Dinesh Kumar2*
1Department of Chemistry, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan, India
2School of Chemical Sciences, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, India
Abstract
For the synthesis of material of nanometer size, nanotechnology implies an innovative route for technological development. Nanotechnology exactly means any technology in its various applications in the real world on the nanoscale. At scales ranging from discrete molecules or atoms to submicron dimensions, nanotechnology precisely includes the fabrication and application of chemical, physical, and biological systems, via the incorporation of these resulting nanomaterials into larger systems. It has the ability to alter our prospects, outlooks and proposals’ capability to overcome global problems. The introduction of many new areas of technology in nanocomposites, nanosensors, and nanomedicine has been done via the production and usage of nanomaterials. Currently, to produce the next generation of functional materials, nanotechnology is accomplished with its wide-ranging usage. Through attaining an important attention of the optical, magnetic, and mechanical properties of nanostructures, it is obtained as a multidisciplinary field. Furthermore, nanostructures can similarly give determinations toward technological and environmental challenges, and also in the areas of medicine, water treatment, catalysis, and solar energy conversion. This chapter mainly focusses on the classification of nanomaterials, introduction of nanotechnology, and the properties of nanomaterials.
Keywords: Nanotechnology, nanomaterials, biosensors, nanometer, nanostructures
*Corresponding author: dinesh.kumar@cug.ac.in
Mainak Mukhopadhyay and Arindam Kuila (eds.) Nanomaterials in Clinical Therapeutics: Synthesis and Applications, (3–32) © 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
1.1 Introduction
The scientific community is attracted by the nanoscience field. So nanotechnology is an outlook basically for most of the continuing deliberations, explanations, and considerations. Intrinsically, it establishes the apotheosis of human’s incessant need for knowledge and represents a broad term partaking applied potential. Nanotechnology is any technology to form functional structures by employing single atoms and molecules on the nanoscale, which has wide-ranging applications [1]. The area of nanotechnology comprises the utilization and creation of biological, physical, and chemical systems with structural features among single atoms or molecules to submicron dimensions, and also the assimilation of resultant nanostructures into larger systems [2, 3]. The technology on the nanoscale is simply called nanotechnology. Therefore, nanotechnology is the field, which comprise the materials in 1 to 100 nm range. The “engineering with atomic precision” and “atomically precise technology” are the brief definition of nanotechnology [4]. Owing to their nanoscale size, nanotechnology signify innovative, suggestively enhanced biological, physical, and chemical properties, developments, and methods. “The size and shape-controlled usage of matters to design, characterization, and manufacture in the nanoscale” is the dictionary description of the term nanotechnology [5]. Additionally, so as to make devices, systems, and matters through essentially innovative functions and properties, “the precision placement, controlled and careful manipulation, measurement, modeling, and production of materials at the nanoscale is a substitute definition [5]. In chemistry, colloidal science, biology, physics, and other scientific fields, nanotechnology is a branch of facts incorporating the study of methods at the nanoscale within a subclassification of technology [6]. The biological, physical, and chemical properties of materials at the nanoscale are demonstrated in the promise and essence of nanotechnology and nanoscience according to that they may be moderately diverse from those within a bulk material [7]. Dramatic changes can arise in their properties, when the dimensions are reduced below 100 nm of a material [7]. Therefore, to offer novel properties to a material along with variations associated precisely to structure and size, materials should be nanostructured so as to offer a precise performance. These types of particles and macromolecules possess distinct physicochemical properties at sizes of 1 to 50 nm and made of some molecules [8]. When nanoparticles (NPs) are used for similar applications, they possess properties of improved performance compared with bulk materials. The collection of atoms bonded in cooperation with an average size of 1 to
100 nm defines an NP, which characteristically comprising of 10 to 105 atoms [9]. Nanocatalysts are the important application of NPs which is the manufacture of a new class of catalysts [10]. For the enhanced performance of chemical reactions, significant developments are being made in the fields, which contribute to detailed understanding of manufacturing, function of NPs as catalysts and the nature of NPs, i.e., structure, composition, and particle size [11]. The purpose of the performance of catalysts is a commanding function of its size distribution and particle size. The chemical properties of NPs offer them with application as catalysts, which are linked to particle size, for example, electronic properties, surface morphology, and large surface-to-volume ratio [6, 12]. For the improvement of inventive nanosystems and nanostructured materials, innovative developments are done via the discovery of new processes, phenomena, and materials at the nanoscale. This is also done for the progression of innovative experimental and theoretical methods for research. In terms of its applications in electronics, agriculture, energy, medicine, various anticipated and recent improvements in nanotechnology and nanoscale science have been done at an increasing rate [10, 13]. In the extension of innovative methods used to substitute present production equipment, to create new products, and to reformulate chemicals toward improved performance and novel materials, nanotechnology can play an important part. It results in less energy consumption and reduced material, environmental remediation, and also for less toxicity to the environment [14]. Nanotechnology offers the thrilling opportunity by a more sustainable route to remediate problems, although a reduced ingesting of energy and matter, assists the environment. Environmental applications of nanotechnology comprise the measures to address both the resulting issues with the advancement of solutions to recent ecological problems, from the possible risks associated with nanotechnology, and interactions of energy and material with the atmosphere [14].
1.2 Nanoscale Materials: Importance
The definition of nanometer (nm) scale can be demonstrated as smaller than one tenth of a micrometer in at least one dimension or three to five atoms in width—equivalent to 10 A˚ or one billionth of a meter [15], although the materials smaller than 1 mm can be used as term nanoscale. Similarly, 1 nm is 10,000 times less than the diameter of a human hair or we can simply say 109 m. A method based on science has been derived in
the nanomaterial field, because of study materials at the nanoscale with structural features [15]. Nanotechnology and nanoscience functions have smaller systems and objects [16]. The systems and matter, which have the succeeding main properties, are defined as nanoscience studies:
➢ Building block property which permit the manufacture of larger structures,
➢ Apply methods that demonstrate the vital control of the chemical and physical appearances of molecular-scale structures.
➢Partake as a minimum of one dimension less than 10 nm.
Generally, developing the constituents of cellular structures to form the bioentities in the body, the nanotechnology is utilized in nature, for example, enzymes, proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, viruses, and RNA. Generally, the molecular size of various structures has 1 to 100 nm nanoscale range in biological system, nanoscience is actually characteristic of nature in the biological sciences [17]. For the development of advanced nanosystems and nanoscale matters, the study of innovative nanoscale phenomena, processes, and materials offers new prospects and also to the progress of novel experimental and theoretical methods. The nanoscale materials can be enormously dissimilar from larger scale materials on the dimensional scale. The nanostructures are categorized as the largest molecules and atoms in bulk materials or living systems or connecting the smallest part of artificial devices [18]. A drastic change can arise in their properties, when the material dimensions are condensed to less than 100 nm from a large size [19]. On the basis of morphology and distribution, ascendancy of size incarceration, quantum effects, and interfacial method, the utmost required properties at the nanoscale can be attained. Additionally, in terms of their different property at the macroscale, the materials behavior is not entirely predictable at the nanoscale [9, 20]. To demonstrate new biological, physical, and chemical properties of systems, the capability to operate and control nanostructures will finally make it possible. The properties are transitional in size, specifically, bulk materials, single atoms, and molecules [15]. Materials can be nanostructured in order to create novel properties and provide improved performance. The main reasons of nanoscale materials are comprised succeeding, which makes them very important for new opportunities in technology and science [16]:
➢ The enhanced surface area-to-volume ratio occurs in utmost nanoscale constituents, which offers likely novel quantum mechanical effects. Therefore, owing to this “quantum size
effect” with huge decrease in particle size, the electronic properties of solids can be altered [21]. For example, because of the close incarceration producing quantum effects by their electrons, NPs generally partake unexpected visual properties, for instance, in solution, the deep red to black color of gold NPs appears. To change the macroscopic and microscopic properties of NPs, a design of nanoscale materials used which comprise charge capacity deprived of changing their chemical composition, magnetization, and melting temperatures [16].
➢ Because of surface and interfacial chemistry, and large surface-to-volume ratios, chemical properties at this scale offer a use for catalysis, which is important for various uses. These nanoscale materials are perfect for composite materials, catalysis, energy storage, reacting systems, and drug delivery. Owing to various properties, they are being used in medicine field as well for instance possibility of being used to kill bacteria, and improved resistance property. Though there are concerns associated to the potential significances to the human health and environment [22], nanoscale materials partake the capacity to progress the environment by the manufacturing of customer products in terms of fabricating ecologically accountable products their designing and cleaner industrial procedures [22]. Applications, such as modifiable photoactive materials, materials of amplified strength, and creating catalysts, are offered by the innovative and inimitable properties of NPs, nanostructured materials, and other related nanotechnologies. Furthermore, in the area of medicine, catalysis, water treatment, and conversion of solar energy, such materials can be utilized to make solutions to face ecological and technical challenges [9, 23].
➢ The biological entities or molecular structures at the nanoscale is their systematic organization in the body, which allowed us to put artificial nanoscale stuffs into living cells [24]. Correspondingly, by the use of molecular self-assembly to examine the macrostructure and microstructure of matter, this technology has offered the possibility. In materials science, this surely is a precise commanding tool [25].
➢ The light-weight nanocomposites, enhanced hardness and strength of nanomaterials and developed malleability, and enhanced compression properties are the enriched
mechanical properties invented of nanostructures of macroscopic systems [26]. Moreover, in contrast to the microstructures, nanosystems may partake increased densities. Along with substantially condensed consumption of power concurrently through monitoring complexity and interactions of nanostructures, and being improved electricity conductors having faster and smaller circuits, and which can spark the manufacture of new electronic devices with more sophisticated functions [23].
1.3 Nanotechnology: Historical Advances
The famous Nobel Laureate and the physicist Dr. Richard P. Feynman introduced the concept of nanotechnology [27]. “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom: An Invitation to Enter a New Field of Physics” was the title of his classic science lectures. Feynman contemplated representing thin-film formation, miniaturization by evaporation, constructing small matters with atoms, for example by using nanorobotics solving the problems of lubrication, small factories, small machines, and electronic circuits. Similarly, to produce different nanodevices and nanostructures, he suggested the rearranging atoms [28]. In the field of medicine, AuNPs partake an extensive history. Such as, a patent for manufacturing stained glass incorporating gold NPs granted in 1449 by John Utynam who is a Flemish glassmaker in England. To patients suffering from certain illnesses, Hohenheim administered and synthesized gold NPs in the early 16th century. Several researchers working around the world in nanotechnology field on all the ideas presented in Feynman’s lecture [29–31]. The aligning of single atoms through a scanning tunneling microscope (STM), the manipulation of single atoms on a silicon surface, the trapping of 3D, single, colloidal particles using electrostatic techniques having nanometer-diameter are the successful applications resulted by the Feynman’s lecture in 1959. They nanomaterials have the possible to be working for uses in commercial enterprises, such as industry, because of the important effect of their enabling nature in these new systems. Because of their incapability to recognize the NPs structure, the efficiency of their research has been limited, though scientists have been working for decades with NPs. First of all, Tanaguchi used the term “nanotechnology,” in his paper presented in 1974 entitled “On the basic concept of nanotechnology” [32]. The potential of nanotechnology being promoted in the coming era of nanotechnology [33]. To manufacture complex nanomachines proteins could be used through customized
