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Process Safety for Engineers
This book is one in a series of process safety guidelines and concept books published by the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS). Please go to www.wiley.com/go/ccps or www.aiche.org/ccps/publications for a full list of titles in this series. A few are listed below.
• Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures
• Guidelines for Revalidating Process Hazard Analysis
• Layer of Protection Analysis - Simplified Process Risk Assessment
• Guidelines for Consequence Analysis of Chemical Releases
• Bow Ties in Risk Management
• Guidelines for Safe Process Operations and Maintenance
• Conduct of Operations and Operational Discipline
• Management of Change for Process Safety
• Guidelines for Asset Integrity Management
• Guidelines for Chemical Reactivity Evaluation and Application to Process Design
• Guidelines for Inherently Safer Chemical Processes: A Life Cycle Approach
• Guidelines for Integrating Process Safety into Engineering Projects
• Performing Effective Pre-Startup Safety Reviews
• Guidelines for Investigating Process Safety Incidents
• Guidelines for Risk Based Process Safety
• Guidelines for Defining Process Safety Competency Requirements
• Incidents that Define Process Safety
• More Incidents that Define Process Safety
• Recognizing and Responding to Normalization of Deviance
• Essential Practices for Creating, Strengthening, and Sustaining Process Safety Culture
• Process Safety Leadership from the Boardroom to the Frontlines
Process
CENTER FOR CHEMICAL PROCESS SAFETY of the
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS
120 Wall Street, 23rd Floor • New York, NY 10005
This edition first published 2022 © 2022 the American Institute of Chemical Engineers
A Joint Publication of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The rights of CCPS to be identified as the author of the editorial material in this work have been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is
ISBN: 9781119830986
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board (CSB) video, public domain
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Applied for:
Process Safety for Engineers: An Introduction Is dedicated to Pete
Lodal
Pete has supported CCPS for thirty-four years, and counting, through his forty-two year career at Eastman Chemical Company and currently as a CCPS Staff Consultant. He has been recognized as a Fellow of Eastman Chemical Company, a CCPS Fellow, and an AIChE Fellow in addition to being a registered PE in the state of Tennessee and a CCPSC. Pete is the author of many papers and we all look forward to his honest, enlightening, and humorous presentations at the Global Congress on Process Safety. He has supported many CCPS and AIChE committees. His leadership of the CCPS Planning Committee has been instrumental in creating impactful products to further process safety understanding. Through his current membership on the AIChE Board of Directors, Pete is an influential advocate for process safety.
Has the realm of process safety benefited from Pete’s insightful support? In the words of Pete’s hero, Curly Howard, “Why soitenly!”
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Picture of a nitroglycerine reactor in the 19th century ................................................5
Figure 1.2. Continuous nitroglycerine reactor ..................................................................................5
Figure 1.3. Number of fatal work injuries, by industry sector, 2019 ..............................................8
Figure 1.4. Fatal work injury rate by industry sector, 2019 .............................................................9
Figure 2.1. Process flow diagram of the raffinate column and blowdown drum .......................16
Figure 2.2. Texas City isomerization unit aftermath ......................................................................17
Figure 2.3. Destroyed trailers west of the blowdown drum..........................................................17
Figure 2.4. RBPS structure .................................................................................................................21
Figure 3.1. Lac-Megantic tank cars with breaches to their shells .................................................36
Figure 3.2. DOT-117 train car ............................................................................................................38
Figure 3.3. ExxonMobil Operations Integrity Management System.............................................44
Figure 3.4. DuPont Process Safety and Risk Management model................................................45
Figure 4.1. Imperial Sugar refinery after the explosion .................................................................53
Figure 4.2. Imperial Sugar packing buildings first floor plan ........................................................55
Figure 4.3. Imperial Sugar Refinery after the explosion ................................................................57
Figure 4.4. Motor cooling fins and fan guard with sugar dust, piles of sugar on floor ..............57
Figure 4.5. Secondary dust explosion ..............................................................................................58
Figure 4.6. Fire Triangle .....................................................................................................................60
Figure 4.7. Relationship between flammability properties ...........................................................62
Figure 4.8. Flammability diagram .....................................................................................................62
Figure 4.9. Pool fire ............................................................................................................................65
Figure 4.10. Jet fire..............................................................................................................................65
Figure 4.11. Fireball ............................................................................................................................66
Figure 4.12. Explosion pressure-time curve....................................................................................67
Figure 4.13. Degrees of congestion from low to high (left to right) .............................................68
Figure 4.14. Relationships between the different types of explosions........................................69
Figure 4.15. Dust explosions in industry .........................................................................................71
Figure 4.16. Fire triangle and dust pentagon ..................................................................................71
Figure 4.17. Bonding and grounding ...............................................................................................74
Figure 4.18. Methane flammability diagram (For Problem 4.9) ....................................................80
Figure 5.1. Portion of 7.6 cm (3 in)-thick reactor ............................................................................85
Figure 5.2. T2 Laboratories control room........................................................................................86
Figure 5.3. T2 Reactor cross-section ................................................................................................88
Figure 5.4. Equipment involved in reactive chemistry incidents ..................................................90
Figure 5.5. Consequences of reactive chemistry incidents ...........................................................90
Figure 5.6. Temperature and pressure vs. time for T2 Laboratories explosion .........................94
Figure 5.7. Preliminary screening for chemical reactivity hazard analysis ..................................98
Figure 5.8. – CRW for strong acid strong base pair ..................................................................... 100
Figure 6.1. Overview map of the Bhopal vicinity ......................................................................... 106
Figure 6.2. Emergency relief effluent treatment with scrubber and flare tower in series ..... 107
Figure 6.3. Toxic pathways ............................................................................................................. 109
Figure 6.4 Emergency Response Planning Guideline (ERPG) concentration ............................ 111
Figure 7.1. Damage to Concept Sciences Hanover facility ......................................................... 120
Figure 7.2. Simplified process flow diagram of the CSI HA vacuum distillation process ........ 121
Figure 7.3. Example NFPA 704 .......................................................................................................
Figure 7.4. Pictograms included in chemical shipping
Figure 8.1. Fukushima Daiichi
Figure 8.2. Fukushima Daiichi incident
Figure 8.3. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant elevations
Figure 8.4. Damage in the generator hall at the Sayano-Shusenskaya
Figure 8.5.
Figure 8.6. Coffeyville Refinery
Figure 9.1. P 36 Platform shown during
Figure 9.2. P 36
Figure 9.3. Process
Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.2.
Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.5.
Figure 10.6.
Figure 10.7.
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure 10.11. Combining
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure 11.24. Seveso reactor..........................................................................................................
Figure 11.25. T2 Laboratories site before and after the explosion ...........................................
Figure 11.26. Damaged heater ......................................................................................................
Figure 11.27. Heater and adjacent column at NOVA Bayport plant..........................................
Figure 11.28. Molasses tank failure; before and after ................................................................
Figure 11.29 1 - Pipe connections in panel 2 and Chemfos 700; 2 - Liq. Add lines .................
Figure 11.30. Cloud of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide ...........................................................
Figure 11.31. Tank collapsed by vacuum......................................................................................
Figure 11.32. Schematic diagram of UST leak detection methods ............................................
Figure 11.33. Mounded underground tank..................................................................................
Figure 11.34 a. Schematics of external internal floating roof tank ...........................................
Figure 11.34 b. Schematics of internal floating roof tank...........................................................
Figure 11.35. Pressurized gas storage tank..................................................................................
Figure 11.36. Piping rupture ..........................................................................................................
Figure 11.37. Comparison of HF Unit incident scene pre-and post-incident ...........................
Figure 12.1. Photograph of the failed end of GP905 reboiler ....................................................
Figure 12.2. Simplified schematic of
Figure
Figure 12.4. HAZOP analysis method
Figure
Figure 12.6.
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure 13.3.
Figure 13.4.
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure 14.10. Hong Kong societal risk criteria.............................................................................
Figure 14.11. Types of ALARP
Figure
Figure 14.13. Frequency of hole sizes ...........................................................................................
Figure 14.14. Risk
Figure 15.1. Oxidation reactor after
Figure 15.2. One of several units impacted
Figure 15.3. Schematic of oxidation reactor
Figure 15.4. Predicted flammable vapor cloud from reactor explosion...................................
Figure 15.5. Terminology describing layers of protection ..........................................................
Figure 15.6. Swiss cheese model ...................................................................................................
Figure 15.7. Example bow tie model .............................................................................................
Figure 15.8. Steps in constructing a bow tie model ....................................................................
Figure 15.9 a. The left side (threat legs) of a bow tie for loss of containment
Figure 15.9 b. The right side (consequence legs) of a bow tie for loss of containment..........
Figure 16.1. Smoke plumes from Formosa plant ........................................................................
Figure 16.2. Formosa reactor building elevation view ................................................................
Figure 16.3. Cutaway of the Formosa
Figure 16.4.
Figure
Figure 16.6. Human
Figure 16.7.
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Process safety activities for new engineers...................................................................29
Table 3.1. Examples and sources of process safety related regulations.....................................42
Table 3.2. Sources of process safety related codes and standards and selected examples ....43
Table 3.3. Comparison of RBPS elements with U.S. OSHA PSM and U.S. EPA RMP elements ..46
Table 4.1. Flammability properties...................................................................................................63
Table 4.2. Minimum ignition energies for selected materials.......................................................63
Table 4.3. Examples of various types of explosions.......................................................................70
Table 4.4. Selected combustible dust properties ...........................................................................72
Table 4.5. Ignition sources and control methods ...........................................................................73
Table 5.1. Chemical Reactivity types and examples.......................................................................92
Table 5.2. Some Reactive Functional Groups..................................................................................92
Table 5.3. Example form to document screening of chemical reactivity hazards ......................97
Table 6.1. Example chemical exposure effects ............................................................................ 110
Table 6.2. Effects of oxygen depletion ..........................................................................................
Table 7.1. Safety data sheet sections and content ......................................................................
Table 7.2. NFPA 704 hazards and rating.......................................................................................
Table 9.1 Tier 1 Process Safety Event Severity Weighting ..........................................................
Table 9.2. Typical Tier 3 and Tier
Table
Table 11.1. Failure modes and design considerations for fluid transfer equipment..............
Table 11.2. Common failure modes and design considerations for heat exchangers ...........
Table11.3.
Table
Table
Table
Table 12.4.
Table
Table 12.5. Typical hazard evaluation objectives at different stages of a process
Table 13.1. Typical discharge scenarios........................................................................................
Table 13.2. Input and output for flash models
Table 13.3.
Table 13.4. Input and output for pool spread models................................................................
Table 13.5. Input and output for neutral and positively buoyant plume and puff models....
Table 13.6. Input and output for dispersion models ..................................................................
Table 13.7. Input and output for dense gas dispersion models................................................
Table 13.8. Types of fires and explosions.....................................................................................
Table 13.9. Input and output for pool fire models ......................................................................
Table 13.10. Input and output for jet fire models .......................................................................
Table 13.11. Input and output for VCE models............................................................................
Table 13.12. Input and output for toxic impact models .............................................................
Table 13.13. Effects of thermal radiation .....................................................................................
Table 13.14. Selected overpressure levels and damage.............................................................
Table 13.15. Typical industry building damage level descriptions ............................................
Table 13.16. Selected consequence analysis models .................................................................
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table A.5
Table
Table
Table
Table E.1.
Table
Table E.3.
Table
Table
