TERC Fuel Methodology - Renewable Diesel and Biodiesel
TERC METHODOLOGY
DIGITAL BIOMASS-BASED DIESEL FOR TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS
TERC-0922
Version 1.0 November 2024
Developed by Eco-Energy
INDUSTRY ENGAGEMENT
The TERC methodology was developed through a collaborative and inclusive process involving a diverse range of stakeholders. The input was solicited from industry representatives, environmental organizations, academic experts, policymakers, and community advocates to ensure the methodology reflects a balanced and comprehensive perspective.
Additionally, a public comment period was conducted, providing an opportunity for broader feedback and transparency. This process helped refine the methodology and align it with the principles of fairness, feasibility, and environmental integrity, ensuring it meets the needs of both the market and the broader public interest.
SOURCES
BiomassBased Diesel BACKGROUND
The trucking industry, particularly the operation of middle and heavy-duty trucks, significantly contributes to global carbon emissions and air pollution. Trucks make up only about 10% of the vehicle population but are responsible for a disproportionately large 28% of transportation-related GHG emissions due to their high fuel consumption and reliance on diesel engines. They also contribute 45% of nitrogen oxides and 57% of fine particulate matter from on-road vehicles, harmful pollutants that contribute to poor air quality and adverse public health outcomes. As economies and global supply chains rely ever more heavily on the transport of goods by road, reducing the carbon footprint of this sector is crucial to achieving broader domestic and international climate goals. Globally, the demand for liquid fuels is projected to increase by 32% between 2020 and 2050.
Decarbonizing the heavy-duty trucking industry presents significant challenges, and solutions must be numerous, swift, creative, and effective to reach the international target of limiting global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels set by the Paris Agreement
Unlike the light-duty vehicle sector, where electrification has become increasingly viable, medium, and heavyduty trucks operate under much more demanding conditions Long-haul vehicles travel great distances, often carrying heavy loads, making it difficult to rely solely on electric power due to current limitations in battery technology, grid power availability, charging infrastructure, and energy density While advancements in electric trucks are underway, with early models now entering the market, federal, state, and private funding is rising, and collaborative projects coming together to scale widespread adoption of fully electric solutions remain a long-term goal Less than 1% of the medium and heavy-duty trucks in the United States are electrified, a statistic mirrored in most economies across the world. For many operators, the economic and logistical challenges of transitioning to electric vehicles (EVs) are currently too steep, and they require alternative, lowcarbon solutions that can be implemented more immediately.
Biomass-based diesels already play a promising role as a low-carbon alternative to petroleum diesel. Biodiesel and Renewable Diesel (RD), produced largely from waste oils generated in food and fuel production processes, have significantly lower emission profiles on a life-cycle basis than their petroleum counterparts and can be used in existing diesel engines with little or no modifications.
Life-cycle GHG emissions reductions for producing biodiesel (B100) and RD from soybean, canola, and carinata oils range from 40% to 69% after considering land-use change estimations, compared with petroleum diesel. Converting tallow, used cooking oil, and distillers corn oil to biodiesel (B100) and RD could achieve higher GHG reductions of 79% to 86% lower than petroleum diesel. Biomass-based fuels offer a near-term opportunity to reduce transportation emissions on a large scale without the need for new infrastructure
Biodiesel is made from organic materials such as vegetable oils, animal fats, and used cooking oil through a process of transesterification and can reduce life-cycle greenhouse gas diesel emissions by nearly 75% in its purest form, B100, according to LCAs completed by Argonne National Laboratory. California Air Resources Board has mirrored these. Biodiesel also reduces particulate matter emissions, which are harmful to human health. Typically mixed with conventional diesel at varying standard rates, depending on the region, regulatory requirements, and application, the most common blend rates are:
B5: This blend contains 5% biodiesel and 95% conventional diesel. B5 is widely accepted and can be used in most diesel engines without modifications. It is the most common blend found at fuel stations and is often supported by federal and state policies in the U.S.
B10: A 10% biodiesel and 90% diesel blend, B10 is another standard option that generally requires no engine modifications and is often used in light- to medium-duty vehicles.
B20: Containing 20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel, B20 is popular because it strikes a balance between lower emissions and compatibility with most existing diesel engines. Many fleets, including government and commercial operations, opt for B20 as it offers significant environmental benefits while still being widely supported by diesel engines with minimal adjustments
B50, B100: High blends like B50 (50% biodiesel) and B100 (pure biodiesel) are used less commonly, typically in specific applications or regions where infrastructure supports higher biodiesel use B100, for example, is used in fleets or by consumers who have modified engines to handle pure biodiesel, especially in areas with strong environmental initiatives
B100 can be used in fleets or consumers with modified engines to handle pure biodiesel, especially in areas with strong environmental initiatives Minnesota’s Metro Transit, which operates public buses in the Twin Cities area, has been a leader in using biodiesel to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In a pilot project, Metro Transit began using B100 biodiesel in its bus fleet during the warmer summer months.
Though chemically similar to biodiesel made from the same feedstocks, RD is produced using a hydrogen treatment, making it molecularly equivalent to petroleum diesel and meets the ASTM D975 specification for petroleum in the United States and EN 590 in Europe. It can, therefore, be used as a replacement fuel, blended with any amount of petroleum diesel, and transported using existing pipelines. Renewable diesel generally is reported to have 50% to 90% lower carbon emissions on a life-cycle basis than petroleum diesel, and improves air quality by reducing particulate matter and NOx emissions.
Figure 1 – Life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of petroleum diesel compared to (a) biodiesel (BD) and (b) renewable diesel (RD) pathways Marker symbols indicate life-cycle GHG emissions, including those from land-use change (LUC) UCO refers to used cooking oil, and the bar for UCO also includes emissions from UCO collection The corn oil pathway is based on distillers corn oil (DCO) rather than edible corn oil
While the lifecycle emission benefits are clear, the cost to produce biomass-based diesel is generally higher than traditional petroleum diesel, with the exact difference depending on various factors such as feedstock prices, production technology, and market conditions Biodiesel is typically 10-25% more expensive to produce than petroleum diesel, and RD tends to be 25-40% more expensive to produce than petroleum diesel, according to the EPA Higher production costs keep both biodiesel and RD limited to distribution in locations where the costs can be mitigated with government subsidies, tax credits, or regulation that promotes low carbon fuel use Without these incentives, biodiesel and RD are less competitive with traditional petroleum diesel in terms of cost
As a result, nearly all U.S. domestically produced and imported RD is used in west coast markets due to economic benefits under the low carbon fuel programs that individual states have in place to attract the lowest carbon fuels. Between 2020 and 2023, growth in California’s RD consumption was more than double the consumption growth throughout the rest of the US. As a result, biomass-based diesel accounted for about 60 percent of the California diesel pool in 2023. In Q1 of 2024, biomass-based diesel comprised more than 72 percent of the total liquid diesel pool in the state, while the rest of the United States remains in the low single digits for both fuels. Oregon and Washington, which both have low carbon fuel policies, also draw biomassbased diesel, but California is the largest-consuming state and has been responsible for driving a rapid ramp up of supply in the U.S. However, as the market demand has become saturated along the west coast, and with limited alternative outlets for a premium price on biomass-based diesels, there has been a scaling back of planned new production facilities in the U.S.
Figure 1: Life-Cycle GHG Emissions of BD and RD Pathways
More widely and geographically diversified use of biodiesel and RD present an opportunity to contribute to rapid and efficient decarbonization of the mid and heavy-duty trucking industry with technology and infrastructure that exist today, even as electric solutions continue to develop.
To accelerate decarbonization in the hard-to-abate on-road shipping industry outside regulated programs, voluntary market mechanisms can drive demand for lower-carbon biomass-based diesels, connect limited supply locations with carriers and shippers seeking sustainable solutions, and help share the cost premium for these fuels
A formalized and standard approach to account for the environmental attributes of biomass-based diesel, unbundling them from the physical fuel, and offering them to corporations and consumer brands seeking to invest, will incentivize not only the broader distribution of cleaner fuels and the expansion of supply, but the ongoing investment by fuel producers in innovative, technology-based solutions to drive down the carbon intensity of the fuels produced.
The TERC Methodology: Digital Biomass-Based Diesel for Transportation Applications outlines the requirements for the generation of TERCs from biodiesel and RD in order to be issued, traded, and retired on the TERC Digital Fuels Registry.
Defini Acron Langu
DEFINITIONS
Agroecological Zone Emission Facto emissions resulting from land use ch agroecological zones (AEZs) and as converting that land to agricultural
Animal Fat – Inedible fat is the produ animal parts, fat, and bone “Yellow g evidence is not provided to the verifi used in cooking oil
ASTM International – Formerly calle organization that develops and publ wide range of materials, products, sy performance of diesel fuel and its re
Batch – A specific amount of fuel ver in a fuel pathway, and delivered with
Biodiesel – Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel manufactured domestically from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease. Biodiesel meets both the biomass-based diesel and overall advanced biofuel requirement of the Renewable Fuel Standard. For the purpose of this program, biodiesel is a fuel comprised of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fats, designated B100, and meeting the specifications set forth by the ASTM International in the latest version of Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel Blend Stock (B100) for Middle Distillate Fuels D6751 contained in the ASTM publication entitled: Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Section 5.
Biodiesel Blend – Biodiesel blended with diesel produced from petroleum.
Biomass-Based Diesel – Biomass-based diesel is a renewable fuel that can be used for transportation, heating, or as an additive to fuel It is made from crops, vegetable oils, and animal fats The most prominent biomassbased fuels are biodiesel and renewable diesel
Brown Grease – Brown grease is a w preparation and cooking. It's collect establishments.
Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CO2e) –greenhouse gases based on their glo
Carbon Intensity (CI) – The quantity carbon dioxide equivalent per megaj
Certificate Generator – The fuel-pro to generate TERCs.
Diesel Fuel – Also referred to as con blended up to 5 volume percent biod latest version of Standard Specificat Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Se
Digital Fuels Registry – The Xpansiv Transport Emission Reduction Certif established to host a new class of tra participants to define, record, and tr production, transport, and use, a cor performance claims across the supp carbon technologies, environmental systems
Distiller’s Corn Oil Distiller’s corn o intended for non-human consumptio ingredient
Distiller’s Sorghum Oil – Distillers so plant. It can be used to produce biod
Drop-In Fuel – A synthetic fuel that can be directly substituted for traditional petroleum-based fuels like gasoline or diesel without requiring any modifications to existing engines, fuel systems, or distribution infrastructure, essentially meaning it can be "dropped in" and used as is in current vehicles and equipment.
Double counting – When a single carbon unit is issued, sold, or retired more than once.
Eligible Gallons – Fuel gallons that have been approved by an independent third-party verification body to generate TERCs. Only gallons that are not sold into a market with a regulated low-carbon fuel program can be considered eligible gallons.
Emission – The production and discharge of gases into the atmosphere that have an environmental impact
Emission Certificate - A certificate representing the environmental attribute of a low-carbon fuel, reflecting its lower emissions compared to a petroleum alternative
Environmental Attribute – Greenhou carbon fuel, recognized by internati
Greenhouse gas emission reduction emission reductions, offsets, allowa authorizations under any law or reg reduction program for greenhouse g any international, governmental, or
Energy Economy Ratio (EER) – A me a reference fuel, essentially indicatin higher EER signifying greater efficie based on the relative energy efficien
Exchange – A central marketplace w record trades.
Feedstock First Collection Point – T materials collected from a point of o
Feedstock Transport Mode – The mo eventually the fuel production facilit
Final Distribution Facility – The stat transferred into a cargo tank truck, s fuel will be dispensed into motor veh
Finished Fuel – A fuel that can be dis any additional chemicals or physical
Fish Oil – Fish oil is fat that comes fr
Fuel Pathway – A term used in the C processes, operations, parameters, c g g g considered appropriate to account for in the system boundary of a complete well-to-wheel analysis of that fuel’s life cycle GHG emissions.
Tier 1 Fuel Pathway – Defined by CA-LCFS, a simplified method for calculating the carbon intensity (CI) of fuels with well-established production processes and feedstocks, such as ethanol, biodiesel, renewable diesel, and compressed natural gas (CNG). It applies standardized models and assumptions to determine life cycle emissions.
Tier 2 Fuel Pathway – Defined by CA-LCFS, a detailed process for calculating the carbon intensity (CI) of fuels using non-standard methods, novel technologies, or alternative feedstocks. It requires a more comprehensive life cycle analysis (LCA) to account for unique production variables.
Fuel Pathway Classification – For the purpose of the TERC Program for biomass-based diesel, a Tier 1 or a Tier 2 Fuel Pathway
Fuel Pathway Holder – An entity that has received a certified fuel pathway carbon intensity from the California Air Resources Board based on site-specific data, including a Provisional pathway
Fuel Production Facility – The locati
Fuel Transportation Mode – A comb covered to deliver fuel from the prod
Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP policies, including the environmenta interventions across sectors and reg
GREET – Greenhouse Gases, Regula developed by Argonne National Labo technologies.
International Sustainability and Car sustainability, carbon reduction, and industries. ISCC ensures that raw ma greenhouse gas emissions, conservin
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) – A metho stages of a product's life, from raw m
Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emission emissions and significant indirect em the full fuel life cycle, including all st generation or extraction through the consumer, where the mass values fo warming potential
Low Carbon Fuel – A fuel derived fro pollutant emissions.
Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) – A regulatory policy that aims to reduce carbon intensity in transportation fuels compared to conventional petroleum fuels.
Methodology – A systematic approach, framework, or set of rules that are followed to ensure consistency and accuracy.
Participant – A participant in the TERC Program, which might include producers, brokers, marketers, traders, retailers, and end-consumers of low-carbon fuels.
Payload Dataset – The entire set of data used to generate a batch of TERCs.
Renewable Diesel – Renewable diesel is a drop-in fuel that's chemically identical to petroleum diesel, but made from non-fossil resources like plant and animal fats and oils It can be used in place of petroleum diesel, or blended with it in any amount "Non-ester renewable diesel" means a diesel fuel registered as a motor vehicle fuel or fuel additive under 40 CFR Part 79, as amended by Pub L 91-604, produced from nonpetroleum renewable resources that is not a mono-alkyl ester
Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) – A expand the renewable fuels sector, a renewable fuels in the U S fuel supp the carbon intensity (CI) of transpor performance-based targets
Renewable Diesel Blend – A fuel con diesel This blend maintains compati modifications
RSB – A global, multi-stakeholder in biomaterials, including biofuels and responsibility in biofuel production, supply chain.
Specified Source Feedstocks – Feed reduced carbon intensity (CI) based
Synthetic Fuel – A liquid or gaseous designed to have similar qualities an
tCO2e – One (1) metric ton of Carbo Unit of measure for a TERC.
1 tCO2e = 1 TERC
TERCs (Transport Emission Reducti emissions reductions from biomassXpansiv Digital Fuels Registry Also, tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (C
TERC Advisory Board – A group of e provides guidance and direction for offering expertise in relevant areas t
TERC – Biodiesel – TERC Category representing the certificates created from biodiesel.
TERC Category – A specific classification for each type of fuel under which Transport Emission Reduction Certificates (TERCs) are generated. Each TERC Category corresponds to a unique fuel type, such as ethanol, biodiesel, or renewable diesel, and includes batches of TERCs with distinct identifiers. The program supports a variety of fuel types, and additional categories may be introduced as market demand and potential are assessed, promoting diverse pathways for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector.
TERC Program – A voluntary, market-based initiative aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emission associated with biofuel production and usage across the United States. The TERC Program is centered around the creation, verification, monitoring, trading, use, and continuous improvement of the TERC product
TERC – Renewable Diesel – TERC Ca
TERC Vintage – The year in which th is produced This vintage year aligns year for carbon intensity, which is us
Transportation Fuel – Any fuel used
Verification – A systematic, indepen compliance with specified requireme
Validation/Verification Body – An in provides verification of data and pro
Verification Services – Services prov compliance of reported data during t
ACRONYMS
AICPA – American Institute of Certif
AEZ-EF – Agro-Ecological Zone Emi
AML – Anti-Money Laundering
ASTM – ASTM International, former CA-GREET – California Greenhouse
CARB – California Air Board Resour
CI – Carbon Intensity
CFR – Clean Fuel Regulation
CFS – Clean Fuel Standard
DE – Digital Ethanol
DF – Digital Fuel
g CO2e/MJ – Grams of carbon dioxi
GHG – Greenhouse Gas
GTAP – Global Trade Analysis Projec
ICVCM - The Integrity Council for the ISCC – International Sustainability and Carbon Certification
LCA – Life Cycle Analysis
LCFS – Low Carbon Fuel Standard
RSB – Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials
SSAE 19 – Supersedes Statement on Standards for Attestation Agreements 19/ Agreed-Upon Procedures Agreement
This Biomass-Based Diesel Methodology exists in conjunction with other program documents including TERC Program Framework, TERC Claims Guidance, and registry documents including: the Digital Fuels Registry Rulebook and the Digital Fuels Registry Framework Governance.
TERC For BiomassBased Diesel
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The TERC Program outlines a method for unbundling the administrative record of a lowcarbon fuel from the physical fuel through a chain-of-custody model, allowing organizations to claim the environmental attributes of a fuel without taking physical custody of the product. TERCs are created to capture and book the lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emission profile of alternative transportation fuels versus a petroleum benchmark, and quantify the carbon savings in the form of a tradeable digital certificate.
The Biomass-Based Diesel Methodology pertains specifically to the generation of TERCs from biomass-based diesel fuels used for transportation. It can be used to generate certificates under two distinct categories:
Digital Biodiesel represents the low carbon emission profile of biodiesel from generation and use of biodiesel in transportation applications below a petroleum diesel baseline; and or relevant benchmark.
Digital RD represents the low carbon emission profile of biodiesel from generation and use of renewable diesel in transportation applications below a petroleum diesel baseline or relevant benchmark.
Fuel Applicability Conditions & Eligibility
2.1 TRANSPORTATION FUEL APPLICATION
The methodology applies to biomass-based diesel fuel used or intended to be used for transportation in one of the following applications:
2.2 GEOGRAPHY
Eligible fuels will be sold for use within the United States, but outside the jurisdiction of a current low carbon fuel market, currently including, but not limited to, California, Oregon, and Washington. However, the fuel and associated feedstocks can be produced through global supply chains
2.3 LCA MODELING
Under the TERC Program, the well-to-wheel life cycle GHG emissions of each low-carbon fuel will be determined using an established methodology from California’s Low Carbon Fuel Standard (CA-LCFS). A fuel’s life cycle GHG emissions will be represented in a CI score measured in gCO2e/MJ.
The stages considered in an LCA calculation encompass, but are not limited to, feedstock production and transportation, fuel production, transportation and dispensing, co-product production, transport, and utilization, as well as waste generation, treatment, disposal, and the use of fuel in a vehicle.
Each participating biomass-based diesel producer must use a qualifying Tier 1 or Tier 2 fuel pathway(s) that will be scored using a relevant GREET model distributed by CA-LCFS.
Existing GREET 3.0 pathways for biodiesel and RD will be grandfathered into the TERC Program through the end of 2025, as well as GREET 3.0 pathways that were awaiting application approval before the start of 2025. Pathways generated on or after January 1, 2025 will use GREET 4.0.
Figure 2: System Boundaries for Biodiesel (BD) and Renewable Diesel (RD) Pathways
Fuel Pathways 03
3.1 ELIGIBILITY
Biomass-based diesel eligible for inclusion in the TERC Program must have a CI generated through a CA-LCFS Tier 1 or a Tier 2 Fuel Pathway. The system boundaries for biodiesel and renewable diesel pathways differ depending on the type of feedstock used. For oilseed crops, key stages include biomass production (such as farming), oilseed crushing and oil extraction, biofuel conversion, and the distribution and consumption of the fuel. For tallow and used cooking oil (UCO) feedstocks, the main stages involve grease or oil rendering, biofuel conversion, and the subsequent distribution and consumption of the fuel.
3.2 TIER 1 FUEL PATHWAY
A Tier 1 Fuel Pathway classification is one that uses a simplified CI calculator to enter facility-specific inputs that can be modified to achieve CI changes. Fuel producers can enter monthly operation data inputs combined with standard emission factors and LCA inventory data from the CA-GREET model to calculate the pathway CI. Tier 1 Fuel Pathway exist for:
Biodiesel created from feedstocks including oilseed crop-derived oils, rendered animal fat, distiller’s corn oil, distiller’s sorghum oil and used cooking oil.
Renewable diesel created through the hydrotreatment of feedstocks in a stand-alone reactor, including but not limited to oilseed crops-derived oils, rendered tallow, distiller’s corn oil, distiller’s sorghum oil, and used cooking oil.
3.3 TIER 2 FUEL PATHWAY
A Tier 2 Fuel Pathway Classification includes more unique fuel pathways that may not be widespread in commercial production. Tier 2 Pathways exist for:
Biobased-diesel generated from unconventional feedstocks – or feedstocks beyond oilseed crops-derived oils, rendered tallow, distiller’s corn oil, distiller’s sorghum oil, and used cooking oil.
Fuels produced from low carbon feedstocks co-processed with fossil feedstocks in petroleum refineries.
Pathways that otherwise as Tier 1, but that use innovative production methods such as use of low-CI process energy sources or carbon sequestration.
3.4 MULTIPLE PATHWAYS
The CI of biofuels under CA-LCFS is often calculated on a per facility basis, allowing for the comprehensive accounting of the emissions associated with a facility’s fuel production over an extended period, ensuring that the CI score reflects the aggregate lifecycle emissions from feedstock acquisition, production processes, transportation, and other factors.
In some cases, a single facility can calculate different fuel volumes under a Tier 1 pathway and a Tier 2 pathway, or multiple Tier 2 pathways, depending on the specific characteristics of the fuel batches or production processes.
Tier 1 is typically used for fuel batches produced under standard operating conditions with default inputs.
Tier 2 is used when more detailed, site-specific data is available for certain batches, potentially resulting in a lower CI score.
3.5 PARAMETERS FOR MULTIPLE PATHWAYS
As a general rule, a producer can assign a new certified CI only when there is a change in production parameters After such a change, all fuel produced under the new conditions must be assigned the new CI.
3.6 EXCEPTIONS
There are two exceptions where a producer may assign different CIs to portions of the fuel produced under the same set of production parameters:
(1) Multiple Feedstocks: If two or more feedstocks are used simultaneously in the production process (e.g., a mix of soy oil, tallow, and used cooking oil), the producer must allocate a portion of the total fuel output to each feedstock. The CI for each portion is determined based on the facility’s average production yield and follows the CA-LCFS guidelines for calculation.
If a fuel production facility processes multiple feedstocks at the same time, the producer or reporting entity must assign a portion of the total fuel produced to each feedstock during the reporting period. Feedstock quantities cannot be counted more than once for any fuel produced. The reporting entity must use one of the following methods to allocate the feedstock to the quantities of fuel reported under each fuel pathway:
Quantity of fuel reported for a pathway:
the quantity of fuel produced with fuel pathway i at a ng reporting period n
the facility’s average production nyeld for all ks, determined during pathway certification; and
the quantity of feedstock counted as processed for a fuel pathway I at a production facility during reporting period n and the quantity of feedstock inventory associated with the fuel pathway I must be greater than or equal to zero at the end of each reporting period.
Facilities with multiple certified fuel pathways that do not use feedstock inventory accounting must include chemical analysis data to support the calculated yield in their verification reports.
The producer must assign the certified CI associated with each feedstock to its respective portion of the total fuel produced.
(2) Co-Products: When multiple co-products are produced at the same time, different CIs may be assigned to each portion of the output
When two or more co-products are produced simultaneously, the producer or reporting entity has two options for labeling the fuel:
If the facility has a single CI that reflects the current operational conditions (including the production of multiple co-products in the current proportions), the entire production run can be labeled with that CI. If the facility has separate CIs for each co-product, the fuel can be labeled with the CI for each co-product in proportion to the share of the production stream that each coproduct represents. These proportions must be calculated in a way that aligns with the life cycle approach used for the fuel pathway.
3.7 CONSISTENT CI ASSIGNMENT TO FUEL PATHWAYS AND TRANSPORTATION VARIABILITY IN THE TERC PROGRAM
For the purposes of the TERC Program fuel producers must assign a Carbon Intensity (CI) to each unit of fuel sold. This CI must be consistently applied to all units produced under the same production conditions, regardless of where the fuel will be sold.
3.8 EXCEPTIONS TO GREET
All aspects of fuel production such as feedstocks, feedstock production, and fuel processing are treated the same as in the CA-LCFS when it comes to CI modeling. However, the transportation distance of the finished fuel is the only variable that changes. Under the TERC Program, transportation distances for the finished fuel can be determined using real data, a weighted average for the data period, or, if unknown, a conservative default distance. While these final transportation distances may vary depending on the destination, all other production variables remain constant to ensure CI consistency across all batches produced under a certified pathway.
Fuel Pathway Inputs
4.1 FEEDSTOCKS
Types of feedstocks typically used for creation of renewable diesel and biodiesel.
4.2 STANDARDIZED FEEDSTOCKS
A Simplified Tier 1 Fuel Pathway offers standardized emissions factors for biobased-diesel produced from oilseed crop-derived oils, rendered tallow, distiller’s corn oil, distiller’s sorghum oil, and used cooking oil (UCO).
4.3 SPECIFIED SOURCE FEEDSTOCKS
Specified Source Feedstocks Inclusion Criteria:
Cooking oil, animal fats, fish oil, yellow grease, distiller's corn oil, distiller's sorghum oil, brown grease, and other fats/oils/greases that are by-products of food, fuel, or other industrial processes, used for biodiesel, renewable diesel, alternative jet fuel, and co-processed refinery products.
Biomethane, tracked using book-and-claim accounting, used as feedstock for bioCNG, bio-LNG, bio-L-CNG, and hydrogen via steam methane reformation. Any feedstock where the supplier has recognition from CARB for site-specific CI data.
Other feedstocks identified as specified sources as part of pathway certification. Chain-of-Custody Evidence: Applicants using specified source feedstocks must keep records proving the type and quantity of feedstocks through one of the following: Delivery records showing shipments from the origin to the fuel production facility. Information from material or energy balance systems that track and record the input characteristics and output quantities along the supply chain, from origin to production.
Evidence demonstrating chain of custody from the point of origin along the supply chain to the fuel production facility is required for any feedstock defined as a specified source feedstock. This chain-of-custody evidence must be presented to the verifier. Each party must:
Keep records of the type and quantity of feedstock received from each supplier, including transaction records, transfer documents, weighbridge tickets, and bills of lading
Maintain records for material balance and energy balance calculations.
Allow verifiers access to audit feedstock suppliers to verify proper accounting of attributes and compliance with certified CI data.
4.4 LAND USE CHANGE
The TERC Program accounts for both land-use change (LUC) and indirect land-use change (ILUC) as part of the overall LCA for biomass-based diesel. ILUC is incorporated into the calculation of a fuel's CI score.
Direct vs. Indirect Land-Use Change – Direct Land-Use Change (LUC) refers to the emissions that occur when land is directly converted from one use (e.g., forest, grassland) to another (e.g., biofuel feedstock production). This includes the release of carbon stored in vegetation and soil when the land is cleared.
ILUC occurs when the production of biofuels increases the demand for agricultural commodities, potentially leading to the displacement of existing agricultural activity to new land (e.g., forests, grasslands). This displacement can result in carbon emissions from the newly converted land, even if the biofuel feedstock itself is grown on existing cropland.
Example: CI Calculation for Soybean Oil Biodiesel
Direct LUC (e.g., land clearing, cultivation): X gCO₂e/MJ
Indirect LUC (e.g., displacement of crops, deforestation): Y gCO₂e/MJ
Other lifecycle emissions (e.g., processing, transport): Z gCO₂e/MJ
Total CI = X + Y + Z gCO₂e/MJ
For soybean biodiesel, the assigned ILUC factor is 29.1 gCO₂e/MJ, which reflects the impact of land displacement related to soy cultivation. This ILUC factor is then added direct emissions from feedstock production, refining, transportation, and fuel combustion to calculate the total CI for each biofuel pathway.
4.5 LUC FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT FEEDSTOCKS
The Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model and the Agro-Ecological Zone Emission Factor (AEZ-EF) Model are used to calculate LUC of six feedstock/ finished fuel combinations, and uses the same models to calculate LUC for other fuel or feedstock combinations not currently included with a standardized value:
3: Standardized LUC Factors for Biofuels in GREET 3.0
4.6 ILUC FOCUS
The LUC of each biomass-based fuel includes an ILUC factor, which adds to the CI score. This ILUC factor represents the estimated GHG emissions associated with the indirect conversion of land for agriculture due to biofuel production.
Different feedstocks have different factors based on their propensity to cause land displacement Feedstocks like corn, soybeans, and palm oil typically have higher ILUC factors because their production can result in significant land-use changes.
Palm Oil Biomass-Based Diesel has an estimated 55 gCO₂e/MJ, due to large-scale deforestation associated with palm oil plantations, while UCO, Tallow, or other waste feedstocks can have an emission factor as low as a 0 gCO₂e/MJ since no new land is converted
Figure
Waste-derived feedstocks like used cooking oil or tallow generally have a zero ILUC factor because they do not require the cultivation of new land, though they still care a LUC factor.
Including indirect land use change (ILUC) in TERC generation for biofuels is crucial because it addresses the broader environmental impacts of biofuel production that extend beyond direct emissions. ILUC accounts for the emissions caused when land previously used for other purposes, such as forests or grasslands, is converted to agricultural use to replace the land dedicated to biofuel crops. This can result in significant carbon releases that undermine the intended climate benefits of biofuels.
While ILUC modeling is complex relying on assumptions about global markets, land availability, and regional productivity it is important to include it to ensure a comprehensive evaluation of biofuels' true lifecycle emissions. Failing to account for ILUC could lead to policies that unintentionally incentivize land conversion and higher overall emissions, which would negate the positive impacts of biofuel adoption. However, the inclusion of ILUC factors also represents a pioneering effort to ensure that the full environmental impact of biofuels is considered, including both direct and indirect land-use changes.
The scientific models and economic assumptions underlying ILUC calculations are continually reviewed as new data and improved models become available.
4.7 FEEDSTOCK LUC AND ILUC EMISSION FACTOR VALUES COMPARED TO OTHER INDUSTRY STANDARDS
Emission factors, particularly gCO₂e/MJ, for similar biomass-based diesel feedstocks across carbon programs – particularly ones that are used in generating LCAs for voluntary marketbased mechanism like ISCC and RSB – tend to be broadly comparable, but with some variability due to:
Regulatory goals: Different programs have different thresholds for GHG reductions For instance, the LCFS sets aggressive annual CI reduction targets, while ISCC and RSB focus on achieving specific GHG savings (e.g., ISCC requires a minimum of 50% reduction relative to fossil fuel emissions).
ILUC treatment: Programs vary significantly in how they account for indirect land-use change (ILUC). CA-LCFS includes ILUC factors, especially for feedstocks like corn, soy, and palm, while programs like ISCC may use default values with less emphasis on ILUC.
Figure 4: Comparing ILUC for Various Feedstock Across LCA Programs (TERC Program/CARB 3 0), reference CARB, ISCC, RSB, EU RED
Used Cooking Oil (UCO)
Tallow
Soy Oil
Palm Oil
15-20 (minimal or no ILUC, as it’s a waste product)
30-40 (also a waste feedstock, no ILUC)
55-65 (with ILUC factor, as soy cultivation can lead to land-use change)
40-45 (with methane capture); 55-75 (without methane capture, including ILUC)
~40-45 (with methane capture; without ILUC)
4.8 FUEL AND FEEDSTOCK PRODUCTION
~70-80 (more emphasis on ILUC)
Necessary documentation for establishing a fuel pathway includes:
~40-45 (with methane capture; higher without it)
4.9 FEEDSTOCK PRODUCTION DATA
A description of all feedstocks used in fuel production, and any pre-processing steps applied to the feedstocks.
Feedstock production technology (i.e. soybean crushing, UCO or tallow rendering), corn oil extraction)
For fuels generated from agricultural crops, the agricultural methods employed to cultivate the crops, including energy and chemical inputs, typical crop yields, feedstock harvesting methods, transportation modes and distances, storage practices, and preprocessing activities like drying and oil extraction.
Material inputs including enzymes, nutrients, chemicals, catalysts, and microorganisms. Regions where the feedstocks and are produced.
Types and amount of thermal and electrical energy consumed in both feedstock production
4.10 FUEL PRODUCTION DATA
Quantity of all feedstocks consumed in the fuel production facility.
Fuel production technology.
Electricity generation mix of the subregion(s) where the feedstock and fuel production occur.
The types and amounts of thermal and electrical energy consumed in finished fuel production.
Quantity of fuel produced.
Co-products, byproducts, and waste products associated with fuel production, including all processing applied to materials after they’ve left the finished fuel facility.
Co-located facilities which utilize outputs from or provide inputs to the fuel production facility
4.11 TRANSPORTATION
The CI for biomass-based diesel will account for transportation emissions throughout the entire fuel supply chain. This includes emissions from transporting feedstocks to production facilities, the transportation of finished fuel to its point of sale, and emissions from the fuel’s eventual combustion.
Fuel producers must provide detailed descriptions of all material and energy inputs, specifying and documenting feedstock transportation, finished fuel transportation, modes of transportation, fuel type used for transportation, points of origination, destinations, distances traveled, load capacities, and storage processes These factors collectively impact the CI score, ensuring comprehensive assessment of emissions at each stage.
5: GREET 3 0 Emission Factors for Oil/ Biodiesel/ RD Transport
For the purposes of the TERC Program, finished fuel transportation distances used in CI modeling will be based on either real data or a weighted average of distances to final destinations during the data period, based on knowledge or reasonable belief by the participating producer. If unknown, then a conservative default distance will be used in CI modeling
Figure
4.12 COMBUSTION EMISSIONS FOR BIODIESEL AND RD
Renewable diesel and biodiesel are both classified as biofuels, meaning the CO₂ released during their combustion is largely biogenic in origin. This means the carbon in the fuel was recently absorbed from the atmosphere by plants during photosynthesis (e.g., from feedstocks like vegetable oils or animal fats). As a result, the CO₂ emitted during combustion is typically considered carbon-neutral in the LCA.
However, other emissions from combustion, such as methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O), which are potent GHGs, are accounted for as they are not offset by biogenic carbon uptake. These non-CO₂ GHGs are included in the fuel's total carbon intensity score.
4.13 GENERAL EMISSION FACTORS
Standardized emission factors that can be applied to LCAs for biodiesel and renewable diesel can be found in Appendix A.
Producer Registration
5.1 INDEPENENT REGISTRY
The Xpansiv Digital Fuels Registry is the primary interface for registering and ingesting verified data for biomass-based diesel certificate generation through the TERC Program. A biodiesel or renewable diesel fuel producer can opt-in to the TERC Program by registering a Producer Account within the TERC Digital Fuels Registry, and can subsequently register facilities, fuel pathways, fuel batches, and verification data for issuance of TERCs.
5.2 REQUIRED DATA TO REGISTER A PRODUCER ACCOUNT
Name of the organization, address, state, and country, Company FEIN/EIN, DUNS ID, RFC/CRUPS, US EPA Company ID.
Primary company account representative and preferably a secondary account representative. Each primary and alternative account representative must provide, name, title, relationship to the organization, business phone, e-mail address, username and password.
Account is established when it is approved by the Xpansiv DF Registry Administrator. A producer account can be denied based on false, misleading, or missing information.
After registration in the Xpansiv Digital Fuels Registry, each company may register facility and fuel pathways to generate TERCs from eligible fuel volumes.
Required Data to Register a Facility and Fuel Pathway to Generate and Issue TERCs:
Fuel production facility name and address for each proposed pathway,
Facility contact (name, title, phone, email), Name and address of intermediate facilities from which site-specific operations data is relied upon in the generation of CI (i.e. feedstock producers/aggregators). Fuel type produced for corresponding TERC Category, Associated feedstocks, Approved fuel pathways associated with facility, with brief pathway description. Associated CI for each fuel pathway, Tier 1 or Tier 2 classification, Production facility nameplate production capacity & estimated annual fuel production quantity allotted to TERC Program.
Generation of Carbon Intensity Scores
6.1 CALCULATING CI
TERC CIs reflect the total GHG emissions generated throughout the fuel's life cycle, measured per megajoule of usable fuel energy, based on long-term, stable production processes.
Where it applies to a Tier 1 Fuel Pathway, the Simplified Calculator published by CARB – and applicable to the fuel pathway – can be used. Standardized emissions factors for biomass-based diesel products are listed in Appendix A.
If the simplified calculator is used, the fuel producer will register for the TERC Program through the Xpansiv Digital Fuels Registry, and then submit site-specific inputs to an approved validation and verification body (VVB), appropriate LUC or other indirect carbon intensity modifiers, and all necessary supplemental information to complete a carbon intensity and eligible fuels verification.
A Tier 1 Fuel Pathway may or may not already be issued through CA-LCFS to to generate TERCs. If a current Tier 1 pathway doesn’t exist, initial CI modeling will include 1 year of data.
However, if a fuel producer opts to use a Tier 2 pathway as prescribed by CA code § 95488.7, the fuel pathway must have a certified pathway to California, approved through CARB, or a temporary pathway. If a Tier 2 pathways is submitted to CARB for approval, the CI can be used to generate TERCs for the data period aligned with the validation, once it has recieved approval or temporary pathway approval. An approved VVB will verify the carbon intensity for the pathway during the prescribed period of time for fuel production and attribute it to the eligible gallons produced and distributed during the aligned time period.
In either the simplified calculator or in a Tier 2 Pathway, finished fuel transportation distances used in CI modeling will be based on a weighted average of distances to final destinations during the data period, based on knowledge or reasonable belief by the participating producer If unknown, then a conservative default distance will be used in CI modeling.
Annual Benchmark & Vintage Year
The CI benchmarks benchmark used in TERC generation calculations align with those established under the LCFS program prior to the 2024 amendments * The appropirate baselines appear in Table 1 below.
Figure 6: Carbon Intensity Benchmarks for 2011 to 2030 for Biomass-Based Diesel/ Substitute for Petroleum Diesel
*The benchmarks for years 2011 and 2012 reflect reductions from base year (2010) CI values for CaRFG (9585) calculated using
supplied to California refineries in 2006
**The benchmarks for year 2013 and 2015 reflect reductions from revised base year (2010) CI values for CaRFG (9585) calculated using CI for
supplied to California refineries in 2006
***The benchmarks for years 2016 to 2018 reflect reductions from the revised base year (2010) CI values for CaRFG (9847)
***The benchmarks for years 2019 to 2030 reflect reductions from the revised base year (2010) CI values for CaRFG (9944)
TERC emission reductions are calculated as the margin between CI score and benchmark for diesel substitutes
TERC vintage will correspond to the benchmark year during which the fuel was produced and proof of delivery outside of a compliance market for use in transportation applications.
*LCFS Carbon Intensity Benchmark as appearing in the CA-LCFS regulations at 17 CCR §95484 (b) https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/2020-7/2020 lcfs fro oalapproved unofficial 06302020.pdf
TERCBiodiesel & TERC -
Renewable Diesel Generation Calculation
The formula appearing in the LCFS regulations at 17 CCR §95486 1(a), including all incorporated references, shall be used to calculate the quantity of TERCs generated.
the number of TERCs generated in metric tons, by a fuel or blendstock under the average carbon intensity for diesel (XD = diesel)
the average carbon intensity requirement of diesel (XD = diesel)
the adjusted carbon intensity value of a fuel or blendstock, in gCO2e/MJ
the total quantity of diesel fuel energy displaced, in MJ by the use of biomass-based diesel
a factor used to convert certificates to units of metric tons from gCO2e and has a value of
The volume input for this formula will be the volume of eligible low carbon fuel produced and sold by a participating producer.
One tCO2e calculated as described above is equivalent to one (1) TERC.
Only whole credits will be issued, meaning calculation remainders are rounded down to whole credit number.
Credits = [(CARB LCFS baseline year CI – CARB LCFS fuel pathway CI) * (CARB LCFS MJ/ gal energy density of Biodiesel or RD) * 0.000001 (conversion factor) *verified gallons of Biodiesel or RD]
All TERC fuel quantities used for certificate calculation using fuel pathways are in energy units of megajoules (MJ). Fuel quantities denominated in other units, such as those shown Table 2, are converted to MJ in the by multiplying by the corresponding energy density.
Additionally, for convenience, the Xpansiv Digital Fuels Registry will can also provide a gallon-based conversion of purchased TERCs. This gallon value will be calculated based on the CI of the batch and adjusted to standard temperature conditions of 60°F to ensure consistency and accuracy in all volume-based calculations. This adjustment eliminates temperature-related discrepancies and aligns with regulatory standards for fuel volume reporting
491 TERCs would be generated, as they are rounded down to the whole number.
477 TERCs would be generated, as they are rounded down to the whole number.
Figure 7: Energy Densities and Conversion Factors for Fuels and Blendstocks
Fuel (units) Energy Density
CARBOB (gal) 11953 (MJ/gal)
CaRFG (gal) 115.83 (MJ/gal)
Diesel Fuel (gal) 134.47 (MJ/gal)
LNG (gal) 78.83 (MJ/gal)
CNG (Therms) 105.5 (MJ/Therm)
Electricity (KWh) 36 (MJ/KWh)
Hydrogen (kg) 120 (MJ/kg)
Undenatured Anhydrous Ethanol 80.53 (MJ/gal)
Denatured Ethanol (gal) 8151 (MJ/gal)
FAME Biodiesel (gal) 126.13 (MJ/gal)
Renewable Diesel (gal) 12965 (MJ/gal)
Alternative Jet Fuel (gal) 126.37 (MJ/gal)
Propane (LPG) (gal) 89.63 (MJ/gal)
* LCFS Energy Density as appearing in the CA-LCFS regulations at 17 CCR §95486. Table 4 https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/2020-07/2020 lcfs fro oalapproved unofficial 06302020.pdf
System Boundaries
9.1 CERTIFICATIONS
Beyond the use of an LCFS Tier 1 Pathway or Tier 2 Pathway, the fuel and/or the fuel producer may be required to hold additional certifications.
9.1.1 ASTM INTERNATIONAL
ASTM International is a widely recognized and trusted organization for setting standards, including for diesel fuels to ensure its quality, performance, safety, and environmental soundness. Diesel fuels for use in transportation fuels are required to meet ASTM Standards. To be included in the TERC Program, diesel fuels must have the applicable certification:
Any biodiesel qualified for inclusion in the TERC Program must beASTM D6751 certified ASTM D6751, specifying the requirements for B100 before it is blended with petroleum diesel to ensure its quality, performance, safety, and environmental soundness. When biodiesel is blended with petroleum diesel (i.e., B5 or B20), the resulting blend must also meet ASTM D7467 standards for biodiesel blends. Blends typically use ASTM D6751-compliant B100 biodiesel as the base to ensure quality and performance. RD must be eligible to generate RINs under the RFS program.
9.1.2 SUSTAINABILITY CERTIFICATION GUIDANCE
Sustainability certification within the renewable fuels industry is achieved through a process of measuring a fuel, production facility, organization, or solution’s supply chain against criteria to determine environmental, social, and economic sustainability performance.
The major international organizations that support sustainability certification in renewable fuels are the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC) and the Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB).
Of particular importance in the development and deployment of biomass-based diesel, is the sustainability of feedstock production and the traceability and chain of custody of sustainable materials through the supply chain. Biomass-based diesel involves the production of feedstocks, various processing and refining stages, and the transportation and distribution of raw materials, intermediates, and the final product. These supply chains can be intricate, often spanning the globe and sometimes mixing sustainable and nonsustainable products at different stages.
To ensure the integrity of biomass-based diesel, traceability and a clear chain of custody must be maintained.
Starting on January 1, 2026, fuel producers must hold a valid facility-level sustainability certificate through ISCC (ISCC EU, ISCC PLUS) or RSB (RSB EU, RED, RSB Global) in order to generate TERC – Biodiesel and TERC – Renewable Diesel for any fuel produced after that date. Facility-level certification shows that that the producer:
(1) complies with sustainability criteria,
(2) that the supply chain processes (e.g., raw material sourcing, production, storage, and handling) meet sustainability and traceability requirements, and (3) that environmental, social, and economic sustainability aspects are considered at the facility level.
However, physical fuel and associated feedstocks are not required to hold sustainability certification to particiapte in the TERC Program. If a producer provides a Proof of Sustainability (PoS) document issued by ISCC or RSB, confirming that a given fuel batch of biomass-based diesel meets the requirements for sustainability and GHG emissions savings under a certain scheme or regulation, this information will be notated in the Digital Fuels Registry.
9.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR ISSUANCE
At the time of registration on the Digital Fuels Registry, the fuel producer will include a declaration of applicable incentives and tax credits that they participate in and a declaration denouncing any conflict of interest.
The producer may only register the neat product (i.e., only the portion from renewable or circular resources).
TERCs shall be expressed in metric tons of CO2 and will also be translated to physical volumes of fuel, and metric tons of physical fuel for the associated batch.
TERC Verification For Fuel Pathways
A system for third-party verification may be used to ensure accuracy and completeness of reported GHG data for TERCs
10.1 VERIFICATION FRAMEWORK
TERCs generated from biomass-based diesel will be registered and issued only after independent, third-party verification of the following elements:
Calculation of CI score for a batch of fuel from a participating producer for a given classification, pathway, and verification period See individual methodologies for additional parameters.
Product volumes produced and distributed to qualifying jurisdictions.
10.1.1 CI VERIFICATION
The methodology for the verification will be an attestation engagement consistent with the statements on Standards for Attestation Engagements (SSAE), developed by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), under the agreed-upon procedures model of SSAE 19
Fuel producer will engage directly with an approved third-party verification body. Verifier will issue engagement letter and protocols to fuel producer participant. Fuel producer will submit required documentation to verification body.
Verification process will consist of the following data checks:
Transactional Verification: Low carbon fuel production and shipment/distribution records
Operational Verification: Feedstock and process energy consumed, renewable fuel and co-product production, transportation distances.
Site visit – participating fuel producers with no existing LCFS or EPA Facility ID may be required to have a site visit by verifier
Upon completion of verification, verifier will issue a TERC CI score statement report. Verification may take up to 3 months, or as determined by the producer and verification body.
10.1.2 ELIGIBLE GALLON VERIFICATION
Verifier to confirm eligible fuel gallons.
Verifier to apply appropriate credit generation formula to eligible verified fuel gallons to authenticate TERC credit generation.
Upon completion of verification of eligible gallons and TERC calculation, verifier will issue an “Eligible Gallons Report” report, confirming findings, and “TERC Calculation Statement” including the total TERCs available for generation from an individual batch of fuel applied to a corresponding period of generation.
10.2 GENERATION TIMELINE
Fuel producers will be eligible to generate TERCs under ex-post process only after thirdparty verification.
10.2.1 CADENCE FOR TERC GENERATION
Fuel CI is typically associated with a long-term, steady state fuel production operation. CI may vary over time due to a variety of factors, but is traditional consistent. The CA-LCFS program allows producers to generate dynamically and then balance any discrepancies caused by variations in process efficiency, seasonal or climactic variations, feedstock composition, etc. after a verification.
10.2.2 VARIATION FROM LCFS
In order to avoid the risk of double counting, the TERC program requires fuel producers to report their committed gallons through the Xpansiv Digital Fuels Registry on a monthly basis. However, the TERCs will only be generated and issued on the registry after the verification occurs.
CIs will be verified bi-annually for each participating producer; the data period used for CI modeling will be the same as required under the LCFS program (i.e., up to 24 months of actual production data, and not less than 3 months of actual production data).
Fuel producers that participate in the TERC Program should associate a CI with each unit of fuel sold
TERCs must be recorded in the Digital Fuels Registry within 24 months of the low carbon fuel delivery.
10.3 TERC ISSUANCE FOR LIQUID FUELS
Upon receipt of fuel producer account registration, “CI Verification Report” containing all required data, “Eligible Gallons Report,” and “TERC Calculation Statement,” and production period from verification body, fuel units will be registered and TERCs generated based on appropriate credit generation formula. The TERCs are deposited to the producer account in accordance with the registry rulebook terms of use.
For more information on issuance process see Xpansiv Digital Fuels Registry Operating Procedures.
Appendix A
GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSIONS FACTORS USED IN CA-GREET
Joint Economic Committee. (2024, April). Electrifying heavy-duty vehicles will benefit the U.S. economy, environment, and public health. U.S. Senate. https://www.jec.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/democrats/2024/4/electrifying-heavy-duty-vehicles-willbenefit-the-u-s-economy-environment-and-public-health
Osaka, S. (2024, January 18). For truckers driving EVs, there’s no going back. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2024/01/18/electric-truck-drivers-vehicles/
U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2023). International energy outlook 2023 [PDF]. https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/ieo/pdf/IEO2023 Narrative.pdf
Xu, H , Ou, L , Li, Y , Hawkins, T R , & Wang, M (2022) Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of biodiesel and renewable diesel production in the United States Environmental Science & Technology, 56(12), 7512–7521 https://doi org/10 1021/acs est 2c00289
