Rediscovering the link between British New Brutalism and Post War Soviet Architecture - Joe Earley

UNIVERSITY OF PORTSMOUTH

M30652: DISSERTATION

BA ARCHITECTURE

Rediscovering the link between British New Brutalism and Post War Soviet Architecture

Joe Earley

UP960183

After the Second World war, across Great Britain, a need arose for the construction of mass housing projects to rehome the millions of people displaced by the destruction of major towns and cities. A war-based economy left concrete and steel as the primary materials available, leading to the birth of New Brutalism, a utopian vision for the future of housing, combining community and housing for all using new age technologies.

3000 Miles away, in the Soviet Union, similar issues were being faced, with millions of new Modernism houses being constructed by the state known as: The Khrushchyovka

Khrushchyovka are low cost, prefabricated buildings made of composite concrete panelling, which began appearing in all corners of the Soviet Union to house its populous.

These two styles, New Brutalism and Soviet Modernism, shared distinct construction techniques and materials, fulfilling the same overarching purpose, constructed at the same time, leading me to raise the question:

“How did the rise in Soviet Modernism inspire British New Brutalism and Vice Versa?”

Within this dissertation, I aim to explore this style of architecture and understand the mindset and characteristics that led to its widespread use in the 1950s 1960s and 1970s. Using this knowledge, I aim to link the similarities and disparities between these two architectural styles and identify any core influences that occurred.

I have always been fascinated with this period of British architecture and feel that New Brutalism has been misunderstood and criticised heavily in the past. Using plans, first-hand accounts of its occupants, architect and constructor accounts, I aim to determine whether this criticism is warranted, or if unfair bias is being levied against these buildings and their functionality.

“Brutalism is generally associated with rough, unfinished surfaces, unusual shapes, heavy-looking materials, straight lines, and small windows. Modular elements are often used to form masses representing specific functional zones, grouped into a unified whole.”

“A stark style of functionalist architecture, especially of the 1950s and 1960s, characterised by the use of steel and concrete in massive blocks.”

- Oxford English Dictionary

- Designing Buildings

Throughout the 1960’s, 70’s and 80’s, a new architectural style emerged throughout the United Kingdom; New Brutalism. At its heart, steel, concrete, and glass helped rebuild Britain after the war, rehoming the millions displaced by its destruction. Since the 1920’s, the Soviet Union was facing many of the same issues to house its expanding population, and to rebuild itself after the Russian revolution and subsequent Second World War.

Throughout this dissertation I will be exploring the links between New Brutalist architecture of the United Kingdom and how it pertains to social housing, and the links that it shares with socialist architecture of the Soviet Union. I will take key examples of distinct and revolutionary works in the United Kingdom and analyse differences and similarities with buildings in the Soviet Union from different time frames. I will look at architects, architectural schools, materials, public perception, and key buildings to determine influence and links between the two nation’s public housing.

To fully understand these architectural styles, I will be looking at 2 key defining buildings from the New Brutalist movement; Trellick Tower - Erno Goldfinger, and The Alexandra Road Estate - Neave Brown. I selected these two buildings because they represent 2 different approaches to housing; 1 is a low-level development, primarily having 3 stories across a large surface area; the other towers 31 stories above the Kensington and Chelsea Skyline on a small footprint.

Then I will look at Soviet architectural projects from the same time period, primarily the K-7 Khrushchkyovka. By exploring the construction methods and ideologies that led to its widespread construction, I hope to find links between the Eastern and Western Architectural Styles.

With many of these buildings in the United Kingdom reaching over 50 years old, facing risk of demolition or removal, I believe that it is important to preserve this part of our architectural history, despite a general poor public perception. Similarly, with current world events involving Russia, many countries are looking at removing reminders of the Soviet Union, such as post-war housing projects like the K-7; whilst having problematic pasts, they are still and important aspect of the story of the Soviet Union’s History, and some should be preserved for prosperity’s sake.

Figure 02 - Trellick Tower

Figure 03 - Khrushchyovka

Figure 04 - Alexandra Estate

New Brutalism has become an iconic staple of British Architecture, from its birth in the 1950’s, it has had a very mixed reception. Some praise it for its innovative and forward-thinking design choices, aimed at creating communities and idealistic places to live using new material technologies, and others despise it for its cold and lacklustre appearance. However, its presence has been felt across the country and has undeniably gave birth to some of the most iconic buildings seen in cities and appreciated for its place in social culture.

We can trace the origins of the word itself back to Le Corbusier, considered one of the fathers of modernism with his influence of industrial design and its pertinence to architecture, in 1952, when he was construction his Unité d’Habitation, in Marseille France, where he coined the description ‘Béton Brut’ to describe its appearance.

We can trace New Brutalism in the United Kingdom back to 1954, where it was used by architects Alison and Peter Smithson in the design of the Hunstanton School in Norfolk. Widely considered the first New Brutalist work, it moves away from the traditionalist architecture of the 1940s, instead taking influence from the modernist works taking place throughout the world, particularly those by Le Corbusier and Alvar Aalto, who were often referred to as the pioneers of Modernist Architecture.

in projects never living up to the utopian vision that was sought after with there designs, leading to the dissolution of the communities present in these buildings.

What Led to its widespread use?

After the Second world war, the United Kingdom was in a dire financial situation, nearly £7 billion was spent on the war effort, almost a quarter of the UK’s GDP. With 1/3 of housing destroyed, the urgent need arose for lowcost, easy to manufacture housing solutions; this led in part to the heavy use in concrete after the war, a quick, modular, and less labour intensive, than more traditional construction method, building technique that helped alleviate the housing shortage.

The Style rose in popularity after the architectural critic Reyner Banham wrote his 1955 report ‘The New Brutalism’ highlighting the architectural style and presenting it to the public. He wrote about the French ‘Béton Brut’ and ‘Art Brut’ influence that the movement took from, referring to raw concrete and raw art, two of the fundamental aspects defining Brutalism.

The style became popular post war when the need arose for Utilitarian, low-cost Social housing projects, and became a staple of public sector design projects of the period. Schools, Libraries, Universities and Housing all began to appear across the United Kingdom in this brutalist style, only declining in the late 1970s due to a negative public perception of the philosophy. This resulted

Between 1946-1952, the increased cement demand led to the expansion of the Shoreham cement works, resulting in an output of 550 tonnes per day. A similar trend was observed across the country, with the need for materials outweighing supply, resulting in cement plants and steel mills appearing across the country. These plants have been slowly dwindling in numbers since the 1980s economic recession, resulting in only 17 cement plants and 1,100 steel businesses left in the UK.

Figure 05 - Hunstanton School

Figure 06 - Shoreham Cement Works

NEW BRUTALISM

There were many issues with brutalism however, from leaking roofs to rusting steelwork that compromised concrete, these buildings needed constant attention to keep them in habitable condition. Iconic builds such as the Tricorn Centre in Portsmouth were plagued with issues, such as damp and a lack of ventilation, which led to

ICONIC STAPLES OF BRUTALISM:

mould; this was further compounded by a lack of light, another problem that was present in numerous brutalist buildings due to to the design characteristic of small windows.

Public Opinion has greatly affected these buildings as well, resulting in a lack of maintenance has left many brutalist buildings in a state of disrepair, damaging a fragile reputation and further decreasing there public opinion.

Due to many brutalist buildings being high rise development, there has been an issue associated with crime. Statistics show that crime rates are between 28% and 604% higher in and around high-rise buildings (Home, 2013). This creates a perpetuating cycle of the association between Crime and Brutalism, further damaging its reputational public opinion.

The underlying core premise of brutalism in the exposure of the construction method, and the expression that the building creates. This is achieved by relying heavily of 3 main materials: Concrete, Metal and Glass. Less commonly used were bricks, natural stone and wood to highlight and accent features on buildings. Colour was seldom used, but when it was, bold colours helped reinforce an industrial atmosphere.

New construction methods began to be incorporated into the design of brutalist buildings, taking advantage of modular construction methods. Open sided structures, such as car parks, used in-situ casting and hydraulic raising of slabs allow for rapid and repeatable construction. Complex formwork also allowed for continuous pouring of features, such as ramps that led to smooth circulation. (Harwood, 2022)

Figure 07 - Tricorn Centre, Portsmouth.

Fig.8 - Barbican Centre Fig 9 - National Library, Pristina, Serbia

Fig 10 - Hayward Gallery, London

Fig.1a - Princes St Car Park, Bristol

NEW BRUTALISM: ICONIC BUILDINGS

University of East Anglia

Designed: 1962

Architect: Denys Lasdun & Bernard Feilden

A move away from London explores a new style of brutalism, with a heavy reliance on glasswork, a lesser used but still pivotal aspect of brutalist design. The ‘Ziggurats’ contradicts many other brutalist buildings, with its focus on light and fluidity, rather than large expanses of concrete commonly associated with the Brutalist style.

Royal National Theatre

Designed: 1976

Architect: Denys Lasdun

Standing on the bank of the river Thames, the Royal National Theatre is one on London’s leading landmarks. Described as “an aesthetic of broken forms” by Mark Girouard upon its opening, the building has a very ‘Marmite’ appearance, with its use of concrete being described as “overbearing”. It simultaneously received commendation for being among London’s ‘Most Popular’ and ‘Most Hated’ buildings. Since 1994, the building has received Grade II listed status for its architectural importance, due to its raw nature and small windowed facade, highlighing it as an iconic brutalist work.

Clifton Cathedral Bristol

Designed: 1970

Architect: Ronald J. Weeks, Frederick S. Jennett and Antoni Poremba

Clifton Cathedral stands at a polar opposite when compared to many brutalist buildings. Gone are damp and narrow hallways and rooms, replaced instead by vast open space, flooded with light and colour from the stained glass, creating the perfect juxtaposition between the raw concrete and the place of worship inside. This creates a sense of calm, drawing comparasons to a break through the trees, helping create a sense of profound spirituality within its vaulted spire.

Barbican Centre

Designed: 1982

Architect: Chamberlain, Powell and Bon

Perhaps one of London’s most iconic complexes, the Barbican Centre was a revolutionary building complex. Officially a performing arts centre, it features an almost 2000 seat concert hall and over a 1000 seat theatre, in addition to a gallery, a 3 screen cinema space, a public library, conference halls and houses 4000 people in the Barbican Estate. As a later project, it moves away from traditionalist brutalist features, incorporating dressed stonework, highlighting the improvement of the post war economy.

Fig. 11 - University of East Anglia

Fig.12 & 13 - Bristol Cathedral

Fig.14 - Royal National Theatre

Fig. 15 & 16 - Barbican Centre

TRELLICK TOWER BUILDING ANALYSIS

Ernő Goldfingers Trellick Tower stands 98m tall, towering over the borough of Kensington and Chelsea. Constructed in 1972 and homing 217 flats, Trellick tower came about after a need to replace the poor-quality Victorian housing that occupied the area.

Based upon his earlier work of Balfron Tower in Tower Hamlets, Goldfinger took up residence and sought feedback from residents to determine their likes and dis- likes about the design, and how their views could be incorporated into the new Trellick Tower.

His design philosophy for building high rise construction was justified by saying:

“The whole object of building high is to free the ground for children and grown-ups to enjoy Mother Earth and not to cover every inch with bricks and mortar”

However, it became a cesspool of crime, vandalism, drug abuse and prostitution, helping to stigmatise the perception of brutalist buildings in the late 1970’s.

The towers fate and status began to gradually improve through the 1980’s when new security measures were brought in to reduce crime and antisocial behaviour. By the 1990s, the tower had become a desirable place to live, with flats being sold at a value of £150,000 (equivalent to £260,000 today).

Awards and commendations

Trellick Tower was awarded Grade II Listed Status in 1998, meaning that it is classed as having “Special Interest, warranting every effort to preserve it”. This means that permission from the local or national authorities is needed before any modifications or repairs that differ from the original specification are undertaken. (What does grade 2 listed mean, n.d.) this can make repairs, modifications or upgrades difficult to be completed, however, as the majority of the building is still Council Housing, the residents are, for the most part, unaffected by this.

The majority of the block was designed as social housing, but with Margret Thatcher introducing the ‘Right to Buy’ scheme in the 1980 Housing act, a number of people acquired their flats. Originally, all 217 flats were social housing, owned and operated by the Greater London Council.

Trellick tower’s burgeoning iconic status has resulted in it being featured in a number of Film and Television programs, most recently by the Netflix show ‘Black Mirror: Bandersnatch’. It is also the backdrop for many music videos of the London band Gorillaz, namely “Sleeping Powder” and “Tomorrow Comes Today”. It also featured as the cover art from the Extended Play “Meanwhile”.

Figure 17 - Trellick Tower Hallway

Figure 18 - Trellick Tower

TRELLICK TOWER BUILDING ANALYSIS

Changes from the original design

Originally, the tower was designed to be heated through a series of communal plant equipment, primarily a hot water tank and oil-fired boilers. These were housed in a plant room above the accommodation, inside the tower. This design decision was made to reduce the amount of pipework needed for central heating, and also used gravity for the distribution of hot water, mitigating the need for pumps. During the 1973 oil crisis, the boilers became too expensive to run and became obsolete, just 1 year after the tower opened, and electric heaters were installed in all of the flats. The boilers and equipment still remains inside the plant room, although it is now mothballed.

tower, marking a discernible change from the negative publicity that it attracted in the 1970’s and 1980’s. Recently, Trellick Tower has gained an iconic status, being a key example of early 1970’s design; with a focus on future living, and creating a utopian community of residents, we can draw parallels to community based projects occurring today.

Trellick Tower was primarily constructed on site with In-situ castings, this is primarily due to its location in an inner city suburb, and the scale of the building, making it difficult for large, pre cast structures to be brought onto the site. The exterior is coated in a roughcast layer, creating a uniform appearance across the building.

In 1991, the tower featured in a BBC documentary, ‘Building Sights’, praised Trellick Tower and its aim to rise above the urban space, to free move of the available land for parks and pedestrians. This documentary helped change the general public perception of the

Goldfingers Legacy

Between 1999 and 2011, RIBA offered the Goldfinger Scholarship to Hungarian students to further develop there skills, awarding them a grant of around £14,000 (the 2010 scholarship amount) to pursue postgraduate studies or seek professional experience in the United Kingdom. They are funded through the late Hungarian Architects estate and family.

Fig. 19 - Trellick Tower Tower

Fig. 20 - Trellick Tower Plans

Fig 21 - Ernő Goldfinger

The Soviet Union first came into being in 1922, after the deposition of the Russian monarchy and the short lived Government of Soviet Russia. Where before there was a great divide between the haves and have-nots of of the Czarists and the rest of the population. The Soviet Union aimed to make all men equal and promote a sense of prosperity where all peoples needs were met. But widespread economic crisis swept the Union, leading to those in high raking positions living luxuriously, whilst once again the general public lived in extreme poverty.

In the early years of the Union, vast policy changes were enacted across all aspects of life, from the Military, to government bodies, architecture and construction. This led to key periods in soviet architecture being easily definable from their predecessors. Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin were the First and Second leaders of the Soviet Union.

We can trace back the beginnings of Soviet architecture to the late 1920’s and early 1930’s, and the birth of ‘Stalinist Architecture’ in 1931. Cities were to follow a generalistic Development Plan, where they were split into districts; these districts were developed all at once, leading to the famous image of repeated tower blocks becoming widespread throughout the union. This still persists today throughout many of the Former Soviet Union states, a distinct and prominent reminder of their past.

Early Soviet Architecture - Constructivism (1920’s - 1930’s) and Late Soviet Architecture - Stalinism (1930’s - 1950’s)

Parallels to the Art deco styling present through Europe are easy to see in Constructivism, with key defining elements of brutalist design being intertwined. You see a dependence on raw materials like concrete being used to carry out the Realist Manifestos ideals about space and rhythm, combined with ideas about art and industry; the defining characteristics of the constructivist movement.

Where grandiose and stylisation were at the beginning of Stalinist Architecture, in 1944, the architectural style began to splinter, between rebuilding the major cities in a traditional style, to mass construction of housing, which resulted in one theme: “Form follows function” said by Louis Sullivan, which perfectly emotes the later styles of Stalinist works. Buildings were reduced to simple geometric shapes and were sparsely embellished. This follows with the mantra of the Soviet Union at the time, where speed and efficiency were at the cornerstones of thought. This all played into the idea of new, low-cost construction strategies to alleviate the housing shortage caused by the war.

Fig.22 - Vladimir Lenin Fig.23 - Joseph Stalin

Fig. 24 - Soviet High Rise

Fig 27

Fig. 25

Fig. 26

Figures 25 - 27 - Key examples of Constructivist and Stalinst architectural works 11

The Zuev Workers Club

Designed: 1926

Architect: Ilya Golosov

Before the crackdown on creatives under the reign of Joseph Stalin, a free-thinking architectural style was more prevalent throughout the Soviet Union. One of the more famous examples of Constructivist architecture, the Zuev Workers Club houses a large foyer across the ground and first floor, with a gallery space around the outside, on the second floor sits an auditorium with seating for almost 900 people.

SOVIET ARCHITECTURE ICONIC BUILDINGS

The House of the Soviets

Designed: 1970

Architect: Yulian Lvovich Shvartsbreim

In Kaliningrad sit an unfinished icon of the Soviet Union, a post Stalinist work that employs many of the same characteristics seen in Vitaly Lagutenko’s work on social housing in regards to form. The project lost funding in 1985 and has been abandoned since. It is built on the ruins of a 13th century castle, and as a result has been sinking due to the area originally being marshland.

Moscow State University

Designed: 1949

Architect: Lev Rudnev

Perhaps one of Rudnev’s most famous works is the Moscow State University, with iconic early Stalinist design features reminiscent of Art Deco skyscrapers built in the 1930s in New York. It is the tallest educational building in the world, at 239m, and upon its reveal earned Rudnev the Stalin Prize, equivalent to an honour in the United Kingdom. It is still in use as the primary building of the Moscow State University.

Tiblisi Ministry of Transportation

Designed: 1973

Architect: George Chakhava

As iconic buildings go, The MInistry of Transport building is Tiblisi is a Brutalist Masterpiece. A multi level cantilever of concrete blocks sit on a hillside overlooking the city and the Mikvari river. Since 2007 it has been the headquarters of the Bank of Georgia, and was awarded Immovable Monument status under the National Monuments act of Georgia. This style of construction marks a change post Stalinist age, where ideas of futurism and forward thinking began to emerge, where a sense of grandeur became more apparent in new construction.

Fig 32 & 33 - Tiblisi Ministry of Transportation

Fig. 29 - Moscow State University

Fig. 30 & 31 - House of the Soviets

Fig. 28 - The Zuev Workers Club

‘KHRUSHCHYOVKA’ K-7

BUILDING ANALYSIS

A Khrushchyovka refers to a Low cost, prefabricated concrete panelled building common throughout the Soviet Union, that came about during the 1960’s. They were a development from plans put forward during a soviet study conducted between 1947 and 1951 which stated that low-cost technology should be the forefront objective of Soviet Architects.

Developed by the Soviet Engineer Vitaly Lagutenko between 1954 and 1961, the K-7 building design was the best solution to fix the housing shortage faced at the time; with its quick construction and scalability, 64,000 units were built in a period of 7 years in Moscow alone. This speed of construction led to the ability of a 5 story K-7 being able to be topped out in just 12 days, with some whole buildings being completed in just 2 weeks.

The decision for a 5-story tower block becomes clear when looking at cost saving exercises implemented, as low-cost technologies were the key objective of the housing. Lifts were determined to be an un-needed expense, and soviet health and safety standards stated that 5 stories was the maximum height of a building without a lift; therefore, the K-7 was designed to be 5 stories tall.

present throughout many buildings. This combined with a poor level of maintenance led to the growth of mould, hastening the abandonment of many K-7 units across the Soviet Union. This lack of maintenance led to a decline in the standard of living, which in itself gave way to crime.

Many Khrushchyovka’s ended up vandalised & damaged later in their lifespan, Pictures of abandoned & derelict K-7’s are commonplace across the former Soviet Union.

However, they fulfilled a need for housing for tens of thousands of people, who still look upon them with a sense of nostalgia, the communities and relationships that grew out of them draw semblance with those of Western housing projects occurring at the same time. It is fair to say that they have become an iconic image of Khrushchev’s Soviet Union, marking a period of economic improvement for residents of them.

Khrushchyovka’s faced many of the same problems that plagued western brutalist designs, with damp problems and dark spaces caused by a lack of ventilation being

“As crappy as the Khrushchyovkas were, they were actually a significant improvement in the Soviet people’s life. In Moscow, they alleviated a severe housing crisis.” - Zoya Goldman

Khrushchyovka’s were officially called a K-7, a design for prefabricated 5-story buildings, but were given the nickname Khrushkoyovas, after the then party director of Moscow Nikita Khrushchev, who supervised soviet architectural projects. There were other similar projects that were occurring at the same time with slightly different designs, different heights, layouts and styles. These can all be classified under the Khrushchyovka namesake, but not all Khrushchyovka’s were K7’s.

Fig. 34 - Abandoned K-7 Being Demolished Naming Convention

Fig. 35 - K-7 in Vorkuta

Fig. 36 - Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev

‘KHRUSHCHYOVKA’ K-7 BUILDING ANALYSIS

Problems with the designs

Due to the rapid construction, many K-7s were poorly constructed, leading to cold temperatures from the lack of insulation. This was something that plagued all Khrushchyovka’s until a redesign in the 1970’s and a move away from the k-7 buildings. Cost saving measures implemented also resulted in thin walls, floors and ceilings, leading sound to travel between flat reducing any sense of privacy. Bathrooms also backed onto small kitchens, often only 6m2. This is also compounded by a lack of lounge space, making the flats very crowded if they were home to a family.

The design lifetime was originally meant to be no longer than 25 years, but with the last K-7’s being built in the 1980s, some of these buildings are reaching almost double there expected life span. Moscow has been adamant about the removal of the K-7’s since 1994, and as of 2015, most of the 1,700 planned demolitions had taken place, with a further 8,000 being earmarked for demolition; in keeping with the original design philosophy, they are being replaced with more modern mass housing projects. They are still prevalent through much of Russia and the former Soviet Union in countries with poorer economic status, ever increasing in disrepair.

In the 1970’s and 80s’s and updated style of Khrushchyovka was developed; with an increased height and larger internal apartment space and kitchens, they became more popular than their earlier counterparts. Because of the increased height, these building also included lifts, making them more favourable among disabled residents. To differentiate between the two styles, the later buildings were referred to as Brezhnevkas, after the then leader of the Soviet Union Leonid Brezhnev.

Lagutenko’s Legacy

Homes’ to increase their live-ability.

Lagutenko graduated from the Ministry of Transport Engineers in 1931, and shifted his focus onto the construction of bomb shelters during the second world war. In 1947, he began working on industrial panelled housing, the precursors to his K-7 designs, which he worked on with architect Mikhail Posokhin. Vitaly Lagutenko lives on through his infamous K-7 buildings, still present throughout much of the former Soviet Union. He continued his work on prefabricated concrete structures until his death in 1968.

Fig. 39 - A typical Khrushchyovka corridoor, note the narrowness and apparent damp rising from the floor.

Fig. 38 - Constant renovation projects have been undertaken to improve Khrushchyovka’s across Eastern Europe, this building in Estonia has been Re-panelled and Re-Roofed in an effort to increase insulation and quality of life inside the building, also using technology to turn K-7’s into ‘Smart

Fig. 40 - Vitaly Laguetenko

Fig. 37 - Krushchyovka Disadvantages [Infographic}

ALEXANDRA ROAD ESTATE BUILDING ANALYSIS

Nestled in the borough of Camden sits Neave Brown’s most recognisable work. The Alexandra and Ainsworth Estate, home to 520 dwellings over a natural 350m curve backing onto the Overground Line, the irregular and unusual shape designed to diffuse the sound of passing trains. A modernist utopia designed to fulfil every need, the estate housed shops, a community centre, and special needs school to name a few amenities.

The Estate became familiar to the wider public through its appearances in many film and photography shoots, most notably “Kingsman: The Secret Service” released in 2014, which resulted in an influx of tourism to the estate due to its dramatic and iconic appearance (unlike most housing projects in the area) only comparable to other works by Neave Brown, and the Highgate New Town Estate by Peter Tabori. The estate has a long and complex history, with a number of controversies and issues that have arisen over the years. One of the most significant problems has been the condition of the buildings, which have suffered from a lack of maintenance and investment, with one resident stating:

“People living on iconic Alexandra and Ainsworth Estate say they are more likely to see a film crew than a repair team” - William McLennan.

Despite this, the estate has remained a very desirable place to live, with 1 bed flats being sold for upwards of £300,000 (Rightmove, 2022). This has led to the dramatic effect of many residents not being able to afford to live on the estate. However, the majority of the estate remains as Council Housing controlled by the Camden Borough Council.

The Project faced criticism from the beginning after its budget, of £7.15 million, more than doubled to £20.9 million, ranking it among the most expensive social housing developments in London (Barnaby, 2020). This was in part due to the use of on-site casting of concrete, which led to an extended construction period.

Brown’s Legacy

Neave Brown left behind an almost unparalleled legacy; from his Royal Gold Medal, only awarded to those who had a significant influence on the advancement of architecture, to being the only architect that has had all of his UK work granted Listed Status, his work in the affordable housing sector is unparalleled.

This is further emphasised by the Neave Brown award for housing, recognising the best examples of affordable housing in the UK, recently awarded to an apartment complex and school development by the Henley Halebrown practice.

Fig. 41- The Alexandra and Ainsworth Estate

Fig.42- Neave Brown

COMPARATIVE LOOK

At a primary level, 3 obvious connections between these architectural styles can be made.

1: MATERIALS

Materialistically, concrete is the primary building component. In the 1950’s, restrictions on imported timber saw a rise in the use of concrete in foundations, as opposed to traditional floor joists that were commonplace in the early 20th century. This was a direct development from the 1875 Public Health Act that aimed to prevent fires through the reduction of timber-based construction. This was mirrored in the Soviet Union with a goal of eliminating wooden ceilings and partitions to increase the safety of buildings; this occured around 1948 (Stalinist Architecture, 2018). In addition, concrete has low labour costs when compared to traditional building methods, resulting in faster construction times with less workforce, something both countries had issues with post war. Both Styles of architecture also faced similar problems, from issues with construction, material quality and maintenance to inherent design flaws that highlighted the problems with rapid and modular construction.

2: SOCIAL NEED

Socially, both countries were decimated by the Second World War. In Britain, 1.1 million houses were destroyed in the blitz. Russia and the surrounding Slavic countries were equally devastated, 20,000 villages, cities and towns ceased to exist post war (Hays, n.d.). This required the construction of mass housing to home the millions displaced by the destruction at speed.

3: IDEOLOGICAL RESPONSE

New brutalism had a very mixed reception when it emerged in the Britain, with architectural critics and elites holding it in a high regard, but the general public having a negative response. Similarly, the K-7’s faced criticism from both residents and neighbours, saying the buildings aren’t comfortable places to live and were plagued by problems of damp and mould.

Then, we can look at 2 existing connections that link the architectural styles:

We firstly consider Reyhner Branhams The New Brutalism, a 1955 work explain the origins and influence of the then newly appearing Brutalism; he clearly talks about its nature and how in essence it is “Communism versus the Rest”. He later talks about the idea of ‘The New Humanism’, an effort to recapture the morality of past civilisations, and how it was used to identify the ‘Marxist Golden Age’ and the divide between the Capitalist societies of the west and the Communist Societies of the East, and how it pertains to architecture.

Secondly we can consider the architectural exchanges throughout the early 20th century between the Soviet Higher Art and Technical Studies School, known as Vkhutemas, and the Bauhaus German Art School. Overlapping for a period of 10 years, both schools working in tandem to exhibit work together on numerous occasions, such as the 1925 Decorative Arts Exhibition is Paris. From this, we can make some inference about the architects that worked together to create links between projects occurring 3000 miles apart, but were heavily influenced by the work of these schools.

Diagram showing the connection between Soviet and Western architectures. Earley, J. (2023).

There has been a recent revival in brutalist architecture, with many rejuvenation projects of previously unloved buildings, such as the Isocon Building and the Southbank Centre, both in London, receiving multi million pound renovation works in the past few years. Combined with this is the resurgence of brutalist new builds, such as Beton Brut in Ahmedabad, India, it is clear to see a new appreciation for the style. This is due to a newfound public appreciation of arts, culture and architecture across the world, leading to a resurgence interest of architectural beauty globally.

This if further emphasised by the Park Hill Estate in Sheffield, which has gone from an eyesore on the landscape, to an instrumental icon of the city, thanks in part to the attention the ‘I love you will u marry me’ graffiti brought to the area; showing how the perception of brutalism can be changed, given enough time.

Figure 43

Figure 46

Fig. 44 - Park Hill Estate, Sheffield

Figure 45

Over the course of this dissertation, I have looked at many different aspects of both British Modernism / New Brutalism and Soviet Architecture, and have indeed found links between these two architectural styles, although I have come to the conclusion that post 1946, when the iron curtain was instated separating the Soviet Union from the rest of the world, that all links form a correlation, not an influence. But because of this research we can confidently say why they both developed so similarly.

Because of the architectural exchanges that occurred during the 1920’s and 1930’s, a level of collaboration and influence was present throughout the world; clearly identifiable by the a wave of art deco-esq architecture, seen in the United Kingdom in places like The De La Warr Pavillion, Bexhill and the Daily Express building, London are mirrored in the Soviet Union through the then popular style of Constructivism, with a heavy dependence of smooth flowing lines and industrial styling, it brought about the appreciation of design and materiality.

However, after the second world war where the Soviet Union became more exclusionary and insular, these links began to dissipate. This is where the divide between the purpose of the architectural styles become apparent, with New Brutalism still retaining some of the inherent beauty and stylisation that lead to its creation still being present in its buildings, and yet the late soviet modernism diverting from its roots to become function over form; the irony of this being that it is in a sense, a truer development of Le Corbusier’s core principles of Modernism: Simplicity

From this, it is clear to me, that there is no direct connection between New Brutalism, and post war Soviet architecture, they simply developed at the same time. This convergent evolution of architecture stems for the desire to achieve the same overall function; rehouse a population.

Justifying its preservation:

Every opportunity is a learning experience, to develop ideas and our understanding. To me, brutalism is just this, a period of experimentation that aimed at creating communities, exploring new construction technologies, and filling a housing shortage post war. It is, and never was, an expression of grandiose or excess, but provided a place that thousands they could call home. With the current housing shortages currently plaguing this country, it isn’t a time to destroying these houses, these homes, these condominiums, but to renovate them, as to appreciate there history and story’s; because if they are removed from the face of the earth, they can never be recovered by future generations, who may look upon them more favourably.

“While the reasons cited for their demolition are significant... the issue of cultural heritage rarely takes centre stage. It is therefore important to query, what types of histories and cultural lives do we lose when we demolish buildings we don’t like? By expunging the built environment of such structures, do we rob future generations of developing their own opinions about them?”

- Barbara Orbach Natason

Figures

Figure 01

Figure 02

Figure 03

Figure 04

Figure 05

Earley, J. (2022). Prince Street Car Park [Photograph]. Bristol, Great Britain.

Anon. (2016). Trellick Tower [Photograph - Edited]. The Modern House.

https://brutalistconstructions.com/page/3/

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheboksary-Residential_area_2.JPG

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https://www.ribapix.com/Secondary-modern-school-Hunstanton-the-kitchen-court-with-the-watertower-and-chimney-stack_RIBA24198#

Figure 06

Figure 07

Figure 08

Figure 09

Figure 10

Figure 11

Figure 12

Figure 13

Anon. (N.D.). Shoreham Cement Works [Photograph]. 28 Days Later.

https://www.28dayslater.co.uk/threads/shoreham-cement-works-west-sussex-july-2020.124211/

Anon. (N.D.). Tricorn Centre [Photograph]. Flikr.

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Earley, J. (2022). Clifton Cathedral [Photograph]. Bristol, Great Britain.

Earley, J. (2022). Clifton Cathedral [Photograph]. Bristol, Great Britain.

Figure 14 Gardiner, R. (n.d.). Royal National Theatre [Photograph]. Ignant.

https://www.ignant.com/2019/05/31/the-royal-national-theatre-london-uk/

Figure 15

Figure 16

Phillips, M. (2017). Barbican Centre [Photograph]. Alamny.

https://www.alamy.com/the-barbican-centre-london-uk-image158532187.html

TJZ. (2018). Barbican Waterfall [Photograph]. Pinterest.

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Figure 17 Anon. (2016). Trellick Tower Interior [Photograph]. The Modern House https://brutalistconstructions.com/page/3/

Figure 18

Moore, A. (2015). Trellick Tower [Photograph]. Brutalist Constructions. https://brutalistconstructions.com/page/3/

Figure 19 Bürki, K. (n.d.). Trellick Tower Tower [Photograph]. Heartbrut.

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https://www.gettyimages.co.nz/detail/news-photo/hungarian-born-architect-and-furniture-design er-erno-news-photo/916176582?adppopup=true

FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 22

Figure 23

Figure 24

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Figure 26

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http://wikimapia.org/123114/Central-R-D-Institute-of-Robotics-and-Technical-Cybernetics#/pho o/5478169

Figure 27

Figure 28

Figure 29

Figure 30

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Figure 32

Figure 33

Figure 34

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Party, P. (2008). Ministry of Trasportation [Photograph]. Flikr.

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Figure 35 Obolensky, A. (n.d.). K-7 in Vorkuta [Photograph]. The Calvert Journal.

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Figure 36 AP Photo.(1960). Nikita Khrushchev [Photograph]. Politico

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Figure 37 Anon. (2017). Krushchyovka Disadvantages [Infographic}. Russia Beyond.

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Figure 38

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https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EU-EE-Tallinn-PT-Kopli-Kopliranna_24.JPG

Figure 39 Rachman, L. (n.d.). Krushchyovka Corridoor [Photograph]. Quora.

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Figure 40 Anon. (n.d.). Vitaly Lagutenko [Photograph]. Russia Beyond.

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FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure 41

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https://www.123rf.com/photo_63763710_london-england-uk-march-04-2009-the-alexandra-road-es tate-designed-in-1968-by-neave-brown-applies-th.html

Figure 42

Figure 43

Figure 44

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Figure 45

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https://darkroom.ribaj.com/0/668/19aa6a05023448f311a027ae664c65d9:eb9aa5505e35cf94a37b 53d9c8093636

Figure 46

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