Third Essay: Learning to Write about Difference READING : Re

Third Essay: Learning to Write about Difference READING : Rereading America Making arguments in our lives usually means persuading an audience; often it means, if it is a real argument, addressing a group that is not completely open to hearing and understanding our point of view.

This assignment will address two issues: building an argument using convincing textual evidence and writing in order to persuade an unsympathetic argument.

Chapter 5 in Rereading America addresses the history and present realities of the tensions that have surrounded, and still surround, racial and ethnic differences in the United States. We can broaden the range of this topic to include areas of class, sexual orientation, religion, gender, and political affiliation, at the least. Each of these categories, including race, are populated by groups we could call “others”—groups that both are seen by the majority culture as being somehow “outside” and are viewed by the majority culture with a degree of suspicion.

If you choose to write about an “other” that is defined by race or ethnicity, be specific in naming this group (e.g., Korean, or mixed-race, or Persian). For example, I might take the arguments in Harris and Carbado’s essay and apply them to similar thought patterns I see in Orange County about people whom the majority culture in the OC might consider “others”—those out of the cultural mainstream. Perhaps I would select French people as my group of others. I could talk about how Orange Countians see French-speaking people suspiciously—people who spend too much time thinking about food. This would be a fairly silly paper, but I could nonetheless choose this topic.

Read all four essays and the discussion board entries on the essays. Try choosing the focus of your essay by writing about ideas from the essays that strongly affect you; don’t start out with a particular group in mind. Once you have identified interesting ideas, then think about a group of “others.”

Carefully analyze the tone, introductory strategies, and thesis development used by authors when addressing audiences that may be unsympathetic. For example, consider how authors build understanding through shared experiences or anecdotes, and how they present their arguments in a level tone to avoid emotional backlash.

The core of the essay should be a well-developed argument of about four and a half to five pages, double-spaced, 12-point font, in which you demonstrate how the ideas from two of the essays in Chapter 5 of Rereading America apply to your selected group of “others.” Define your group clearly and discuss the prejudiced thinking or behaviors they face, using textual evidence to support your points. Concede

legitimate points when appropriate while persuasively arguing for your perspective.

In doing so, aim to craft an argument that emphasizes understanding over confrontation, employing logical reasoning, evidence, and empathetic framing. Use concrete examples, possibly personal anecdotes, to foster connection and understanding. Your goal is to persuade readers who might initially oppose or doubt your perspective by presenting thoughtful, evidence-based analysis aimed at broadening their understanding of prejudice and difference in American society.

Paper For Above instruction The persistent challenge of addressing difference in American society manifests across multiple dimensions—race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and political affiliations—highlighting the pervasive presence of societal “others,” groups marginalized or stereotyped by the mainstream. Building on the insights from Chapter 5 of Rereading America, this essay aims to explore how prejudiced thinking and behavior towards a specific group of “others” can be understood and addressed by applying theories and concepts from two of the essays in the chapter, namely Harris and Carbado’s “Loot or Find: Fact or Frame?” and Kaplan’s “Barack Obama: Miles Traveled, Miles to Go.” The chosen group for this exploration will be Muslim Americans, a community often subjected to suspicion and prejudice in post-9/11 United States. This essay will demonstrate the relevance of the discussed ideas by analyzing societal perceptions, the psychological underpinnings of prejudice, and strategies for fostering empathy and understanding.

Muslim Americans have historically been viewed through a lens of suspicion and misunderstanding, particularly after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Media portrayals and political rhetoric often frame Muslims as potential threats, fostering stereotypes that associate their religious identity with extremism. Harris and Carbado’s essay, “Loot or Find,” discusses the importance of framing in shaping perceptions—how the same facts can be presented differently to construct narratives that either humanize or dehumanize. Applying this to Muslim Americans, it becomes evident that dominant frames often emphasize "threat" over "diversity," influencing public attitudes and policies. For instance, the framing of Muslims as “others” suggests an inherent suspicion, which is perpetuated by selective media coverage and political discourse that focus on security concerns rather than cultural contributions and religious diversity.

Similarly, Kaplan’s “Barack Obama: Miles Traveled, Miles to Go” examines the journey of a Black president navigating racial prejudices and the broader societal expectations. This narrative underscores

how societal perceptions are often shaped by stereotypes, biases, and collective histories that influence public understanding. For Muslim Americans, analogous prejudiced perceptions are rooted in a long history of stereotyping, framed by terrorism fears, and characterized by an “us versus them” mentality.

These frames ignore the rich cultural, religious, and social fabric of Muslim communities, reducing their identities to monolithic threats rather than acknowledging their diversity and contributions. This framing contributes to social exclusion, discrimination, and even violence.

Harris and Carbado highlight that framing effects are powerful; they can either erect barriers or facilitate understanding. To combat negative perceptions, there is a need to challenge the dominant frames and to present narratives that emphasize the shared humanity and positive contributions of Muslim Americans.

This involves shifting from an “us versus them” perspective to one rooted in empathy, recognition of common values, and exposing societal fears to facts and personal stories that humanize the “others.” Such reframing is essential to dismantling prejudiced attitudes and fostering social integration.

Psychologically, the underlying basis of prejudice involves mechanisms of categorization and in-group/out-group biases, which are often reinforced by societal stereotypes and misinformation. Harris and Carbado discuss the importance of awareness in recognizing how framing influences perceptions, which is critical in reducing implicit biases. Similarly, understanding the psychological processes that predispose people to stereotyping—such as cognitive simplifying heuristics—can inform strategies to challenge prejudiced thinking. For Muslim Americans, countering stereotypes involves exposing the inaccuracies of common prejudiced frames through education, dialogue, and media representation that highlight individual stories and community achievements, counteracting simplistic and fearful narratives.

Another important concept from Harris and Carbado is that of “fact versus frame.” It underscores that facts alone do not determine perceptions unless they are embedded within a frame that shapes their interpretation. For Muslim Americans, it is essential to focus on reframing facts—such as community service, religious practice, and civic engagement—within narratives that emphasize shared societal goals.

For example, highlighting Muslim Americans’ participation in community development, voting, and interfaith initiatives can serve to counteract stereotypes and demonstrate their integral role in American society.

Furthermore, the work of Kaplan underscores the importance of perseverance and resilience in challenging societal prejudices. Barack Obama’s presidential journey exemplifies how marginalized identities can

transcend prejudiced narratives through persistent effort, advocacy, and the strategic reframing of identity in a positive light. Similarly, Muslim Americans can challenge stereotypes by engaging in public service, political participation, and community activism, thus reshaping their narrative from threats to valuable societal members.

In conclusion, the prejudiced perceptions of Muslim Americans are deeply rooted in framing effects and psychological biases that perpetuate stereotypes and social exclusion. By applying the concepts discussed in Harris and Carbado’s “Loot or Find” and Kaplan’s examination of societal journeys, it becomes clear that transforming societal narratives around Muslim Americans involves deliberate reframing, education, and empathetic storytelling. Addressing these prejudices is essential not only for social justice but also for enriching the American fabric with the diverse contributions of all its members. We must endeavor to see “others” through a lens of shared humanity, rejecting dehumanizing frames and embracing narratives of inclusion, understanding, and respect, thereby moving closer to the ideals of a truly inclusive society.

References Harris, A., & Carbado, D. (2014). Loot or Find: Fact or Frame? In Rereading America (Chapter 5).

Kaplan, R. (2010). Barack Obama: Miles Traveled, Miles to Go. In Rereading America (Chapter 5).

Feagin, J. R. (2013). Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. Routledge.

Bonilla-Silva, E. (2014). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality. Rowman & Littlefield.

Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299.

Nussbaum, M. C. (2004). The multicultural brain: Behind the racial stereotypes. The New York Times.

Sue, D. W., et al. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice.

American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286.

Ahmed, S. (2012). The cultural politics of emotion. Edinburgh University Press.

Trawalter, S., et al. (2015). Racial bias in perceptions of physical risk. The Journal of Social Issues, 71(4), 779-798.

Miller, C., & McLaughlin, K. (2014). Framing and the American perception of Muslims post-9/11. Media,

Culture & Society, 36(7), 945–959.