Encyclopedia Organization Management by Jonas Lindblom

Encyclopedia Organization Management (768 Terms)

Management Topic

Keyword

Definition

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Organization Management

360 degree feedback

Performance appraisal that uses the input of superiors, subordinates, peers, and clients or customers of the appraised individual.

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Absenteeism

Failure to report to work.

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Acceptance theory of The theory that the manager's authority depends on the subordinate's acceptance of the manager's right to give and expect compliance with directives. authority

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Accommodating

A conflict management style in which one cooperates with the other party while not asserting one's own interest.

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Accommodating style

A style that involves trying to resolve conflict by giving in to the desires of others, sometimes without raising conflicting points/issues at all.

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Action learning

A process in which a group of people come together, more or less regularly, to help each other learn from experience. Participants typically come from different organizations or situations, and each of them is involved in different activities.

A to Z

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Encyclopedia Organization Management (768 Terms)

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Action planning

A process usually associated with training, linking improvements or actions with what has been learned. Action planning establishes a course of actions chosen to realize the application of what was learned or decided.

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Action research

A participatory, democratic process concerned with developing practical knowledge in the pursuit of worthwhile human purposes, grounded in a participatory worldview, which is currently still emerging. It seeks to bring together action and reflection, theory and practice, in participation with others, in the pursuit of practical solutions to issues of pressing concern to people, and more generally the flourishing of individual persons and their communities.

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Active listening

A technique for improving the accuracy of information reception by paying close attention to the sender.

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Actor-observer effect The propensity for actors and observers to view the causes of the actor's behavior differently.

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Adaptive capacities

The capacities needed for an organization to learn and change in response to changing circumstances.

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Additive tasks

Tasks in which group performance is dependent upon the sum of the performance of individual group members.

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Adhocracy

This structure is typically found in young organizations in highly technical fields. Within it, decision making is spread throughout the organization, power resides with the experts, horizontal and vertical specialization exist, and there is little formalization.

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Administrative hierarchy

The system of reporting relationships in the organization, from the lowest to the highest managerial levels.

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Administrative model

A set of decision making principles that recognize that a completely rational analysis of information and choice options is often not feasible in realistic decision-making.

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Advanced information The generation, aggregation, storage, modification and speedy transmission of information made possible by the advent of computers and related devices. technology

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Adversarial intervention

Involves a manager listening to both parties present evidence to support their cases and then making a decision.

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Advisory teams

Small groups of employees (10-20) that meet a few hours a week to suggest solutions to problems in their work (e.g., quality circle).

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Affect

A person's feeling toward something.

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Affective commitment Commitment based on identification and involvement with an organization.

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Age norms

Widely accepted expectations in society about appropriate behavior for a person at a given age.

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Agreeableness

A person's ability to get along with others.

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All-channel network

In this type of network, all members communicate with all other members.

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Analytic style

A style characteristic of someone who approaches decisions in a highly rational way and who is capable of tolerating uncertainty/ambiguity.

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Anchoring effect

The inadequate adjustment of subsequent estimates from an initial estimate that serves as an anchor.

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Applied research

Conducted to solve particular problems or answer specific questions.

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Apprentice

A junior person, sometimes called a protĂŠgĂŠ, who has a mentor

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Assimilation

The process through which a minority group learns the ways of the dominant group. In organizations favouring assimilation, people from diverse backgrounds are expected to change to fit the existing organizational culture.

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Attitude

A fairly stable emotional tendency to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person, or category of people.

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Attribution

The process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain peoples' behavior.

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Attribution theory

Suggests that we observe behaviour and then attribute causes to it. Also, suggests that employees observe their own behaviour, determine whether it is a response to external or internal factors, and shape their future motivated behaviour accordingly.

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Attribution.

The process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain peoples' behavior.

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Audience extraction

The process whereby perceivers (the audience) subtlely pulls/draws behavior from others (also known as the Pygmalion effect).

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Audience selectivity

This terms refers to our tendency as social observers to selectively look for and process certain pieces of information about people to form impressions

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Authoritarianism

The belief that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations.

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Authority

Power that has been legitimized within a particular social context.

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Autonomy

The freedom to schedule one's own work activities and decide work procedures.

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Avoidance (negative reinforcement)

The opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behaviour. Occurs when the interacting parties' goals are incompatible and the interaction between groups is relatively unimportant to the attainment of the goals.

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Avoiding

A conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness of one's own interests and low cooperation with the other party.

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Avoiding style

When faced with conflict, a person who uses this style often try to ignore conflict all together rather than trying to directly resolve it.

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Avoiding.

A conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness of one's own interests and low cooperation with the other party.

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Basic research

Discovering new knowledge rather than solving specific problems.

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Behavioral style

A decision making who is very attuned to how decisions affect employees and the work environment; tends to be more deliberate and slower in style.

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Behavioural approach

This approach to leadership tries to identify behaviours that differentiate effective leaders from nonleaders. It uses guidelines, suboptimizing, and satisficing in making decisions.

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Benchmarking

A systematic process for examining the products, services, and work processes of firms that are recognized as illustrating the best practices for organizational improvement.

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Benefits

An important form of indirect compensation. big five personality traits A set of personality traits that are especially relevant to organizations.

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Biosocial life stages

Alternating periods of stability and transition, with predictable themes that are based in psychological and biological factors and patterns of social expectations.

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Body language

Nonverbal communication by means of a sender's bodily motions, facial expressions, or physical location.

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Boundary roles

Positions in which organizational members are required to interact with members of other organizations or with the public.

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Bounded rationality

A decision strategy that relies on limited information and that reflects time constraints and political considerations.

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Brainstorming

An attempt to increase the number of creative solution alternatives to problems by focusing on idea generation rather than evaluation.

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Breakthrough culture

A corporate value system which recognizes that normal business rules and pressures don't apply to innovative thinking.

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Bureaucracy

Max Weber's ideal type of organization that included a strict chain of command, detailed rules, high specialization, centralized power, and selection and promotion based on technical competence.

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Burnout

Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment among those who work with people.

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Capacity

The ability of individuals and organizations to perform effectively, efficiently, and in a sustainable manner.

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Capacity development

An ongoing process by which individuals, groups, organizations, and societies increase their abilities to perform core functions, solve problems, define and achieve objectives, and understand and deal with their development needs in a broad context and sustainable manner.

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Career

An evolving sequence of work activities and positions that individuals experience over time as well as the associated attitudes, knowledge, and competencies that develop throughout one's life.

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Career

An evolving sequence of work activities and positions that individuals experience over time as well as the associated attitudes, knowledge, and competencies that develop throughout one's life.

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Career advisors and counsellors

These people can help others find and analyze career information, but the ultimate career decision must be made by the individual.

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Career management The process of implementing organizational career planning.

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Career orientation

The fairly stable pattern of preferred occupational activities, talents, values, and attitudes.

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Career pathing

The identification of a certain sequence of jobs in a career that represent a progression through the organization.

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Career planning

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Career skills portfolio The sum total of one's occupational skills, abilities, and knowledge.

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Career stages

General patterns of developmental issues, key tasks, and changes in work role activities.

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Case study

The detailed investigation of one or more organizations, or groups within organizations, with a view to providing an analysis of the context and processes involved in the phenomenon under study. The phenomenon is not isolated from its context (as in laboratory research for example) but is examined in relation to its context.

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Central tendency

The tendency to assign most ratees to middle-range job performance categories.

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Central traits

Personal characteristics of a target person that are of particular interest to a perceiver.

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Centralization

The extent to which decision making power is localized in a particular part of an organization.

A system in which individuals evaluate their abilities and interests, consider alternative career opportunities, establish career goals, and plan practical development activities.

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Chain network

In this type of a network, each member communicates with the person above and below but not with the individuals on each end.

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Chain of command

Lines of authority and formal reporting relationship.

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Change

The implementation of a program or plan to move an organization and/or its members to a more satisfactory state.

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Change

The implementation of a program or plan to move an organization and/or its members to a more satisfactory state.

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Change agents

Experts in the application of behavioral science knowledge to organizational diagnosis and change.

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Change-oriented behavior

Leadership behavior focused on making significant change happen (e.g., communicating an inspiring vision, gaining subordinate commitment for change).

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Channel noise

A disturbance in communication that is primarily a function of the medium.

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Charisma

The ability to command strong loyalty and devotion from followers and thus have the potential for strong influence among them.

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Charismatic leadership

A form of leadership in which the leader is viewed as having extraordinary abilities, being 'larger than life,' and inspiring tremendous effort. Often the result of a complex interplay between leader characteristics, subordinate perceptions, and situational pressures.

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Churning

When firms fire many people and hire many people at the same time.

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Circle network

In this type of network, each member communicates with the people on both sides but with no one else.

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Civil law

The most common legal system in the world, practiced in over 70 countries (e.g.,Germany, Japan, Turkey, etc.). Referred to as code law since it is based on an elaborate list of rules about actions and misdeeds, but considerable consistency in adjudication.

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Classical conditioning A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus.

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Classical organization Focused on how organizations can be structured most effectively to meet their goals. theory

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Classical viewpoint

An early prescription on management that advocated high specialization of labor, intensive coordination, and centralized decision making.

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Coercive power

Power derived from the use of punishment and threat.

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Cognition

The knowledge a person presumes to have about something.

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Cognitive biases

Tendencies to acquire and process information in an error-prone way.

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Cognitive dissonance A feeling of tension experienced when certain cognitions are contradictory or inconsistent with each other.

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Collaborating

A conflict management style that maximizes both assertiveness and cooperation.

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Collaborating style

A style that ranks high on both assertiveness and cooperation; often called a win-win approach because efforts are made to see the best options for both parties to conflict.

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Collective knowledge Collective knowledge is an outcome of organizational or institutional learning.

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Collectivism

The extent to which people emphasize the good of the group or society; compare with individualism.

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Command group

A relatively permanent, formal group with functional reporting relationships.

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Commitment

A pledge or obligation to carry out some action or policy or to give support to a policy or person.

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Common law

Also a popular legal system around the world (e.g., U.S., U.K, etc.). In contrast to civil law's reliance on elaborate codes, common law uses precedent or the balance of prior rulings to resolve disputes.

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Communication

The process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a receiver.

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Communication and decision-making stage

A stage of group development in which members discuss their feelings more openly and agree on group goals and individual roles in the group.

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Communication fidelity

The degree of correspondence between the message intended by the source and the message understood by the receiver.

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Compensation

Applying one's skills in a particular area to make up for failure in another area.

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Compensation package

The total array of money (wages, salary, commission), incentives, benefits, perquisites, and awards provided to an employee by an organization.

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Competing

A conflict management style that maximizes assertiveness and minimizes cooperation.

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Competition

Occurs when goals are incompatible and the interactions between groups are important to meeting goals.

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Competitive strategy An outline of how a business intends to compete with other firms in the same industry.

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Complexity

The extent to which an organization divides labor vertically, horizontally, and geographically.

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Compliance

Conformity to a social norm prompted by the desire to acquire rewards or avoid punishment.

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Compressed schedule

A set of work schedules that use non-traditional methods of completing a 40 hour work week (e.g., 4-40; 4 days of 10-hr work).

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Compressed workweek

An alternative work schedule in which employees work fewer than the normal five days a week but still put in a normal number of hours per week.

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Compromise

A conflict management style that combines intermediate levels of assertiveness and cooperation.

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Compromising style

A person using this style approaches conflict as a give-and-take situation giving up something to get something else.

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Conceptual skills

The manager uses conceptual skills to think in the abstract.

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Conceptual style

A decision maker who can easily see 'the big picture' and is not necessarily mired in the fine details.

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Configuration

An organization's shape. It reflects the division of labour and the means of coordinating the divided tasks.

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Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek out information that conforms to one's own definition of or solution to a problem.

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Conflict

Disagreement among parties. It has both positive and negative characteristics.

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Conflict model

A very personal approach to decision making. It deals with the personal conflicts people experience in particularly difficult decision situations.

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Conflict resolution

Occurs when a manager resolves conflict that has become harmful or serious.

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Conflict stimulation

A strategy of increasing conflict in order to motivate change.

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Congruence

A condition in which a person's words, thoughts, feelings, and actions all contain the same message.

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Conjunction fallacy

Related to the representativeness heuristic in that instead of decreasing our probability judgements for detailed, conjunctive predictions, we actually often believe they are more likely to occur than simple/single events themselves.

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Conjunctive tasks

Tasks in which group performance is limited by the performance of the poorest group member.

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Conscientiousness

The number of goals on which a person focuses.

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Consensus cues

Attribution cues that reflect how a person's behavior compares with that of others.

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Conservative shift

The tendency for groups to make less risky decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members.

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Consideration

The extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern for subordinates.

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Consideration behaviour

Involves being concerned with subordinates' feelings and respecting subordinates' ideas.

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Consistency cues

Attribution cues that reflect how consistently a person engages in some behavior over time.

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Content theories of motivation

Theories that identify the needs that arouse or energize employee behavior.

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Context

The effect of the background under which a message often takes on more and richer meaning. Context is especially important in cross-cultural interactions because some cultures are said to be high context (the culture provides many understood ways to interpret messages) or low context (the words themselves explicitly carry a lot of the message).

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Contingency approach

An approach to management that recognizes that there is no one best way to manage, and that an appropriate management style depends on the demands of the situation.

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Contingency perspective

Suggests that in most organizations, situations and outcomes are contingent on, or influenced by, other variables.

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Contingency plans

Alternative actions to take if the primary source of action is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate.

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Contingency theory

Fred Fiedler's theory that states that the association between leadership orientation and group effectiveness is contingent upon how favorable the situation is for exerting influence.

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Continuance commitment

Commitment based on the costs that would be incurred in leaving an organization.

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Continuous improvement

A perspective that suggests performance should constantly be en-hanced.

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Continuous reinforcement

With this type of reinforcement, behaviour is rewarded every time it occurs.

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Contrast effects

Previously interviewed job applicants affect an interviewer's perception of a current applicant, leading to an exaggeration of differences between applicants.

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Contributions

An individual's contributions to an organization include such things as effort, skills, ability, time, and loyalty.

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Control and organization stage

A stage of group development in which the group is mature and members work together and are flexible, adaptive, and selfcorrecting.

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Control group

A group of research subjects who have not been exposed to the experimental treatment.

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Controlling

The process of monitoring and correcting the actions of the organization and its members to keep them directed toward their goals.

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Coordination

A process of facilitating timing, communication, and feedback among work tasks.

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Corporate culture

The whole collection of beliefs, values, and behaviors of a firm that send messages to those within and outside the company about how business is done.

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Corporate wellness programs

Long-term programs that also act to increase and promote employee health and reduce stress (fitness facilities, health classes, etc.).

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Correlational research

Research that attempts to measure variables precisely and examine relationships among these variables without introducing change into the research setting.

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Cosmopolite

Links the organization to the external environment and may also be the opinion leader in the group.

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Creativity

The production of novel but potentially useful ideas.

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Cross-functional teams

Work groups that bring people with different functional specialties together to better invent, design, or deliver a product or service.

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Cultural context

The cultural information that surrounds a communication episode.

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Cultural values

The values employees need to have and act on for the organization to act on strategic values.

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Customer departmentation

Relatively self-contained units deliver an organization's products or services to specific customer groups.

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Customer-based structure

Similar in some respects to product-based structures, this type of structure uses customer groups or segments as an organizing principle.

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Debasement

A series of socialization experiences designed to humble people and remove some self-confidence.

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Decision making

The process of developing commitment to some course of action.

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Decision rule

A statement that tells a decision maker which alternative to choose based on the characteristics of the decision situation.

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Decision-choice models

Rational models that shift the focus away from the information sources to the actual options in trying to reach a systematic decision.

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Decoding

The process by which the receiver of the message interprets the message's meaning.

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Defense mechanisms Psychological attempts to reduce the anxiety associated with stress.

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Defensive avoidance

Making no changes in present activities and avoiding any further contact associated with issues because there appears to be no hope of finding a better solution.

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Deficiency needs

A category in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It includes physiological, security, and belongingness needs.

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Delegation

Typically refers to a context in which a manager hands over the responsibility and decision control for various tasks or jobs to others, usually subordinates.

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Delphi technique

A method of pooling a large number of expert judgments through a series of increasingly refined questionnaires.

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Departmentalization

The manner in whichdivided tasks are combined and allocated to work groups.

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Dependent variable

In an experiment, the variable that is expected to vary as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.

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Devil's advocate

A person appointed to identify and challenge the weakness of a proposed plan of strategy.

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Diagnosis

The systematic collection of information relevant to impending organizational change.

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Diagnostic skills

The manager uses diagnostic skills to understand cause-and-effect relationships and to recognize the optimal solutions to problems.

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Differentiation

The tendency for managers in separate departments to differ in terms of goals, time spans, and interpersonal styles.

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Diffusion

The process by which innovations move through an organization.

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Diffusion of responsibility

The ability of group members to share the burden of the negative consequences of a poor decision.

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Diffusion.

The process by which innovations move through an organization.

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Direct observation

Gathering information about things that can be observed. For example, by visiting an organization, one can directly collect information on the physical surroundings. By observing meetings, one can observe who shows up, how people interact, and what decisions are taken.

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Direct use of evaluation results

The instrumental use of evaluation results by decision-makers as the basis for a decision. Direct use occurs when information or findings are applied directly to change an action or alter a decision.

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Directive style

A decision making style characterized by a person who, while analytic, doesn't enjoy juggling lots of data they make a decision and move on.

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Discrepancy theory

A theory that job satisfaction stems from the discrepancy between the job outcomes wanted and the outcomes that are perceived to be obtained.

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Disjunctive tasks

Tasks in which group performance is dependent upon the performance of the best group member.

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Displacement

Directing feelings of anger at a safe target rather than expressing them where they might be punished.

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Dispositional attributions

Explanations for behavior based on an actor's personality or intellect.

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Distinctiveness cues

Attribution cues that reflect the extent to which a person engages in some behavior across a variety of situations.

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Distress

The unpleasant stress that accompanies negative events.

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Distributive fairness

Fairness that occurs when people receive what they think they deserve from their jobs.

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Distributive negotiation

Win-lose negotiation in which a fixed amount of assets is divided between parties.

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Diversity programs

A set of training and information dissemination programs that help employees recognize the value of differences among people.

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Division of labour

The extent to which the organization's work is divided into different jobs to be done by different people.

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Divisionalized form

This structure is typical of old, very large organizations. Within it, the organization is divided according to the different markets served. Horizontal and vertical specialization exists between divisions and headquarters. Decision making is divided between divisions and headquarters, and outputs are standardized.

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Domestic firm

Firms who largely do business in their home country, although they may export some of their products or services across borders.

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Downsizing

The intentional reduction of workforce size with the goal of improving organizational efficiency or effectiveness.

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Downsizing.

The intentional reduction of workforce size with the goal of improving organizational efficiency or effectiveness.

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Downward communication

Information that flows from the top of the organization toward the bottom.

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Dual-structure theory This theory identifies moti-vation factors, which affect satisfaction, as well as hygiene factors, which affect dissatisfaction.

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Effect dependence

Reliance on others due to their capacity to provide rewards and punishment.

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Effective communication

The right people receive the right information in a timely manner.

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Effectiveness

The extent to which desired objectives are achieved. The extent to which an organization achieves its mission and objectives.

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Efficiency

The extent to which results are achieved with minimum use of resources. The degree to which an organization generates its products and services using a minimum of inputs.

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Effort-to-performance A person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance. expectancy

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Electronic brainstorming

The use of computer-mediated technology to improve traditional brainstorming practices.

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Electronic groups

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Employee assistance Programs offered by companies to help employees deal with job stress and with personal problems that may have developed from the stress or other sources (alcohol/substance abuse help, counseling for psychological symptoms, etc.). program (EAP)

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Employee survey

Anonymous questionnaire that enables employees to state their candid opinions and attitudes about an organization and its practices.

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Employee-centred leader behaviour

Involves at-tempting to build effective work groups with high performance goals.

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Empowerment

Giving people the authority, opportunity, and motivation to take initiative and solve organizational problems.

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Encoding

The process by which the message is translated from an idea or thought into transmittable symbols.

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Entry stage (exploration stage)

Characterized by self-examination, role tryouts, and occupational exploration.

Decision-making groups whose members are linked electronically rather than face-to-face.

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Environmental uncertainty

A condition that exists when the external environment is vague, difficult to diagnose, and unpredictable.

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Equity

The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others.

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Equity theory

A process theory that job satisfaction and motivation stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group.

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ERG theory

A three-level hierarchical need theory of motivation (existence, relatedness, growth) that allows for movement up and down the hierarchy.

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Escalation of commitment

The tendency to invest additional resources in an apparently failing course of action.

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Establishment stage In this stage, the individual gets more recognition for improved performance. (setting-down stage)

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Ethics

Systematic thinking about the moral consequences of decisions.

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Eustress

The pleasurable stress that accompanies positive events.

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Evaluation

Systematic investigation of the worth, value, merit, or quality of an object. Assessment of the operation or the outcomes of a program or policy, compared to a set of explicit or implicit standards, as a means of contributing to its improvement. The criteria for evaluation may include relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, impact, and sustainability.

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Evaluation culture

An organizational culture that values evaluation and seeks solutions to problems, trying out tentative solutions, and weighing the results and consequences of actions within an endless cycle of suppositionâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;actionâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;evidenceâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;revision that characterizes good science and good management.

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Evaluation questions Questions formulated to help focus an evaluation on key topics or issues.

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Exemplification

An impression management tactic that involves self-sacrifice.

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Exit (withdrawal) stage

Pattern of decreasing performance in a career as individuals prepare to move on or retire.

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Expectancy

The probability that a particular first-level outcome can be achieved.

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Expectancy theory

A process theory that states that motivation is determined by the outcomes that people expect to occur as a result of their actions on the job.

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Experimental research

Research which changes or manipulates a variable under controlled conditions and examines the consequences of this manipulation for some other variable.

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Expert power

Power derived from having special information or expertise that is valued by an organization.

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Expertise

A source of power to the extent that people around a manager view him or her as an expert; someone whose knowledge and skills can help them do their jobs.

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External attribution

Attributing the cause of work behavior to some reason that is external to the person (e.g., bad luck, unfair circumstances, etc.).

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External career

The objective sequence of positions that comprise one's career.

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External environment Events and conditions surrounding an organization that influence its activities.

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External operating environment

The environment in which an organization operates. Includes such things as the administrative and legal systems that govern the organization, as well as the political, economic, technological, social, and cultural context in which the organization operates.

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Extinction

The gradual dissipation of behavior following the termination of reinforcement.

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Extrinsic motivation

Motivation that stems from the work environment external to the task; it is usually applied by others.

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Extroversion

The quality of being comfortable with relationships; the opposite extreme, introversion, is characterized by more social discomfort.

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Family-supportive policies

A series of programs (e.g., on-site day care) adopted by companies that can help employees deal with work-family conflict and stress.

Organization Management

Fearlessness culture

A type of culture that can form in firms whose business involves considerable risk and rapid feedback. Attracts and rewards people willing to take chances and decisive.

Organization Management

Feedback.

Information about the effectiveness of one's work performance.

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Field experiment

Similar to a laboratory experiment, but conducted in a real organization.

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Field survey

Typically relies on questionnaire distributed to a sample of people selected from a larger population.

Organization Management

Filtering

The tendency for a message to be watered down or stopped during transmission.

Organization Management

Financial resources

The funding available to the organization to carry out its activities.

Organization Management

Fixed interval schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule in which some fixed time period occurs between a reinforced response and the availability of the next reinforcement.

Organization Management

Fixed ratio schedule.

A partial reinforcement schedule in which some fixed number of responses must be made between a reinforced response and the availability of the next reinforcement.

Organization Management

Fixed-interval reinforcement

Provides reinforce-ment on a fixed time schedule.

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Fixed-ratio reinforcement

Provides reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviours.

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Flat organization

An organization with relatively few levels in its hierarchy of authority.

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Flexible reward system

Allows employees to choose the combination of benefits that best suit their needs.

Organization Management

Flexible work schedules (flextime)

These schedules give employees more personal control over the hours they work each day.

Organization Management

Flex-time

An alternative work schedule in which arrival and quitting times are flexible.

Organization Management

Follower-centered leadership

Approaches that try to understand leadership by focusing on follower's needs and how they respond to leaders.

Organization Management

Force

The effort directed toward a first-level outcome.

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Forcing style

The exact opposite of an accomodating style - a person who is very willing to use their power and authority to settle an argument.

Organization Management

Formal work groups

Groups that are established by organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals.

Organization Management

Formalization

The extent to which work roles are highly defined by an organization.

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Framing

Aspects of the presentation of information about a problem that are assumed by decision makers.

Organization Management

Framing

The tendency for a decision maker to be swayed by whether a decision is pitched as a positive (e.g., gain) or negative (e.g., loss).

Organization Management

Friendship group

A group that is relatively permanent and informal and draws its benefits from the social relationships among its members.

Organization Management

Functional departmentation

Employees with closely related skills and responsibilities are assigned to the same department.

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Functional structure

A type of structure in which units and departments are organized based on the activity or function that they perform.

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Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations for behavior at the expense of situational explanations.

Organization Management

Gainsharing

A group pay incentive plan based on productivity or performance improvements over which the workforce has some control.

Organization Management

Gatekeepers

People who span organizational boundaries to import new information, translate it for local use, and disseminate it.

Organization Management

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Identifies three stages of response to a stressor: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Organization Management

General environment

This environment includes the broad set of dimensions and factors within which the organization operates, including politicallegal, sociocultural, technological, economic, and international factors.

Organization Management

Geographic departmentation

Relatively self-contained units deliver an organization's products or services in a specific geographic territory.

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Geographic-based structure

A type of structure in which product lines, services, and/or functions are organized by location.

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Glass ceiling

A term that refers to the many barriers that can exist to thwart a woman's rise to the top of an organization; one that provides a view of the top, but a ceiling on how far a woman can go.

Organization Management

Global firm

Firms are considered global if they produce high-quality products that can be sold anywhere across globe, are international in their thinking, and expatriates from around the globe comprise their managerial pool.

Organization Management

Goal acceptance

The extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own.

Organization Management

Goal commitment

The extent to which a person is personally interested in reaching a goal.

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Goal compatibility

The extent to which the goals of more than one person or group can be achieved at the same time.

Organization Management

Goal difficulty

The extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.

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Goal setting

A motivational technique that uses specific, challenging, and acceptable goals and provides feedback to enhance performance.

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Goal specificity

The clarity and precision of a goal.

Organization Management

Goal theory

A theory which argues that establishing future performance targets can help motivate employees.

Organization Management

Goals

The highest-level objective of an organization, project, or program.

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Grapevine

An organization's informal communication network.

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Group

Two or more people who interact with one another such that each person influences and is influenced by the other person.

Organization Management

Group cohesiveness The degree to which a group is especially attractive to its members.

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Group composition

The degree of similarity or difference among group members in factors important to the group's work.

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Group interview

A technique that uses a (small) number of informants to collect perceptions and opinions.

Organization Management

Group performance factors

The performance factors are composition, size, norms, and cohesiveness. They affect the success of the group in fulfilling its goals.

Organization Management

Group polarization

The tendency for a group's average post-discussion attitudes to be more extreme then its average pre-discussion attitudes.

Organization Management

Group size

The number of members of the group; it affects the number of resources available to perform the task.

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Group think

The capacity for group pressure to damage the mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment of decision-making groups.

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Groupthink

Refers to a situation in which pressures for cohesion and togetherness are so strong as to produce narrowly considered and bad decisions; this can be especially true via conformity pressures in groups.

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Growth need strength The extent to which people desire to achieve higher-order need satisfaction by performing their jobs.

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Growth needs

A category in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It includes esteem and self-actualization needs.

Organization Management

Halo effect

The rating of an individual on one trait or characteristic tends to color ratings on other traits or characteristics.

Organization Management

Hard capacities

The tangible assets and resources of an organization, such as its land, buildings, facilities, personnel, and equipment.

Organization Management

Harshness

The tendency to perceive the job performance of ratees as especially ineffective.

Organization Management

Hawthorne effect

A favorable response by subjects in an organizational experiment that is the result of a factor other than the independent variable that is formally being manipulated.

Organization Management

Hawthorne Studies

Conducted between 1927 and 1932, these studies led to some of the first discoveries of the importance of human behaviour in organizations.

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Hersey and Blanchard model

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Herzberg's two-factor Motivation theory which argues that the factors which cause satisfaction on the job are different than those which cause dissatisfaction. theory

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Heuristics

Decision making shortcuts that everyone develops over time and use to deal with the myriad of daily decisions; can sometimes lead a manager astray, particularly if they are used as shortcuts.

Organization Management

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's hierarchy assumes human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance.

Organization Management

Hindsight

The tendency to review a decision-making process to find what was done right or wrong.

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Horizontal communication

Information that flows between departments or functional units, usually as a means of coordinating effort.

Organization Management

Horizontal job loading

Like vertical loading, this involves combining tasks, but unlike that technique the additional tasks are added without requiring additional skills).

This model of leadership identifies different combinations of leadership presumed to work best with different levels of organizational maturity on the part of followers.

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Human capacities

The knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the members of an organization.

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Human organization

Rensis Likert's organization approach that is based on supportive relationships, participation, and overlapping work groups.

Organization Management

Human relations approach

Took the view that the best way to improve production was to respect workers and show concern for their needs. Became popular in the 1920s and remained influential through the 1950s.

Organization Management

Human relations movement

A critique of classical management and bureaucracy that advocated management styles that were more participative and oriented toward employee needs.

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Hybrid departmentation

A structure based on some mixture of functional, product, geographic, or customer departmentation.

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Hygiene factors

The factors in Herzberg's theory that cause dissatisfaction (e.g., working conditions, pay, and coworker relations).

Organization Management

Hypervigilance

A frantic, superficial pursuit of some satisficing strategy.

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Hypothesis

A formal statement of the expected relationship between two variables.

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Idea champions

People who recognize an innovative idea and guide it to implementation.

Organization Management

Ideal bureaucracy

Weber's model that is characterized by a hierarchy of authority and a system of rules and procedures designed to create an optimally effective system for large organizations.

Organization Management

Identification

Conformity to a social norm promoted by perceptions that those who promote the norm are attractive or similar to oneself.

Organization Management

Idiosyncrasy credits

Social credits earned from regular conformity to group norms that allow occasional deviance from the norms.

Organization Management

Ill-structured problem A problem for which the existing and desired states are unclear and the method of getting to the desired state is unknown.

Organization Management

Impact

Any effect, whether anticipated or unanticipated, positive or negative, brought about by a development intervention. In some cases, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;impactâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; refers to the long-term effects of an intervention on broad development goals.

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Impetus

Providing impetus involves the manager providing a strong incentive for the disputents to reach an agreement on their own.

Organization Management

Implementation teams

Groups of individuals from various functional groups who are responsible for enacting change in organizations.

Organization Management

Implicit personality theories

Personal theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together.

Organization Management

Impression management

A direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her own image in the eyes of others.

Organization Management

Incentive systems

Plans in which employees can earn additional compensation in return for certain types of performance. incubation A period of less-intense conscious concentration during which a creative person is able to let the knowledge and ideas acquired during preparation mature and develop.

Organization Management

Independent variable The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment.

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Indicator

Quantitative or qualitative factor or variable that provides a simple and reliable means to measure achievement, to reflect the changes connected to an intervention, or to help assess the performance of a development actor.

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Indirect use of evaluation results

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Individual differences The personal attributes that vary from one person to another.

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Individualistic vs. Collective

Individualistic societies stress independence, individual initiative, and privacy. Collective cultures favor interdependence and loyalty to family or clan.

Organization Management

Inducements

The tangible or intangible rewards organizations provide individuals.

Organization Management

Inequity

The belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others.

Organization Management

Influence

The ability to affect the perceptions, attitudes, or behaviours of others.

Organization Management

Influence tactics

Tactics that are used to convert power into actual influence over others.

Conceptual use of evaluation results in decision making. Refers to an intellectual and gradual process in which the decisionmaker is led to a more adequate appreciation of the problems addressed by the policy or program.

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Informal groups

Groups that emerge naturally in response to the common interests of organizational members.

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Information dependence

Reliance on others for information about how to think, feel, and act.

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Information overload The reception of more information than is necessary to make effective decisions.

Organization Management

Information richness

The potential information-carrying capacity of a communication medium.

Organization Management

Informational roles

There are three key informational roles: the monitor, the disseminator, and the spokesperson.

Organization Management

Informationprocessing models

Rational models that focus on evaluating the quality and relative weight of various pieces of information that need to be combined together to reach a decision.

Organization Management

Initiating structure

The degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment.

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Initiating-structure behaviour

Involves clearly defining the leader-subordinate roles so that subordinates know what is expected of them.

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Innovation

The process of developing and implementing new ideas in an organization.

Organization Management

Inputs

Anything that people give up, offer, or trade to their organization in exchange for outcomes.

Organization Management

Inquisitorial intervention

Involves a manager soliciting evidence from the disputents and then making a decision.

Organization Management

Insight

The stage in the creative process when all the scattered thoughts and ideas that were maturing during incubation come together to produce a breakthrough.

Organization Management

Institution

A socially sanctioned and maintained set of established practices, norms, behaviors, or relationships (i.e. trade regulations, land tenure, banking systems, and an organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s staff rules) that persist over time in support of collectively valued purposes. Institutions have both formal and informal rules and enforcement mechanisms that shape the behavior of individuals and organizations in society.

Organization Management

Institutional learning

The learning that takes place among individuals in different organizations and groups, who are working together to achieve a common end and, in particular, to induce institutional change.

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Instrumentality

The probability that a particular first-level outcome will be followed by a particular second-level outcome.

Organization Management

Integration

The process of attaining coordination across differentiated departments.

Organization Management

Integrative negotiation

Win-win negotiation that assumes that mutual problem solving can enlarge the assets to be divided between parties.

Organization Management

Integrators

Organizational members permanently assigned to facilitate coordination between departments.

Organization Management

Intention

A component of an attitude that guides an individual's behaviour.

Organization Management

Interactionalism

Suggests that individuals and situations interact continuously to determine individuals' behaviour.

Organization Management

Interest groups

Parties or organizations other than direct competitors that have some vested interest in how an organization is managed.

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Interlocking directorates

A condition existing when one person serves on two or more boards of directors.

Organization Management

Internal attribution

Ascribing/assigning the cause of a person's behavior at work to something about them (e.g, their effort, their innate ability, etc.).

Organization Management

Internal career

The individual's interpretation of objective work experiences know only from a person's own subjective sense of external events.

Organization Management

Internal environment

Factors inside an organization that make up the organization’s ‘personality’, and which influence the organization’s cohesiveness and the energy it displays pursuing its goals. Factors that make up the internal environment include: the organization’s culture, performance-related incentive, and rewards systems, the institutional ‘climate’ in general, the history and traditions of the organization, leadership and management style, the existence of a generally recognized and accepted mission statement, and shared norms and values that promote teamwork in the pursuit of the organization’s goals.

Organization Management

Internalization

Conformity to a social norm prompted by true acceptance of the beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie the norm.

Organization Management

International firm

Those firms who have responded to stiff competition domestically by expanding their sales abroad. They may start a production facility overseas and send some of their managers, who report to a global division, to that country.

Organization Management

Interpersonal conflict A process that occurs when one person, group, or organizational subunit frustrates the goal attainment of another.

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Interpersonal demands

Stressors associated with group pressures, leadership, and personality conflicts.

Organization Management

Interpersonal roles

There are three important interpersonal roles: the figurehead, the leader, and the liaison.

Organization Management

Interpersonal skills

The manager uses interpersonal skills to communicate with, understand, and motivate individuals and groups.

Organization Management

Interrole conflict

Several roles held by a role occupant involve incompatible expectations.

Organization Management

Intersender role conflict

Two or more role senders provide a role occupant with incompatible expectations.

Organization Management

Intrapreneurship

An entrepreneurial activity that takes place within the context of a large organization.

Organization Management

Intrasender role conflict

A single role sender provides incompatible expectations to a role occupant.

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Intrinsic motivation

Motivation that stems from the direct relationship between the worker and the task; it is usually self-applied.

Organization Management

Intuition

Problem identification and solving based on systematic education and experiences that locate problems within a network of previously acquired information.

Organization Management

Islamic law

A code-based legal system tied to religious stipulations put forth in the Koran. While not strictly a legal system, the Koran does address business concerns such as the need to honor agreements and to us good faith in interactions.

Organization Management

Isolate (isolated dyad)

Tend to work alone and to interact and communicate little with others.

Organization Management

Jargon

Specialized language used by job holders or members of particular occupations or organizations.

Organization Management

Job analysis

The process of systematically gathering information about specific jobs to use in devel-oping a performance measurement system, to write job or position descriptions, and to develop equitable pay systems. ) job-centred leader behaviour Involves paying close attention to the work of subordinates, ex-plaining work procedures, and demonstrating a strong interest in performance.

Organization Management

Job characteristics approach

Focuses on the motivational attributes of jobs.

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Job characteristics model

A model of how to put enrichment in practice, which involves -among other things - changing jobs so that they provide more feedback and autonomy to those actually doing the jobs.

Organization Management

Job characteristics theory

Identifies three critical psychological states: experienced meaningfulness of the work, experienced responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of results.

Organization Management

Job demands-job control model

A model that asserts that jobs promote high stress when they make high demands while offering little control over work decisions.

Organization Management

Job design

How organizations define and structure jobs.

Organization Management

Job enlargement

Involves combining multiple tasks once performed by several people into one job. As with rotation, it is designed to increase variety and reduce boredom association with job simplification.

Organization Management

Job enrichment

The design of jobs to enhance intrinsic motivation and the quality of working life.

Organization Management

Job hopping

Occurs when an individual makes fewer adjustments within the organization and moves to different organizations to advance his or her career.

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Job redesign

Efforts by firms to redesign how work is done to, among other things, reduce job stress (discussed in Chapter 6 earlier).

Organization Management

Job rotation

The practice of shifting workers to different jobs at periodic intervals.

Organization Management

Job satisfaction

A collection of attitudes that workers have about their jobs.

Organization Management

Job sharing

An alternative work schedule in which two part-time employees divide the work of a full time job.

Organization Management

Job specialization

Advocated by scientific management, it can help improve efficiency but it can also promote monotony and boredom.

Organization Management

Joint evaluation

An evaluation undertaken by two or more parties to achieve a mutual objective. There are various degrees of ‘jointness’ depending on the extent to which individual partners cooperate in the evaluation process, merge their evaluation resources, and combine their evaluation reporting. Joint evaluation can help overcome attribution problems in assessing the effectiveness of programs and strategies, the complementarities of efforts supported by different partners, the quality of aid coordination, etc.

Organization Management

Key informant interview

Key informants are those ‘who know’, and are not necessarily representative of a population. They are chosen for their knowledge or distinctive viewpoint. The key informant interview method forms part of focused interview techniques (as distinct from sample survey interviewing) and is governed by the need to identify a wide range of different viewpoints.

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Laboratory experiment

Creating an artifical setting, similar to a real work situation to allow control over amost every possible factor in that setting.

Organization Management

Lateral communication

Communication that flows relatively freely between people of relatively equal power in organizations.

Organization Management

Leader punishment behavior

The leader's use of reprimands or unfavorable task assignments and the active withholding of rewards.

Organization Management

Leader reward behavior

The leader's provision of subordinates with compliments, tangible benefits, and deserved special treatment.

Organization Management

Leader substitutes theory

A approach which examines how various situational factors can either substitute for leadership (making leader behavior unnecessary) or neutralize the impact of leader behavior.

Organization Management

Leader-centered leadership

Approaches that try to understand leadership by focusing on the leader's traits, skills, and behaviors.

Organization Management

Leader-member exchange (LMX) model

This model of leadership stresses that leaders develop unique working relationships with each of their subordinates.

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Leader-member exchange theory

Explains leadership in terms of the relationship that develops between leaders and subordinates over time.

Organization Management

Leadership

The capacity to assess and interpret needs and opportunities, to establish direction, to influence and align others towards a common aim, motivating and committing them to action, and making them responsible for their performance.

Organization Management

Leadership Grid

Evaluates leader behaviour along two dimensionsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;concern for production and concern for peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and suggests that effective leadership styles include high levels of both behaviours.

Organization Management

Leadership substitutes

Individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader's ability to affect subordinates' satisfaction and performance.

Organization Management

Leading

The process of getting the organization's members to work together toward the organization's goals.

Organization Management

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential resulting from direct or indirect experience.

Organization Management

Learning organization

A firm which values continuous learning and is consistently looking to adapt and change with its environment.

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Least Preferred CoWorker (LPC)

A current or past co-worker with whom a leader has had a difficult time accomplishing a task.

Organization Management

Legitimate power

Power derived from a person's position or job in an organization.

Organization Management

Leniency

The tendency to perceive the job performance of ratees as especially good.

Organization Management

Liaison role

The assignment of a person to help achieve coordination between his or her department and another department.

Organization Management

Life change

Any meaningful change in a person's personal or work situation; too many life changes can lead to health problems.

Organization Management

Life trauma

Any upheaval in an individual's life that alters his or her attitudes, emotions, or behaviours.

Organization Management

Linking role

A position for a person or group that serves to coordinate the activities of two or more organizational groups.

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Locus of control

A set of beliefs about whether one's behavior is controlled mainly by internal or external forces.

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Logic model

A simplified chain of relationships that portrays the logic and assumptions underlying a program or intervention and how it intends to achieve its expected results. It states the logic of the program, identifies the assumptions on which it is based, and outlines the logical connections between (a) the activities undertaken, (b) the outputs to be produced, (c) the immediate or short-term outcomes that are expected, and 9d) the ultimate or long-term impacts the program is designed to achieve.

Organization Management

LPC theory of leadership

Suggests that a leader's effectiveness depends on the situation.

Organization Management

Lump sum bonus

Merit pay that is awarded in a single payment and not built into base pay.

Organization Management

Machiavellianism

A personality trait. People who possess this trait act to gain power and to control the behaviour of others.

Organization Management

Machine bureaucracy

This structure is typical of large, well-established organizations. It features a high degree of specialization and formalization. Within this structure, decision making is usually concentrated at the top.

Management

The classical view emphasizes the management functions of planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling—‘getting the work done by the best means available’. More recently, the enabling role of managers has been emphasized, ‘to create the conditions under which the work will be done, and done well’. In the context of agricultural research, management involves defining research goals, strategies, and priorities; formulating research programs; determining responsibilities; allocating resources; leading, motivating, and supervising staff members; and maintaining relations with stakeholders.

Organization Management

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Management by Objectives (MBO)

An elaborate, systematic, ongoing program to facilitate goal establishment, goal accomplishment, and employee development.

Organization Management

Management teams

Consists of managers from various areas; they coordinate work teams.

Organization Management

Masculinity

The extent to which the domi-nant values in a society emphasize aggressiveness and the acquisition of money and material goods, rather than concern for people, relationships among people, and the overall quality of life.

Organization Management

Maslow's hierarchy of A five-level hierarchical need theory of motivation that specifies that the lowest-level unsatisfied need has the greatest motivating potential. needs

Organization Management

Mastery stage

Individuals develop a stronger attachment to their organizations and lose some career flexibility, and performance may vary.

Organization Management

Matrix departmentation

Employees remain members of a functional department while also reporting to a product or project manager.

Organization Management

Matrix design

Combines two different designs to gain the benefits of each. Typically in this design, a product or project departmentalization scheme and a functional structure are combined.

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Matrix structure

A hybrid approach to organizing which typically crosses a functional approach with a product- or service-based design, often resulting in employees having two bosses.

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Maximization

The choice of the decision alternative with the greatest expected value.

Organization Management

McClelland's theory of needs

A nonhierarchical need theory of motivation that outlines the conditions under which certain needs result in particular patterns of motivation.

Organization Management

Mechanistic structures

Organizational structures characterized by tallness, specialization, centralization, and formalization.

Organization Management

Mediation

Involves the manager assisting the disputants in the resolution of their conflict by controlling the manner in which they interact, but without forcing a solution.

Organization Management

Medium

The channel or path through which the message is transmitted.

Organization Management

Mentor

An older and more senior person in the organization who gives a junior person special attention, such as giving advice and creating opportunities.

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Merit pay plans

Systems that attempt to link pay to performance on white-collar jobs.

Organization Management

Michigan leadership studies

These studiesdefined job-centred and employee-centred leadership as opposite ends of a single leadership dimension.

Organization Management

Mission statement

An explicit statement of company philosophy that provides yet another way to communicate culture.

Organization Management

Modeling

The process of imitating the behavior of others.

Organization Management

Monitoring

Monitoring involves continuous, systematic observation and checking on activities and their results. The purpose is to ensure that activities are proceeding according to plan, to provide a record of how inputs are used, and to warn of deviations from initial goals and expected outcomes.

Organization Management

Motivating factors

The factors in Herzberg's theory that cause satisfaction (e.g., need for achievement, challenge, and recognition)

Organization Management

Motivation

The extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal.

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Motivation and productivity stage

A stage of group development in which members cooperate, help each other, and work toward accomplishing tasks.

Organization Management

Motivation factors

These factors are intrinsic to work itself. They include things such as achievement and recognition.

Organization Management

Motive

A factor that determines a person's choice of one course of behaviour from among several possibilities.

Organization Management

Multicultural organization

An organization in which employees of mixed backgrounds, experiences, and cultures can contribute and achieve their full potential for the benefit of both themselves and the organization.

Organization Management

Multicultural orientation

One in which em-ployees of mixed backgrounds, experiences, and cultures can contribute and achieve their fullest potential for the benefit of themselves and the organization.

Organization Management

Multinational firm

Firm who operate extensively in other countries and closely coordinate effort across subsidiaries in those countries. They tend to rely more on foreign nationals for their managerial talent.

Organization Management

Mum effect

The tendency to avoid communicating unfavorable news to others.

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Mutual acceptance stage

A stage of group development that is characterized by members sharing information about themselves and getting to know each other.

Organization Management

Narcissistic leaders

Fundamentally insecure and self-absorbed individuals who often pursue a

Organization Management

Need

Anything an individual requires or wants.

Organization Management

Need for achievement

A strong desire to perform challenging tasks well.

Organization Management

Need for affiliation

A strong desire to establish and maintain friendly, compatible interpersonal relationships.

Organization Management

Need for power

A strong desire to influence others, making a significant impact or impression.

Organization Management

Need theories

Motivation theories that specify the kinds of needs people have and the conditions under which they will be motivated to satisfy these needs in a way that contributes to performance.

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Needs assessment

A decision-aiding tool for planning and resource allocation. Involves the gathering and analyzing of information on the organization, its environment, its capacity needs and problems, and possible solutions.

Organization Management

Negative affectivity

People who possess this trait are generally downbeat and pessimistic. They see things in a negative way and seem to be in a bad mood.

Organization Management

Negative emotionality

This is characterized by moodiness and insecurity; those who have little negative emotionality are better able to withstand stress.

Organization Management

Negative reinforcement

The removal of a stimulus that in turn increases or maintains the probability of some behavior.

Organization Management

Negotiation

A decision-making process among interdependent parties who do not share identical preferences.

Organization Management

Network organization Liaisons between specialist organizations that rely strongly on market mechanisms for coordination.

Organization Management

Networking

Establishing good relations with key organizational members and/or outsiders in order to accomplish one's goals.

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Neutralizers of leadership

Factors in the work setting that reduce a leader's opportunity to exercise influence.

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Noise

Any disturbance in the communication process that interferes with or distorts communication.

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Nominal group technique

A structured group decision-making technique in which ideas are generated without group interaction and then systematically evaluated by the group.

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Nonprogrammed decision

A decision that recurs infrequently and for which there is no previously established decision rule.

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Nonverbal communication

The transmission of messages by some medium other than speech or writing.

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Norm

A standard against which the appropriateness of a behaviour is measured.

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Normative commitment

Commitment based on ideology or a feeling of obligation to an organization.

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Norms

Collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behavior of each other.

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Objective

An expression of an effect that a program is expected to achieve if completed successfully and according to plan. Objectives are often viewed as a hierarchy, beginning with strategic goals, purposes, outputs, and activities.

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Observational research

Research that examines the natural activities of people in an organizational setting by listening to what they say and watching what they do.

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Occupation

A group of jobs that are similar with respect to the type of tasks and training involved.

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Ohio State leadership These studies defined leader consideration and initiating-structure behaviours as independent dimensions of leadership. studies

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One-shot culture

A culture comprised of a slow feedback/high risk combination. People who can tolerate uncertainly for long periods and is careful/detailed oriented.

Organization Management

Open door policy

The opportunity for employees to communicate directly with a manager without going through the chain of command.

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Open systems

Systems that take inputs from the external environment, transform some of them, and send them back into the environment as outputs.

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Openness

The capacity to entertain new ideas and to change as a result of new information.

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Operating environment

The context or environment in which an organization operates, including the economic, technical, socio-cultural, institutional, legal, and political factors that influence behavior and performance.

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Operational capacities

The capacities that an organization needs to carry out its day-to-day activities.

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Operational management

Management concerned with mobilizing, coordinating, and guiding an organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s staff and using its physical and financial resources to achieve defined objectives. Establishing a coherent set of rules (institutions) that guide behavior in the pursuit of organizational goals.

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Optimism

The extent to which a person sees life in relatively positive or negative terms.

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Organic structures

Organizational structures characterized by flatness, low specialization, low formalization, and decentralization.

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Organization

Formal structures with designated roles and purposes. Entities composed of people who act collectively in pursuit of shared objectives. These organizations and individuals pursue their interests within an institutional structure defined by formal rules (constitutions, laws, regulations, contracts) and informal rules (ethics, trust, religious precepts, and other implicit codes of conduct). Organizations, in turn, have internal rules (i.e. institutions) to deal with personnel, budgets, procurement, and reporting procedures, which constrain the behavior of their members.

Organization Management

Organization chart

A diagram showing all people, positions, reporting relationships, and lines of formal communication in the organization.

Organization Management

Organization culture

The set of values that helps the organization's employees understand which actions are considered acceptable and which unacceptable.

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Organization development

The process of planned change and improvement of the organization through the application of knowledge of the behavioural sciences.

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Organization structure

The system of task, reporting, and authority relationships within which the organization does its work.

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Organizational assessment framework

A theoretical construct that aids in the diagnosis of an organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current state, to measure changes over time or to find ways to solve specific problems. This study employs a framework developed by the IDRC and Universalia that includes four analytical dimensions: the external operating environment, the internal environment, organizational capacity, and performance.

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Organizational behavior

The attitudes and behaviors of individuals and groups in organizations.

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Organizational The systematic use of learning principles to influence organizational behavior. behavior modification

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Organizational capacities

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Organizational An ongoing process by which an organization increases its ability to formulate and achieve relevant objectives. It involves capacity development strengthening both its operational and adaptive capacities.

The organization’s potential to perform. Its ability to define and realize goals effectively, efficiently, and in a relevant and sustainable manner.

Organization Management

Organizational change

Alteration or variation in the character or performance of an organization. Such changes lie along a continuum from incremental change to fundamental, large-scale change or transformational change. While incremental change is less complex than fundamental change, both types involve three basic stages referred to as ‘unfreezing’, ‘moving’, and ‘freezing’. Fundamental or large-scale change refers to lasting change in the character of an organization that significantly alters its performance.

Organization Management

Organizational citizenship

The extent to which an individual's behaviour makes a positive overall contribution to the organization.

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Organizational citizenship behavior

Voluntary, information behavior that contributes to organizational effectiveness.

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Organizational commitment

An attitude that reflects the strength of the linkage between an employee and an organization.

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A pattern of shared basic assumptions that an organization develops as it solves its problems of external adaptation and

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Organizational culture internal integration, has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct

Organization Management

Organizational development (OD)

A planned, ongoing effort to change organizations to be more effective and more human.

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Organizational downsizing

A popular trend aimed at reducing the size of corporate staff and middle management to reduce costs.

Organization Management

Organizational environment

This environment includes all elements that lie outside the boundaries of the organization: for example, people, other organizations, economic factors, objects, and events.

Organization Management

Organizational goals

Statements describing the external direction of success, ultimate achievement, or desired improvement in organizational performance.

Organization Management

Organizational learning

An organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity for accumulating knowledge from its own experiences, disseminating that knowledge to members throughout the organization (and not to a single individual or group within it), reflecting on it and using it as a basis on which to build planning and programming activities, to adapt and to cope with change. A learning organization is one that facilitates the learning of all its members and continuously transforms itself.

Organization Management

Organizational modification

The application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings. organizational politics The activities carried out by people to acquire, enhance, and use power and other resources to obtain their desired outcome.

way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to these problems.

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Organizational performance

The ability of an organization to meet its goals and achieve its overall mission. Typical indicators for evaluating organizational performance are effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, and sustainability.

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Organizational politics

The pursuit of self-interest in an organization, whether or not this self-interest corresponds to organizational goals.

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Organizational processes

Activities or work that have to be accomplished to create outputs that internal or external customers value.

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Organizational selfassessment

The assessment of an organization by those who are working in the organization. As with any organizational assessment, a self-assessment focuses on overall impact and performance, or specific aspects thereof.

Organization Management

Organizational socialization

The process through which employees learn about the firm's culture and pass their knowledge and understanding on to others.

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Organizational stressors

Factors in the workplace that can cause stress.

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Organizational structure

The manner in which an organization divides its labor into specific tasks and achieves coordination among these tasks.

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Organizational technology

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Statements describing the principles the organization wants to express as it moves in the direction described in its goals. Values that an organization regards highly and holds as its ideal. Ethical standards that guide how work is done. Values can Organizational values include such things as fairness, respect, commitment, and embracing diversity. Managers are expected to serve as role models for values.

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Organizations

Social inventions for accomplishing common goals through group effort.

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Organizing

The process of designing jobs, group-ing jobs into units, and establishing patterns of authority between jobs and units.

Organization Management

Orientation phase

The first few weeks or months on the job when it is particularly important to communication cultural values to new employees.

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Other-enhancing tactics

Indirect methods of influencing others' perceptions by boosting their self-image (e.g., flattery, opinion agreement).

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Other-focused image Behaviors designed to make polish someone else's image in the hopes of getting what you want (e.g., flattering or praising management tactics your boss).

The mechanical and intellectual processes that transform inputs into outputs.

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Outcome

An immediate effect or short-term consequence of an action.

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Output

The direct results of an intervention, a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;deliverableâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; for which management is responsible.

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Overdetermination

Occurs because numerous organizational systems are in place to ensure that employees and systems behave as expected to maintain stability.

Organization Management

Ownership

Right over, and responsibility for, a process or activity. When local players own a project, and they adopt it as their own even if outside organizations are involved.

Organization Management

Paralanguage

Reference to qualities about one's speech that carry information about the communication (e.g., speed, loudness, tenseness of one's voice).

Organization Management

Participant observation.

Observational research in which the researcher becomes a functioning member of the organizational unit being studied.

Organization Management

Participation

The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work.

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Participative leadership

Involving subordinates in making work-related decisions.

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Participatory evaluation

A process of self-assessment, collective knowledge production, and cooperative action in which stakeholders in a development process participate substantially in the identification of evaluation issues, the formulation of evaluation questions, the design of the evaluation, the collection and analysis of data, and the actions taken as a result of the findings.

Organization Management

Partner

The individual and/or organization with which one collaborates to achieve mutually agreed upon objectives.

Organization Management

Partnership

Negotiated relationships that exist between two or more entities that have voluntarily entered into a legal or moral contract.

Organization Management

Path-Goal Theory

Robert House's theory concerned with the situations under which various leader behaviors (directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented) are most effective.

Organization Management

Perception

The process of interpreting out senses to provide order and meaning to the environment.

Organization Management

Perceptual defense

The tendency for the perceptual system to defend the perceiver against unpleasant emotions.

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Perfect rationality

A decision strategy that is completely informed, perfectly logical, and oriented toward economic gain.

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Performance

The extent to which an organizational member contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization.

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Performance appraisal (performance measurement)

See performance measurement.

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Performance behaviours

The total set of work-related behaviours that the organization expects the individual to display.

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Performance causes An assumption that high job performance leads to high job satisfaction. satisfaction hypothesis

Organization Management

Performance measurement (performance appraisal)

The process by which someone (1) evaluates an employee's work behaviors by measurement and comparison with previously established standards, (2) documents results, and (3) communicates the results to the employees.

Organization Management

Performance plan

An understanding between an employee and a manager concerning what and how a job is to be done such that both parties know what is expected and how success is defined and measured.

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Performance-toThe individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes. outcome expectancy

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Perquisites

Special privileges awarded to selected members of an organization, usually top managers. personality The relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another.

Organization Management

Persistence culture

A business that involves relatively low risk but rapid feedback. The culture encourages people who have energy and show perseverance.

Organization Management

Personal constructs

A very general belief about what other people are like (e.g, untrustworthy) that has wide effect on our perceptions of others behavior.

Organization Management

Personal identification

One way that charismatic leaders can influence subordinate self-worth. Taps subordinates' needs to have someone to look up to and may involve giving leaders unquestioned loyalty.

Organization Management

Personal power

Resides in the person, regardless of the position he or she fills.

Organization Management

Personality

The relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way an individual interacts with his or her environment.

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Person-job fit

The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization.

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Person-role conflict

Role demands call for behavior that is incompatible with the personality or skills of a role occupant.

Organization Management

Physical demands

Stressors associated with the job's physical setting, such as the adequacy of temperature and lighting, and the physical requirements the job makes on the employee.

Organization Management

Physical resources

The land, facilities, vehicles, and equipment used by organizations to carry out their activities.

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Piecerate

A pay system in which individual workers are paid a certain sum of money for each unit of production completed.

Organization Management

Planning

The process through which goals and objectives are set, partners identified, inputs determined, activities specified and scheduled, and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms defined, so that expected outputs and outcomes might be achieved in a timely manner.

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Policy

Similar to a script in that a policy can be a less than completely rational decision making method. Involves the use of a preexisting set of decision steps for any problem that presents itself.

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Political risk

Refers to the many different actions of people, subgroups, and whole countries that have the potential to affect the financial status of a firm.

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Pooled interdependence

A condition in which organizational subunits are dependent upon the pooled resources generated by other subunits but are otherwise fairly independent.

Organization Management

Position power

Power managers hold due to their role in the organization. May include a manager's network of contacts, legitimate authority and control over information, rewards, punishments, and the work environment.

Organization Management

Positive affectivity

People who possess this trait are upbeat and optimistic. They have an overall sense of well-being and see things in a positive light.

Organization Management

Positive reinforcement

The application or addition of a stimulus that increases or maintains the probability of some behavior.

Organization Management

Power

The potential ability of a person or group to exercise control over another person or group.

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Power

The capacity to influence others who are in a state of dependence.

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Power distance

The extent to which an unequal distribution of power is accepted by society members.

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Practical approach

The approach to decision making that combines the steps of the rational approach with the conditions in the behavioural approach to create a more realistic process for making decisions in organizations.

Organization Management

PRAM model

This model guides the negotiator through the four steps of planning for agreement, building relationships, reaching agreement, and maintaining relationships.

Organization Management

Preferred focus

The tendency to concentrate on the technical/rational side of decision making or on the people/issues side.

Organization Management

Prejudices

Judgments about others that reinforce the belief that some groups are superior toothers and can lead to exaggerating the worth of one group while diminishing the worth of others.

Organization Management

Preparation

It is usually the first stage in the creative process. It involves education and formal training.

Organization Management

Primacy effect

The tendency for a perceiver to rely on early cues or first impressions.

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Primary needs

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Proactive ingratiation Involves the use of impression management tactics such as expressing agreement and offering praise. strategies

Organization Management

Problem clarity

The need for structure in making decisions vs. a tendency to have greater acceptance for ambiguity or vagueness in making decision.

Organization Management

Problem.

A perceived gap between an existing state and a desired state.

Organization Management

Problem-solving teams

Temporary teams established to attack specific problems in the work-place.

Organization Management

Procedural fairness

Fairness that occurs when the process used to determine work outcomes is seen as reasonable.

Organization Management

Procedural justice

The extent to which the dynamics of an organization's decision making processes are judged to be fair by those most affected by them.

The basic physical requirements necessary to sustain life. problem solving A form of decision making in which the issue is unique and alternatives must be developed and evaluated without the aid of a programmed decision rule.

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Process consultation

Involves interviewing people and observing work group processes to uncover interpersonal stumbling blocks and related problems. A change agent will then provide feedback aimed at improving the work process.

Organization Management

Process culture

Characterized by slow feedback/low risk combination. A culture that promotes a major concern with the process of running an organization more than specific outcomes.

Organization Management

Process losses

Group performance difficulties stemming from the problems of motivating and coordinating larger groups.

Organization Management

Process management

Management of resources and internal processes that support research and development programs. These include staffing, human resource development, fund raising, financial management, and management of facilities.

Organization Management

Process theories of motivation

Theories that explain the processes by which employee behavior can be aroused and then directed.

Organization Management

Process use of evaluation

Individual changes in thinking and behavior, and program or organizational changes in procedures and cultures that occur among those involved in evaluation as a result of the learning that occurs during the evaluation process.

Organization Management

Product departmentation

Departments are formed on the basis of a particular product, product line, or service.

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Product development Combinations of work and problem-solving teams that create new designs for products or services that will satisfy customer needs. teams

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Product-based structure

A type of structure in which all the jobs needed to produce and sell a product or service are grouped together in the same unit.

Organization Management

Productivity

An indicator of how much an organization is creating relative to its inputs.

Organization Management

Professional bureaucracy

This structure is characterized by horizontal specialization, by area of professional expertise. It features little formalization and decentralized decision making.

Organization Management

Profit sharing

The return of some company profit to employees in the form of a cash bonus or a retirement supplement.

Organization Management

Program

A standardized way of solving a problem.

Organization Management

Program management

Management concerned directly with the production and delivery of services for clients or target groups. Program management skills and procedures include project cycle management, program formulation, and technical reviews, for example.

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Programmed decision A decision that recurs often enough for a decision rule to be developed.

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Projection

The tendency for perceivers to attribute their own undesirable ideas, feelings, and motives to others.

Organization Management

Psychological contract

A person's set of expectations regarding what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization, in return, will provide the individual.

Organization Management

Punctuated equilibrium model

A model of group development that describes how groups with deadlines are affected by their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions.

Organization Management

Punishment

The application of an aversive stimulus following some behavior designed to decrease the probability of that behavior.

Organization Management

Quality

The total set of features and characteristics of a product or service that determine its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.

Organization Management

Quality circles

Small groups of employees from the same work area who regularly meet to discuss and recommend solutions to workplace problems.

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Quality of worklife

The extent to which workers can satisfy important personal needs through their experiences in the organization.

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Rational decisionmaking approach

A systematic, step-by-step process for making decisions.

Organization Management

Rational-economic models

A set of decision making approaches, often that use aids and are quantitative in form, that try to maximize the use of information and/or possible choices.

Organization Management

Rationalization

Attributing socially acceptable motives to one's actions.

Organization Management

Reaction formation

Expressing oneself in a manner that is directly opposite to the way one truly feels.

Organization Management

Realistic job previews The provision of a balanced, realistic picture of the positive and negative aspects of a job to job applicants.

Organization Management

Reality shock

An unsettling experience caused by the disparity between unrealistic expectations and the reality that people confront in their first job.

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Receiver

The individual, group, or organization that perceives the encoded symbols and may or may not decode them to try to understand the intended message.

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Reciprocal interdependence

A condition in which organizational subunits must engage in considerable interplay and mutual feedback to accomplish a task.

Organization Management

Reengineering

The radical redesign of organizational processes to achieve major improvements in factors such as time, cost, quality, or service.

Organization Management

Referent power

Power derived from being well liked by others.

Organization Management

Refreezing

The condition that exists when newly developed behaviors, attitudes, or structures become an enduring part of the organization.

Organization Management

Regency effect

The tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions.

Organization Management

Regression to the mean

A heuristic that says humans fail to realize that the best predictor of behavior is the mean performance; unusual performance (positive or negative) is likely to move back toward the mean performance.

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Reinforcement

The consequences of behaviour.

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Reinforcement

The process by which stimuli strengthen behaviors.

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Reinforcement discrimination

The process of recognizing differences between behaviour and reinforcement in different settings.

Organization Management

Reinforcement generalization

The process through which a person extends recognition of similar or identical behaviour-reinforcement relationships to different settings.

Organization Management

Reinforcement theory

A motivation theory which argues that by linking consequences to

Organization Management

Relationship-oriented Leadership behavior focused on maintaining or improving relations with subordinates (e.g., developing, recognizing, and otherwise supporting subordinates). behavior

Organization Management

Relevance

Refers to importance and practical utility. In organizational assessment, it refers to the degree of congruence between (a) the objectives and activities of an organization, and (b) the needs and expectations of key stakeholders.

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Reliability

An index of the consistency of a research subject's responses.

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Representativeness heuristic

A heuristic that leads us to choose options that have the appearance of being correct, but often fail to take into account the appropriate probability of option occurring.

Organization Management

Repression

The prevention of threatening ideas from becoming conscious.

Organization Management

Research design

The set of procedures used to test the predicted relationships among natural phenomena.

Organization Management

Resistance

Overt or convert failure by organizational members to support a change effort.

Organization Management

Resource dependence

The dependency of organizations upon environmental inputs such as capital, raw materials, and human resources.

Organization Management

Responsibility

An obligation to do something with the expectation of achieving some act or output.

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Restriction of productivity

The artificial limitation of work output that can occur under wage incentive plans.

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Result

The output, outcome, or impact (intended or unintended, positive and/or negative) of a development intervention.

Organization Management

Review of documents Systematic review of an organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s documents to obtain information for an evaluation.

Organization Management

Reward power

Power derived from the ability to provide positive outcomes and prevent negative outcomes.

Organization Management

Reward system

A system that consists of all organizational components, including people, pro-cesses, rules and procedures, and decisionmaking activities, involved in allocating compensation and benefits to employees in exchange for their contributions to the organization.

Organization Management

Rights of passage

A set of rituals and ceremonies and other activities used over and over again at special times to emphasize key organizational values.

Organization Management

Risk propensity

The degree to which a person is willing to take chances and make risky decisions.

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Risky shift

The tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members.

Organization Management

Role

A set of expected behaviours associated with a particular position in a group or organization.

Organization Management

Role ambiguity

Lack of clarity of job goals or methods.

Organization Management

Role conflict

A condition of being faced with incompatible role expectations.

Organization Management

Role demands

Stressors associated with the role a person is expected to play.

Organization Management

Role overload

The requirement for too many tasks to be performed in too short of a time period.

Organization Management

Roles

Positions in groups that have a set of expected behaviors attached to them.

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Rumor

An unverified belief that is in general circulation.

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Sandbagging

Behaviors designed to project a weaker or more negative image than is actually the case. The goal is often to lull opponents into a false sense of security (i.e., so they let down their guard or exert less effort).

Organization Management

Satisfaction causes performance hypothesis

An assumption that high job satisfaction leads to high job performance.

Organization Management

Satisficing

Establishing an adequate level of acceptability for a solution to a problem and then screening solutions until one that exceeds this level is found.

Organization Management

Scapegoating

Trying to shift the blame for a problem or failure away from yourself (e.g., onto others or factors in the situation).

Organization Management

Scientific Management

Frederick Taylor's system for using research to determine the optimum degree of specialization and standardization of work tasks.

Organization Management

Scientific research

The systemic investigation of hypothesised propositions about the relationships among natural phenomena.

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Script

A reference to a type of non-rational decision making that doesn't make use of existing data, but instead is based on a commonly understood sequence of behavior.

Organization Management

Secondary needs

The requirements learned from the environment or culture in which the individual lives.

Organization Management

Selective perception

The process of screening out information with which we are uncomfortable or that contradicts our beliefs.

Organization Management

Self-assessment (workshop)

A workshop process organized to assess an organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs, capacities, a capacity development initiative, or the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance, and involving the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s management and staff and perhaps external stakeholders.

Organization Management

Self-efficacy

A person's beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform a task.

Organization Management

Self-enhancing tactics

Direct attempts to influence the perceptions of others via self promotion (e.g., name dropping) and image control.

Organization Management

Self-esteem

The degree to which a person has a positive self-evaluation.

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Self-focused image management tactics

Behaviors designed to make yourself look good or to create a more favorable image of yourself with other people (e.g., boasting, working hard when the boss is around, etc.)

Organization Management

Self-leadership

A follower-centered approach to leadership which argues that employees should look inward for motivation and initiative.

Organization Management

Self-managed work teams

Work groups that have the opportunity to do challenging work under reduced supervision.

Organization Management

Self-management

The use of learning principles to manage one's own behavior.

Organization Management

Self-monitoring

The extend to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings and relationships.

Organization Management

Self-reactions

Comparisons of alternatives with internalized moral standards.

Organization Management

Self-serving attributions

A bias effect in attributions whereby people tend to take credit (internal attribution) for success and to make external attributions for failure.

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Self-serving bias

The tendency to take credit for successful outcomes and to deny responsibility for failures.

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Semantics

The study of language forms.

Organization Management

Sensitivity training

An interpersonal approach for promoting change that involves developing a greater understanding of oneself and one's interactions with other people.

Organization Management

Sequential interdependence

A condition in which organizational subunits are dependent upon the resources generated by units that precede them in a sequence of work.

Organization Management

Short-term orientation People with a short-term orientation focus on past or present; people with a long-term orientation focus on the future.

Organization Management

Similar-to-me effect

A rater gives more favorable evaluations to people who are similar to the rater in terms of background or attitudes.

Organization Management

Simple structure

This structure is typical of relatively small or new organizations. It features little specialization or formalization. Within this structure, power and decision making are concentrated in the chief executive.

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Situational attributions

Explanations for behavior based on an actor's external situation or environment.

Organization Management

Situational leadership

A leadership model which argues that effective leadership involves matching the right combination of task-oriented and relationship-oriented behavior to the maturity level of subordinates.

Organization Management

Situation-centered leadership

Approaches that try to understand leadership by focusing on how situational variables may impact leader effectiveness.

Organization Management

Skill benchmarking

The process of identifying required competency levels for key jobs in an industry.

Organization Management

Skill variety

The opportunity to do a variety of job activities using various skills and talents.

Organization Management

Skilled based pay

A system in which people are paid according to the number of job skills they have acquired.

Organization Management

Social capital

The institutions, norms, relationships, and networks that enable collective action and shape the quantity and quality of a societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s social interactions.

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Social identification

Often the most positive way that charismatic leaders can influence subordinate self-worth. Involves linking subordinates' work to the good of a larger social entity.

Organization Management

Social learning

Occurs when people observe the behaviours of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behaviour as a result.

Organization Management

Social loafing

The tendency of individuals to withhold physical or intellectual effort when performing a group task.

Organization Management

Social network

A group of one's peers, subordinates, and senior people who provide general information about what is going on in the organization, specific advice on how to accomplish job assignments, and feedback about the consequences of different career strategies.

Organization Management

Social responsibility

An organization's social re-sponsibility is its obligation to protect or contribute to the social environment in which it functions.

Organization Management

Social-emotional leader

A leader who is concerned with reducing tension, patching up disagreements, settling arguments, and maintaining morale.

Organization Management

Socialization

The process by which people learn the norms and roles that are necessary to function in a group or organization.

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Sociotechnical systems approach

An approach to organization design that views the organization as an open system structured to integrate the technical and social subsystems into a single management system.

Organization Management

Soft capacities

The human and organizational capacities, or social capital of the organization, including such things as management knowledge and skills, and organizational systems and procedures (such as management information systems, and procedures for planning and evaluation.).

Organization Management

Source

The individual, group, or organization interested in communicating something to another party.

Organization Management

Spacing

A nonverbal behavior that refers to the typical amounts of space between people as they interact and converse.

Organization Management

Span of control

The number of subordinates supervised by a superior.

Organization Management

Stakeholders

Any group within or outside an organization that has a direct or indirect stake in the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance or its evaluation. Stakeholders can be people who conduct, participate in, fund, or manage a program, or who may otherwise affect or be affected by decisions about the program or the evaluation.

Organization Management

Status

The rank, social position, or prestige accorded to group members.

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Stereotyping

The tendency to generalize about people in a social category and ignore variation among them.

Organization Management

Strategic alliances

Actively cooperative relationships between legally separate organizations.

Organization Management

Strategic contingencies

Critical factors affecting organizational effectiveness that are controlled by a key subunit.

Organization Management

Strategic management

Development and implementation of effective strategies to set and achieve an organization’s objectives. Strategic management involves five sets of tasks, (a) developing a strategic vision and mission, (b) setting objectives, (c) crafting a strategy, (d) implementing the strategy, and (e) evaluating performance and initiating corrective adjustment.

Organization Management

Strategic planning

A process by which a future vision is developed for an organization, taking into account its political and legal circumstances, its strengths and weaknesses, and the threats and opportunities facing it. It articulates the organization’s sense of mission and maps out future directions to be taken, given the organization’s current state and resources.

Organization Management

Strategic values

The basic belief about an organization's environment that shape its strategy.

Organization Management

Strategy

A planned course of action undertaken with the aim of achieving the goals and objectives of an organization. The overall strategy of an organization is often known as organizational strategy, but strategy may also be developed for any aspect of an organization’s activities, as, for example, environmental strategy or marketing strategy.

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Stress

A psychological reaction to the demands inherent in a stressor that has the potential to make a person feel tense or anxious.

Organization Management

Stress reactions

Behavioral, psychological, and physiological consequences of stress.

Organization Management

Stressors

Environmental events or conditions that have the potential to induce stress.

Organization Management

Stretch targets

Goals which are virtually unattainable. Often designed to encourage 'doing it different' rather than 'doing what we already do better.'

Organization Management

Strong culture

An organizational culture with intense and pervasive beliefs, values, and assumptions.

Organization Management

Structural change

A systemwide organization development involving a major restructuring of the organization or instituting programs such as quality of work life.

Organization Management

Structural imperatives The three structural imperativesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;environment, technology, and sizeâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;are the primary determinants of organization structure.

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Subcultures

Smaller cultures that develop within a larger organizational culture that are based on differences in training, occupation, or departmental goals.

Organization Management

Suboptimizing

Knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the organization.

Organization Management

Substitutes for leadership

Factors in the work setting that can take the place of active leadership, making it unnecessary or redundant.

Organization Management

Subunit power

The degree of power held by various organizational subunits, such as departments.

Organization Management

Suggestion systems

Programs designed to enhance upward communication by soliciting ideas for improved work operations from employees.

Organization Management

Sunk costs

Permanent losses of resources incurred as the result of a decision.

Organization Management

Superleadership

Occurs when a leader gradually and purposefully turns over power, responsibility, and control to a self-managing work group.

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Superordinate goals

Attractive outcomes that can be achieved only by collaboration.

Organization Management

Surface value

The objective meaning or worth of a reward to an employee.

Organization Management

Survey

The collection of data from a population for the purpose of analysis of a particular issue. In a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;sample surveyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, data is collected from a sample of the population.

Organization Management

Survey feedback

The collection of data from organizational members and the provision of feedback about the results.

Organization Management

Survey methods

Involve the administration of a questionnaire (e.g., by computer, in paper and pencil form, or interview). Usually designed to assess problems and improve information flow throughout the organization.

Sustainability

The ability of an organization to secure and manage sufficient resources to enable it to fulfill its mission effectively and consistently over time without excessive dependence on a single funding source. Ideally, sustainable organizations have (a) the ability to scan the environment, adapt to it, and seize opportunities it offers, (b) strong leadership and management, (c) the ability to attract and retain qualified staff, (d) the ability to provide relevant benefits and services for maximum impact in communities, (e) the skills to demonstrate and communicate this impact to leverage further resources, (f) community support and involvement, and (g) commitment to building sustainable (not dependent) communities.

Organization Management

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Symbolic use of evaluation results

Refers to situations where evaluation results are accepted on paper or in public pronouncements, but go no further. Many evaluations are symbolic in that they are carried out simply to comply with administrative directives or to present an image of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;modernityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

Organization Management

Symbolic value

The symbolic and personal meaning or worth of a reward to an employee. system A set of interrelated elements functioning as a whole.

Organization Management

Tall organization

An organization with relatively many levels in its hierarchy of authority.

Organization Management

Task demands

Stressors associated with the specific job a person performs.

Organization Management

Task environment

This environment includes specific organizations, groups, and individuals that influence the organization.

Organization Management

Task forces

Temporary groups set up to solve coordination problems across several departments.

Organization Management

Task group

A relatively temporary, formal group established to do a specific task.

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Task identity

The extent to which a job involves doing a complete piece of work, from beginning to end.

Organization Management

Task leader

A leader who is concerned with accomplishing a task by organizing others, planning strategy, and dividing labor.

Organization Management

Task significance

The impact that a job has on other people.

Organization Management

Task-oriented behavior

Leadership behavior focused on the task itself or getting the job done (e.g., telling subordinates how to perform certain tasks).

Organization Management

Team

A small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, common performance goals, and an approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.

Organization Management

Team building

An effort to increase the effectiveness of work teams by improving interpersonal processes, goal clarification, and role clarification.

Organization Management

Team-building techniques

Group-level efforts designed to illustrate the value of teams as well as build cohesion and a common sense of purpose among team members.

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Technical (task) subsystem

The means by which inputs are transformed into outputs.

Organization Management

Technical skills

The skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the organization.

Organization Management

Technological interdependence

The extent to which organizational subunits depend on each other for resources, raw materials, or information.

Organization Management

Technological routineness

The extent to which exceptions and problems affect the task of converting inputs into outputs.

Organization Management

Technology

The activities, equipment, and knowledge necessary to turn organizational inputs into desired outputs.

Organization Management

Telecommuting

A work arrangement in which employees spend part of their time working off-site.

Organization Management

Terms of reference

Written document presenting the purpose and scope of the evaluation, the methods to be used, the standard against which performance is to be assessed or analyses are to be conducted, the resources and time allocated, and reporting requirements. Two other expressions sometimes used with the same meaning are ‘scope of work’ and ‘evaluation mandate’.

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Theory of career anchors

Five distinct patterns of self-perceived talents, motives, needs, and values that evolve as one faces early work experiences: technical/functional competence, managerial competence, security, autonomy, and creativity.

Organization Management

Theory of career types

John Holland's theory identifying six distinct patterns of career orientation: conventional, artistic, realistic, social, enterprising, and investigative.

Organization Management

Theory X and Theory Two concepts developed by prominent human relations writer Douglas McGregor. Theory X takes a negative and pessimistic view of workers, and Theory Y a morepositive and optimistic perspective. McGregor advocated the adoption of Theory Y. Y

Organization Management

Third-party conflict resolution

Occurs when a manager atttemps to resolve a dispute between individuals or groups of employees.

Organization Management

Tiered wage system

An approach to paying workers based on their hiring date. In their simplest form, two wage classifications exist, with workers hired after a particular date being paid much less than those already on the payroll.

Organization Management

Total quality management (TQM)

A systematic attempt to achieve continuous improvement in the quality of an organization's products and/or services.

Organization Management

Trait approach

This approach to leadership attempted to identify stable and enduring character traits that differentiated effective leaders from nonleaders.

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Traits

Individual characteristics such as physical attributes, intellectual ability, and personality.

Organization Management

Transformation leadership

Providing followers with a new vision that instills true commitment.

Organization Management

Transition management

The process of systematically planning, organizing, and implementing change.

Organization Management

Transmission

The process through which the symbols that represent the message are sent to the receiver.

Organization Management

Trial stage (socialization stage)

Steps in career when individuals explore jobs and performance begins to improve.

Organization Management

Triangulation

A process of using multiple data sources, data collection methods, evaluators, or theories to study an issue from different perspectives, validate research findings, help eliminate bias, and detect errors or anomalies in results.

Organization Management

Turnover

The percentage of employees who leave the firm during a specified time interval (usually a one year period)

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Type A

People who are extremely competitive, highly committed to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency.

Organization Management

Type B

People who are less competitive, less committed to work, and have a weaker sense of time urgency.

Organization Management

Type Z

This type of firm is committed to retaining employees, evaluates workers' performance based on both qualitative and quantitative information, emphasizes broad career paths, exercises control through informal, implicit mechanisms, requires that decision making occur in groups and be based on full information sharing and consensus, expects individuals to take responsibility for decisions, and emphasizes concern for people.

Organization Management

Uncertainty avoidance

The extent to which people are uncomfortable with uncertain and ambiguous situations.

Organization Management

Unconflicted adherence

Continuing with current activities if doing so does not entail serious risks.

Organization Management

Unconflicted change

Making changes in present activities if doing so presents no serious risks.

Organization Management

Unfreezing

The recognition that some current state of affairs is unsatisfactory.

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Unit of analysis

The class of elemental units that constitute the population and the units selected for measurement, or the class of elemental units to which measurements are generalized. In an evaluation of an organizational capacity development effort, the unit of analysis might correspond to the individual, group, project team, department, network, partnership, or other organizational unit.

Organization Management

Universal approach

An organization design in which prescriptions and propositions are designed to work in any circumstances.

Organization Management

Upward communication

Information that flows from the bottom of the organization toward the top.

Organization Management

Utility

The extent to which an evaluation informs relevant audiences and is beneficial for their work.

Organization Management

Utilization-focused evaluation

Evaluation done for and with specific, intended primary users for specific, intended uses.

Organization Management

Valence

The expected value of work outcomes; the extent to which they are attractive or unattractive.

Organization Management

Validation

The process by which the soundness of causal relationships or the generalization of findings are established.

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Validity

An index of the extent to which a measure truly reflects what it is supposed to measure.

Organization Management

Values

A broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others.

Organization Management

Variable interval schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule in which some variable time period occurs between a reinforced response and the chance for the next reinforcement.

Organization Management

Variable ratio schedule

A partial reinforcement schedule in which some variable number of responses must be made between a reinforced response and the availability of the next reinforcement.

Organization Management

Variable-interval reinforcement

Varies the amount of time between reinforcements.

Organization Management

Variable-ratio reinforcement

Varies the number of behaviours between reinforcements.

Organization Management

Verbal communication

A reference to the many different ways you can get across your message orally (meetings, phone calls, conversation).

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Verification

The final step in the creative pro-cess, which involves determining the validity or truthfulness of the insight. (3) The feedback portion of communication in which the receiver sends a message to the source indicating receipt of the message and the degree to which he or she understood the message.

Organization Management

Vertical integration

The strategy of formally taking control of sources of organizational supply and distribution.

Organization Management

Vertical job loading

Combining various job tasks together which involve increasing the skill set of an employee (as opposed to enlargement where

Organization Management

Vigilant information processing

Involves thoroughly investigating all possible alternatives, weighing their costs and benefits before making a decision, and developing contingency plans.

Organization Management

Virtual organization

A temporary alliance between two or more organizations that band together to undertake a specific venture.

Organization Management

Virtual team

A group of physically dispersed people who work as a team via alternative communication modes (e.g., video conferencing, email, etc.).

Organization Management

Vroom-Yetton-Jago

This model of leadership at-tempts to prescribe how much participation subordinates should be allowed in making decisions.

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Wage incentive plans Various systems that link pay to performance on production jobs.

Organization Management

Well-structured problem

A problem for which the existing state is clear, the desired state is clear and how to get from one state to another is fairly obvious.

Organization Management

Wheel network

In this type of a network, information flows between the person at the end of each spoke and the person in the middle.

Organization Management

Work teams

These include all the people working in an area, are relatively permanent, and do the daily work, making decisions regarding how the work of the team is done.

Organization Management

Workforce diversity

Differences among recruits and employees in characteristics such as gender, race, age, religion, cultural background, physical ability, and sexual orientation.

Organization Management

Work-life relationships

The interrelationships between a person's work life and personal life.

Organization Management

Workplace behaviour The pattern of actions by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness.

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