Focus on Environment

Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu, Editors

Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Proceedings of the ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ & ‘World Environment Day-2016 (WED-2016)’ events held on the campus of AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia

Editors Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu

2016

Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu (Editors) Published by AIMST University 2016 ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5 (Print version) eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 (e-Book version)

Financial support for the ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ and ‘WED-2016’ events was provided by:

• AIMST University

• OTA Tunnel Squad Sdn. Bhd.

• SKiWealth Sdn. Bhd. • Merchantrade Asia Sdn. Bhd. • Lembaga Sumber Air Negeri Kedah • Mutaiya Group of Companies • Poliklinik Sakthi N Sheila Sdn Bhd, Kulim

Conference and WED-2016 events were organized by:

Published by AIMST University Printed by AIMST University Copyright Š 2016 by the authors; editors; AIMST University, Malaysia. This book is an open access book distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

CC BY license is applied which allows users to download, copy, reuse and distribute data provided the original article and book is fully cited. This open access aims to maximize the visibility of articles, reviews, perspectives and notes, much of which is in the interest of national, regional and global community.

Disclaimer: The information provided in this book is designed to highlight the views, perspectives and or research findings of respective contributors. While the best efforts have been used in preparing this book, Editors and or Publisher make no representations or warranties of any kind and assume no liabilities of any kind with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents and specifically disclaim any implied warranties. Neither the Editors nor Publisher of this book shall be held liable or responsible to any person or entity with respect to any loss or incidental or consequential damages caused, or alleged to have been caused, directly or indirectly, by the information highlighted herein. Readers should be aware that the information provided in this book may change.

All articles, reviews, and notes published in this book are deemed to reflect the individual views of respective authors and not the official points of view, either of the Editors or of the Publisher.

Edited by Dr. Subhash J. Bhore (Senior Associate Professor)1, and Dr. K. Marimuthu (Professor)2 Address for Correspondance: Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, AIMST University, Bedong-Semeling Road, 08100 Bedong, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia; Telephone No.: +604 429 8176; e-mail: subhash@aimst.edu.my / subhashbhore@gmail.com 2 Chancellery, AIMST University, Bedong-Semeling Road, 08100 Bedong, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia; Telephone No.: +604 429 1054; e-mail: marimuthu@aimst.edu.my 1

Edition First; December 23, 2016

Dedication This book is dedicated to all researchers working in various domains of science and technology, and to all stakeholders those are working for the global sustainable development to improve the health of the people and planet.

World Environment Day-2016 (WED-2016) Events Steering Committee*

Chairperson Prof. Dr. Kasi Marimuthu Co-chairpersons Mr. Christapher Parayil Varghese Dr. Gokul Shankar Mr. Arunagiri Shanmugam Secretary Ms. Kalaiselvee Rethinam Secretariat Dr. Shalini Sivadasan Dr. Rohini Karunakaran Ms. Elil Suthamathi National Seminar Dr. Subhash J. Bhore Dr. Anthony Leela Dr. Lee Su Yin Dr. V. Ravichandran Dr. S. Parasuraman Dr. Venkateskumar Dr. Sunitha Namani Dr. Jawahar Dhanavel Dr. Saurabh Prakash Dr. Durga Prasad Dr. Ajay Jain Mr. Maheswaran Mr. Nithiananthan Mr. Girish Kumar Ms. Veni Chandrakasan Mr. R. Rizhi Mr. Elanchezhian

Ms. Vijayananthinee Arumugam Ms. Ponnarasy Ganasen Mr. Jeevandran Sundarasekar Ms. Mangalarani Publicity and Sponsors Dr. Sivachandran Parimannan Mr. Anthony Tee Mr. Siventhiran Treasurer Mr. G. Prabhakaran Mr. Halikhan Safety Mr. S. Maheswaran IT & AV Mr. Gobinath Logistics Mr. D.S Muraly Velavan Mr. Neeraj Paliwal Ms. Musalinah Buzri Facilities Mr. S. Krishnan Mr. V. Krishnan Ms. Yoganandhi *of/at AIMST University

Slogan writing, Quiz, Debate, Trash to treasure competitions Ms. Faustina Lerene Dominic Ms. Rebecca Jayamalar ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

i

Foreword It

is a great honor and pleasure to write this foreword message for this proceedings; because, I had attended this seminar and witnessed the success of the World Environment Day (WED) awareness campaign.

The WED is the biggest event and globally celebrated on June 5 each year to promote awareness about preservation of environment and to take positive actions. The WED is engaging millions of people across the globe through events and celebrated over 100 countries. Every year, participants, several organizations, organize clean-up campaigns, art exhibits, tree-planting, concerts, dance recitals, recycling drives, social media campaigns and different contests with various themes for preservation of environment. AIMST University, strongly belives in the need of increasing understanding and creating more awareness among students sothat they can appreciate the values of biodiversity and the clean environment.

First of all, I would like to thank all the invited speakers, delegates, young researchers and participants of the ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health’ for their participation, and sharing their views and perspectives on environmental issues and conservation.

Thirteen (13) leading and eminent researchers and environmentalists delivered their talk on the various environmental issues important for sustainable development. The seminar brought together the researchers, students, entrepreneurs those are working in the areas of environment and health. National seminar provided a magnificent opportunity for all the participants to interact with eminent colleagues. I wish to thank all the speakers and participants, environmental NGOs, students from various schools and universities for participating in the seminar and WED events. I also wish to thank all supporters for supporting the seminar and events.

I am really happy to know that full-length articles received from the invited speakers of the Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health are being published in this proceeding. I would record my special thanks to Professor Dr. K. Marimuthu, a highly committed organizing Chairman, and Senior Associate Professor Dr. Subhash Bhore, a leading Editor of this book for their efforts in bringing out this book to document the conference and WED-2016 events. I also thank the purpose driven organizing committee members and volunteers for their contribution and support.

I am very sure that content of this proceeding will serve as a reference to students, researchers, scientists, public and all other stakeholders those have concern about environment.

Thank you, Senior Professor Dr. M. Ravichandran Chief Executive & Vice-Chancellor, AIMST University, Malaysia ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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Preface Globally,

World Environment Day (WED) is a great annual event celebrated each year on June 5, to engage millions of people from different countries to draw the attention of several organizations and public to implement some effective actions and create positive awareness to preserve the environment and planet earth. This year’s theme for WED was “Go Wild for Life” that highlights the fight against the illegal trade in wildlife, which erodes precious biodiversity and threatens the survival of elephants, rhinos and tigers, as well as many other species.

This event is also helpful in encouraging to explore all those species under threat and take action and help safeguard them for future generations.

To commemorate and celebrate the WED, AIMST University hosted a one day seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health, planting trees, slogan writing competition, environmental quiz, debate, trash to treasure - a innovation competition, and cycling event. The main aim of these events was to create awareness about the global environmental issues among school students, university students, staff, and common public.

Dato Dr. Leong Yong Kong, Exco Environment, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia had officiated the opening ceremony of the seminar. In a keynote address, Prof. Sultan Ismail Eco-science Research Foundation, India highlighted importance of the traditional farming systems, the applications of vermin-compost and foliar sprays to control pests.

There were 13 invited speakers who delivered talks on various aspects of the environmental challenges, conservation and natural farming systems. This proceeding is the compilation of conference papers and WED events. However, four additional articles submitted by respective authors are also added in this book.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to Dato' Seri Utama Dr. S. Samy Vellu, Chancellor and Chairman, AIMST University and Senior Prof. Dr. M. Ravichandran, Chief Executive and Vice-Chancellor of AIMST University, Malaysia for their full support to organize this WED events. Specially, I wish to thank my colleague, Senior Associate Professor Dr. Subhash Bhore for playing a major role in bringing out this book to document the national conference and various events of WED-2016.

I would like to express my sincere thanks and appreciation to all the invited speakers from various institutions and universities from India and Malaysia for sharing their views by participating in the conference. Last but not least, I would like to thank wholeheartedly to all the WED committee members for their commitment, cooperation and support provided to execute various events.

Thank you, Dr. K. Marimuthu Chairman WED-2016 Events, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Academic and International Affairs, AIMST University, Malaysia

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Contents World Environment Day (WED 2016) Events Steering Committee ........................ i Foreword .......................................................................................................................ii Preface ......................................................................................................................... iii Contents ....................................................................................................................... iv For Earth’s Sake Sultan Ahmed Ismail .................................................................................................. 1 Integrated Rice-Fish Farming: A New Avenue for Sustainable Agriculture M. Aminur Rahman, Md. Shamim Parvez and Kasi Marimuthu ............................. 16 Molecular Marker Techniques in Environmental Forensic Studies Narayanan Kannan .................................................................................................. 31 Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming: A Case in Paddy Farming in Peninsular Malaysia Zakirah Othman and Quamrul Hasan ..................................................................... 38 Environmental Legislations in Malaysia: A Protection to Public Health Haslinda Mohd Anuar.............................................................................................. 51 The Echinoderm (Sea Cucumber) Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Region: Emerging Prospects, Potentials, Culture and Utilization M. Aminur Rahman and Fatimah Md. Yusoff .......................................................... 60 Environment and Its Impact on Human Health Sridevi Chigurupati, Jahidul Islam Mohammad and Kesavanarayanan Krishnan Selvarajan ................................................................................................................ 74 Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios for Tracing Food Web Connectivity Debashish Mazumder............................................................................................... 89 Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria and Crop Productivity Umaiyal Munusamy ................................................................................................. 95 World Soil Day: A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Global Sustainable Development Subhash Janardhan Bhore ..................................................................................... 107 Basics for Sustainable Environment: Reduce Wastage, Reuse, and Recycle Rajesh Perumbilavil Kaithamanakallam, Samudhra Sendhil and Aarthi Rajesh.. 116 ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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Natural Farming: Malaysian Farmers Experience N V Subbarow ........................................................................................................ 120 Abstracts ................................................................................................................... 123 Appendices ................................................................................................................ 129 Appendix 1: A Brief Biography of Speakers ......................................................... 129 Appendix 2: WED-2016 Events held at AIMST University ................................. 137 Appendix 3: How you can help in saving the world? ............................................ 148

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“The earth, the air, the land and the water are not an inheritance from our fore fathers but on loan from our children. So we have to handover to them at least as it was handed over to us.�

--- Mahatma Gandhi

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Focus on Environment

Focus Environ (2016), P1-15

Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

For Earth’s Sake Sultan Ahmed Ismail Ecoscience Research Foundation, 98, Baaz Nagar, 3/621 East Coast Road, Palavakkam, Chennai 600041, India; Phone No.: +91 9384898358; Email: sultanismail@gmail.com

ABSTRACT The dynamic nature of a soil is due to the tremendous activity of micro and macro organisms supported by availability of organic matter. A vast number of organisms engineer a myriad of biochemical changes as decay of organic matter takes place in the soil. Based on my continuous research on earthworms made me write “earthworms are the pulse of the soil, healthier the pulse, healthier the soil”. Fresh casts, urine, mucus and coelomic fluid which are rich in the worm-worked soil and burrows act as stimulant for the multiplication of dormant microorganisms in the soil and are responsible for constant release of nutrients into it, which then facilitates root growth and a healthy appropriate sustainable rhizosphere. Compost and vermicompost as well as a number of foliar sprays such as Panchagavya, FEM and Gunapaselam along with pest repellents can be a healthy choice for a sustainable ecosystem which shall be environmentally compatible and economically viable.

Keywords: Compost; foliar sprays; organic farming; soils; sustainability; vermitech; vermicompost; vermiwash

INTRODUCTION The dynamic nature of a soil is due to the tremendous activity of micro and macro organisms supported by availability of organic matter. It is this life in the soil that lends its name to soil as “living soil”. A vast number of organisms engineer a myriad of biochemical changes as decay of organic matter takes place in the soil. Among the organisms, which contribute to soil health, the most important are the earthworms.

Based on my continuous research on earthworms made me write “earthworms are the pulse of the soil, healthier the pulse, healthier the soil”.

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Soil is a living dynamic system whose functions are mediated by diverse living organisms which in agriculture requires proper management and conservation. Unfortunately, in today’s chemical agriculture importance is shown on soil fertility and not on the holistic soil health which provides an integrated sustainable mechanism to the soil to sustain its “living” fabric of nature.

Among the myriad of soil organisms, earthworms are one of the most vital components of the soil biota in terms of soil formation and maintenance of soil structure and fertility. They are extremely important in soil formation, principally through activities in consuming organic matter, fragmenting it and mixing it intimately with 1

Focus Environ (2016) For Earth’s Sake mineral particles to form water stable aggregates (Ismail, 2005). During feeding, earthworms promote microbial activity by several orders of magnitude, which in turn accelerate the formation of organic matter as microorganisms are the ultimate decomposers and mineralisers in the detritus food chain and in organic matter decomposition. Fresh casts, urine, mucus and coelomic fluid which are rich in the worm-worked soil and burrows act as stimulant for the multiplication of microorganisms in the soil and are responsible for constant release of nutrients into it, which then facilitates root growth and a sustainable rhizosphere.

Darwin’s pioneering work on earthworms (The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms) published by John Murray in October 1881 remains one of the pioneering works of modern science, though ancient Indian literature has often quoted the benefits of earthworms. As one who pioneered the culture of local earthworms Perionyx excavatus and Lampito mauritii in India and also extensively worked with Eudrilus eugeniae after it was introduced by Professor Dr. Radha D Kale of University of Agriculture Sciences, Hebbal, Bengaluru, into India; my students and I have done immense research. I do agree that I have not worked with Eisenia fetida or Eisenia andrei, though I do have enough information about them.

EARTHWORMS Earthworms belong to the order Chaetopoda under Class Oligochaeta, Phylum Annelida and Division Invertebrata.

Indian earthworms mostly are Megascolecids, though Lumbricids also coexist. Several European Lumbricid earthworms found their way into India when the British brought

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Ismail potted plants to their residences especially into the cooler parts of India.

Earthworms are one of the chief components of the soil biota in terms of soil formation and maintenance of soil structure and fertility. They are extremely important in soil formation, principally through activities in consuming organic matter, fragmenting it and mixing it intimately with mineral particles to form water stable aggregates (Ismail, 2005). During feeding, earthworms promote microbial activity by several orders of magnitude, which in turn also accelerate the rates of break down and stabilization of humic fractions or organic matter. Microorganisms are the ultimate decomposers and mineralisers in the detritus food chain and in organic matter decomposition.

Earthworms are the facilitators for the dormant microorganisms in soils providing them with organic carbon, optimum temperature, moisture and pH in their gut for their multiplication.

Microorganisms are excreted in their casts and also harbored in the drilospheres. Fresh casts, urine, mucus and coelomic fluid which are rich in the worm-worked soil and burrows act as stimulant for the multiplication of dormant microorganisms in the soil and are responsible for constant release of nutrients into it, which then facilitates root growth and a healthy appropriate sustainable rhizosphere.

Though more than 3500 species of earthworms are in the world with India having about 500 species in its diversity, it is easier to recognize earthworms based on their ecological strategies‌ that is based on the nature of the position in the ecosystem (Figure 1). Based on this classification three broad based categories are listed though there are possibilities of some trespass between these categories.

The surface feeders are the epigeic worms. These worms may or may not consume soil. The Indian blue Perionyx 2

Focus Environ (2016) For Earth’s Sake excavatus, P. sansibaricus are excellent earthworms. Eudrilus eugeniae and Eisenia fetida, though exotic, also belong to the epigeic category. The anecis or the intermediates are those who create predominantly vertical burrows in the soil.

Lampito mauritii is an anecic so is Lumbricus terrestris in Europe. The endogeics are the predominant horizontal burrowers.

Soils exposed to the veracities of nature and without mulch may not harbor epigeics. The anecic are those who have regained the mastery of aestivation or summer sleep. A good aerated soil with optimal conditions generally harbor all these three types of earthworms.

Ismail A healthy soil (in Indian condition) should at least have 5% organic matter, but conditions presently after the green revolution are poor with a national average of about 0.5%.

A good healthy soil generally should have air (about 25%), water (about 25%), organic matter consisting of humus, roots, organisms (about 5%) and mineral matter (about 45%). This enables a large biodiversity of soil organisms as well; enabling soil as a living “organism�.

The burrows created mostly by the anecic earthworms are called as drilospheres (Figure 2), though other organisms may also contribute to them. These act as the circulatory and respiratory systems of the soil.

Figure 1: Earthworms based on their ecological strategies.

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Figure 2: Drilospheres created by anecic earthworms.

EARTHWORMS USED About 500 species of earthworms are found in India. Earthworms that are brought in from other countries are called exotic.

Internationally 3 species of earthworms have largely been used for vermicomposting, they being Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae, which are exotic, and Perionyx excavatus, which is endemic. Local species of earthworms used for vermicomposting in India generally are Perionyx excavatus and Lampito mauritii.

Succession of microorganisms in the process of composting and the quality of

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microorganisms vermicompost

in

compost

and

The process of composting, although shows the occurrence of different microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, phosphate solubilizers and the microorganisms involved in the nitrogen cycle; succession is shown in the quantity of microbes depending upon the nature of the substrate, the age of the compost, the ambience created by the existing microbes to its successors and also the physical and chemical characteristics.

The majority of the microorganisms in the initial stages of the composting are the heterotrophic bacteria, which rely on the 4

Focus Environ (2016) For Earth’s Sake oxidation of the large amount of organic carbon. It reduces during the thermophilic phase till the formation of the biodung compost.

This then increases in vermicompost due to the passage of the material through the earthworm and the presence of the assimilable C, in the gut and the cast of the earthworms (Lavelle et al., 1992).

The role of microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle is very prominent. There is increased presence of ammonifiers in the initial stage of composting, which correlates with the high amount of protein degradation and the microbial contribution to reduce C:N. Nitrifiers however increase from the initial to the final stages. The products of the ammonifiers create an environment for the multiplication of nitrifiers which utilize ammonia and convert it to nitrite and nitrate.

To substantiate this extra-cellular ammonia nitrogen decreases steadily from the initial higher values during the entire composting process. The ammonification process is reported to increase due to high temperature (Prasad and Powar, 1997).

Nitrification potential as indicated by NO2- N decreases with composting time.

The NO2 production drops and stabilizes to low levels during the later stages of composting till no further decomposition can take place, as the C: N ratio gets stabilized (Tiquia et al., 2002).

The NO3 production increases till about the 14th day of composting thereafter declining till the 35th day. This drop could be due to high temperature, as nitrification is inhibited by high temperature and could also indicate microbial immobilization. The dominance of the extra-cellular production of NO3 on the worm worked vermicompost could be the result of the enhanced nitrifier activity.

Amount of phosphate in compost samples throughout the process and vermicompost records a steady increase ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Ismail from the initial phase of composting till vermicompost. This is due to the increased phosphatase activity in vermicompost as earthworm casts and feces exhibit higher phosphatase activity (Mansdell et al., 1981 and Satchel and Martin, 1984). It is also observed that PO4 production shows a decline at about the 21st day of composting which correlates with the reports of Gupta (1999) that high NH4+ concentration retards P fixation. Phosphate solubilizers also steadily increase throughout the process. So in terms of succession ammonifiers which are the major organic N decomposers are succeeded by the nitrifiers and phosphate solubilizers.

Oxidation of sulfur and sulfate compounds is elaborated by aerobic obligate autotrophs. Thiobacillus thiooxidans and Thiobacillus thioparus, recorded in vermicompost attribute to the reason for vermicompost being capable of ameliorating sodic soils. The population density of the actinomycetes increases from the initial phase of composting till the maturation phase except for a period of decline in the thermophilic phase.

Actinomycetes occur after readily available substrate disappears in the early stages and colonize in the humification stage as the compost reaches maturity. It is also found that the optimum temperature of actinomycetes is 40-50o C, which is also the temperature for lignin degradation in compost (Tuomela et al., 2000).

Fungal density decreases as the composting process progresses.

Mucoraceous group of fungi commonly referred to as sugar fungi are observed in the initial and early phases of composting.

Species of Aspergillus dominate and are responsible for major degradation of initial organic carbon as they are known to elaborate cellullases and hemicellulases. A lignolytic fungi, Coprinus spp. are predominantly found to colonize the 5

Focus Environ (2016) For Earth’s Sake compost only towards the end when complex organic matter is biodegraded.

The thermophilic fungi record an increase in density and diversity during the thermophilic phase and these are known to bring about degradation of cellulose, lignin and pectin at a faster rate in conjunction with high temperature. The presence of Trichoderma viridae and Trichoderma harzianum, both potential biocontrol agents, during the composting process and to a larger magnitude in the vermicompost is noteworthy.

The density and diversity of algae increases progressively and maximum recorded in the vermicompost. Of special significance are the presences of algae such as Oscillatoria spp., Anabaena spp., and Nostoc spp. which are known to enhance soil fertility. For information of those using earthworms or desirous of using compost/vermicompost/in-situ composting the material generally has the following microorganisms (Priscilla, 2006; Dhakshayani, 2008). Generally microbial population in compost is reported to be ― heterotrophic bacteria:463.11±162.26 × 106; fungi population: 13.46 ± 2.07 × 104; and actinomycetes: 44.05 ± 17.11 × 106.

BACTERIAL SPECIES COMMONLY FOUND IN VERMICOMPOST     

Bacillus spp.

Pseudomonas spp.

Serratia spp.

Klebsiella spp.

Enterobacter spp.

FUNGAL SPECIES COMMONLY FOUND IN VERMICOMPOST    

Absidia spp.

Rhizopus stolonifer Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus fumigatus

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Ismail              

Aspergillus flavipes Aspergillus nidulans Aspergillus niger Aspergillus ochraceus Aspergillus tamarii Chrysosporium pannorum Emericella nidulans Dreschslera australiensis Fusarium oxysporum Monilia sitophila Penicillium citrinum Penicillium oxalicum Mucor racemosus Trichoderma viride

ALGAL SPECIES COMMONLY FOUND IN VERMICOMPOST            

Cladophora spp.

Oscillatoria spp.

Anabaena anomala Anabaena ambigua Arthrospira spp.

Westiellopsis prolifiea Nostoc spp.

Protococcus spp.

Cladophora spp.

Schizothrix spp.

Chaetonema spp.

Stigonema spp.

Though we have identified presence of actinomycetes in earthworm casts in our laboratory, researchers from other laboratories have identified species of actinomycetes in castings (Kumar et al., 2012. Sreevidya et al., 2016). Association of actinomycetes confers many advantages to plants like production of antibiotics, extracellular enzymes, phytohormones, siderophores and phosphate solubilization, protects plant against biotic and abiotic stress.

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Focus Environ (2016) For Earth’s Sake ACTINOMYCETES COMMONLY FOUND IN VERMICOMPOST           

Streptomyces spp.

Streptosporangium spp.

Saccharoployspora spp.

Actinomadura spp.

Nocardia spp.

Nocardiopsis spp.

Planobispora spp.

Micromonospora spp.

Actinomadura spp.

Microbispora spp.

Thermobifida spp.

We may have apprehensions on other technologies, but each has been time tested and none of the “non-chemical” practitioners have forced their technology on anyone or talk evil of the other. To be organic is to first “decolonize our minds”.

Biodynamic farming does suggest several components of the BD category. One of their excellent tools is the biodynamic chromatography. We have applied this on analysis of composts from several sources and have been a good functional tool.

Thanks to Dr. Dhakshayani for trying this for her research programme (presented in 2007. submitted 2008). This technique did reveal that the vermicompost prepared by the endemic (local) earthworms’ P. excavatus and L. mauritii which we call as vermitech is indeed superior to that produced by exotic (foreign) earthworms (Figures 3A & B). There is no doubt about it. But at the same time there is no adverse information about compost by exotic varieties.

Most foliar sprays especially the organic ones have several components similar to plant growth promoter substances in them. Vermiwash is one such excellent liquid fertiliser (Ismail, 2005). Studies in our laboratory by Sheik Ali (2009) have revealed the presence of substances (Table ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Ismail 1) which invariably are associated with plant growth.

There are about 3 isomers of indole compounds separated in Vermiwash, 2-(4methylphenyl) indolizine is an alkaloid which has a significant role in plant growth promotion. At retention time of 19.70 min capric acid was separated, which is a fatty acid, obtained from the castings of earthworms which is also reported to have a significant role in plant growth promotion in lower concentrations (Imaishi and PetkovaAndonova, 2007). Maleic acid which was identified is a well-established plant growth promoter (Delhaize et al., 1993). Methyl 24(-tert-butylphenoxy) acetate belongs to the ring-substituted phenoxy aliphatic acids generally exhibiting a strong retarding effect on abscission in turn promote plant growth.

Vermiwash by its instinctive quality might probably promote humification, increased microbial activity to produce the plant growth promoting compounds and enzyme production (Haynes and Swift, 1990). All the compounds present in vermiwash (Table 1) may not individually help in plant growth but perhaps act synergistically along with the beneficial soil microbes found in vermiwash.

Experiments applying Vermiwash with Panjagavya etc. by Thangaraj (2006) on plants and their chromosomes have shown significant results of enhanced xylem vessels (Figure 4) and no chromosomal damage; and these can be prepared by farmers in their farms without paying anything.

In organic farming practice we do not nurse the plant, we nurse the soil. The soil in turn promotes its group of biotic elements who churn the nutrients as desired by the plant. Recently (2016) yet another student of mine Ramalakshmi has come out with a unique medium to multiply microorganisms by the farmer in non-sterile non-laboratory conditions which will enable 7

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Figure 3: A & B) Biodynamic chromatograms of vermicompost from earthworms.

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Table 1: Components of Vermiwash.

GC Retention Time (min)

Chemical Formula

CAS registry Number

Molecular Weight (g/mol)

No

Compound

1

2- (4-methyl phenyl) indolizine

19.33

C15H13N

7496-81-3

207.27

2

Decanoic acid, ethyl ester

19.70

C12H24O2

110-38-3

200.318

3

1-methyl-2-phenyl-indole

27.10

C15H13N

3558-24-5

207.27

4

2-methyl-7-phenyl-1H-indole

29.83

C15H13N

1140-08-5

207.27

324012-36-4

316.312

88530-52-3

222.28

5

Pentadioic acid, dihydrazide N2,N2'-bis(2-furfurylideno)* 6 Methyl 2-(4-tert- butyl phenoxy) acetate* *(presumed)

31.16 33.44

C15H16N4O 4

C13H18O3

Figure 4: Anatomical changes in xylem vessels; C: control; V: vermiwash; P: Panchagavya; VP: combination of vermiwash and Panchagavya.

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a farmer to bioremediate the soil without industrial intervention. She has assured to share the technology freely with farmers’ after her thesis defense.

Phytonutrients, such as polyphenols and antioxidants, protect both people and plants. Several insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides actually block a plant's ability to manufacture these important plant compounds. In a study of antioxidants in organic and conventionally grown fruits, scientists have recorded higher concentrations of vitamin C, vitamin E, and other antioxidants in organic foods (Coghlan, 2001). It appears that organically grown fruits develop more antioxidants as a defense and repair mechanism against insects when grown without the use of pesticides.

Most changes in agricultural technology especially after the green revolution have ecological effects on soil organisms that can affect higher plants and animals, including man. Concentrating just on productivity has robbed human care for the soil.

Traditional songs in Tamil state that in a plant, especially in cereals, “the roots are for the soil, the stems for the cattle, and the pinnacles for human consumption”.

Following the holistic practice of organic farming takes care of the soil which in turn takes care of the plant and not as in chemical farming where we may tend to ignore the soil and take care of the plant. A plant taken care, nursed and nourished by the soil has excellent potential and potency for the consumer (Ismail, 2005).

Though animal wastes are largely used in organic farms unfortunately intensive farming activities have eliminated the need of animals on farm.

Organic farming is not a system of farming but a culture by itself. It is not addition of manure or botanical extracts that enables organic farming, but a way of life.

There are several such practices that today are classified as alternative systems of farming in contrast to the conventional farming alias-chemical farming. These alternative systems are named as nonpoisonous farming, biodynamic farming, permaculture, natural farming, low external input farming, eco-farming, biological farming, or just organic farming. Such systems consider soil health as their prerequisite. In organic farming apart from the use of manure/compost for soils, botanical extracts for protection from pests, bio-foliar sprays, native seed wealth, biodiversity, mixed cropping, crop rotation, gender participation, and associating animal heads in farming form important components. Foliar sprays like vermiwash and Panchagavya have proved to be very effective as excellent liquid sprays on any crop. Traditional wisdom advocates the use of cow dung and cow’s urine for manure and pest control. Today there is an enormous demand for organic food throughout the world. Organically grown tea, coffee, spices, flowers, fruits and several other end products are in demand overseas. Organic food provides wholesome meal including essentials like Salicylic Acid, which is the precursor of Aspirin.

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EFFICIENT FOLIAR SPRAYS CAN BE PREPARED AS A PART OF PLANT GROWING PRACTICES VERMIWASH Worm worked soils have burrows formed by the earthworms. Bacteria richly inhabit these burrows, also called as the drilospheres.

Water passing through these passages washes the nutrients from these burrows to the roots to be absorbed by the plants. This principle is applied in the preparation of vermiwash. Vermiwash is a very good foliar spray.

Focus Environ (2016) For Earth’s Sake Vermiwash units can be set up either in barrels or in buckets or even in small earthen pots. It is the principle that is important. The procedure explained here is for setting up of a 250 litre barrel. An empty barrel with one side open is taken. On the other side, a hole is made to accommodate the vertical limb of a 'T' jointed tube in a way that about half to one inch of the tube projects into the barrel. To one end of the horizontal limb is attached a tap. The other end is kept closed. This serves as an emergency opening to clean the 'T' jointed tube if it gets clogged.

Setting up of a vermiwash unit The entire unit is set up on a short pedestal made of few bricks to facilitate easy collection of vermiwash. Keeping the tap open, a 25 cm layer of broken bricks or pebbles is placed. A 25 cm layer of coarse sand then follows the layer of bricks. Water is then made to flow through these layers to enable the setting up of the basic filter unit.

On top of this layer is placed a 30 to 45 cm layer of loamy soil. It is moistened and into this is introduced about 50 numbers each of the surface (epigeic) and sub-surface (anecic) earthworms. Cattle dung pats and hay is placed on top of the soil layer and gently moistened. The tap is kept open for the next 15 days. Water is added every day to keep the unit moist.

On the 16th day, the tap is closed and on top of the unit a metal container or mud pot perforated at the base as a sprinkler is suspended. Five (5) litres of water (the volume of water taken in this container is one fiftieth of the size of the main container) is poured into this container and allowed to gradually sprinkle on the barrel overnight.

This water percolates through the compost, the burrows of the earthworms and gets collected at the base. The tap of the unit is opened the next day morning and the ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Ismail vermiwash is collected. The tap is then closed and the suspended pot is refilled with 5 litres of water that evening to be collected again the following morning. Dung pats and hay may be replaced periodically based on need. The entire set up may be emptied and reset between 10 and 12 months of use.

Vermiwash is diluted with water (10%) before spraying. This has been found to be very effective on several plants. If need be vermiwash may be mixed with cow's urine and diluted (1 litre of vermiwash, 1 litre of cow's urine and 8 litres of water) and sprayed on plants to function as an effecting foliar spray and pest repellent. Instead of a drum the same can also be prepared in plastic buckets or even in flower pots as containers.

PANCHAGAVYA Requirements: Biogas slurry or cow dung Cow’s urine Cow’s milk Curd from cow’s milk Ghee from cow’s butter Sugarcane juice Tender coconut water Banana

5 kg 3 litres 2 litres 2 litres 1 litre 3 litres 3 litres 12 numbers

First mix cow dung with ghee and small quantity of cow’s urine. Leave this dough for 3 days. Then place this in a broad mouthed mud pot or a cement tank and add the remaining ingredients. Mix well by hand and without closing with lid keep in shade.

Daily morning and evening mix well by hand. In about 10 days panchagavya will be ready. If you mix it daily with hand or with a wooden ladle it would keep well for a month. For use prepare a 3-5% solution.

Spray as foliar spray only in the morning or evening.

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Focus Environ (2016) For Earth’s Sake GUNAPASELAM Requirements: Fish (unused raw parts) - 1 kg Jaggery- 1 kg Water - 5 litres Container - 10 litre Mix first two in container. Cover with gunny or cloth tightly, prevent from flies. Second day add about 5 litres of water and mix well. Mix well 3 times a day for first 5 days. Leave undisturbed then for 10 days. Decant, dissolve 100 to 150 ml of this in 10 litres of water and use as soil conditioner as well as foliar spray.

Concentrate can be stored for three months FARMERS’ EM Requirements:  Pumpkin 3.0 kg  Banana 3.0 kg  Papaya 3.0 kg  Molasses or Jaggery 3.0 kg (non-chlorinated)  Eggs 5.0 numbers (optional)  Water 10 liters (nonchlorinated)  25-liter plastic container with a lid Cut the three vegetables into small pieces. Transfer these pieces into the container – mix Molasses or Jaggery (nonchlorinated) in little water and add – to this add 10 liters of water – break and add the 5 eggs into it. Mix all the contents. Leave the container well closed with the lid. Open lid after ten days there should be white foam on top, if not there add some more Molasses or Jaggery. Check after 20 days, again after 30 days. Mix well after 30 days and leave it closed. After a total of 45 days decant the solution this is Farmer’s EM. Dissolve 200

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Ismail ml in 10 liters of water and spray or mix 10 liters in water for one acre.

WHY ORGANIC FARMING? Organic agriculture is defined as "a holistic food production management system, which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system." (FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission).

Through its holistic nature, organic farming integrates wild biodiversity, agrobiodiversity and soil conservation, and takes low-intensity, extensive farming one step further by eliminating the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and genetically modified organisms (GMOs), which is not only an improvement for human health, but also for the fauna and flora associated with the farm and farm environment. Organic farming enhances soil structures, conserves water and ensures the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Agricultural contaminants such as inorganic fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides from conventional agriculture are a major concern all over the world. Eutrophication, the suffocation of aquatic plants and animals due to rapid growth of algae, referred to as "algal blooms", are literally killing lakes, rivers and other bodies of water. Persistent herbicides and insecticides can extend beyond target weeds and insects when introduced into aquatic environments. These chemicals have accumulated up the food chain whereby top predators often consume 12

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toxic dosages. Organic agriculture as defined by IFOAM restores the environmental balance and has none of these or other such deleterious effects on the environment.

Pesticides have been in use in agriculture since Second World War and, from the very beginning, there have been concerns about the commercialization of chemical pesticides. Rachel Carson’s book “Silent Spring” published in 1964 brought out the scientific certainties of the impacts of pesticides on environment. The very first insecticide of World War-II vintage, DDT was banned in the developed world in the 1970s but continued to be used in India till the 1990s. The infamous Bhopal tragedy of 1984 in India was an eye opener to a larger section of people in India and abroad.

According to research on health disorders resulting from petroleum-based chemicals used in consumer products and job environments are available from the link http://www.chem-tox.com/. Petroleum based chemicals are being found to cause significant attritional effects to the nervous system and immune system after prolonged exposure. Illnesses identified in the medical research include adult and child cancers, numerous neurological disorders, immune system weakening, autoimmune disorders, asthma, allergies, infertility, miscarriage, and child behavior disorders including learning disabilities, mental retardation, hyperactivity and ADD (attention deficit disorders). Petroleum based chemicals are believed to cause these problems by a variety of routes including - impairing proper DNA (Gene) expression, weakening DNA Repair, accelerating gene loss, degeneration of the body's detoxification defenses (liver and kidneys) as well as gradual weakening of the brain's primary defense - (the Blood Brain Barrier).

For nearly five decades, the public and farmers have been told that chemical

pesticides are essential for modern farming and to feed the world's population, when this isn't true. Pesticides weaken the ecosystem which had sustained human agriculture for thousands of years, damaging soil microbes and eliminating beneficial insects and predators. In addition, pests continually mutate to become pesticide resistant.

Despite a 10-fold increase in insecticide use in recent years, studies have shown a proliferation in types of pests by 30%.

Governments are marking heavy budgets towards medical expenditures, when concentrating on healthy food can be an answer. “Prevention is better than cure” and hence the policy of the Governments towards agriculture should be suitably modified to promote as well as protect nonchemical farming. The question frequently asked is as to where to get the quantity of manure. The answer here lies in composting.

Large quantities of organic wastes from agriculture as well as market wastes can easily be converted to manure, without much investment costs. This also promotes local based industry for composting.

Organic foliar sprays as well as pest repellents can also be prepared at the local level. It can also generate opportunities for a large number of youth and women at rural centres.

Organic agriculture contributes to food and environment security by a combination of many features, most notably by:  increasing yields in low-input areas.  conserving biodiversity and natural resources on the farm and in surrounding area.  increasing income by reducing input cost.  recycling organic waste for manure production, solving waste management.  boosting micro-enterprises and rural economy.

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Focus Environ (2016) For Earth’s Sake  protecting the health of the farmers and the consumers.  producing safe and varied food.  being sustainable in the long term.

Organic agriculture should therefore be an integral part of any agricultural policy aiming for food security, and it is time that the Government takes positive action in this direction.

Healthy soils support healthy produce.

Personal observations and research have indicated that not just addition of organic inputs but the presence of soil biota in the soil, in fact, enhances the produce in its quantity and quality. Thus it is very much confirmed that “earthworms are the pulse of the soil, healthier the pulse, healthier the soil”. Let’s put our hands together for earth’s sake.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sincere thanks and acknowledge the contributions of all my students who built up the entire theme of VERMITECH since 1978 to 2016. Most data here have been quoted from the works of my former research scholars whom I had supervised, Dr Priscilla Jebakumari, Dr Dhakshayani Ganesh, Dr Thangaraj, Mr. Sheik Ali, Mr. P Jeyaprakash and Ms. Ramalakshmi; and a large number of practicing farmers, my sincere thanks to all of them.

REFERENCES Delhaize, E., Ryan, P.R. and Randall, P.J. (1993). Aluminum tolerance in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (II. Aluminumstimulated excretion of malic Acid from root apices). Plant Physiology 103, 695-702.

Dhakshayani, C. (2008).

Microbeearthworm interactions and impact of the exotic earthworm (Eudrilus ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Ismail eugeniae Kinberg) on endemic earthworms (Perionyx excavatus Perrier and Lampito mauritii Kinberg) based on microbial community structure. Ph.D., Thesis, University of Madras, India.

Gupta, P.K. (2001). Handbook of soil, fertilizer and manure. Pub. Agro Botanica, India, p 258-307.

Haynes, R.J. and Swift, R.S. (1990).

Stability of soil aggregates in relation to organic constituents and soil water content. J. Soil Sci. 41, 73-83.

Imaishi, H. and Petkova-Andonova, M. (2007).

Molecular cloning of CYP76B9, a cytochrome P450 from Petunia hybrida, catalyzing the omega-hydroxylation of capric acid and lauric acid. Biosci. Biotechnol.

Biochem. 71, 104-113.

Ismail, S.A. (2005). The Earthworm Book.

Other India Press, Goa, India, p. 101.

Jeyaprakash, P. (2009). Biocontrol of the white grub (Leucopholis coneophora) in vegetable plantation - an applied biotechnological approach. MSc Dissertation. University of Madras, India.

Lavelle, P., Melendez, G., Pashanasi, B., Szott, L. and Schaefer, R. (1992a).

Nitrogen mineralization and reorganization in casts of the geophagous tropical earthworm Pontoscolex corethurus (Glossoscolecidae). Biol. Fertil. Soil 14, 49-53.

Lavelle, P., Blanchart, E., Martin, E., Spain, A.V. and Martin, S. (1992b).

Impact of soil fauna on the properties of soils in the humids tropics. In: 14

Focus Environ (2016) For Earth’s Sake Segoe S (ed) Myths and sciences of soils of the tropics. Soil Sci Soc Am Spec Publ. 29, 157–185.

Parle, J.N. (1963a). Microorganisms in the intestines of earthworms. J. Gen Microbiol. 31, 1-11.

Parle, J.N. (1963b). A micribiological study of earthworm casts. J. Gen Microbiol, 31, 13-22.

Prasad, R. and Power, F.J. (1997). Soil fertility for sustainable agriculture.

Lewis Publishers. p 110-127.

Priscilla J. (2006). Studies on the “microbiogeocoenose” of vermicompost and its relevance in soil health. Ph.D., Thesis, University of Madras, India.

Satchell, J.E. and Martin, K. (1984).

Phosphatase activity in earthworm faeces. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16, 191194.

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Ismail Sheik, A. (2009). Molecular studies in identifying the potential of Vermiwash - an organic liquid biofertilizer. MSc Dissertation. University of Madras, India.

Thangaraj, R. (2006). Studies on the influence of “fauna based” biofertilizers (vermiwash, effective microorganisms, panchagavya) on plants. Ph.D., Thesis, University of Madras, India.

Tiquia, S.M., Wan, J.H.C. and Tam, N.F.Y. (2002). Microbial population dynamics and enzyme activities during composting. Compost Science and Utilization, 10, 150–161.

Tuomela, M., Vikman, M., Hatakka, A. and Itavaara, M., (2000).

Biodegradation of lignin in a compost environment, a review. Bioresource Technology 72, 169-183.

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Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Focus Environ (2016), P16-30

Integrated Rice-Fish Farming: A New Avenue for Sustainable Agriculture M. Aminur Rahman1, *, Md. Shamim Parvez1 and Kasi Marimuthu2 1

Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 2Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, AIMST University, 08100 Bedong, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia *Corresponding author; Email: aminur1963@gmail.com / aminur@upm.edu.my

ABSTRACT Rice and fish are the key components of global food security. They are the main protein sources in the daily diets of around three billion peoples, especially in Asia. Integrated fish farming is a technique of fish culture with other organisms i.e. plants or animals to get maximum output through minimum input supply in a shorter time frame. The production of rice and fish do not need to be integrated by always producing the two crops simultaneously, but may be done by alternating production: rice can be grown in the rainy season and fish in the dry season, or the other way round. In areas where rice production is not profitable in all seasons, fish production forms an alternative source of income from the field. However, in order to meet the global demand of food and nutrition for the increasing populations, there is therefore a need to increase rice and fish production simultaneously. Integrated rice-fish farming can play an important role in increasing food production as this system is better than rice monoculture in terms of resource utilization, crop diversity, farm productivity in biomass or in economics, and both the quality and quantity of the food products. Integration of fish in paddy fields is ecologically sound because fish improves soil fertility by generating nitrogen and phosphorus. Fish also control weeds by feeding on weed roots and offer an extra service by tilling the soil around the rice plants. The fish feces are used as organic manure that provide essential nutrients required to grow healthy rice plants. Furthermore, integrated rice and fish culture optimizes the benefits of scarce land and water resources through complementary use, and exploits the synergies between fish and plant.

Hence, it could be concluded that integrated rice-fish farming can help the global communities keep pace with the current demand for food authenticity through sustainable rice and fish production in an ecofriendly environment.

Keywords: Environment; food authenticity; integrated farming; rice-fish; sustainability

INTRODUCTION Rice-based fish farming is the main source of earning in many parts of the world, despite it is not widely practiced around the

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world. Most information comes from Asian countries, particularly Philippines, Indonesia and Japan where traditional rice farming methods have been refined over centuries.

There is an estimated 81 million ha of irri-

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Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming gated rice lands worldwide, with an additional 11 million ha of flood prone land under rice cultivation (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). Presently the system of rice-fish is being practiced in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China (1.2 million ha), Egypt (173000 ha), Indonesia (138,000 ha), Republic of Korea, Madagascar (13,000 ha), Thailand (3 million ha) and Vietnam (40,000 ha) (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). The practice supports a large share of the rural population in South, Southeast and East Asia and in parts of West Africa. In these places, rain-fed rice fields are designed to store water for extended periods, creating aquatic ecosystems with many similarities to natural floodplains (BRKB, 2010). These floodplain habitats of rice are later stocked by fish and grown throughout the wet season. Fishing from these rice-based farming systems is often carried out on regular, occasional or parttime basis, making a significant contribution to livelihoods of poor farmers. However, the input cost in terms of feed, labor and infrastructure for rice-based fish farming is often a barrier for poor and marginal farmers. There exist many possible suggestive approaches to overcome one or more such type of barriers, but all these are still in conceptual form. However, Apatani farmers from Lower Subansiri district in Arunachal Pradesh, India have practiced a very unique traditional rice-based fish farming practice in their waterlogged rice-fields, which not only gives good economic return to support their families’ demands but also exposes a very low-cost fish farming technology for the rest of the world (Saikia et al., 2008).

Rice-based fish farming is the main source of earning in many parts of Asia. The lands and water resources of many countries are not fully utilized; however, there exists tremendous scopes for increasing fish production by integrating aquaculture with agriculture (Nhan et al., 2007). Earlier, this ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Rahman et al practice began to receive attention in the 1980s. However, the new technology was perceived to have potential for multiple environmental benefits in Asia. Integrated ricefish farming is also being regarded as an important element of integrated pest management (IPM) in rice crops (Halwart and Gupta, 2004; Nabi, 2008). Moreover, fish plays a significant role in controlling aquatic weeds, algae and snails, and hence, reduces the need for chemical spray leading to better farm economics within ecolog icall y-sound low-cost, low-risk option for poor rice farmers in Bangl adesh and elsewhere. Thus, integr ation of fish with rice farming i mproves diversification, intensification and productivity of farms (Ahmed et al., 2008; Berg, 2001). The multiple benefits of the integration between rice and fish have been globally documented and could be summarized in enhancing farm productivity either in biomass or in economics. Fish in rice field improves soil fertility through their organic waste. Many reports suggest that integrated rice-fish farming is ecologically sound because fish improves soil fertility by generating nitrogen and phosphorus (Parvez et al., 2006). More importantly, the integrated rice-fish leads to the production of a more balanced diet (rice) as a main source of carbohydrate and fish which is an important animal protein source required for the health and well-being of rural households. The integration of aquaculture can increase rice yields by 8 to 15% with an additional average fish production of 260 kg/ha (Lightfoot, 1992). Based on field surveys and studies, it has been observed that farmers’ households usually inclined to eat small fish than sell them in the market and hence, fish consumption contributes significantly in the nutrition of children and lactating mothers to avoid child blindness as well as to reduce infant mortality.

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Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming Rice and fish have been essential part of the life of Asian people from the prehistoric time. In respects to Bangladesh, rice is the main agricultural crop with an annual production of 29 million tons per year (BRKB, 2010), while annual fish production is 2.7 million tons (DoF, 2010). The demand for rice and fish is constantly rising in Bangladesh with nearly three million people being added each year to its population (Chowdhury, 2009). Nevertheless, integrated rice-fish farming offers a solution to this problem by contributing to food and income.

Although rice-fish technology has been demonstrated successfully and a considerable number of farmers have been trained through various projects. Traditionally wild fish have been harvested from rice fields, but the introduction of high yielding varieties (HYV) of rice and accompanying pesticides have reduced fish yields (Gupta et al., 2002). However, important changes have taken place through IPM that has reduced the use of pesticides in rice fields (Berg, 2001; Lu and Li, 2006).

ADVANTAGES AND BENEFITS Fish is the main source of animal protein, providing an average of 8.4 g per day, or 13.3 % of the average per capita total intake of protein (63 g) (BBS, 2011). Not only the adequate supply of carbohydrate, but also the supply of animal protein is significant through rice-fish farming. Fish, particularly small fish, are rich in micronutrients and vitamins, and thus human nutrition can be greatly improved through fish consumption (Kunda et al., 2008; Frei and Becker, 2005).

It can optimize the utilization of resources through the complementary use of land and water (Giap et al., 2005). Integrated rice-fish farming is also ecologically sound because fish can improve soil fertility by increasing the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus (Dugan et al., 2006). The natural aggregaISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Rahman et al tion of fish in rice fields inspires the combination of rice farming with fish to increase productivity (Gurung and Wagle, 2005). It has been found from several studies that rice-cum-fish culture becomes able to enhance the net benefit by 64.4% and yield by 5% (Parvez et al., 2012). Therefore, it has been evidenced that the rice-fish integration is quite attractive both in environmental and economic point of view. Fish in rice-based agriculture system can enhance income at a higher rate than crops alone thereby it can  reduce poverty, malnutrition and vulnerability  reduce gap between supply vs demand of food fish  lessen pressure on capture fisheries  generate foreign exchange earnings  provide employment and career opportunities  provide additional food/alternative income to fishermen and farmers  provide business & investment opportunity.  control mollusks and insects which are harmful to rice METHODS AND PRACTICES a) Traditional practices: Integrated fish farming is a technique of fish culture with other organisms (animal/s or plant/s). More production can be achieved in rice-fish culture in comparison to the rice culture alone. The history of Rice fish culture is quite old and first started in an ancient China about 200 years ago. In course of time, this practice was introduced to Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, India, Bangladesh and many other countries of the world.

Lately, azolla is cultured with rice-fish in China. In traditional system, several small ditches were prepared in the rice field and tree branches or bushes were placed for creating suitable artificial habitat to attract wild 18

Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming fishes (Figure 1). Sometimes fry of Cyprinus carpio was stocked. Production was much low and it was about 50kg/ha. b) Modern practices Since nineties, several NGOs have been working on rice fish culture and both nursery and table fish are produced through these techniques. Prawn species Macrobrachium rosenbergii is now also stocked for more profit and diversified product. Major fish species are used Labeo rohita (rui), Catla catla (Catla), Cirrhina mrigala (Mrigel), Cyprinus carpio (Common carp), Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp), Tilapia sp. (Tilapia), Puntius gonionotus (Thai barb) and M. rosenbergii (giant fresh water prawn). The different fish species, suitable and practicing nowadays in rice-fish integration, are shown in Figure 2. In this system, the production of fish is much higher than traditional system which is about 200 kg/ha (http://en.bdfish.org/2010).

Fish culture with rice can be practiced in two waysi. Concurrent system – culture of ricefish together ii. Alternative system – Fish culture after harvesting rice

Rahman et al Concurrent rice-fish farming is generally practiced during wet (aman) season in moderate to low paddy fields where water logging exists for 4-5 months naturally (Fig. 3).

Rearing of fish is possible by this way until rice plantation in the next season. Carp and barb species (either singly or with different combinations and ratios) are suitable for stocking but grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) can also be stocked. In case of grass carp stocking, precaution must be taken so that this fish cannot eat young paddy. ii. Alternative culture system In alternative culture system (Figure 4), fishes are stocked in the paddy fields after harvesting rice from the land. Rearing of fishes up to 6-8 months (until plantation for the next crop season) is possible in this system. Carp and barb species are suitable but grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) can also be stocked as a candidate in this composite culture system.

OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT Management activities for fish culture in rice fields include site selection, developing infrastructure, shading/sheltering, stocking,

i. Concurrent systems

Figure 1: Pictures showing traditional system of rice-fish culture.

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Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming

Puntius gonionotus

Cyprinus carpio

Cirrhinus mrigala

Rahman et al

Clarias batrachus

Oreochromis niloticus

Labeo rohita

Labeo calbasu

Anabas testudineus

Channa striatus

Figure 2: Pictures showing different cultivable fish species for rice-fish integration.

Figure 3: Pictures showing concurrent culture system of fish in rice fields. and feeding, water quality control, harvesting and restocking. Practices used for selecting fish species as well as number of fishes to be stocked depending on the locations and availability of fish species.

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a) Site selection Water holding capacity of the selected plot’s soil must be good enough so that soil can hold water easily. Loamy or clay-loamy soils are suitable for rice fish culture. Select20

Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming ed plot should be low land and should contain water naturally for 7-10 months but must be secured from flooding. b) Developing infrastructure Traditional rice paddies normally require modification for concurrent culture of fish.

One important modification is the deepened part of the paddy field to serve as a fish shelter and harvest area (Figure 5). The depended areas are called trenches, canals, channels or sumps. Construction and placement may vary, but these deepened areas provide several critical elements for successful rice-fish culture:  Refuge when the water level is lowered  Passage ways for fish to find food  Easier harvest of fish when the paddy is drained.

At least a single ditch must be excavated in the rice fields. Ditch or trenches should be about 0.5 m to 1.0 m water depth and at least

Rahman et al 1.0 m wide. Ideally, no part of the paddy should be more than 10.0 m away from the trench. To maximize rice production, the trench area should not be more than 10% of rice plot area. Adequate water should be available to maintain a depth of 10 to 15 cm in planted areas with rice once fish have introduced. This ditch will serve as shelter during hot season and make the harvesting easier. Several canals should be dug connecting ditch for free movement of fishes (Figure 6). Enough space must be left from land boundary so that dyke would not be broken. Ditch can be excavated in different positions of the plot; some models are shown in Figure 6. c) Sheltering for prawn In prawn culture, it is essential to provide some sort of substances which will serve as shelter for prawn (http://en.bdfish.org/2010).

As prawn change its shell as growth advances (i.e. molting), it remains very

Figure 4: Pictures showing alternative culture system of fish in rice fields.

Figure 5: Pictures showing preparation of set-up for the rice-fish integrated plot.

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Rahman et al

Figure 6: Pictures showing different canaling systems for fish and prawn in rice field. susceptible to attack by other animals during molting period. Substances like coconut branches, palm leafs or other tree branches are used in the water for sheltering of prawns (Figure 7).

e) Rice plot preparation Border, dyke of the land needs to be constructed (if necessary) and weeds must be controlled and excess bottom mud should be removed (Figure 9). Predatory or unwanted fish species or other animals will be removed from the culture plot. Lime (1 kg/decimal; 2-3kg/decimal for red soil) and fertilizers (usually cow dung, urea and TSP) should be applied at a proper dose.

Figure 7: Pictures showing shelter made for fish and prawn in rice field. d) Shading Shading is essential during high temperature and excess rainfall to save stocked species from unfavorable condition. Bamboo splits made mat, coconut or palm branch, cultivation of vegetables on rack on dyke (Figure 8) can provide shade for the fishes (http://en.bdfish.org/2010).

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Figure 8: Pictures showing shad set-up for fish and prawn in rice field ditch. f) Nursery program in the rice fields It is an optional measure to prepare nursery area for temporary rearing of prawn or 22

Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming shrimp PL. Around 10-15% area of the total field can be used as nursery (Fig. 10).

Nursery is often referred to as “Pocket Gher�. Generally, shrimp or prawns PL are reared in the nursery for 20-25 days. Stocking density should be 1500-2000 PL (1.5-2 cm in size) per decimal area (http://en.bdfish.org/2010). g) Stocking of fish fry/fingerlings/prawn PL in rice fields

Rahman et al Prawn PL needs to be stocked during evening as they are more sensitive than the fin fish fry that can tolerate sudden changes in temperature and dissolve oxygen level in water (Figure 11). If they are stocked during evening, the released PL will get more time at night to adapt with the environment.

Stocking density will be 10000-15000 PL/ hectare area (http://en.bdfish.org/2010).

In case of finfish, fry can be stocked in the morning or in the afternoon (Figure 11).

Figure 9: Pictures showing preparation of rice-fish plots.

Figure 10: Pictures showing nursery of fish and prawn PL in rice fields.

Figure 11: Stocking of fish fingerlings and prawn PL in rice plots.

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Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming Stocking density will be maintained at 20-25 individuals/decimal for monoculture depending on the level of water and related factors. In case of mixed or polyculture, stocking density should be maintained at 20 individuals / decimal. Stocking size should be 5-8 cm depending on the types of fish species. One thing should be kept in mind that it would not be very wise decision to stock prawn and other bottom dweller fin fish species together as they can make competition each other for food and space. h) Management of rice field wild fisheries Wild fish can be encouraged to enter into rice fields by keeping the entrances of the fields open, and bunds low (Figure 12).

They can be attracted by placing branches in the field which provide shelter for the fish or by placing buffalo or cow skins to attract catfish and eels. Wild fish may be harvested from rice fields by netting, hooking, trapping, harpooning, throwing nets, or by draining out the field. As water levels fall, fish may be channeled into adjacent trap pond areas where they can be held alive until required. Black fish from trap ponds are often marketed live in local markets.

Figure 12: Management of fishes in rice fields.

Rahman et al pond areas. Fish can be stocked at rates of 0.25−1 fish/m2. In Cambodia, for example, stocking rate is usually maintained at 2,500 common carp, 1,250 silver barb and 1,250 tilapias per hectare. Predatory fish, particularly snakehead, should be absent from the system when fish seed is introduced. If available and economic, feed supplements such as duckweed, termites, earthworms, and rice bran can be supplied. Similar harvesting methods as for rice field fisheries can be used. Harvests usually include a percentage of wild fish that have entered into the system by themselves. j) Paddy management Naturally grown weeds in the field must be eradicated and other harmful insect must be controlled by IPM (Integrated Pest Management). Water for rice-fish culture must be free from toxicants such as insecticides.

In many areas of the world, concurrent ricefish culture has abandoned because toxic chemicals are used. Agricultural extension specialists should be contacted for advice before stocking fish in paddies supplied with water from a communal irrigation source.

Irrigation water can easily be contaminated by other farmers using chemicals in their rice fields.

Rice husbandry practices that should be followed include rat control, weeding, proper spacing of seedlings, and proper fertilization. Normal weeds control and fertilization chemicals are not harmful to fish. Paddy dikes should be high and strong enough to hold water without leaking. Dikes made of good quality clay are best. k) Application of supplementary feed:

i) Management of rice-fish culture If water sources are more secured and the risk of flooding is low, farmers may invest in fish stock for their paddies or adjacent ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Supplementary feed needs to be supplied for faster growth of stocked species (Figure 13).

Supplementary feed can be applied at 3-5% 24

Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming weight of stocked biomass. If phytoplankton feeder fish like silver carp stocked in the rice field, no extra feeds will be required for fish.

Rahman et al much possible by draining out (dewatering) the water of the field. n) Harvesting Approximately 4–5 months of culturing, the farmers usually harvest the rice first, and then drain the rice field to gather the fish into the ditch (Figure 16). Fish are harvested from these places and then processed for marketing and consuming.

Figure 13: Application of feed in the ditches of the rice and fish or rice-fish rice fields during rice fish integration. l) Dyke cropping Vegetables can be planted on dyke or by making rack made of available materials such as bamboo sticks, vegetables branches without leaves, etc. (Figure 14). m) Growth and health monitoring of fish Regular sampling of stocked fish species is very much necessary to monitor the growth, or to test disease (Figure 15). This can be done by using seine net in ditch after gathering the fish there (in ditch). For maximum benefit, stocked species must be harvested in proper time. Harvesting (100%) is very

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Figure 14: Dyke cropping in rice-fish fields. o) Other considerations  Water control is crucial and rice fields cannot be allowed to dry up while fish stocks are present.  Stocked fish may escape if fields are flooded. Flood control can be difficult in rain fed rice systems.  Areas of rice fields deepened for fish culture may result in less rice growing area.  Having fish present in rich fields may help dissuade farmers from us25

Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming ing pesticides. Pesticides have the potential for poisoning fish and some types can be absorbed by the fish and then ingested by humans.

Rahman et al would cause no transport problems and would be mostly fresh and healthy.

The production of a fish crop between the two rice crops provides the farmer with an off-season job (Hora and Pillay, 1962). This can increase the income without increasing expenses (Hickling, 1962). Apart from the additional income available from rizi-pisciculture (rotational culture of fish and rice), the combined culture leads to a reduction of labour in weeding and an increase in the yield of paddy by 5 to 15%.

Figure 15: Fish health and growth monitoring.

ECONOMICS AND BENEFITS The benefits of rice-fish integration in terms of productivity and economics are diverged and well-documented. Coche, (1967) discusses the socio-economic importance of fish culture in rice fields and pointed out and the deficit of animal protein in densely populated rice growing areas. The fish grown in the paddy fields will be ideal use of land and would also be an easy source of cheap and fresh animal proteins. Thus fish culture can greatly contribute to the socio-economic welfare, especially for rural populations of developing countries. An added advantage also is that unlike sea fish or other animal proteins, the fish from local paddy fields ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Figure 16: Pictures showing harvesting of rice and fish.

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Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming The increasing rice production in the ricefish integration is attributed to various factors (Coche, 1967), namely, a) reduction in the number of harmful insects, such as paddy stem borers, whose larvae are eaten by fish. b) reduction in rat population due to increase in the water level. c) increase in organic fertilization by fish excreta and remains of artificial feed. d) better tilling of the rice seedlings due to the activity of the fish. e) increased mineralization of the organic matter and increased aeration of the soil resulting from the puddling of mud by benthic feeders. f) control of algae and weeds (by phytophagous fish) which compete with rice for light and nutrients. g) fish stir up soil nutrients making them more available for rice. This increases rice production.

STEPS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Wet (rain-fed) rice cultivation has been practiced for at least 4000 years ago, and its history indicates that rice farming is basically sustainable. What is less certain is whether the dramatic increases of rice production made possible by the “green revolution” are sustainable (Greenland, 1997). Global warming, sea level rise, increased ultraviolet radiation and even unavailability of water are all expected to have an adverse impact on rice production. However, such scenarios are far the foreseeable future can be assumed that rice farming will continue. Further, it seems likely that the culture of fish in rice farming makes the rice field ecosystem more balanced and stable. With fish removing the weeds and reducing the insects’ pest population to tolerable levels, the poisoning of the water and soil may be curtailed. In

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Rahman et al regards of sustainability of rice fish farming, there should be needed  grant support  ensuring Inputs (seeds, feeds, fish fry/fingerlings) supply  capacity building training  technology dissemination  value chain development  creating marketing channel  co-ordination, collaboration and networking  creating net-mapping among different actors  creating policy, dialog, scale in and up RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT There is a need to refine rice-fish farming, where the thrust is on improving fish production without affecting rice production.

De La Cruz et al. (1992) had identified possible areas and tropics for research for various countries (De La Cruz et al., 1992).

Tropics common to several countries where rice-fish farming is practiced or has high potential are:  Ecological studies specially on food webs and nutrient cycle in a rice field ecosystem;  Determination of the carrying capacity and optimum stocking densities;  Development of rice field hatchery and/or nursery system;  Development of rice-fish farming models species to different agroclimatic zones;  Optimum fertilization rates and fertilization methods;  Evaluation of new fish species for rice field culture;  Evaluation of different fish species in control of rice pests and diseases;  Development of fish aggregating and fish harvesting techniques for rice fields;

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Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming and optimal rice planting patterns for rice-fish farming.

Other tropics identified are not necessarily specific to rice-fish farming and may be covered by regular aquaculture research such as fish nutrition and feed development, or in agronomy e.g. weed ecology and management. Long-term “wish list” research includes the development of new rice varieties for different rice-fish systems.

CONCLUSION

Rahman et al Bureau of Statistics (BBS), Ministry of Planning, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka.

Berg, H. (2001). Pesticide use in rice and rice-fish farms in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Crop Protection 20, 897– 905.

BRKB. (2010). Rice statistics in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Rice Knowledge Bank (BRKB), Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.

To meet the increasing demand of food for the over-increasing populations, there should be needed to more increased rice and fish productions. This document accomplishes that rice-fish integration could be a practical opportunity for farm diversification. Such divergence will enhance food security. Rice-fish integration makes the rice field ecosystem with an efficiently and environmentally comprehensive production system for rice and fish. Rice monoculture cannot alone provide a sustainable food supply, while integrated rice-fish farming will be the best in terms of resource utilization, productivity and food supply. It should therefore be recommended that integrated rice-fish farming could be a sustainable alternative to rice monoculture as more production and benefits can be achieved in rice-fish culture compared to the rice farming alone.

Chowdhury, M. R. (2009). Population challenge facing Bangladesh. Long Island University, CW Post Campus, New York, USA.

REFERENCES

Dugan, P., Dey, M. M. and Sugunan, V. V. (2006). Fisheries and water productivity in tropical river basins: enhancing food security and livelihoods by managing water for fish. Agricultural Water Management 80, 262–275.

Ahmed, N., Ahammed, F. and Brakel, M. V. (2008). An economic analysis of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii farming in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. The World Aquaculture Society 38, 37–50.

BBS. (2011). Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2010. Bangladesh ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Coche, A. G. (1967). Fish culture in rice fields: a worldwide synthesis. Hydrobiologia 30(1), 1–44.

De la Quz CR, Lightfoot, C., Costa-rerce B. A., Carangal, V. R. and Bimbao, M. P. (1992). Rice-fish research and development in Asia. ICLARM, Manila, Philippines, 457p.

DoF. (2010). Fishery Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 2008–2009. Fisheries Resources Survey System, Department of Fisheries (DoF), Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Frei, M. and Becker, K. (2005). Integrated rice-fish culture: coupled production saves resources. Natural Resources Forum 29, 135–143.

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Giap, D. H., Yi, Y. and Lin, C. K. (2005).

Effects of different fertilization and feeding regimes on the production of integrated farming of rice and prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man). Aquaculture Research 36, 292– 299.

H. (2008). Potential of mixed culture of freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and self-recruiting small species mola (Amblypharyngodon mola) in rotational rice-fish/prawn culture systems in Bangladesh. Aquaculture Research 39, 506–517.

Greenland, D. J. (1997). The Sustainablity of rice farming. GAB International, UK. 273p.

Lightfoot, C., van Dam, A. and CostaPierce, B. A. (1992). What’s happening to rice yields in rice-fish systems?

In: dela Cruz, C. R., Lightfoot, C., Costa-Pierce, B. A., Carangal, V. R. and Bimbao, M. P. (Eds.). Rice-Fish Research and Development in Asia.

ICLARM Conference Proceedings 24, Manila, Philippines, pp. 177–183.

Gupta, M. V., Sollows, J. D., Mazid, M. A., Rahman, A., Hussain, M. G. and Dey, M. M. (2002). Economics and adoption patterns of integrated ricefish farming in Bangladesh. In: Edwards, P., Little, D.C. and Demaine, H. (Eds.), Rural aquaculture. Oxford: CABI International, pp. 41–54.

Gurung, T. B. and Wagle, S. K. (2005).

Revisiting underlying ecological principles of rice-fish integrated farming for environmental, economic and social benefits. Our Nature 3, 1–12.

Halwart, M. and Gupta, M. V. (2004).

Culture of fish in rice fields. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the WorldFish Center, p 83.

Hickling, C. F. (1962). Fish culture. Faber and Faber Ltd., London, 295 p.

Hora, S. L. and Pillay, T. V. R. (1962).

Handbook of fish culture in the IndoPacific Region. FAO Fish Technical Paper 14, 204. http://en.bdfish.org/2010/10/integrated-fishfarming-rice-fish/ Kunda, M., Azim, M. E., Wahab, M. A., Dewan, S., Roos, N. and Thilsted, S. ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Lu, J. and Li, X. (2006). Review of ricefish farming systems in China – one of the globally important ingenious agricultural heritage systems (GIAHS).

Aquaculture 260, 106–113.

Nabi, R. (2008). Constraints to the adoption of rice-fish farming by smallholders in Bangladesh: a farming systems analysis. Aquaculture Economics and Management 12, 145–153.

Nhan, D. K., Phong, L. T., Verdegem, M. J. C., Duong, L. T., Bosma, R.H. and Little, D. C. (2007). Integrated freshwater aquaculture, crop and livestock production in the Mekong delta, Vietnam: determinants and the role of the pond. Agricultural Systems 94, 445–458.

Parvez, M. S., Salekuzzaman, M., Hossain, M. E. and Azam, K. (2012).

Economics and productivity of rice cum freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium Rosenbergii) in the gher farming system. International Researchers 1(3), 39–49.

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Focus Environ (2016) Integrated Rice-Fish Farming Parvez, M. S., Sarker, M. S., Azad, M. S. and Salekuzzaman, M. (2006). Effect on water quality, pond productivity and growth of carps in polyculture system by using homestead organic wastage as a pond manure. International Journal of Sustainable Agricultural Technology 2(2), 45–50.

Saikia, S. and Das, D. N. (2008). Rice-Fish Culture and its Potential in Rural Development: A Lesson from Apatani

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Rahman et al Farmers, Arunachal Pradesh, India, Journal of Agriculture & Rural Development 6 (1&2), 125–131.

Waibel, H. (1992). Comparative economics of pesticide use in rice and rice-fish farming, p. 245-254. In: dela Cruz, C. R., Lightfoot, C., Costa-Pierce, B. A., Carangal, V. R. and Bimbao, M. P. (Eds.). Rice-fish research and development in Asia. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 24, 457p.

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Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Focus Environ (2016), P31-37

Molecular Marker Techniques in Environmental Forensic Studies Narayanan Kannan Institute for Graduate Studies, Taylor's University (Lakeside Campus), 47500, Subang Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Phone No.: +60 14 338 5307; Email: drnkannan@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are anthropogenic contaminants found globally in water, ice, soil, air and sediment. Modern analytical techniques allow us to determine these chemicals in environmental matrices at parts per trillion levels or lower. Environmental forensic on PCBs opens up new avenues of investigation such as transport and fate of water masses in oceans, sedimentation, onset of primary production, migration of marine mammals, their population distribution and pharmacokinetics of drugs inside organisms. By virtue of persistence, bioaccumulation, bioconcentration and structure-activity relationship PCBs emerge as unconventional chemical tracers of new sort.

Keywords: Anthropogenic contaminants; environmental forensic; metabolic slope; risk assessment; PCBs; sea water; sediment; suspended particulate matter; TEQs; tracers

INTRODUCTION Since the beginning of industrial revolution the number of synthesized chemicals keeps increasing. Currently it is beyond three million and is growing at a rate of several hundred thousand a year of which 300-500 reach the stage of commercial production. It is estimated that up-to one third of the total production of these chemicals reaches the environment. When out of place in the environment these chemicals are called pollutants. Measurement of these chemicals after integrating with environmental matrix such as sediment, biota, suspended particulate matter (SPM) and even in water becomes extremely complex demanding sophisticated analytical techniques (Duinker et al., 1988;

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Kannan et al., 1993; Li et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2007).

PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPS) Hence, environmental analytical chemists focused mostly on a selected number of persistent organic chemicals such as agrochemicals (Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, Chlordane, Chlordecone, Hexabromobiphenyl, Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), Hexabromodiphenyl ether and heptabromodiphenyl ether, Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), Hexachlorobutadiene, Alpha hexachlorocyclohexane, Beta hexachlorocyclohexane, Lindane, Mirex, Pentachlorobenzene, Pentachlorophenol and its salts and

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Focus Environ (2016) Molecular Marker Techniques in Environ‌‌ esters; Technical endosulfan and its related isomers, Toxaphene), industrial chemicals (Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCN), Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOs) and/or unwanted by-products of industrial processes or combustion (Polychlorinated dibeno-pdioxins (PCDDs), Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) that are bioaccumulative and have the potential to disturb biological processes (EPA, 2002).

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBS) AS MODEL SUBSTANCES Among these persistent organic pollutants (POPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Figure 1) are well characterized with reference to their physico-chemical properties, biological potencies and environmental occurrence/transport and fate (Kannan, 2000; Fiedler (UNEP site)).

Kannan

Figure 1: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

Thus, PCBs emerged as model substances, representing a whole range of POPs. PCBs are extremely bioaccumulative and used in the study of migration of oceanic wildlife such as whales (Subramanian et al., 1988; Wania, 1998), their population distribution (Mossner and Ballschmiter, 1997; Bruhn et al., 1999) and their nursing activities (Addison and Brodie, 1987; Beckmen et al., 1999) (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Biplot of principal components 1 and 2 derived from correlation matrix of mol% contributions of CBs in the blubber tissue of male and female immature as well as male mature harbour porpoises from the Baltic Sea (B)., North Sea (N)., and Arctic waters (A). The CB numbers represent the loadings and B, N, A represent the scores (from Bruhn et al., 1999).

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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Focus Environ (2016) Molecular Marker Techniques in Environ‌‌ PCBs are widely used in understanding the trophic and reproductive transfer of persistence chemicals (Aguilar and Borrell, 1994; Kannan et al., 1995; Jackson and Schindler, 1996; Kim et al., 2002). Fugacity models are widely used in understanding the hemispheric transfer of PCBs and the dynamics behind long range transport (Wania and Mackay, 1996). The structure biological activity relationship based on the inherent planar and globular nature of PCBs is useful

Figure 3: A) Vicinal atoms in the meta and para positions. Overlapping covalent radii for two ortho-Cl show that a planar configuration is highly improbable when three or four ortho-Cl are present. B) Vicinal H atoms in the ortho and meta positions. Nonoverlapping covalent radii for ortho-Cl and ortho-H show that a planar configuration causes a much lower energy barrier when chlorine atoms do not oppose each other (from Boon et al., 1992).

Kannan

in understanding the phase I and phase II metabolism in organisms including humans, the enzyme induction and in-vitro and invivo toxicities (Safe et al., 1985; Kannan et al., 1989ab; Boon et al., 1992; Ishii and Oguri, 2002) (Figure 3).

PCBs production history in the US is also the history of industrial openness towards safety issues and US chemical regulation (Anonymous, 2007). Improvement in the analytical chemistry of PCBs supported the development of finger printing techniques, chemometrics and over all awareness on environmental forensic (Kannan et al., 1992, 2007; PerĂŠ-Trepata et al., 2006).

The space and time integrated sampling of surface sea water over oceanic transects reveal pollution source, the physical and biological status of the region (biological blooms etc.) and prevailing currents that bring the contaminants to that region (Schulz-Bull et al., 1995; Kannan et al., 1998; Yamashita et al., 2008; Kannan et al., 2011). Deep water sampling devices when applied for PCB studies help to understand ocean structure and circulation (Schulz et al., 1988; Petrick et al., 1996; Schulz-Bull et al., 1998; Kannan et al., 1998).

A study on the vertical profile of East Sea (Japan Sea) revealed the intrinsic stratification of those deep waters, otherwise revealed only by conventional tracers (radio isotopes) (Figure 4). This unexpected finding PCBs at a depth of 3000 m demonstrated that our oceans are much more dynamic than it was thought before and the entire ocean circulation has speeded up in recent years due to global warming (Kannan et al., 1998).

Passive air samplers when deployed northsouth in open oceans or oceanic islands and/or systematic water sampling in the open ocean in north-south directions will greatly enhance such predictions.

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Focus Environ (2016) Molecular Marker Techniques in Environ……

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Figure 4: Presence of PCBs at 3500 m in Japan Sea indicates faster movements (using convection and horizontal currents) of these chemicals in ocean circulation (Kannan et al., 1998).

REFERENCES Addison, R. F. and Brodie, P. F. (1987).

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Boon, J.P., van Arnhem, E., Jansen, S., Kannan, N., Petrick, G., Schulz, D., Duinker, J., Reijnders, P.J.H. and Goksoyr, A. (1992). The toxicokinetics of PCBs in marine mammals with special reference to possible interactions of individual congeners with the cytochrome P-450 dependent monooxygenase system - an overview.

In: Persistent pollutants in marine ecosystems C.H.Walker and D.R.Livingstone (eds.). Pergamon Press, New York 1992. pp. 119-159.

Bruhn, R., Kannan, N., Petrick, G., Schulz-Bull, D.E. and Duinker, J.C. (1999). Persistent organic contaminants in harbour porpoises from the North Sea, the Baltic Sea and Arctic waters. Sci. Total Environ. 237/238, 351-361.

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ychlorinated Biphenyl, 3,3',4,4',5Pentachlorobiphenyl. J. Health. Sci. 48, 97-105.

Jackson, L. and Schindler, D.E. (1996).

Field estimates of net trophic transfer of PCBs from prey fishes to Lake Michigan salmonoids. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30, 1861-1865.

Kannan, N., Wakimoto, T. and Tatsukawa, R. (1989a). Possible involvement of frontier (π) electrons in the metabolism of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Chemosphere 18, 9-10.

Kannan, N., Tanabe, S., Ono, M. and Tatsukawa, R. (1989b). Critical evaluation of PCB toxicity in Terrestrial and marine mammals: Increasing impact of non-ortho and mono-ortho coplanar PCBs from land to ocean. Arch.

Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 18, 850857.

Kannan, N., Schulz, D.E., Petrick, G. and Duinker, J.C. (1992). High resolution PCB analysis of Kanechlor, Phenoclor and Sovol mixtures using multidimensional gas chromatography. Intern. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 47, 201215.

Kannan,N., Petrick,G., Schultz-Bull,D.E. and Duinker, J.C. (1993). Chromatographic techniques in accurate analysis of chlorobiphenyls. J.Chromatgr. 642, 425-434.

Kannan, N., Reusch, T.B.H., Schulz-Bull, D.E., Petrick, G. and Duinker, J.C (1995).

Chlorobiphenyls: Model

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Kannan, N.., Yamashita, N.., Petrick, G. and Duinker, J.C. (1998). Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Nonylphenols in the Sea of Japan. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, 1747-1753.

Kannan, N. (2000). Non-ortho and monoortho substituted PCBs. In: The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 3: Anthropogenic compounds.

Paasivirta, J. (eds.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin. pp. 127-156.

Kannan, N., Hong, S.H., Shim, W.J. and Oh. J.R. (2007). A congener-specific survey for Polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins (PCDDs) and Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) contamination in Masan Bay, Korea. Chemosphere 68, 1613–1622.

Kim, M, Jin Y, Han, G. M, Jung, J. H, Hong, S. H, Yim, U. H, Shim WJ, Choi, D. L and Kannan, N. (2016).

Origins of suspended particulate matter revealed by the sterol distribution in the low salinity water mass observed in the offshore East China Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 108 (1–2), 281–288.

Li, D.H., Dong, M., Shim, W.J. and Kannan, N. (2007). Application of pressurized fluid extraction technique in the gas chromatography–mass spec-

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trometry determination of sterols from marine sediment samples. J. Chromat.

A. 1160, 64-70.

Kim, S. K., Lee, D. S. and Oh, J. R. (2002).

Characteristics of trophic transfer of polychlorinated biphenyls in marine organisms in Incheon North Harbor, Korea. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21, 834-841.

Mossner, S. and Ballschmiter, K. (1997).

Marine mammals as global pollution indicators for organochlorines. Chemosphere 34, 1285-1296.

Peré-Trepata, E., Olivella, L., Ginebreda, A., Caixach, J. and Tauler, R. (2006).

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Schulz, D. E., Petrick, G. and Duinker, J.C. (1988). Chlorinated biphenyls in

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north Atlantic surface and deep water.

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Wang, J., Dong, M., Shim, W.J., Kannan, N. and Li, D.H. (2007). Improved cleanup technique for gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric determination of alkylphenols from biota extract. J. Chromat. A. 1171, 15-21.

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30, 390A-396A. Yamashita, N., Taniyasu, S., Petrick, G., Wei, S., Gamo, T., Lam, P.K.S. and Kannan, K. (2008). Perfluorinated acids as novel chemical tracers of global circulation of ocean waters. Chemosphere 70, 1247-1255.

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Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Focus Environ (2016), P38-50

Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming: A Case in Paddy Farming in Peninsular Malaysia Zakirah Othman and Quamrul Hasan* School of Technology Management and Logistic, College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah Darul Aman. Malaysia *Corresponding author; Tel. No.: +604-928-7062; Email: quamrul@uum.edu.my

ABSTRACT Many researches have proven that the sustainable agriculture has many advantages such as providing cost effectiveness (e.g., using less amount of water); balancing the ecosystem; and, most importantly, its practice is environment-friendly. It helps to increase the crop’s resistance towards diseases, protect the soil from losing its natural fertility and helps in maintaining the diversity of the microflora in soil. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is an innovative methodology being used for sustainability in social development. It is widely recognized as a suitable model for creating environmental, economic and social sustainability in agriculture for the 21st century. In addition, by paying attention to environment, SRI is an organic farming management system, which results in higher quality yield with better taste and health benefits.

Therefore, this study was undertaken to understand about the SRI as the sustainable paddy farming practice in the two selected areas on Peninsular Malaysia. This study has used a qualitative research approach. Data was collected through field work observations and interviews. The findings of this study showed that there were similarities mostly in the practice of paddy farming (only with a minor difference on the days) in Sik (Kedah) and Bandar Baru Tunjong (Kelantan). Furthermore, it showed that the proposed model of sustainable paddy farming practices, which was a result of this study, could be explained well under three key areas: 1) sustainable characteristic; 2) sustainable paddy farming practices; and 3) challenges in sustainable farming. More research is required on the sustainable agriculture and organic farming for better understanding and to addressing the agricultural sustainability related issues.

Keywords: Environment; organic farming; paddy; sustainable agriculture; system of rice intensification (SRI)

Sustainability in agriculture refers to the farmer’s ability to maintain crop production and obtain benefits as well by accelerating social growth, stabilizing economy and

remaining commercially competitive without causing significant damage to nature and environment (Ismail, 2006). Sustainable agriculture has some advantages such as: 1) providing cost effectiveness; 2) balancing ecosystem; and 3) being environmental

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INTRODUCTION

Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming friendly.

The focus of this study is on the management practice in sustainable agriculture and organic farming by paying attention on the environment.

The management of sustainable agricultural practice in Malaysia paddy farming is still in its preliminary stage (Othman and Muhammad, 2011; Othman et. al, 2016).

Currently, a popular system in organic farming in Asia is the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) (Uphoff, 2006), which has been practiced in Malaysia since 2009 by starting at Bandar Baru Tunjong, Kelantan, and Sik, Kedah. In the context of SRI management, the Sri Lovely Farm at Sik (which is one of the two cases in this study) was one of the few certified organic farms in Malaysia in 2013. The knowledge in implementing the SRI in paddy cultivation is still limited and, therefore, more studies are necessary to establish it.

This study is undertaken to understand the SRI as a sustainable paddy farming practice by selecting two farms from different states of West Malaysia. It explores the two experienced farmers’ practices in managing their paddy farms by employing the SRI. As the main objective of the research was to to understand and identify the sustainable agricultural practices in organic paddy farming in Malaysia.

SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION SRI is a method to manage organic farming.

It was developed in Madagascar in 1983 as a revolutionary paddy cultivation method to achieve very high yields with reduced resources such as irrigation water, fertilizers and chemicals. The SRI is implemented in a number of rice-growing countries, including in China, India, and Myanmar. It is found that the existing rice varieties have more genetic potential than that of the previously ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Othman and Hasan thought which can be tapped by altering the management practices. So far, the SRI planting tests have been carried out in a total of 48 countries including in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Many SRI users reported benefits such as a reduction in pests, diseases, grain shattering, unfilled grains and lodging. Additional environmental benefits stem from the reduction of agricultural chemicals, water use and methane emissions that contribute to global warming. SRI is also suitable for highland paddy farming, and its application has already been expanded to other types of crops such as sugar cane.

According to Uphoff (2006), paddy farming application using the SRI is based on six main principles as follows: (1) When (if) transplanting, to start with young seedlings (two-leaf stage); (2) Plants to be set out carefully and gently in a square pattern of the size 25x25cm or wider if the soil condition is very good, but this size can be even wider if the soil is fertile enough, or once it becomes more fertile after the SRI practices; (3) Seedlings are to be transplanted singly; (4) Rice paddies are to be irrigated intermittently by keeping minimum of water rather than continuously flooded; (5) Weeding is to be carried out for at least twice though the best result can be obtained from multiple weeding with a ‘rotating hoe’ that actively aerates the soil at the same time churning weeds back into the soil to decompose, thereby conserving their nutrients; and (6) Basic organic fertilizers, compost or any decomposed biomass are to be used.

CURRENT ISSUES IN RICE PRODUCTION Global warming, environmental crisis, plant diseases and pests are the main causes in disrupting the food production in many 39

Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming countries around the world. At this time, when the world’s population is increasing rapidly resulting in to higher demand of food, these problems have threatened food security and people’s health worldwide.

Every day 24,000 people are dying due to hunger-related causes including one child every five seconds.

Rice is the staple food for more than three billion people from all around the world. At least, 114 countries grow rice and more than 50 countries have at least an annual production of 100,000 tonnes. As rice is the main food for most countries in Asia, about 90% of the global rice production and consumption are in Asia. At this time, when the world's population is already reeling from higher food prices, many countries have banned or restricted their rice exports, which pushes up the price of rice even higher. Since 1990s, the increase in rice production has become slower as compared with population growth.

Indeed, it is anticipated that rice production should be increased by 30% by 2025 in order to cater for the world’s growing population. Among many other countries, Malaysia has not yet achieved selfsufficiency in food production.

SUSTAINABLE AND ORGANIC RICE FARMING IN MALAYSIA Organic rice farming in West Malaysia began in the early 1990’s under the guidance of a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), working with small holder farmers on rice storage in the state of Selangor. They found that the system was not sustainable due to a number of factors, such as poor production technology support, marketing issues, certification, and farmers’ commitment. In 1999, Kahang Organic Rice Eco Farm (KOREF) pioneered the organic method of rice farming practice in West ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Othman and Hasan Malaysia. Other locations that fully integrated sustainable paddy fields were in Bandar Baru Tunjong, Sabak Bernam, Ledang and Bario (Sarawak).

According to the National Green Technology Policy Malaysia, effective promotion and public awareness are two of the main factors that would affect the success of sustainable development through the green technology agenda (National Green Technology Policy 2009, Malaysia, Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water). This is particularly significant as such adoption requires a change of mindset of the public through various approaches, including effective education and information dissemination to increase public awareness of sustainable agriculture and on ways to conserve the environment. Mustafa and Mohd Jani (1995) stated that greater public awareness about environmental pollution and depletion of resources can help Malaysia to develop sustainable agriculture.

More intensive monitoring and investigating agricultural practices would enable Malaysia to achieve sustainability in agriculture (Murad et. al., 2008).

There have been many strategies to increase production in the sustainable contexts; such as creation of paddy estate, Malaysia Organic Scheme (Skim Organic Malaysia - SOM) and Malaysia Good Plantation Resources Practices System (Sistem Amalan Ladang Baik Malaysia SLAM) certificate, good agriculture practices and promoting organic farming in Malaysia. However, there are very limited information is available on organic paddy farming using the SRI specifically in Malaysia.

The Department of Agriculture (DOA) is the agency under the Malaysian Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry involved in activities related to quality and productivity of crops. This 40

Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming department introduced the SOM to promote sustainable development. SOM is a certification programme to recognize farms which cultivate crops organically according to the criteria and requirement described in the scheme. The standard is based on the Malaysian Standard, MS 1529: 2001. In the context of paddy farming, KOREF and Sri Lovely Farm are the two certified organic farms in Malaysia.

METHODOLOGY This study employed a qualitative research using the observation and interview approaches. The observations and interviews were carried out at Sik, Kedah and Bandar Baru Tunjong, Kelantan during 23 July 2009 until 14 September 2013. Some of the interviews, by the interviewees who allowed, were recorded by videotaping.

However, all the interview answers were written down by the researcher in notebook.

Also, the phone calls were used to obtain further information from the respondents.

The selected respondents were the farmers of different levels including supervisor and managing director. One of the respondents’ philosophies was stated as “the farming ought to safeguard the eco-system bestowed

by God.” The first location of this field study was Bandar Baru Tunjong in Kelantan owned by the Sunnah Tani Sdn. Bhd. It was started as a pilot project in May 2009 with 8 hectares of land at Kampung Tunjong in Bandar Baru Tunjong by adopting the SRI method as its paddy farming practice.

The second location of this field study was at the Sik area in Kedah owned by the Koperasi Agro Belantik Berhad (a local cooperative organization). The project was aimed to enhance the income of the local people through the development of vacant ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Othman and Hasan land. This project was kicked off on December 24, 2009 using 32 hectares of land of Kampung Lintang, Kampung Kubang, Kampung Surau, Kampung Pinang, Kampung Bukit Batu, Kampung Belantik Dalam and Kampung Belantik Luar. The interviews were conducted with the managing director (Farmer 1) and his two assistants (Farmer 2 and Farmer 3).

The main questions asked during the interviews were related to the steps involved in paddy farming practices including land preparation, seed selection, water management, fertilizer use, weed, pest and disease control, and harvesting. Data related to paddy farming, mainly in sustainable practices were compared and analyzed the adaption criteria of SOM. It is a standard that sets out the requirements for the production, the labeling and claims for organically produced foods.

The requirements cover all stages of production, including farm operations, preparation, storage, transport, and labeling. Further details are explained below: i. Land and soil management ■ Farms shall take reasonable and appropriate measures to minimize loss of topsoil through minimal tillage, contour plowing, crop selection, maintenance of cover crops and other management practices that conserve soil.

■ Land clearing and preparation through burning vegetation, e.g. slash and burn, shall only be allowed and restricted to the minimum when other measures are not feasible.

■ Burning of crop residues, e.g. straw burning is prohibited except in case of need to control a serious insect or disease infestation.

■ The fertility and biological activity of the soil should be maintained or increased, using appropriate methods by a) cultivation 41

Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming of legumes, green manures or deep-rooting plants in an appropriate multi-annual rotation programme, b) incorporation in the soil of organic material, composted or not, from holdings produced in accordance with this standard. . ii. Water management ■ Operators shall take reasonable and appropriate measures to prevent excessive and improper use of water.

■ Operators shall take reasonable and appropriate measures to prevent the pollution of ground and surface water.

■ Organic handlers shall install systems that permit the responsible use and recycling of water without pollution or contamination, either by chemicals, or by animal or human pathogens.

■ Untreated sewage water is prohibited for use. iii. Seeds and planting material ■ Use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and products thereof is prohibited in all aspects of organic production and handling without exception.

■ Seeds and vegetative reproductive material should be from plants grown in accordance with the provisions of this standard for at least one generation or in the case of perennial crops, two growing seasons.

■ Use of conventional seed and planting material is only allowed where there is no organic seed or propagation material of the appropriate sort available.

■ Seeds and propagation material shall not be treated with prohibited substances.

Exceptions should be allowed where there is no untreated seed or propagation material of the appropriate sort available.

■ Where varieties protected under the Plant Variety Protection Act are used, the farm shall respect intellectual property rights ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Othman and Hasan legislation iv. Fertility management ■ Crop production systems shall return nutrients, organic matter and other resources removed from the soil through harvesting by recycling, regeneration and addition of organic matter and nutrients with respect to the nutrient requirement of crops and the nutrient balance of the soil.

■ Operators shall plan their fertility management to maximize the use of plant and animal organic matter produced within the farm and minimized the use of broughtin organic materials or mineral fertilizers.

■ Where applicable, in annual crop production, an appropriate green manure crop shall be included in the crop rotation plan to maintain organic matter content and soil fertility.

■ Organic materials and mineral fertilizers shall not be used if their production and use have an unacceptable impact on the environment.

■ Allowance on the maximum amount of brought-in organic materials and mineral fertilizers used in the farm shall be established on a case by case basis taking into account local conditions and the nature of the crop.

■ Imported microbial inoculums used for enhancing soil fertility shall undergo quarantine procedures before use. v. Soil conditioners and fertilization material ■ The permitted organic materials and mineral fertilizers are listed in SOM. ■ Use of organic material (plant and animal) from conventional systems should be allowed where there is no organic material from organic systems available.

■ Organic industrial by-products should be allowed if they are not contaminated with non-permitted substances or other 42

Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming contaminants exceeding applicable health and sanitary regulations.

■ Animal manures shall not be used directly on food crops, unless they have been composted or measures are taken to prevent risk of contamination exceeding applicable health and sanitary regulations.

■ Use of human and pig excrement is prohibited.

■ Poultry manure from battery production systems should be allowed if manure from non-battery based production systems (e.g. free range) is not available.

■ Use of trace elements should only be allowed as supplements and only where exhaustive measures to maximize the use of plant and animal organic matter produced within the farm as well as brought-in organic materials have been taken.

vi. Prevention and control of pests, diseases and weeds ■ Pests, diseases and weeds shall be controlled by cultural, mechanical, physical and biological methods.

■ Use of inputs for pest, disease, weed control and plastic mulch material shall be allowed only where cultural, biological and mechanical measures are ineffective under the production condition in question. Spent plastic mulch material shall be disposed properly and not ploughed back into the soil.

■ Use of plant waste material from conventional systems shall be allowed for mulching where there is no plant material from organic systems of the appropriate sort available. e.g.: paddy straw, grasses, oil palm leaves etc. Where the substances are restricted, the conditions of use as set by the certification body shall be strictly adhered by the farm.

■ All substances used for pest control shall comply with the relevant national regulations.

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Othman and Hasan ■ Farms shall use the approved substances with care and abide with their conditions of use, so as to avoid altering the ecosystem of the soil and farm. vii. Harvest ■ The crop must be harvested at proper maturity.

■ Waste from handling shall be managed so as to have minimum effect on the environment. Where appropriate, organic waste shall be used for nutrient recycling in production fields DATA ANALYSIS Traditional and computer-based qualitative methodologies were used to analyze the data for emerging themes and to compare and contrast the observation obtains from the participants. The data from video-tapes (interview) and written notes were also transcribed. All the data were first reviewed and coded. The only data related to understanding and identifying organic paddy farming practices were used in the analysis of this study. Then, the data were categorized. The primary analysis helped the researcher to focus on the data that could be used to understand SRI management practices. The data analysis revealed that the process of understanding and identifying organic paddy farming practices presented three major areas: (1) sustainability characteristics, (2) sustainable paddy farming practices; and (3) challenges in sustainable farming. Lastly, the text and visualization data were validated by an expert reviewer.

FINDING AND DISCUSSION Data related to paddy farming from the two locations were compared and analyzed based on the principles stated in the SOM. 43

Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming Both similarities and differences (though the differences were minor and limited to the days of treatment only) were found in the practice of paddy farming in the two selected locations. The findings are divided in to three main areas (Sustainability characteristics, Sustainable paddy farming practices and Challenges in Sustainable Farming) and illustrated in Figure 1 as a proposed model.

Sustainability characteristics The characteristics of sustainability in practical paddy farming as observed in Sik and Bandar Baru Tunjong were: (1) balancing the ecosystem; (2) input from sustainable resources; (3) no chemical or synthetic fertiliser and pesticide used; and (4) natural control of pests, diseases and weeds (Othman, 2012).

The first is balancing the farm ecosystem. The farmers from both farms-Sik and Bandar Baru Tunjong agreed that the farm should observe a natural control to create balance in the ecosystem. This is evident in the statements from Farmer 4 and 5 as recorded in the interview session: “The ecosystem is complete, let’s look at this farm, we see it complete. There are living things. There is an eel (fish) ... There must be life. Then there is growth…and the paddy will grow well”, -(Farmer 5, personal communication, July 23, 2009).

This feature is also evident in the availability of living creatures such as fish, eel sand shrimp in the paddy fields.

Sustainable paddy farming practices Overall, there are eight major steps in sustainable paddy farming practices at the ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Othman and Hasan two locations of this study (Othman, 2012).

These are listed below. a) Land preparation Sik and Bandar Baru Tunjong farms recycle the rice straws by incorporating them into the soil during the preparation of the land.

They apply one or two rounds of dry ploughing and two times wet ploughing by tractors. However, they had preferred less or no tilling of land.

Initially, the soil was ploughed by tractor. Subsequently, water was let to enter in to help in the decay of grass, rice straw and stubble. After two days, drains were constructed on the edge of a paddy plot, so that the paddy field rice was always flooded and the soils moisten. Then, the soil was flattened with a flattening tool called a ‘ruler’ or pembaris. After that a ‘distance tool’ or penjarak was used, which functioned as a means of determining the distances between the seedings to be planted. b) Seeds Planting begins with soil treatment. In this trial project, five to seven tonnes of organic fertiliser were placed into the soil a week before planting was carried out. It began with the selection of high quality seeds. The seed selection procedure at Bandar Baru Tunjong was similar to Sik. Then, the seeds were planted at the nursery. After that, they were transplanted to the paddy field manually. The method required time and a bountiful workforce in comparison to the direct scattering technique or through the use of machine transplanting. The farmers planted paddy twice a year, once in the main season and once in the off season. All the farmers in the two selected study areas used high quality seeds obtained from the MARDI. The farmers from Bandar Baru Tunjong used the SRI method in which the 44

Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming

Othman and Hasan

seedlings were widely spaced (25cmx25cm), while farmers at Sik used more widely space (35cmx35cm) to plant a paddy.

with paddy straw, tree leaves and limes which were left to soak for a duration of 14 days.

c) Water management The efficiency of irrigation is necessary for high yields. However, the organic method (SRI) uses less water compared to the conventional farming method. The farm in Sik obtained its supply of water from surrounding rivers.Water at Bandar Baru Tunjong was obtained from the nearby river through drain. Water was drained into a nearby pool of water and allowed to stagnate and drained to the paddy field when it was required.

e) Weed control Basically, the Bandar Baru Tunjong and Sik farmers control the weeds manually and by rotary weeding. The control of weedy rice needs to be carried out directly right after the harvesting season.The porcupine is an equipment to plough the soil and discard grass at Bandar Baru Tunjong. It also functions as a tool to loosen the soil. This method of discarding the grass is employed from the time when the paddy seedlings were 10- 40 days old.

d) Fertilizers The farmers of Bandar Baru Tunjong and Sik applied only compost, organic fertilizers and natural minerals.Organic fertiliser was self-made by the farmers themselves. Local Micro-organism (MOL) was used as the main component for the fertilizer. This MOL can be used as an activator in the preparation of compost. Other than being used as compost, it was mixed with water and sprayed directly to the soil. This was done for the purpose of fertilizing the soil and increasing the nutrients. Self-made fertilizer can reduce the cost of production, apart from preserving the sources.

According to one farmer, the main (mother) fertiliser is made from tender bamboo shoots or the soft base of the banana tree stump. All these were crushed and mixed with sugar which contributed to a type of fertiliser. Following this, the materials were soaked with water for up to day 14 days. Later, one litre of this fertiliser was added to 10 litres of water (25 litres can be used for one acre of the land area). The similar method was used to produce other types of fertilisers by mixing animal dung

f) Pest and disease control Bandar Baru Tunjong and Sik farmers adopted an ecological system with conservation of natural predators, and IPM practices to control pests and diseases. The IPM practices included biological pest control, proper cultivation methods, effective application of pesticides and mechanical traps. Some of the biological practices implemented by the Department include integrated fish rearing, integrated Muscovy duck rearing, and rat controlled by Tyto Alba bird, a type of owl.

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g) Harvest Paddy was ready for harvesting in 105-125 days, and all the farmers in the two selected areas of this study used the harvester machine for harvesting.

In summary, both the similarities and differences were found in the practice of paddy farming in the two study locations, which were also reported earlier (Othman et. al., 2010). A comparative summary on the organic paddy farming, using the SRI, in two different farms are shown in Table 1 and Table 2.

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Table 1: Summary of Paddy Farming using Organic (SRI) Method by Day at Sik Method of SRI farming (Sik) Day (D) D1- D14 D10 D11 D13 D14 D16 Day After Planting (DAP) DAP 5 - 8

Note

Activity Ploughing by tractor Release water into the paddy field Preparation Ploughing by small tractor of soil / land Third cycle, making lanes Scattering of organic fertilizer Planting Soak seeds for planting

Note Planting

Activity Paddy seedlings are transferred to the paddy fields

DAP 90

Water Drain out the water management DAP 110 -115 Harvest Harvesting Note: Weeding is carried out as much as four times from the 10th to the 40th day.

Table 2: Summary of Paddy Farming using Organic (SRI) Method by Day at BBT Method of SRI farming (BBT: Bandar Baru Tunjong) Day (D) D1- D14 D10 D11 D13 D14 D24 Day After Planting (DAP) DAP 8 - 12 DAP 90

Note Activity Preparation Ploughing by tractor of soil / land Release water into the paddy field Ploughing by small tractor (kabota) Third cycle, making lanes Scattering of organic fertilizer Planting Soak seeds for planting

Note

Activity

Planting

Paddy seedlings are transferred to the paddy fields Drain out the water

Water management Harvest

DAP 110 Harvesting 115 Note: 1. Organic fertilizer is put into the soil one week before planting; 2. Weeding is carried out as much as four times from the 10th to the 40th day.

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Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming Challenges in sustainable farming This study also showed that there were three challenges in implementing sustainable paddy farming. These were: awareness and early education in sustainable paddy farming, management transition, and high work commitment as shown in Figure 1.

These are further explained below.

Awareness and education Awareness and early education of sustainable paddy farming is vital. It is hoped that innovations through ICT would provide meaningful contributions.

During this study, it was found that most paddy farmers were lacking in awareness and education regarding organic farming practices. Therefore it is pertinent that farmers and youth could be educated on the immense benefits of sustainable practices in paddy farming.

According to Mustapha and Mohd Jani (1995), agricultural projects must prioritize social interest and long-term economic goals rather than short-term interests by implementing programmes that minimizes the destruction of resource.

Nevertheless, any attempt to make the society aware requires the intervention from the government because of two factors.

Firstly, the policy formulation which

Sustainable characteristic 1. Balancing ecosystem 2. Input from sustainable resources 3. No chemical or synthetic fertiliser and pesticide 4. Natural control (pest, disease and weed)

Othman and Hasan supports sustainable agricultural development and secondly, government intervention in implementing laws relating to the maintenance and control of agriculture resource utilization.

Therefore, a government policy which supports agricultural development that takes into account sustainability factors is the prerequisite that determines the success or failure of a sustainable agricultural development programme.

Management transition The next challenge is management transition from conventional farming to organic farming. In reality, there are several challenges in the current implementation of rice management, among them are: i.

Unsatisfactory outcome Most farmers are categorized under low incomes. A study conducted in 1990 showed that 60 percent of the household or rice field employees were either poor or extremely poor.

After 10 years, however research showed farmer’s poverty rate had reduced to 40 percent.

The income of rice farmers is low due to the uneconomical size of the fields which is mainly unprofita-

Sustainable Paddy Farming Practices 1. Land preparation 2. Seeds preparation 3. Water management 4. Fertilizers 5. Control (weed, pest and disease) 6. Harvest

Challenges 1. Awareness and education 2. Management transition 3. High work commitment

Figure 1: The proposed model describing the key areas of sustainable and organic paddy farming practices.

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Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming -ble. The majority of farmers acquired the fields through inheritance, and poverty forces most farmers to find other jobs to increase their income. Thus, most small scale rice farmers with low income make paddy farming as their part time jobs.

This opinion is supported by MADA (2005) whereby many low income rice farmers face financial difficulty and need loans to support the family. Unfortunately, loans become a burden and three quarter of MADA farmers are classified as debtors. ii.

Demand exceeds production Rice production in Malaysia is insufficient to cater to the country’s needs, and around 30% of rice is imported from Thailand and Vietnam. According to MADA, on average, paddy production yield in Malaysia is 4.2 tonnes per hectare per season (MADA, 2009), which is considered low. Thus, the country cannot meet its own demand.

iii.

High production cost Production cost of rice in Malaysia is high and this has compelled the government to intervene by offering incentives. Accordingly if the various types of input given by the government in the form of subsidies, such as seed, fertilizer and price subsidies, were to be taken away, it would be difficult to attract a person to venture into rice agriculture.

iv.

Labor shortage The rice farming sector in Malaysia faces a problem of labor shortage.

The youth are keen to migrate to the

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Othman and Hasan cities and work in the manufacturing and other sectors than growing rice.

Therefore, the present Malaysian rice farmers’ average age has actually exceeded retirement age. Due to old age and low income, they work on their rice fields just to fulfill their basic daily needs. v.

Incomplete infrastructure, water shortage Lack of infrastructure and weak irrigation system are also the main problems faced by many rice farmers in Malaysia.

High work commitment Organic paddy farming requires a high commitment from farmers. This is supported by information extracted from an interview with an organic farmer who believes that farming organically require sacrifice and patience. “To ensure that this (pointing to his paddy field) is good, more sacrifice is required. It requires wisdom. By doing this, the outcome is better. - (Farmer 4, personal communication, July 23, 2009).

Farmers who consider organic rice cultivation as a part-time job will not be able to run it effectively. This is because waste from agricultural products need to be recycled, for example it should be turned into compost. Apart from that, pest, disease and weed control should be done naturally.

This will be difficult if the farm environment is damaged or polluted.

According to organic farmers in Bandar Baru Tunjong, they face environmental problems and an in balanced ecosystem because of long term usage of chemical fertilizer.

Ismail (2006) also agrees that the transition from conventional to organic farming requires a high level of 48

Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming commitment. According to him, this conversion is a difficult move because the positive impact, if there is any, can only be gained in the long term.

CONCLUSION SRI is an innovative system for the organic agricultural practices aimed at preserving the nature and environment. SRI is also a methodology in organic paddy farming practices. Our study outcome suggests that for a sustainable organic paddy farming the proposed model, as shown in Figure 1, the 3 key areas are: 1) sustainability characteristics; 2) sustainable paddy farming practices; and 3) challenges in sustainable farming. This study made a significant contribution in the agricultural sector, in line with the objective of Agro Makanan Policies (2011-2020) which is to guarantee adequate and safe supply of food for consumption.

However, other factors such as good perceptions (Bagheri et. al, 2008); interactive and cooperation between farmer; government, research institution; and the role of the policy-maker are important factors in achieving sustainable agriculture (Murad et al, 2008; Sharghi et al, 2010).

More research is required on the sustainable agriculture and organic farming in Malaysia for the better understanding and addressing the issues.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to express their gratitude to Captain Zakaria Kamantasha, Managing Director of Sri Lovely Farm, Sik, Kedah for extending his cooperation to write this paper.

REFERENCES

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Othman and Hasan Bagheri, A., Fami, H. S., Rezvanfar, A., Asadi, A., and Yazdani, S. (2008).

Perceptions of Paddy Farmers towards Sustainable Agricultural Technologies: Case of Haraz Catchments Area in Mazandaran province of Iran.

American Journal of Applied Sciences, 5(10), 1384-1391. doi: 10.3844/ajassp.2008.1384.139.

Ismail, M. R. (2006). Pertanian Lestari.

Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. (p.35) Murad, M. W., Mustapha, N. H. N., and Siwar, C. (2008). Review of Malaysian Agricultural Policies with Regards to Sustainability. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 4(6), 608-614.

Mustapha, N. H. and Mohd Jani, M. F. (1995).

Pembangunan Pertanian Lestari.Selangor:Penerbit UKM. (p.25) National Green Technology Policy (2009).

Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water, Malaysia.

Othman, Z., Muhammad, A. and Abu Bakar, M. A. (2010). A Sustainable Paddy Farming Practice in West Malaysia.The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 5(2), 425-438.

Othman, S. N., Othman, Z. and Yaacob, N. A. (2016). The Value Chain of System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Organic Rice of Rural Farms in Kedah. International Journal of Supply Chain Management, 5(3), 111120.

49

Focus Environ (2016) Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming Othman, Z. and Muhammad, A. (2011).

Design strategies to persuasive learning for promoting sustainable practices in paddy farming. American Journal of Economics and Business Administration, 3(1), 197-202.

Sharghi, T., Sedighi, H., and Eftekhari, A. R. (2010). Effective Factors in Achieving Sustainable Agriculture.American Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences,

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Othman and Hasan 5(2), 235-241.

10.3844/ajabssp.2010.235.24.

doi:

Uphoff, N. (2006). The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) as a Methodology for Reducing Water Requirements in Irrigated Rice Production.

International Dialogue on Rice and Water: Exploring Options for Food Security and Sustainable Environments, Philippines, March 7-8, 2006.

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Focus on Environment

Focus Environ (2016), P51-59

Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Environmental Legislations in Malaysia: A Protection to Public Health Haslinda Mohd Anuar School of Law, College of Law, Government and International Studies (COLGIS), Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia Phone No.: +6 04-9288106; Email: haslinda@uum.edu.my

ABSTRACT The importance between human and environment was first recognized by Stockholm Declaration in 1972. This interdependent was further developed by Rio Declaration 1992 whereby the concept of sustainable development was widely introduced. Although the main theme was ‘development’, Principle 1 of the Rio Declaration proclaims that ‘Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature’. Rio Declaration 1992 was further strengthened with Rio +20 in 2012 whereby more agenda have been defined ‘to a safer, more equitable, cleaner, greener and more prosperous world for all’. In Malaysia, various legislations and national policies have been implemented to achieve sustainable development including with enactment of Environmental Quality Act 1974; Dasar Alam Sekitar Negara; and Dasar Perubahan Iklim Negara as the basis of environmental management. However, there are more than forty environmental related legislations been enforced by various government agencies in Malaysia. Furthermore, in 2013, during the Third Ministerial Regional Forum on Environment and Health in South East and East Asian Countries held in Kuala Lumpur member countries agreed to cooperate to develop and implement National Environmental Health Action Plans (NEHAP) that aims ‘to put sustainable environment and health at the centre of development, and that will result in sustainability and improvements in environmental quality, and enhancement of public health, and ensure the health of the future generations in the region’. This chapter will discuss primarily the development of environmental legislations including the national policies in Malaysia which aim to protect the public health.

Keywords: Environment; health; legislation; policy.

INTRODUCTION Clean air, clean water, fertile soil and functioning ecosystems are the integral part of human survival and well-being, and it was argued by many scholars that these ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

elements should be considered as part of rights to life and health (Boyd, 2011; Weissbrodt, 2007; Dowdeswell, 1994).

According to the World Health Organization, approximately one-quarter of the entire burden of disease globally is 51

Focus Environ (2016) Environmental Legislations in Malaysia attributable to environmental risk factors (A. Pruss-Ustun, 2006). Human activity is the major threat to environment and every component of the environment is constantly threatened due to destruction of natural resources due to increasing human demand and development activities. In this situation, laws are essential in guiding enforcement efforts and in the formulation of subsequent policies in carrying out environmental requirements (Rahman, 2010).

Malaysia faces numerous diverse range of environmental issues and problems.

There are: air pollution; water pollution; sound and noise pollution; agro-chemical pollution; degradation of ground water level; filling of lakes abd water bodies; acid rain; deforestaion; soil pollution; land degradation; biodiversity degradation; global warming; terrorist activities; politics and political parties; corruptions in adminstration; solid waste management; unplanned urbanisation; hazardous waste; water crisis; disease outbreak; landslides and landslips; polythene use; and sectoral environmental problems (Mohammad, 2011).

This paper will give an overview on right to live in healthy environment or ‘environmental rights’ with particularly focus on environmental health. Various international instruments will be discussed including the Stockholm Declaration 1972 and the Rio Declaration 1992. At National level, the Articles in Federal Constitution and the Environmental Quality Act 1974 will be examined accordingly. To further strengthen the laws by way of action National Environmental Health Action Plan (NEHAP) was documented and implemented by the Ministry of Health. All these legislations are enforced to ensure that the sustainable development is achieved for a better standard of healthy living for present and future generations.

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Mohd Anuar ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS ON ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS AND HEALTH International instruments The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948 by the General Assembly of the United Nations. Human rights are derived from the principle of Natural Law whereby ‘Human (person) possesses rights because of the very fact that it is a person, a whole, a master of itself and of its acts…by natural law, the human person has the right to be respected, is the subject of rights’ (Shradha Sinha, 2005).

Asia Pacific Forum on Human Rights and the Environment (2007) defined that environmental rights as right to environment, a ‘right of the people to a healthful environment’, a right to live in an ‘environment and surroundings which are condusive to health’, and a right to ‘use natural resources in accordance with customary traditions and practices which encourage community-based sustainable natural resource management’. According to Mukherjee (2002), ‘‘environmental rights’ have been defined as both individual and collective, both substantive and procedural’, and the contents of ‘environmental rights’ have been ‘derived from the existing universally recognised rights, both with regard to substantive rights (such as the rights to life, health and privacy) and procedural rights (namely, access to information and due process of law)’. Environmental Science Dictionary defined the environmental rights as a right enjoyed by all members of society that people can live and work in healthy, safe and comfortable environment. It also states that it includes the right to life and healthy, the right of property security and the right of 52

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comfortable environment for living and working.

The words ‘clean’ and ‘healthy’ environment is interconnected. It may be stated that a clean environment is a human right; and health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The scope of creating a healthy environment is clealy not limited to hospitals and doctor’s surgeries, but includes the myraid factors that influence to health, agriculture and food, education, employment status, and working envirinment, water and sanitation, and health care services (Mohammad, 2014).

Stockholm Declaration 1972 has recognized the relationship between human and development. Principle 1 of the Stockholm Declaration declared that, ‘man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate condition of life, in an environment of quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations’. Stockholm Declaration 1972 referred to ‘an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being’.

Then, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992, known as the Earth Summit, produced Rio Declaration on Human Environment and Development (the Rio Declaration) that stressed the principle of sustainable development, that is, development that meets the developmental and environmental needs of present and future generation.

Principle 1 of the Rio Declaration states that, “Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature”.

In 1994, the report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and the

Environment included the proposed right to secure, healthy and ecologically sound environment. Since then, many countries have inserted the right to healthy environment in their Constitutions (Boyd, 2011). According to Law (2011), in total there are more than 100 countries that have recognized the right to live in a healthy environment either explicitly or through judicial interpretation of other provisions.

These include Norway, Albania, Spain, Argentina, Jamaica, Mexico, Paraguay, Azerbaijan, Indonesia, Thailand, Venezuela, Burundi, Egypt, Kenya, South Africa and many more.

Besides the state constitution, there are also a number of regional agreements that explicitly recognized the right to a healthy environment.

Among the instruments are the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights, the Arab Charter on Human Rights, and the Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters.

Some international courts and tribunals like the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), the European Committee of Social Rights, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have interpreted international treaties and conventions to include the right to a healthy environment. For example, ICJ in the case of Hungary v Slovakia opined that, ‘The protection of the environment is… a vital part of contemporary human rights doctrine, for it is a sine qua non for numerous human rights such as the right to health and the right to life itself…damage to the environment can impair and undermine all the rights spoken of in the Universal

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Focus Environ (2016) Environmental Legislations in Malaysia Declaration and instruments’.

other

human

rights

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An ‘environmental right’ is not expressly provided for under Malaysian Federal Constitution or any law. Fundamental liberties or human rights such as liberty of a person, freedom of speech, freedom of movement and right to property are secured under the Malaysian Federal Constitution, and ‘environmental rights’ or right to a healthy environment are yet to be explicitly included as one of the constitutional rights.

In Tan Tek Seng v Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Pendidikan, Court of Appeal ruled that, ‘…the expression ‘life’ appearing in Article 5(1) does not refer to mere existence. It incorporates all those facets that are an integral part of life itself… it includes the right to live a reasonably healthy and pollution free environment’.

Similarly, in Adong bin Kuwau & Ors v Kerajaan Negeri Johor & Anor, the case was decided based on Article 13 of the Federal Constitution which provides for right to property. The court although pronounced that the plaintiffs (the aborigines) have propriety rights over the Linggui valley and the defendants had deprived them the rights, failed to make any reference that such deprivation was tantamount to denial to healthy and decent environment to live for the aborigines. This is the effect of nonexplicit provision on the right to healthy environment under the Federal Constitution.

The Court of Appeal has interpreted the right to life broadly as extending beyond mere existence to the quality of life, and ‘[including] the right to live in a reasonably healthy and pollution free environment’.

Although the Federal Constitution does not mention about ‘environment’ in any of its Article, the legislative lists in the

Federal Constitution contain all different components of the environments. For example, matters of federal responsibility include the development of mineral resources; pest control; and many industrial and infrastructural activities. Matters of state responsibility include land; agriculture and forestry; and state work and water. Matters of concurrent list include public health; town and country planning; and drainage and irrigation.

There are moves to insert the right to healthy and clean environment in the Federal Constitution. The Environmental Law Review Committee in 1992 was reported to make such recommendation (Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, 1992), and in 1996 CAP-SAM National Conference of the Environment in Malaysia stated that, ‘Since environmental protection is crucial to ensure the survival of mankind and other living things, as had been acknowledged by world leaders during the Rio Conference, it is timely that Part II of the Constitution which deals with fundamental liberties be amended to provide for the right to a clean and safe environment’.

The main environmental legislation in Malaysia is the Environmental Quality Act 1974. It covers a wide range of environmental problems such as air pollution, noise pollution, pollution on land, and pollution of inland water. Besides that, there are other legislations enacted on matters relating to the environment such as Land Conservation Act 1960, Wildlife Act 1972, National Park Act 1980, National Forestry Act 1984, and Fisheries Act 1985.

The existence of these legislations indicates the importance of environmental protection and management in Malaysia.

The Department of Environment was created in 1975 under the Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment

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Malaysian legislations

Focus Environ (2016) Environmental Legislations in Malaysia to manage and administer the environmental quality in Malaysia. As a federal agency, it does not appear to be full control over environmental resources. As mentioned earlier, matters relating to land, forest and water resources are under the jurisdiction of the state and enacted under different legislations, which are not under the charge of the Department of Environment. For an effective environmental management and implementation, total cooperation between the state and federal authorities are required.

Some environmental initiatives have been made to achieve sustainable development. Malaysian Plan provides a road map of socio economic aspects of the country. The Seventh Malaysian Plan clearly states that clean, safe, and healthy living environment are to be achieved for our present and future generations. Besides the Department of Environment which was established under the Environmental Quality Act 1974, the local governments has been performing a wide range of services such as public health and cleansing, enforcement and licensing, and public amenities and social services. Malaysia has also actively participating and implementing various provisions of international instruments for example Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in (Date of Ratification: 14 September 1993); The United Nations Conventions on Biological Diversity 1992 (Date of Ratification: 22 September 1994); and The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Tropical Timber Agreement 1994 (Date of Ratification: 1994). These initiatives, again, requires full cooperation from all stakeholders to ensure the aim of sustainable development is achieved.

NEHAP ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Mohd Anuar Environmental protection and public health goals are in general replenishing each other.

The term environmental health, as defined

by World Health Organisation, addressed all physical, chemical, and biological factors external to a person, and all the related factors impacting behavior. It encompasses the assessment and control of those environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards preventing disease and creating healthsupportive environments (NEHAP Malaysia, 2016). In other word, environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment that may affect human health (NEHAP Malaysia, 2016).

The NEHAP has been developed and implemented by many countries to address environmental health problems and needs for action. In the Third Ministerial Regional Forum on Environmental and Health in South East and East Asian Countries held in Kuala Lumpur in September 2013, the Kuala Lumpur Declaration was affirmed to; “Agree to cooperate to develop and implement national environmental health action plans (NEHAPs), or equivalent plans, that aims to put sustainable environment and health at the centre of development, and that will result in sustainability and improvements in environmental quality, and enhancement of public health, and ensure the health of the future generations in the region; Agree to work for the development and implementation of mechanism to enable mire effective sharing of information between the health and environment sectors and other sectors through the Environmental Health Country Profiles (EHCP) and Environmental Data Sheets (EHDS)� (Figure 1).

Based on the National Policy on Environment which aims at continued economic, social and culture progress and 55

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Figure 1: A schematic diagram depicts the mechanism adopted in Malaysia’s National Environmental Health Action Plan (NEHAP) (Source: NEHAP Malaysia, 2016). enhancement of the quality of life of Malaysians through environmentally sound and sustainable development, the Economic Planning Unit of the Prime Minister’s Department was agreed that NEHAP was to be developed in the 9th Malaysia Plan by the Ministry of Health. The main objectives to NEHAP are; (1) To strengthen collaboration and cooperation between various sectors for effective use of resources in improving human health and sustainable development; (2) To develop and maintain human health and sustainable development through the management of environmental health with a systematic and holistic manner in the country.

The followings are environmental health areas of concern which have been identified on the Regional Initiative on ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Environment and Health in Southeast and East Asian Countries (NEHAP Malaysia, 2016): 1. Air Quality 2. Water, sanitation and hygiene 3. Solid and hazardous waste 4. Toxic chemicals and hazardous substances 5. Climate change, ozone depletion and ecosystem change 6. Contingency planning, preparedness and response in environmental health emergencies 7. Environmental health impact assessment The implementation mechanism comprises of a three-tier approach and lead agency to implement it has been identified (Figure 2).

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Figure 2: A schematic diagram showing the responsibilities of lead agencies (NEHAP) (Source: NEHAP Malaysia, 2016).

CONCLUSION Environment rights and environmental health are definitely important issues that must be clearly address by all stakeholders including the authorities, private sectors, public and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Environmental issues are not only affecting the present generation but also will have impact on future generations. In line with United Nations policies, Malaysia have a long list of environmental legislations; however, these instruments could not be ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

effectively implemented cooperation from all players.

without

REFERENCE Pruss-Ustun. A. (2006). Preventing Disease Through Healthy Environments: Towards an Estimate of the Environmental Burden Disease.

World Health Organization.

Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to 57

Focus Environ (2016) Environmental Legislations in Malaysia Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus, 25 June 1998).

Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights (San Salvador Protocol, 17 November 1988).

Adong bin Kuwau & Ors v Kerajaan Negeri Johor and Anor (1997) 1 MLJ 418 (High Court); (1998) 1 CLJ Supp. 419.

African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Banjul, 27 June 1981).

Arab Charter on Human Rights (Tunis, 22 May 2004).

Asia Pacific Forum on Human Rights and the Environment. (2007). Final Report and Recommendations.

Sydney.

Boyd,

D. R. (2011). The Implicit Constitutional Right to Live in a Healthy Environment. Review of European Community & International Environmental Law 2(20), 171.

Dowdeswell, E. (1994). Development of International Law. Juridisk & Forlag.

Hungary v Slovakia (1997). ICJ Rep. 151 at 206 Law,

Mohd Anuar Environmental Law Review Committee, Department of Environment.

Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment.

Mohammad, N. (2011).

Urban Environmental POllution in Malaysia: A Case Study. British Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 3(1), 46.

Mohammad, N. (2014). Environmental Rights for Administering Clean ad Healthy Environments Towards Susainable Development in Malaysia: A Case Study.

International Journal of Business and Management 9(8), 191.

Mukherjee, R. (2002). Environmental Management and Awareness Issues.

New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.

NEHAP Malaysia.

Retrieved from nehapmalaysia on 15 Ogos 2016: www.nehapmalaysia.moh.gov Rahman, H. A. (2010). Human Rights to Environment in Malaysia. Health and the Environment Journal 1(1), 59.

Shradha Sinha, m. s. (2005). A Text Book of Environmental Studies. New Delhi: AITBS Publishers & Distributors.

D. (2011). The Evolution and Ideology of Global Constitutionalism. California Law Review, pp.1163-1257.

Tan Tek Seng v Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Pendidikan (1996) 2 CLJ 771, at 801.

Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment. (1992). Report of

Weissbrodt, D. (2007). International Human Rights Law: An Introduction.

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58

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University

Mohd Anuar of

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Pennsylvania Press.

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Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Focus Environ (2016), P60-73

The Echinoderm (Sea Cucumber) Fisheries in the IndoPacific Region: Emerging Prospects, Potentials, Culture and Utilization M. Aminur Rahman1, * and Fatimah Md. Yusoff1, 2 1

Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 2Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia *Corresponding author; Email: aminur1963@gmail.com / aminur@upm.edu.my

ABSTRACT Echinoderms belong to the bottom-dwelling sessile invertebrates are considered as the highvalued marine bioresource, having profound biological, ecological, aquacultural, conservational, nutritional and pharmaceutical significance. The phylum Echinodermata is divided into five extant classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars) and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers). Among them, the sea cucumbers are both commercially fished and heavily overexploited. The principal product in the sea cucumber, is the boiled and dried body-wall or ‘beche-de-mer’ for which there is an increasing demand in many tropical and subtropical countries and also have long been considered as a priced delicacy and medicinal cure for the peoples of Asia over many decades. In the nutritional point of view, sea cucumbers are enriched with valuable nutrients such as Vitamin A, Vitamin B1 (thiamine), Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), Vitamin B3 (niacin), and minerals, especially calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc. A comprehensive number of unique biological and pharmacological activities including anti-angiogenic, anticoagulant, anticancer, anti-hypertension, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antithrombotic, antitumor and wound healing have been attributed to various species of sea cucumbers. They have also long been well recognized as a tonic and traditional remedy in Chinese and Malaysian literature for their effectiveness against, asthma, rheumatism, tuberculosis, stomach and duodenum ulceration, diabetes, aplastic anaemia, cuts and burns, impotence and constipation. In order to meet up the increasing market demands, the collection of sea cucumbers from the wild has seen a depletion of this resource in the traditional fishing grounds close to Asia and more recently the expansion of this activity to new and more distant fishing grounds. Presently, there has been documented that, sea cucumbers fisheries are harvesting around most of the resource range areas, including the remote parts of the Pacific, the Galapagos Islands, Chile and the Russian Federation. This review shows that sea cucumber stocks are under intense fishing pressure in many parts of the world and need effective aquaculture management and conservation measures. It also shows that sea cucumbers provide an important contribution to economies and livelihoods of coastal communities, being the most commercially important fishery and non-finfish export in many countries. Reconciling the need for conservation with the socio-economic importance of sea cucumber fisheries is shown to be a challenging endeavour, particularly for the countries with limited management capacity. Current ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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research directions are looking at diversifying technology to increase success in a range of coastal conditions, better understanding the social and biophysical conditions required for success, and finding ways of effectively scaling-out developed systems and culture technology.

Moreover, no single management measure will work optimally due to the many eccentricities of these important fisheries, which are outlined in this document through a brief review of their biological, ecological, aquacultural, biomedicinal, conservational, economic and social dimensions.

Keywords: Aquaculture; beche-de-mer; biomedicine; breeding; larval rearing; life cycle; nutraceuticals; sea cucumber

PROSPECTS AND POTENTIALS In the recent decades, invertebrate fisheries have expanded in catch and value worldwide (Anderson et al., 2011). One increasingly harvested marine invertebrates group is sea cucumbers, belong to the class Holothuroidea under the phylum Echinodermata, which usually occur in the shallow benthic areas and deep seas across the world (Bordbar et al., 2011). Sea cucumbers are elongated tubular or flattened soft-bodied marine benthic invertebrates, typically with leathery skin, ranging in length from a few millimetres to a metre (Backhuys, 1977; Lawrence, 1987). Holothuroids encompass 14000 known species (Pawson, 2007) and occur in most benthic marine habitats worldwide, in temperate and tropical oceans, and from the intertidal zone to the deep sea (Hickman et al., 2006). The fisheries of sea cucumber have expanded worldwide in catch and value over the past two to three decades (Conand, 2004; FAO, 2008). Global sea cucumber production increased from 130,000 t in 1995 to 411,878 t in 2012 (Rahman et al., 2015). Among other aquatic animals, overall production of dried sea cucumbers has increased rapidly (Figure 1).

However, sea cucumber fisheries in Asian countries (China, Japan, India, Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia) have been depleted due to overexploitation as well as lack of effective management and conservation strategies. The major product in the sea cucumber is the boiled and dried body-wall, ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

familiarly known as ‘beche-de-mer’ or ‘gamat’, for which there is an increasing demand for food delicacy and folk medicine in the communities of Asia and Middle East (Yaacob et al., 1997; Huizeng, 2001; Bordbar et al., 2011). There is also a trade in sea cucumbers for home aquaria and biomedical products (Bruckner et al., 2003).

Sea cucumber fisheries had rapidly grown and expanded due to the growing beche-demer-related international market, supported by continuing demand of these organisms for aquaculture and biomedical research programs (Kelly, 2005; Bordbar et al., 2011). They have high commercial value coupled with increasing global production and trade and therefore, commercially fished and heavily overexploited in some areas (Kelly, 2005; Bordbar et al., 2011). The widespread and growing interest in this commodity is indicative of strong marketbased drivers to increase production of sea cucumber (Brown et al., 2010). It also shows that sea cucumbers provide an important contribution to economies and livelihoods of coastal communities, being the most economically important fishery and non-finfish export in many countries (ToralGranda et al., 2008). Reconciling the need for conservation with the socio-economic importance of sea cucumber fisheries is shown to be a challenging endeavour, particularly for the countries with limited management capacity. Moreover, no single management measure will work optimally due to the many idiosyncrasies of these fisheries.

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Focus Environ (2016) The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Region Many sea cucumber fisheries still have no management system or restrictions, and for those that do, the scenario for catches to continue even at a reduced level is poor (Kelly, 2005). Cultivation of these species increasingly becomes a necessity, both for stock enhancement programs and as a means to meet up market demand.

BREEDING, SEED PRODUCTION AND CULTURE The species of sea cucumber targeted for culture, belong to two families, the depositfeeding Aspidochirotida, which includes the Holothuriidae and the Stichopodidae, and the suspension feeding Dendrochirotida, which includes the genus Cucumaria. The cultivatable species of sea cucumbers are dioecious, broadcast spawners, the fertilized eggs developing into planktonic larvae be-

Rahman and Yusoff

fore settling and undergoing metamorphosis to the juvenile sea cucumber. The average life span of a sea cucumber is thought to be 5–10 years and most species first reproduce at 2–6 years. A number of species are reported to reproduce asexually by fission, and this has been examined as a technique to propagate commercially important species (Reichenbach et al., 1996). They also have the capability to eviscerate part or all of their internal organs as a defence against predation, the shed organs being rapidly regenerated.

Cultivation of sea cucumbers originated in Japan in the 1930s and juveniles of the temperate species Stichopus japonicus (Figure 2A) were first produced in 1950 (Battaglene et al., 1999). During the last 15 years, commercial production in Japan has accelerated, where annually an estimated 2.5 million juveniles are released. In China, cul-

Figure 1: World sea cucumber fisheries production from 1950 to 2012 (Rahman et al., 2015).

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Focus Environ (2016) The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Region tured rather than fished S. japonicus now account for around 50% of the country’s estimated annual production of dry sea cucumber (Kelly, 2005). Procedures for mass culture of the tropical Holothuria scabra (Figure 2B) are now well established and practiced in Australia, India, Indonesia, the Maldives and the Solomon Islands (Battaglene et al., 1999). Other tropical species in culture include Actinopyga mauritania (Figure 2C) and H. fuscogilva (Figure 2D), with the focus of the research effort centered on the production of juveniles in hatcheries for the restoration and enhancement of wild stocks (Ramofafia et al., 1996, 2000).

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Brood stock of Stichopus japonicus is usually collected from the wild in spring, when they attain appropriate sexual maturity (Kelly, 2005). The broodstock is most commonly induced to spawn through thermal stimulation, by increasing the seawater temperature in holding tanks by 3–5°C for 1 h.

Generally, H. scabra has a biannual peak in gonadosomatic index, indicating two spawning periods a year, but closer to the equator a proportion of the population spawns yearround (Battaglene et al., 1999; Kelly, 2005).

Fertilization occurs spontaneously once the gametes are allowed to mix in seawater; the fertilized eggs are held in suspension by aer-

A

B

C

D

Figure 2: Major commercially important species of sea cucumbers in aquaculture: A) Stichopus japonicas, B) Holothuria scabra, C) Actinopyga mauritania and D) Holothuria fuscogilva (Rahman, 2014a, b).

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Focus Environ (2016) The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Region -ation and egg development is rapid. Larval life cycle of H. scabra is almost around 14 days at 28°C, including the feeding or auricularia stage, the doliolaria or non-feeding stage and settling pentacula stage (Figure 3 and 4). As with many other larval Echinoderms, sea cucumber larvae are fed a mixture of microalgal species, with the number of algal cells provided gradually being increased over the larval life to be completed.

Holothuria scabra larvae can feed and grow well on a diet of the red microalgae Rhodomonas salina and the brown diatom

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Chaetoceros calcitrans (Battaglene et al., 1999; Kelly, 2005).

Metamorphosis and settlement are critical stages in the development and culture of sea cucumber larvae. High survival is dependent on the larvae being competent to metamorphose and then responding to settlement cues. Competent pentacula (Figure 4C) larvae are provided with a substrate of bacteria and diatoms, which provide the appropriate settlement cues, and to which they adhere with their buccal podia. Typically,

Figure 3: Spawning, fertilization and a 14-day larval life-cycle of a cultured sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra) at a water temperature of 28oC (FAO, 2008; Bruckner et al., 2003).

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A

B

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D

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Figure 4: Developmental stages of Holothuria scabra: A) Auricularia; B) Doliolaria; C) Pentactula; and D) Early juvenile.

S. japonicus settles on PVC plates coated with small periphytic diatoms such as Navicula, Amphora, Achnanthes and Nitzchia sp. The plates are coated in outdoor tanks in direct sunlight, although the light intensity, nutrient enrichment and copepod levels must be controlled to produce suitable plates (Kelly, 2005). Leaves of the sea grass (Thallassia hemprichii) are the preferred settlement substrate of H. scabra and soluble extracts of the leaves have been shown to induce settlement onto clean plastic surfaces (Kelly, 2005). Post-settlement juvenile sea cucumbers are grown either on diatomcoated plates, held in fine mesh bags in tanks or on the bottom of tanks, where juveniles of 10–20 mm are transferred to a fine sand substrate and fed a diet supplemented by algal extracts or powdered algae. Newly settled juveniles (Fig. 4D) attach firmly to settlement surfaces and can be difficult to ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

detach. Throughout the juvenile stage it is necessary to periodically detach the juveniles from the substrate for grading, transfer between tanks or to supply fresh substrates.

KCl (0.5–1%) in seawater is an effective agent for detaching H. scabra from settlement surfaces (Kelly, 2005). The use of KCl does not harm juvenile sea cucumbers but does effectively kill some tropical copepods (Battaglene et al., 1999).

After a nursery phase of 6-month, when the juvenile S. japonicus grows to a length of 4–8 cm, are released to managed areas of the seafloor. They are recovered after 1 year when they measure approximately 20 cm (Kelly, 2005). There is a lack of information on growth rates and survivorship in tropical species, and, as with all Holothuria, measurements of growth are complicated by their ability to change shape, eviscerate and retain water and sediment in 65

Focus Environ (2016) The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Region the gut and coelomic cavity (Kelly, 2005).

However, Battaglene et al. (1999) suggest there should be no impediment to the largescale production of juvenile H. scabra for stock enhancement programs provided they can be released at a size of 6 cm and with a weight of 20 g. The three months it takes to reach juvenile H. scabra of this size (Figure 5) and the ease of rearing them under active consideration for grow-out culture and stock enhancement (Battaglene et al., 1999).

Figure 5: Three-month old juveniles of H. scabra for grow-out culture and stock enhancement.

Aquaculture, sea ranching and re stocking have been evaluated as possible solutions to wild sea cucumber overexploitation, and some countries have started such ventures (e.g. Australia, China, Kiribati, Philippines, Viet Nam and Madagascar).

Restocking has been considered an expensive remedy to overfishing. Currently, China is successfully producing an estimated 10,000 tons, dry weight, of Stichopus japonISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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icus from aquaculture, mainly to supply local demand. Due to the prawn diseases happened in 1990s, a lots of prawn ponds are unused, so the farmers started pond culture of sea cucumber in Shan Dong province and Dalian. Currently pond culture has become the most suitable method of sea cucumber farming (Figure 6). In the Asia Pacific region, aquaculture is still in the early development stages, with one species of sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra) in trials to ascertain the commercial viability of culture and farming options. Many additional threats have been identified for sea cucumber populations worldwide, including global warming, habitat destruction, unsustainable fishing, the development of fisheries with little or no information on the species, and lack of natural recovery after overexploitation. Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) fisheries are widespread in all regions, representing an indirect threat as it fuels unsustainable practices and socioeconomic demand. The critical status of sea cucumber fisheries worldwide is compounded by different factors including i) the lack of financial and technical capacity to gather basic scientific information to support management plans, ii) weak surveillance and enforcement capacity, and iii) lack of political will and socio-economic pressure exerted by the communities that rely on this fishery as an important source of income. The fast pace of development of sea cucumber fisheries to supply the growing international demand for beche-de-mer is placing most fisheries and many sea cucumber species at risk. The pervasive trend of overfishing, and mounting examples of local economic extinctions, urges immediate action for conserving stocks biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and resilience from other stressors than overfishing (e. g. global warming and ocean acidification), and therefore sustaining the ecological, social and economic

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Focus Environ (2016) The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Region benefits of these natural resources (ToralGranda et al., 2008).

HIGH-VALUED BIOACTIVES AND THERAPEUTICS Majority of the recently available functional foods and therapeutic agents are derived either directly or indirectly from a wide variety of terrestrial plants and marine organisms.

Owing to the richest oceanic biodiversity, marine organisms are valuable sources of nutritious foods as well as represent novel reservoirs of biologically active compounds with biomedical applications. Sea cucumbers are one of the benthic marine invertebrates which are important as human food source, particularly in some parts of Asia.

Sea cucumbers have been well recognized as a tonic and traditional remedy in Chinese and Malaysian literature for their effectiveness against hypertension, asthma, rheumatism, cuts and burns, impotence and constipation (Weici, 1987; Yaacob et al., 1997; Wen et al., 2010). Nutritionally, sea cucumbers have an impressive profile of valuable nutrients such as Vitamin A, Vitamin B1 (thiamine), Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), Vitamin B3 (niacin), and minerals, especially calci-

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um, magnesium, iron and zinc (Tian et al., 2005). A number of unique biological and pharmacological activities including antiangiogenic (Tian et al., 2005), anticancer (Roginsky et al., 2004), anticoagulant (Nagase et al., 1995; Chen et al., 2011), antihypertension (Hamaguchi et al., 2010), antiinflammatory (Collin, 2004), antimicrobial (Beauregard et al., 2001), antioxidant (Althunibat et al., 2009), antithrombotic (Mourao et al., 1998), antitumor (Zou et al., 2003) and wound healing (San Miguel-Ruiz and GarcĂ­a-ArrarĂĄs, 2007) have been attributed to various species of sea cucumbers.

Therapeutic properties and medicinal benefits of sea cucumbers can be linked to the presence of a wide array of bioactive compounds, especially triterpene glycosides (saponins) (Kerr and Chen, 1995), chondroitin sulfates (Vieira et al., 1991), glycosaminoglycan (Pacheco et al., 2000), sulfated polysaccharides (Mourao, and Pereira, 1999), sterols (glycosides and sulfates) (Goad et al., 1985, phenolics (Mamelona et al., (2007), (Sugawara et al., 2007), lectins (Mojica and Merca, 2005), peptides (Rafiuddin et al., 2004), glycoprotein, glycosphingolipids and essential fatty acids

Figure 6: Pictures showing some successful aquaculture practices of sea cucumbers in earthen ponds at Shan Dong province and Dalian in China (Rahman, 2014b).

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Focus Environ (2016) The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Region (Bordbar et al., 2011). This review is mainly designed to cover the high-value components and bioactive compounds as well as the multiple biological and therapeutic properties of sea cucumbers with respect to exploring their potential and significant uses for functional foods, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products human health benefits (Rahman et al., 2014; Zulfaqar et al., 2016a, b). So far, numerous studies have been conducted on sea cucumbers, however, profound potentials still exist to isolate, identify and characterize new compounds from different parts of various species of this high-valued marine invertebrate for their chemical structure and detailed biological properties using spectroscopic and biomedical approaches and bioactivity-directed assays to a greater extent.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS We are aware of active research programs in the Philippines (hatchery, nursery systems, sea ranching, co-culture, pond culture), Vietnam (hatchery, pond culture, co-culture, sea ranching), Thailand (pond culture, sea ranching) and Malaysia (hatchery, sea ranching). Strong institutional support, as well as donor-funded programs, in particular, will ensure continued development of sea-ranching and pond-culture systems. Current research in these countries is focusing on technology and system development to diversify options for producers, and on further understanding the optimal socioeconomic and biophysical preconditions for successful enterprises. Models for scaling out technology and catalyzing uptake by small-scale producers are being tested across broad geographic regions. The pond-culture industry in Vietnam, for example, is currently growing ‘organically’, with around a dozen farmers involved. This provides good opISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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portunities for future research in partnership with industry. In the Philippines, a major focus in the near future will be capacity building among local institutions to support early entrants into the sea-ranching industry.

The establishment of model enterprises is expected to provide a strong basis for technology uptake.

Generally, aquaculture operations for marine species do not start until the wild capture has been diminished to a point where incomes and lifestyle of the people involved are affected when the wild stocks decline, high market demand for food, nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals raises the price of the product and, as a result, culturing is most likely to become viable commercially. As this article shows, there have been dramatic advances in the culture methods of sea cucumbers in the last 15–20 years, we can conclude that currently the major obstacles to successful cultivation are indeed financial rather than biological and ecological (Kelly, 2005; Rahman et al., 2015). Therefore, the fate of the sea cucumber industry is narrowly linked to that of the fisheries, whose fate will ultimately determine the market forces that will shape this rising industry in a very productive, significant and worthwhile manner.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to express their sincere thanks and appreciations to Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) for providing financial supports through Research Management Centre (RMC) under the Grant Putra (GP-I) grant vide [Project No. GPI/2014/9450100] to successfully carry out this work.

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Environment and Its Impact on Human Health Sridevi Chigurupati1*, Jahidul Islam Mohammad2 and Kesavanarayanan Krishnan Selvarajan3 1

Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, 08100, Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia 2 Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences, CUCMS, Cyberjaya, 63000, Malaysia 3 Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Hail, Hail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. *Corresponding author; Email: sridevi.phd@gmail.com

ABSTRACT The World Health Organization (WHO) defines “health� as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. There always exists a permanent relationship between humans and his environment, our health is to a considerable extent determined by the environmental quality. The connotations between environmental pollution and health outcome are, however, complex and often poorly described. Stages of exposure are often uncertain or unknown because of lack of detailed observations and predictable variations within any population group. Exposures may occur through a range of pathways and exposure processes. This book chapter discusses the impact of few important environmental factors and their impact on human health.

Keywords: Environment; human health; pollutants; pollution

The relationship between human health and the physical environment is both obvious and obscure. The environment in which human beings survive, work and relax, is determining his health and well-being.

Mentally and physically many facets of environment like physical, chemical as well as microbiological factors can have repercussions on our health, both physically and mentally (Daughton and Ternes, 1997; Halden, 2008; Halden, 2010). However, the relation between environment and health is extremely complicated. Despite many health problems are believed to be associated with

environmental pollution, it is difficult to measure the seriousness, extent, significance and causes of environment-related diseases.

Besides environmental-related factors, there are other causes which can directly or indirectly lead to the same health issues (Blumenthal and Ruttenber, 1995; Nadakavukaren, 1995; Moeller, 1997; Morgan, 1997).

The term environment also covers the influences of external living and nonliving, factual and non-factual factors that surround human. In its modern concept, environment includes not only the water, air and soil that form our environment, but also the communal and commercial conditions

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INTRODUCTION

Focus Environ (2016) Environment and Its Impact on Human Health under which we live (ReVelle and ReVelle, 1992; Wildavsky, 1995).

For expressive purpose, environment has been dispersed into three main components as follows: a) Physical: Water, air, soil, wastes, radiation, etc. b) Biologic: Plant and animal life including bacteria, viruses, insects, rodents and animals, and c) Social: Customs, culture, habits, income, occupation, religion etc.

The fundamental to man's health lies mostly in his environment. In fact, much of man's ill-health can be outlined to hostile environmental factors such as water pollution, soil pollution, air pollution, poor housing conditions, presence of animal reservoirs and insect vectors of diseases which stance a constant threat to man's health. However, often a man is responsible for the pollution of his environment through urbanization, industrialization and other human activities (Park, 2011).

The fundamental connection between human health related effects and distribution of specific substances in that specific environment had been often tough or not perceptible. The specific contribution of each of the different causes of health problems is difficult to determine.

Sridevi et al and mud) and microscopic organisms also contaminate the water. These impurities are generally derived from the atmosphere, catchment area and the soil. However, the urbanization and industrialization are the main causes of the water pollution. The sources of pollution resulting from urbanization and industrialization are: (a) sewage, which contains decomposable organic matter and pathogenic agents, (b) industrial and trade wastes, which contain toxic agents ranging from metal salts to complex synthetic organic chemicals, (c) agricultural pollutants, which comprise fertilizers and pesticides, and (d) physical pollutants, via heat (thermal pollution) and radioactive substances (Abdel-Shafy et al., 2016).

WATER POLLUTION Pure sterilized water does not occur in nature. It contains numerous of impurities as well as natural and man-made (Figure 1A&B) environmental water pollutants. The natural impurities are not fundamentally dangerous. These consist of dissolved gases (e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc.) and dissolved minerals (e.g. salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, etc.) which are natural elements of water.

Suspended impurities (e.g. clay, silt, sand ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Figure 1(A&B): Examples of man-made water pollution.

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Focus Environ (2016) Environment and Its Impact on Human Health Effects on human health Men's health may be affected by the ingestion of contaminated water either directly or through food, and by the use of contaminated water for purpose of personal hygiene and recreation (Table 1). The term water-related disease includes the classical waterborne diseases. Developing countries carry a heavy burden of water-related diseases, the heaviest being the diarrhoeal diseases (Li et al., 2016).

Table 1: Classification of water-related diseases Infective agent / Water-borne diseases Aquatic host A. Those caused by the presence of an infective agent a. Bacterial Typhoid and Paratyphoid fever, Bacillary dysentery, Diarrhoea, cholera b. Helminthic Roundworm, Threadworm, Hydatid disease c. Leptospiral Weil's disease d. Protozoal Amoebiasis, Giardiasis e. Viral Viral hepatitis A, Hepatitis E, Poliomyelitis, Rotavirus diarrhoea in infants B. Those due to the presence of an aquatic host a. Cyclops Guinea worm, Fish tape worm. b. Snail Schistosomiasis Chemical pollutants from industrial and agricultural wastes are progressively finding their way into community water supplies. These pollutants include detergent solvents, cyanides, heavy metals, minerals and organic acids, nitrogenous substances, bleaching agents, dyes, pigments, sulphides, ammonia, toxic and biocidal organic compounds of great variety. Chemical pollutants may affect a men's health not only directly, but also indirectly by accumulated ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Sridevi et al pollutants in aquatic life (e.g. fish) used as human food. The concern about chemical pollutants in water relates not so much as to their acute toxic effects on human health as to the possible long-term effects of low level exposure, which are often non-specific and difficult to detect (Vrzel et al., 2016).

In addition to the above, water quality is also linked with the following: (a) Dental health: The presence of fluoride at about 1 mg/L in drinking water is known to protect against dental caries; but, high levels of fluoride cause mottling of the dental enamel. (b) Cyanosis in infant: High nitrate content of water is associated with methemoglobinemia. This is a rare occurrence, but may occur when surface water from farmland, treated with a fertilizer, gain access to the water supply. (c) Cardiovascular diseases: Hardness of water appears to have a beneficial effect against cardiovascular diseases. (d) Some diseases are transmitted because of inadequate use of water like shigellosis, trachoma and conjunctivitis, ascariasis, scabies. (e) Some diseases are related to the disease carrying insects breeding in or near water, like: malaria, filaria, arboviruses, onchocerciasis, and African trypanosomiasis (also known as sleeping sickness).

While water pollution seems to be an inevitable consequence of modern industrial technology, currently, the challenge is to determine the level of pollution that permits economic and social development without presenting hazards to health. The evaluation of the health effects of environmental pollutants is currently being carried out by researchers as part of the WHO’s environmental health criteria programme (Giudice, 2016).

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Focus Environ (2016) Environment and Its Impact on Human Health SOIL POLLUTION Soil is a dynamic part of the natural environment. It is just as important as plants, animals, rocks, landforms and rivers.

It affects the distribution of plant species and provides an environment for a wide range of organisms (Adriano et al., 1999, Gardiner and Miller 2008; Rajesh et al., 2016). It controls the movement of water and chemical substances between the atmosphere and the earth, and acts as both a source and store for gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Soils not only record human activities both at present and in the past, but also reflect natural processes. Soil together with the plants and animals life it supports, the rock on which it develops its position in the landscape and the climate it experiences, form an amazingly intricate natural system powerful and complex than any machine that human being has created. Soil pollution does cause huge disturbances in the ecological balance and the health of the organisms.

To celebrate the importance of soil and its vital contributions to human health and safety, the International Union of Soil Sciences established ‘the World Soil Day’ in 2002 (Pierzynski et al., 2005). On December 20, 2013, the 68th UN General Assembly recognized December 5th, 2014 as World Soil Day and 2015 as the International Year of Soils.

Sridevi et al pollution/leakages, out-of-date technology, inadequate treatment and safety management of chemicals or waste materials and also the lack of engineer designed landfills, pesticides, fertilizers, organic manure, chemicals, radioactive wastes, discarded food, clothes, leather goods, plastics, paper, bottles, tins-cans and carcasses - all contribute towards causing soil pollution. Chemicals like iron, lead, mercury, copper, zinc, cadmium, aluminium, cyanides, acids, and alkalis etc. are present in industrial wastes that reach the soil either directly with water or indirectly through the air (e.g. through acid rain). The improper and continuous use of herbicides, pesticides and fungicides to protect the crops from pests, fungi, etc. alter the basic composition of the soils and make the soil toxic to plant growth. Organic insecticides like DDT, aldrin, benzene hexchloride, etc. are used against soil borne pests. All these practices also contribute to soil pollution.

Effects on human health

Soil pollution is the reason for fall in the productivity of soil. Soil pollutants have a hostile effect on the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil that leads to the reduction in soil productivity. Increasing urbanization, disposal of unprocessed wastes, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals, irrational mining, dumping industrial wastes, unintentional and accidental

Generally, people can be exposed to contaminants in soil through ingestion, dermal exposure or inhalation. Soil contamination leads to health risks due to direct and indirect contact with contaminated soil. Path of human exposure to a soil contaminant is different with the contaminant and with the conditions and events at a particular site. The effects of pollution on soil are quite alarming and can result in huge disorders in the ecological balance and health of man on earth. Crops cannot grow and flourish in a polluted soil; however, if some crops manage to grow, then these crops might have absorbed the toxic chemicals in the soil and might lead to serious health problems in people consuming them. Sometimes, the soil pollution is in the form of increased salinity of the soil. In such a case, the soil becomes

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Reasons for soil pollution

Focus Environ (2016) Environment and Its Impact on Human Health unhealthy for vegetation. When soil pollution modifies the soil structure, deaths of many beneficial soil organisms (e.g.

Earthworms) in the soil could take place.

Other than further reducing the ability of the soil to support life, this occurrence could also have an effect on the larger predators (e.g. Birds) and force them to move to other places, in the search of food. Figure 2 shows an example of man-made soil pollution.

People living near polluted land tend to have higher incidences of migraines, nausea, fatigue, skin disorders and even miscarriages. Depending on the pollutants present in the soil, some of the longer-term effects of soil pollution include cancer, leukaemia, reproductive disorders, kidney and liver damage, and central nervous system failure. These health problems could be a result of direct poisoning of the polluted land (e.g. children playing on land filled with toxic waste) or indirect poisoning (e.g. eating crops grown on polluted land, drinking water polluted by the leaching of chemicals from the polluted land to the water supply, etc.).

Sridevi et al and joint effort of stakeholders.

Consequently, a soil management framework that is consistent with the national vision for soil environment protection and reflects the comprehensive ‘Soil Environment Protection Act’ is recommended to be established (Policy, 1993).

AIR POLLUTION The term "air pollution" signifies the presence in the ambient (surrounding) atmosphere of substances (e.g., gases, mixtures of gases and particulate matter) generated by the activities of man in concentrations that interfere with human health, safety or comfort, or injurious to vegetation and animals and other environmental media resulting in chemicals entering the food chain or being present in drinking-water and thereby constituting additional source of human exposure (Lancet, 2016). The direct effect of air pollutants on plants, animals and soil can influence the structure and function of ecosystems, including self-regulation ability, thereby affecting the quality of life. In the past, ‘air pollution’ meant smoke pollution (Besis et al., 2016). Today, ‘air pollution’ has become subtler and recognizes no geographical or political boundaries. Air pollution is one of the present-day health problems throughout the world (Cai et al., 2016). The diseases caused by air pollution are shown in Table 2.

Creating a clearly defined management framework is critical to the establishment of a national soil protection management system, for consensus building

The following are the Sources of air pollution a. Automobiles: Motor vehicles are a major source of air pollution throughout the urban areas. They emit hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. b. Industries: Industries emit large amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere.

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Figure 2: environment.

Man-made

soil

polluted

Focus Environ (2016) Environment and Its Impact on Human Health Table 2: Diseases caused by air pollution.

Airborne Cause/Remark disease Asthma Inhaling various attacks poisonous gases and Chronic constant suffocation Obstructive owing to polluted air Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Autism That is tendency to live in isolation Birth defects Due to constant and immune breathing in polluted air. system defects Bronchitis The inflammation and swelling of the air passages between nose to lungs and throat to lungs.

Cardiovascular Bad air quality and lot of problems poisonous gases and particulate matter suspended in the air cause heart diseases and stroke.

Emphysema It’s a state of lungs when tiny air sacs in them.

Leukaemia Exposure to benzene vapours causes this disease which is a type of blood cancer.

Liver and other Suspended carcinogenic types of cancer (cancer causing) matter in the air is main cause of all types of cancer related to respiratory system.

Mesothelioma Another type of lung cancer because of inhaling asbestos particles suspended in the air Neurobehavior Inhaling polluted air that al disorders directly affects your neuro system.

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Sridevi et al Pneumonia

An infection of lungs because of breathing inside bacteria flying in wind pressure and moves into the respiratory system of a person who inhales polluted air.

Premature The ultimate outcome of death constant inhaling of polluted air.

Pulmonary Inhaling various cancer carcinogenic stuff through polluted air Weakening of Constant inhaling of lung function contaminated air Combustion of fuel to generate heat and power produces smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and fly ash. Petrochemical industries generate hydrogen fluoride, hydrochloric acid and organic halides. c. Domestic sources: Domestic combustion of coal, wood or oil is a major source of smoke, dust, and sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. d. Smoking: The most direct and important source of air pollution that affects the health of many people is tobacco smoke.

Even those who do not smoke may inhale the smoke produced by others ("passive smoking"). e. Miscellaneous: The following various sources also contribute to air pollution. These comprise burning refuse, incinerators, pesticide spraying, natural sources (e.g. windborne dust, fungi, moulds, and bacteria) and nuclear energy programmes (Chiang et al., 2016; Huang et al., 2016; Daneshparvar et al., 2016).

Various air pollutants are as follows: i) Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide is one of the most common and widely distributed air pollutants. It is a product of incomplete combustion of carbon containing materials such as incomplete combustion of fuel by automobiles, 79

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industrial process, heating facilities and incinerators. Estimates of man-made carbon monoxide emission vary from 350 - 600 million tonnes per annum. ii) Sulphur dioxide: Domestic fires, power generation and motor vehicles can also produce emissions containing sulphur dioxide. It is one of the several forms in which sulphur exists in the air. The others include H2S, H2SO4 and sulphate salts.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a colourless gas with a sharp odour, results from the combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuel, the smelting of sulphur-containing ores, and other industrial processes. When SO2 combines with water, it forms sulphuric acid; this is the main component of acid rain which is a cause of deforestation. A SO2 concentration of 500μg/m3 should not be exceeded over average periods of 10 min duration. iii) Lead: The combustion of alkyl lead additives in motor fuels accounts for the major part of all lead emissions into the atmosphere. An estimated 80-90 % of lead in ambient air is derived from the combustion of leaded petrol. The mining of lead ores creates pollution problems. iv) Carbon dioxide: Enormous amount of it in combustion process using coal, oil and gas its global concentration is rising above the natural level by an amount that could increase global temperature enough to affect climate markedly. v) Hydrocarbons: Man-made sources of hydrocarbons include incineration, combustion of coal, wood, processing and use of petroleum.

Hydrocarbons exert their pollutant action by taking part in the chemical reactions that cause photochemical smog. vi) Cadmium: The steel industry, waste incineration, volcanic action and zinc production seem to account for the largest emissions. Tobacco contains cadmium, and smoking may contribute significantly to the

uptake of cadmium. Cigarettes may contain from 0.5 to 3 μg cadmium/gram of tobacco. vii) Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen sulphide is formed during coke production, in viscose rayon production, waste-water treatment plants, wood pulp production using the sulphate method, sulphur extraction process, oil refining and in the tanning industry. Hydrogen sulphide is the main toxic substance involved in livestock rearing systems with liquid manure storage. viii) Ozone: The highest levels of ozone pollution occur during periods of sunny weather. It is formed by the photochemical reaction of sunlight with pollutants such as nitrogen oxides from vehicle, industry emissions and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by vehicles, solvents and industry. The previously recommended limit, which was fixed at 120 μg/m3 of 8-hour mean, has been reduced to 100 μg/m3 based on recent conclusive associations between daily mortality and ozone levels occurring at ozone concentrations below 120 μg/m3. ix) Oxides of nitrogen: Emission of oxides of nitrogen occurs predominantly in the form of nitric oxide, which comprises around 95 % of nitrogen oxides from a combustion source. Coal is the most important fuel in this context; other sources are road traffic and electricity generation.

The current air quality guidelines of WHO the value is 40 μg/m3 (WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, 2006) (Kim et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2016).

The detrimental health effects of air pollution have always attracted intense interest among researchers from around the world. In 2010, WHO estimated that more than 6 million people die prematurely every year because of air pollution (Brunekreef and Holgate, 2002). Both ambient air pollution and indoor air pollution have been

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Focus Environ (2016) Environment and Its Impact on Human Health linked to various adverse health outcomes, especially in people with pre-existing medical conditions. Such controlled human exposure studies might also enable a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms leading to possible adverse outcomes.

Ambient air contains many pollutants, including gases such as ozone, oxides of nitrogen, and Sulphur dioxide along with particles of different sizes. Because of the complexity of the composition of air pollutants and the difficulty of precisely measuring exposure, identifying the role of different pollutants in respiratory morbidity is no simple task. Among the various pollutants, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2·5 μm (PM2·5) have received a lot of attention recently (Lim et. al., 2012). These small particles are able to penetrate deep into the small airways, alveoli, and blood stream, where they can lead to subsequent inflammation and vasoconstriction. WHO has estimated that PM2·5 contributes to roughly 800000 premature deaths per year globally (Shah et al., 2013).

Sridevi et al

Infectious diseases emerging throughout history have included some of the most feared plagues of the past. Several factors contribute to the emergence of infectious diseases (Table 3). New infections continue to emerge today, while many of the old plagues are with us still (Ameli, 2015) and are considered as a global problem. As demonstrated by influenza epidemics, under suitable circumstances, a new infection first appearing anywhere in the world could traverse entire continents within days or weeks. Examples of emerging diseases in various parts of the world include HIV/AIDS; classic cholera in South America and Africa; cholera due to Vibrio

cholerae O139; Rift Valley fever; hantavirus pulmonary syndrome; Lyme disease; and haemolytic uremic syndrome, a foodborne infection caused by.certain strains of Escherichia coli (Kamarulzaman et al., 2016).

Most emerging infections appear to be caused by pathogens already present in the environment, brought out of obscurity or given a selective advantage by changing conditions and afforded an opportunity to infect new host populations (on rare occasions), a new variant may also evolve and cause a new disease. The process by which infectious agents may transfer from animals to humans or disseminate from isolated groups into new populations can be called “microbial traffic”. A number of human activity increase microbial traffic and as a result promote the emergence and epidemics. In some cases, including many of the most novel infections, the agents are zoonotic those transfer from their natural hosts into the human population. In other cases, pathogens already present in geographically isolated populations are given an opportunity to disseminate further.

Surprisingly often, disease emergence is caused by human actions; however, natural causes, such as changes in climate, can also at times be responsible. Although this discussion is confined largely to human diseases, similar considerations apply to emerging pathogens in other species.

Ecological interactions can be complex, with several factors often working together or in sequence.

For example, population movement from rural areas to cities can spread a once-localized infection. The strain on infrastructure in the overcrowded and rapidly growing cities may disrupt or slow public health measures, perhaps allowing the establishment of the newly introduced infection. Finally, the city may also provide a gateway for further dissemination of the infection. Most successful emerging

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INFECTIOUS DISEASES ENVIRONMENT

AND

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Table 3: Factors in emergence of infectious diseases*.

Factor Ecological changes (including those due to economic development and land use)

Examples of specific factors Agriculture; dams, changes in water ecosystems; deforestation / reforestation; flood / drought; famine; climate changes

Human demographics, behavior

Societal events: Population growth Introduction of HIV; spread of dengue; and migration (movement from rural spread of HIV and other sexually areas to cities); war or civil conflict; transmitted diseases. urban decay; sexual behavior; intravenous drug use; use of Highdensity facilities.

International travel and commerce

Worldwide movement of goods and ‘Airport’ malaria; dissemination of people; air travel mosquito vectors; rat borne hantaviruses; introduction of cholera into South America; Dissemination of O139 V. cholera.

Technology and industry

Globalization of food supplies; changes in food processing and packaging; organ or tissue transplantation; drugs causing immunosuppression; widespread use of antibiotics

Microbial adaptation and Change

Microbial evolution, response to Antibiotic-resistant bacteria; “antigenic selection in environment drift” in influenza virus

Breakdown in Curtailment or reduction in public health prevention programs; inadequate measures sanitation and vector control measures

Examples of diseases Schistosomiasis (dams); Rift Valley fever (dams, irrigation); Argentine hemorrhagic fever (agriculture); Hantaan (Korean hemorrhagic fever) (agriculture); hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, southwestern US, 1993 (weather anomalies)

Haemolytic uremic syndrome (E. coli contamination of hamburger meat); bovine spongiform encephalopathy; transfusion-associated hepatitis (hepatitis B, C); opportunistic infections in immunosuppressed patients; Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease from contaminated batches of human growth hormone (medical technology)

Resurgence of tuberculosis in the United States; cholera in refugee camps in Africa; resurgence of diphtheria in the former Soviet Union

*Adapted from Institute of Medicine (1992) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1994).

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Focus Environ (2016) Environment and Its Impact on Human Health infections, including HIV, cholera, and dengue, have followed this route (Shima et al., 2016).

NATURAL IONIZING RADIATION Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms in the form of electromagnetic waves or particles. People are exposed to natural sources of ionizing radiation, such as in soil, water, and vegetation, as well as in human-made sources, such as x-rays and medical devices.

Living beings are exposed to natural radiation sources as well as human-made sources on a daily basis. Sixty naturallyoccurring radioactive materials found in soil, water and air are one of the reasons for the natural radiation. A naturally-occurring gas, radon which emanates from rock and soil is the main source of natural radiation. People inhale and ingest radionuclides from air, food and water. People are also exposed to natural radiation from cosmic rays, particularly at high altitude (Little, 2003).

Exposure to radiation from humanmade sources ranging from nuclear power generation to medical usage of radiation for diagnosis or treatments is considered hazardous to the human health. Today, the most common human-made sources of ionizing radiation are medical devices, including X-ray machines.

Sridevi et al occurring radioactive materials found in soil, water and air are one of the reasons for the natural radiation. A naturally-occurring gas, radon which emanates from rock and soil is the main source of natural radiation. People inhale and ingest radionuclides from air, food and water. People are also exposed to natural radiation from cosmic rays, particularly at high altitude (Little, 2003).

Exposure to radiation from humanmade sources ranging from nuclear power generation to medical usage of radiation for diagnosis or treatments is considered hazardous to the human health. Today, the most common human-made sources of ionizing radiation are medical devices, including X-ray machines.

Effects on human health

Ionizing radiation is a type of energy released by atoms in the form of electromagnetic waves or particles. People are exposed to natural sources of ionizing radiation, such as in soil, water, and vegetation, as well as in human-made sources, such as x-rays and medical devices.

Living beings are exposed to natural radiation sources as well as human-made sources on a daily basis. Sixty naturally-

Acute health effects such as skin burns or acute radiation syndrome can occur when doses of radiation exceed certain levels. The effect of cellular response of an organism’s to ionizing radiation exposure at various time intervals is shown in Figure 3. Low doses of ionizing radiation can increase the risk of long term effects such as cancer.

Pregnant women and children are especially sensitive to radiation exposure. The cells in children and fetuses divide rapidly, providing more opportunity for radiation to disrupt the process and cause cell damage.

Radiation damage to tissue and or organs depends on the dose of radiation received, or the absorbed dose which is expressed in a unit called the Gray (Gy). Beyond certain thresholds, radiation can impair the functioning of tissues and or organs and can produce acute effects such as skin redness, hair loss, radiation burns, or an acute radiation syndrome. These effects are more severe at higher doses and higher dose rates.

If the radiation dose is low, but, over a long period of time, there is still a risk of longterm effects such as cancer; however, that

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Figure 3: Effect of ionizing radiation on cellular tissue damage. In seconds, it can break DNA strands and cause oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, lipids, and other biomolecules; in minutes, its exposure can alter the gene expression and modify some proteins. Long exposures (days to years), results in acute organ failure leading to mortality or instability of gene that causes cancer and birth defects and affects forthcoming generations. may appear slowly over a long period of time. This risk is higher for children and adolescents, as they are significantly more sensitive to radiation exposure than adults.

An organism’s response to ionizing radiation consists of a complex set of physical, chemical, and biological events.

Within seconds, radiation produces damage to DNA and oxidizes proteins and DNA, lipids, and other biomolecules. Within minutes, the cell responds by changing the activation of certain genes and modifying some proteins. At high radiation doses, the result may be acute organ failure leading to death or genomic instability that causes cancer and birth defects and affects future generations (Fischbein et al., 1997; Aarkrog, 2003; BrĂŠchignac, 2003; Alamri et al., 2012).

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CONCLUSION When the question arises, what does the future hold for our planet's natural environment? Well, we have no crystal ball to tell exactly what lies ahead, but we can look at past data and current trends to make future forecasts. This chapter has linked environmental pollution to human health with a hope that individuals of the society should be aware of future consequences of environmental pollution.

It’s the responsibility of every individual to understand the seriousness of environmental issues and to find the solution to break the development of pollution hazards.

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Focus Environ (2016) Environment and Its Impact on Human Health ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors are very thankful to editors for giving an opportunity to share our views with the scientific community and public in the form of this article.

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ReVelle, P. and ReVelle, C (1992). The Global Environment: Securing a Sustainable Future, Jones and Bartlett.

Shah, A.S., Langrish, J.P., Nair, H., McAllister, D.A., Hunter, A.L., Donaldson, K., Newby, D.E. and Mills, N.L. (2013). Global association of air pollution and heart failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Lancet 382, 1039-1048.

Shima, K., Coopmeiners, J., Graspeuntner, S., Dalhoff, K. and Rupp, J. (2016). Impact of microenvironmental changes on respiratory 87

Focus Environ (2016) Environment and Its Impact on Human Health tract infections caused by intracellular bacteria. FEBS Lett. 590, 3887-3904.

Singh, D., Kumar, A., Kumar, K., Singh, B., Mina, U., Singh, B.B. and Jain, V.K. (2016). Statistical modeling of O(3), NOx, CO, PM(2.5), VOCs and noise levels in commercial complex and associated health risk assessment in an academic institution. Sci Total Environ. 572, 586-594.

Sridevi et al (2016). Determination of the sources of nitrate and the microbiological sources of pollution in the Sava River Basin. Sci Total Environ. 16, 3166631667.

WHO (2006). Europe. Air Quality Guidelines: Global Update 2005: Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, and Sulfur Dioxide, World Health Organization.

Vrzel, J., Vuković-Gačić, B., Kolarević, S., Gačić, Z., Kračun-Kolarević, M., Kostić, J., Aborgiba, M., Farnleitner, A., Reischer, G., Linke, R., Paunović, M. and Ogrinc, N.

Wildavsky, A. (1995). But is it True? A Citizen's Guide to Environmental Health and Safety Issues, Harvard University Press.

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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios for Tracing Food Web Connectivity Debashish Mazumder Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO), Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, NSW 2232, Australia Phone No.: +61 2 9717 9219; Email: debashish.mazumder@ansto.gov.au

ABSTRACT Stable isotope analysis has increasingly been used in water resource management. Water is a vital resource crucial to sustain the natural ecosystems upon which we all rely. Understanding the source and fate of energy and nutrient dynamics in aquatic ecosystems is fundamental for the sustainable management of aquatic resources to ensure food supply for the increasing world population. This article provides an example of how analysis of naturally occurring carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes were used to model the estuarine food web and quantify energy and nutrient flows from estuarine wetland habitats to fish, an important source of animal protein for millions of people worldwide.

Keywords: Aquatic; food web; management; stable isotope

INTRODUCTION The United Nations predict that the world’s population will reach to 9.7 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100. This means the competition for land, water and energy will increase many folds. Growing competition for natural resources would affect long term sustainability of agricultural production to ensure food security for the people (Charles et al., 2010). Water resource is central to agriculture and rural development and crucial in sustaining the natural ecosystems upon which we all rely. Understanding the source and fate of energy and nutrients in aquatic ecosystems is fundamental for the sustainable management of aquatic resources. Aquatic foods play an important

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role in human nutrition and global food supply (Tacon and Metian 2013). Fish, for example, currently represents the major source of animal protein for about 1.25 billion people within 39 countries worldwide (Khan et al., 2011), as well as a source of livelihood for millions of people worldwide.

The Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations reported that around 80% of the world fish stocks are either fully exploited or overexploited. This signifies the importance and urgency of effective management (SOFIA, 2009) for conservation and sustainability of fish stocks.

Every ecosystem is driven by nutrients and energy, whether it is small or big, whether wetlands, rivers or ocean.

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Understanding energy and nutrient dynamics are fundamental for resource conservation for future generations. If we are able to determine the energetic links among animals within a food web and their links with primary resources, then we will be able to quantify the impact of disturbances (i.e., anthropogenic and climate related) on species of our interest, or on a community level as well as the functionality of ecosystems which we are dependent on for our survival. Food web inter-connections are very complex and often influenced by the dynamics of physico-chemical processes, biodiversity, habitat type, spatial extent and degree of disturbance. Integrating cutting age isotopic techniques such as analysis of naturally-occurring carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios (13C/12C and 15N/14N) provide an important tool to model food chain connectivity within food webs.

STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION Over the last decade, stable isotopes have been increasingly used in environmental studies, and the stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen became a powerful way to trace diet sources of aquatic animals (Peterson and Fry 1987). Stable isotopes are different naturally occurring forms of elements. There are two stable atomic forms of carbon (13C and 12C) and nitrogen (15N and 14N). Biota assimilate both forms of C and N, and the ratio of 13C/12C (δ13C) and 15N/14N (δ15N) compared to a reference standard can be determined by an analysis of sample. In the laboratory, very small amounts of samples (microgram to milligram level) are oven dried at 60oC for 48 hours then ground to a fine powder. Powdered and homogenised tissue samples are loaded into tin capsules, and are analysed with a continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometer (CF-IRMS) to obtain the isotopic ratios of the samples.

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Mazumder The isotopic value of a consumer tissue is tightly linked with its food (Mazumder et al., 2016), when an animal consumes a food the carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios from food are transferred to the consumer tissues. There is an increase in the relative proportion of carbon-13 content (13C/12C ratio) and nitrogen-15 content (15N/14N ratio) of the animal due to selective metabolic loss of the lighter isotopes during assimilation, excretion and growth. An animal is typically enriched in heavier 13C and 15N relative to its diet by approximately 1‰ (DeNiro & Epstein, 1978) 3 to 4‰ (Minagawa & Wada, 1984) respectively.

This process is called trophic fractionation or enrichment. Carbon isotope signatures are used to trace the sources of diet, whilst nitrogen isotope ratios reflect the relative trophic position of organisms in the ecosystem (Fry 2006, Post et al., 2002).

Stable isotope (δ13C and δ15N) analyses provide chemically validated data from which mathematical models about food web connectivity can be developed. When δ13C and δ15N signatures of organisms are plotted together on a carbon and nitrogen ‘bi-plot’ (δ13C – X axis and δ15N – Y axis) trophic relationships can be visualized, whereby an organism’s position on the X axis indicates their food source and Y axis indicates their trophic level (Figure 1). Further to identify food web relationships between animals, source mixing calculation (i.e., IsoSource mixing model; Phillips and Gregg, 2003) is also used to quantify the contribution of diet sources to consumer animal (Boecklen et al., 2011).

ESTUARINE FOOD WEB Estuaries are ecologically important places due to their high productivity and provision of a number of functional services. Estuaries are nursery habitats for many species of fish,

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Figure 1: Schematic diagram of food chain connections between primary producers and consumer species. Trophic fractionation factors are in bold. prawn and crabs (Blaber, 2000; Nagelkerken et al., 2008). Some species spend the majority of their life in the estuary, some move regularly into estuaries, and others are short-term visitors from the inshore marine waters. The abundance of animals in estuaries and their ecosystem services are linked to the primary productivity, the spatial coverage of various substrates and the availability of wetland habitats such as seagrass, mangrove and saltmarshes.

Mangroves and saltmarshes have long been linked with productive fisheries based on the regional-scale comparisons of fisheries landings data (Meynecke et al., 2008; Saintilan et al., 2014). Understanding the energy and nutrient pathways, trophic linkages between estuarine animals and wetland (seagrass, mangrove and saltmarsh) carbon sources are important for the conservation of food webs vital to ensure healthy ecosystem services for human wellbeing.

To quantify the trophic connectivity, Mazumder et al., (2011) used stable isotope ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Mazumder techniques and analysed carbon and nitrogen isotope values of primary producers and consumers collected from seagrass, mangrove and saltmarsh wetlands. Their work also analysed isotopic values of a range of fish species collected from estuary and quantified food chain linkages (Figure 2).

Research conducted in temperate estuaries in Australia found that Grapsid crabs living in saltmarsh and mangrove habitats are keystone species in the estuarine ecosystem. These crabs produce a huge quantity of larvae during spring tides which are exported to estuarine water through ebb tides (Mazumder et al., 2006; Mazumder et al., 2009; Platel and Freewater 2009).

Glassfish (Ambassid jacksoniensis) is one of the abundant species in the estuary that relies on crab larvae exported from the saltmarsh through ebb tides (Mazumder et al., 2006; Hollingsworth and Connolly 2006). Crabs living in the saltmarsh rely on autotrophic production, mostly C4 carbon and benthic organic materials for their diets (Guest et al., 2004; Saintilan and Mazumder 2010; Alderson et al., 2013). Crabs produce larvae which are significant sources of energy for estuarine glassfish. Subsequently, the glassfish has significant food chain links with two top-order predatory fish species such as bream (Acanthopagrus australis) and mulloway (Argyrosomus japonicas) (Mazumder et al., 2011). This is an example that illustrates the significance of trophic relay (Kneib 1997) between the estuarine wetlands and commercially valuable fish species in estuary. Food web models based on isotopic data (Figure 2) help identify trophic linkages between species, the importance of autotrophic carbon to benthic macro-invertebrates (crabs) and energy and nutrient flow from estuarine habitats to toporder fish species in the food webs. Thus conservation of commercially valuable fish species in the estuary is related to the 91

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Mazumder

Figure 2: Energy and nutrient flow model of an estuarine food web (Adopted from Mazumder et al., 2011). conservation of wetlands.

Without understanding these dynamics, ecosystem services of ecosystems cannot be protected for human wellbeing.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author is thankful to Dr. Jagoda Crayford (ANSTO) for helping to draw Figure 2 using Ecopath.

REFERENCES Alderson, B., Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N., Zimmerman, K. and Mulry, P. (2013). Application of isotope mixing models to discriminate dietary sources over small-scale patches in saltmarsh.

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Marine Ecology Progress Series 487, 113-122.

Blaber, S. J. M. (2000). Tropical Estuarine Fishes Ecology, Exploitation and Conservation. Fish and Aquatic Resources Series 7, Blackwell Science, 372pp.

Boecklen, W. J., Yarnes, C. T., Cook, B. A. and James, A. C. (2011). On the Use of Stable Isotopes in Trophic Ecology. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 42(1), 411440.

DeNiro, M. J. and Epstein, S. (1978).

Influence of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals.

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Focus Environ (2016) Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios‌ Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 42(5), 495-506.

Fry, B. (2006). Stable Isotope Ecology.

Springer, New York Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F., Pretty, J., Robinson, S., Thomas, S. M., and Toulmin, C. (2010). Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science 327(5967), 812-818.

Guest, M. A., Connolly, M. R. and Loneragan, R. N. (2004). Carbon movement and assimilation by invertebrates in estuarine habitats at a scale of metres. Marine Ecology Progress Series 278, 27-34.

Khan, M., A., Khan, S., Miyan, K. (2011).

Aquaculture as a food production system: a review. Biology and Medicine 3 (2), 291-302.

Kneib, R. T. (1997). The role of tidal marshes in the ecology of estuarine nekton. Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review 35, 163-220.

Mazumder, D. and Saintilan, N. (2010).

Mangrove Leaves are Not an Important Source of Dietary Carbon and Nitrogen for Crabs in Temperate Australian Mangroves.

Wetlands 30(2), 375-380.

Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N. and Williams, R. J. (2006). Trophic relationships between itinerant fish and crab larvae in a temperate Australian saltmarsh. Marine and Freshwater Research 57(2), 193-199.

Mazumder Towra Point, Australia. Wetlands Ecology and Management 17(3), 225230.

Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N. and Williams, R. J. (2006). Trophic relationships between itinerant fish and crab larvae in a temperate Australian saltmarsh. Marine and Freshwater Research 57(2), 193-199.

Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N., Williams, R. J. and Szymczak, R. (2011). Trophic importance of a temperate intertidal wetland to resident and itinerant taxa: evidence from multiple stable isotope analyses. Marine and Freshwater Research 62(1), 11-19.

Mazumder, D., Wen, L., Johansen, M. P., Kobayashi, T. and Saintilan, N. (2016). Inherent variation in carbon and nitrogen isotopic assimilation in the freshwater macro-invertebrate Cherax destructor. Marine and Freshwater Research 67(12), 19281937.

Meynecke, J. O., Lee, S. Y., and Duke, N. C. (2008). Linking spatial metrics and fish catch reveals the importance of coastal wetland connectivity to inshore fisheries in Queensland, Australia.

Biological Conservation 141(4), 981996.

Minagawa, M. and Wada, E. (1984).

Stepwise enrichment of 15N along food chains: Further evidence and the relation between δ15N and animal age.

Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48(5), 1135-1140.

Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N. and Williams, R. J. (2009). Zooplankton inputs and outputs in the saltmarsh at

Nagelkerken, I., Kirton, L. G., Meynecke, J. O., Pawlik, J., Penrose, H. M., Blaber, S. J. M., Bouillon, S., Green, P., Haywood, M., Sasekumar, A.

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Focus Environ (2016) Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios‌ and Somerfield, P. J. (2008). The Habitat Function of Mangroves for Terrestrial and Marine Fauna: A Review. Aquatic Botany 89, 155-185.

Peterson, B. J. and Fry, B. (1987). Stable Isotopes in Ecosystem Studies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 18, 293-320.

Phillips, D. L. and Gregg, J. W. (2003).

Source partitioning using stable isotopes: coping with too many sources. Oecologia 136(2), 261-9.

Platell, M. E. and Freewater, P. (2009).

Importance of saltmarsh to fish species of a large south-eastern Australian estuary during a spring tide cycle.

Marine and Freshwater Research, 60(9), 936-941.

Post, D. M. (2002). Using stable isotopes to estimate trophic position: models, methods, and assumptions. Ecology 83 (3), 703–718.

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Mazumder Saintilan, N., Wilson, N.C., Rogers, K., Rajkaran, A., and Krauss, K.W. (2014). Mangrove expansion and salt marsh decline at mangrove poleward limits. Global change biology 20(1), 147-157.

SOFIA, (2009). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2008. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Tacon, A. G. J. and Metian, M. (2013). Fish Matters: Importance of Aquatic Foods in Human Nutrition and Global Food Supply. Reviews in Fisheries Science 21(1), 22-38.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015). World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision. New York: United Nations.

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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria and Crop Productivity Umaiyal Munusamy Centre for Research in Biotechnology for Agriculture (CEBAR), Level 3, Research Management & Innovation Complex, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Email: yal23@um.edu.my

ABSTRACT Climate change drives yield reduction in most of the crops. Industrialized agricultural systems are becoming unsustainable due to climate change. Research findings in the areas of plant microbe interactions suggest that the usage of plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) has the possibility to improve crop productivity in the coming years. Therefore, application of PGPB which creates a step forward towards sustainable agricultural systems is recommended to replace the dependence on chemical and synthetic fertilizers. This article presents an overview of PGPB and their potential applications in enhancing agricultural crop productivity.

Keywords: Agriculture; bacteria; environment; plant growth regulators; sustainability

According to the United Nations and the U.S. Census Bureau, the current world population (total number of humans currently living) is estimated to be at 7.4 billion as of September 2016 and expected to reach 8 billion people in the spring of 2024 and 10 billion in the year 2056. The FAO (2016) highlighted that the food supply needs to be increased by 70 percent to feed this population. Even though, industrialized farming has become more intensive through artificial fertilizers and chemical pesticides, it has resulted into undesirable environmental impacts such as destruction of virgin forests, deterioration of water quality, overuse of manure, in efficient monoculture strategies and finally increasing of greenhouse gas emissions (Abbamondi et al., 2016; Com-

pant et al., 2005). Furthermore, in this current climate changes industrialized farming strategies to enhance crop productivity are becoming unsustainable. In addition, climate change through higher temperatures, precipitation changes, increased weeds, pests and disease pressure has affected the agriculture production in most of the countries. For instance, the article reported by STAR (2016 A, B) and New Sunday Times (2016) (Figure 1) shows that vegetables are wilted and the vegetable’s qualities are dropped due to the heat wave and these changes will have severe impacts on all the components of the food security (Kang et al., 2009) if the global mean surface temperature is projected to rise in a range from 1.8°C to 4.0°C by 2100 (IPCC, 2007).

Therefore, current research objectives are mainly focusing on a sustainable

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INTRODUCTION

Focus Environ (2016) Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria agricultural production which will be efficient in terms of natural resources need and more consumer consciousness (Dawwam et al., 2013).

A

B

Munusamy In another words it should be sustainable both environmentally and socially (CarvajalMunoz and Carmona-Garcia, 2012). One of the latest techniques that falls in the above preference will be through the application of plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) (Lucy et al., 2004). It is mainly found in soil, rhizosphere region and also associated inside the plant cells (Gagne-Bourque et al., 2015). In the soil, PGPB will be living freely, while in the rhizosphere region it will colonize the plant interior roots and allows some bacteria to migrate towards the aerial parts of the seedlings and promote the growth of the plants (Figure 2A, B) (Compant et al., 2005).

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Figure 1(A, B & C): Media reports highlighting challenges in agriculture sector (Star, 2016A, B; New Sunday Times, 2016).

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Figure 2: A) A schematic diagram showing plant’s association with plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB); B) types of PGPB. 96

Focus Environ (2016) Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria The differences between PGPB and biofertilizers are commonly debateable as the biofertilizers also can promote plant growth. However, biofertilizers require special care for long term storage because they are live cultures (Youssef and Eissa, 2014) and it must be used before its expiry date. In addition, it should not be contaminated with other bacteria (Carvajal-Munoz and Carmona-Garcia, 2012).

Biofertilizers are also unable to show promising results in the hot climates, unfavourable soil pH conditions and in pathogenic bacteria infected soils (Mishra, 2014).

Apart from the higher cost, the leaches of the biofertilizer inoculants such as organic matter, phosphates and nitrates are also another problem that need to be managed (Abbamondi et al., 2016). The leached nitrates and phosphates that enter the water systems will lead to eutrophication in the water reservoirs and cause death of many aquatic organisms (Brar et al., 2012). In addition, the organic material derived from the biofertilizers will increase the carbon content in the soil and hence will contribute to the greenhouse gasses (Saeed et al., 2015). Since food production needs to be increased without negative impacts to the environment, PGPB are the obvious choice to be utilized (Lucy et al., 2004).

PLANT GROWTH BACTERIA (PGPB)

PROMOTING

As depicted in figure 2, it is the free living bacteria that present in the soil (Compant et al., 2005). Bacteria that are located around the roots are known as rhizobacteria. While, bacteria that are able to colonize the internal tissues of plant organs escape the competition from rhizosphere microorganisms are called as endophyte (Figure 2A, B) (GagneBourque et al., 2016). The reason for the presence of various kinds of bacteria in the ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Munusamy soil is due to the various type of discharges such as amino acids, sugars and organic acids that are released from the plant roots (Tak et al., 2013) and also due to different soil conditions (drought, flood, salinity and metal toxicity) (Inagaki et al., 2015). The PGPB strains have different degree of capability to attract to the root exudates (Ma et al., 2016). However, the non-PGPB or phytopathogens do not have this capability (Yuan, 2015).

TYPES OF PGPB Plant growth promoting bacteria belong to diverse genera such as Acetobacter, Achromobacter, Anabaena, Arthrobacter, Azoarcos, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Frankia, Hydrogenophaga, Microcoleus, Phyllobacterium and Pseudomonas.

They are endophytes that are non-pathogenic to plants (Gagne-Bourque et al., 2016). They are also classified based on the plant species (Compant et al., 2005), plant organs and tissues such as from phyllosphere (GagneBourque et al., 2016), anthosphere (Berg et al., 2014) or spermosphere (Sivasakthivelan and Stella, 2012). The presence of PGPB in the soils are also depends on the types of soil such as dry, cold, muddy and also determined by the types of climate region such as tropical, dry, mild Mediterranean, continental and polar climates (Souza et al., 2015; Nihorimbere et al., 2011).

FUNCTION OF PGPB Facilitating resources Endophytic bacteria exchange nutritions, enzymes (lipase, catalase and oxidase), functional agents (siderophores, biosurfactants) and signals (Abbamondi et al., 2016) efficiently. The PGPB are known to promote root development by increasing the water 97

Focus Environ (2016) Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria absorption in plant root cells (Vacheron et al., 2013). They can also produce phytohormones such as indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberellic acid (GA) and cytokinins (Gupta et al., 2015). Different PGPB produce different phytohormones (Pontes et al., 2015). In addition, it is also capable of inducing modifications in plant gene expression, increasing drought resistance associated genes like ERD15 (early response to dehydration) or DREB (dehydration responsive element protein) (Gagne-Bourque et al., 2015). Inoculation of PGPB will increase the uptake of NH4+, HPO42-/H2PO4- by the roots, mineralize organic soil and induce tolerance or resistance to the biotic stress (Nkebiwe et al., 2016). Most PGPB can also facilitate the uptake of environmental nutrients such as sulphur, magnesium and calcium. It has shown to solubilise and mineralize organic soil (Calvo et al., 2014) these will induce biochemical changes in the plant which will lead to beneficial effects on the plant health, growth and also in decreasing plant disease (Tak et al., 2013).

Phosphate solubilisation Phosphorus is a major macronutrient needed by plants; however, it is present in unavailable form in the soil (Yuan, 2015). In addition, the rainfall and leaching will continuously reduce the phosphorus level in the soil (Brar et al., 2012). The presences of PGPB will enable the conversion of phosphorus into more available forms, such as orthophosphates which plant roots can absorb easily (Rodriguez et al., 2006).

Nitrogen fixation According to the Fertilizers Institute of United States (2016), there is 78% of nitrogen in the air and 98% presence in the soil.

Therefore, there is no limitation in nitrogen ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Munusamy content for all living things especially for plant. Fixing atmosphere nitrogen (N2) and stimulation of nitrate transport system by PGPB increases the nitrogen availability for the plants (Mantelin and Touraine, 2004).

Besides plant growth, nitrogen is required for synthesis of enzyme, proteins, chlorophyll, DNA and RNA (Saeed et al., 2015).

Sequestration of Iron Iron mainly affects the variety of bacterial communities in the soil as they compete among themselves to absorb the available iron (Woitke and Schnitzler, 2005). Therefore, PGPB synthesize low molecular mass known as siderophore under iron limiting conditions. This molecule will competitively bind to ferric ion Fe+3 to form Fesiderophore complex that facilitate better iron uptake (Gupta et al., 2014). Various bacterial strains will synthesize different types of siderophores that function differently (Ahmed and Holmstrom, 2014). They also generally remove any kind of siderophores with lower affinity and draw irons from heterologous siderophores that are coproduced by other microorganisms. All these will increase the uptake of iron in plants (Compant et al., 2005).

ALTERATION OF PHYTOHORMONE LEVELS Modulation of ethylene Methionine is the initial substrate involve in the ethylene production. This substrate is converted into S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) by SAM synthase. It is then hydrolyzed to 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) and 5- methyl thioadenosine by ACC synthase (Gamalero and Glick, 2015).

Finally, ACC molecule is metabolized to ethylene, carbon dioxide and cyanide by 98

Focus Environ (2016) Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria ACC oxidase. However, the high formation of ethylene can be harmful to the plants; therefore, its level needs to be regulated (Shagol and Sa, 2012). In that, ethylene formation is regulated by ACC deaminase in the PGPB cell by extracting ACC oxidase and synthase from the plant cell into PGPB cell (Marasco et al., 2013). This reaction produces ammonia and Îą-ketobutyrate that lowers the plant ethylene levels (Toklikishvili et al., 2010).

Production of Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) Plants produce IAA from independent biosynthetic pathway of tryptophan while PGPB produce IAA by using tryptophan released by the plant roots (Tak et al., 2013).

According to Mohite (2013), IAA have various functions in plants such as plant cell division, extension and differentiation, increases the rate of xylem and root development, initiates lateral and adventitious root formation, while according to Shahab et al.

(2013), IAA stimulates seed and tuber germination, controls process of vegetative, mediates responses to light, gravity and florescence, affects the photosynthesis level, pigment formation, biosynthesis of various metabolites and resistance towards stressful conditions. Different plant species (Ljung et al., 2013), different plant organs such as roots and shoots (Liu et al., 2012) and different tissues (Petersson et al., 2009) respond differently towards the effects of IAA. Furthermore, plants always respond based on the total concentration of IAA inside the plant cells as IAA is being produced by plant through various channel such as through independent pathway, through formation of other indolic compounds (both endogenous and synthetic) which represents auxin-like activities (Ljung, 2013) and also through PGPB secretion (El-Azeem et al., 2007). Therefore, the combined concentraISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Munusamy tion of IAA will alter the IAA concentration to either promotion or inhibition of plant growth (Glick, 2014).

Production of cytokinins and gibberellins PGPB are capable to produce cytokinins and gibberellins in the cell-free medium and plant growth promotion experiment (Vacheron et al., 2013). Cytokinins are essential for plant cell division, seed germination, branching, root growth, accumulation of chlorophyll, leaf expansion and delay of senescence (Gamalero and Glick, 2015).

Whereas, gibberellins are involved in cell division and elongation, plant developmental processes such as seed germination, stem elongation, flowering, fruiting and delay of senescence, promotion of root growth since they regulate root hair abundance (Colebrook et al., 2014).

INDIRECT MECHANISM Biocontrol The damage caused by the fungal (Ahmad et al., 2008), bacterial (Vidaver and Lambrecht, 2004), viral (Gergerich and Dolja, 2006), insects (USDA, 2015) and nematodes (Youssef and Eissa, 2014) need to be controlled efficiently. The usage of PGPB as a biocontrol was initiated due to consumer demands on pesticides free crops, to reduce environmental impacts and the increasing cost of agrochemicals (Agarwal et al., 2011). The ability of PGPB to produce many types of antagonistic antibiotics prevents the proliferation of plant pathogens (Ahmad et al., 2008). According to Gupta et al. (2015), amphisin, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG), oomycin A, phenazine, pyoluteorin, pyrrolnitrin, tensin, tropolone, cyclic lipopeptides, cylic oligomycin A, kanosamine, zwittermicin A, and xanthobaccin are 99

Focus Environ (2016) Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria some identified antibiotics produced by PGPB. These antibiotics are formed through metabolic pathways in the bacterial cell through usage of available nutrients, biotic and environmental stimuli such as minerals, carbon source, pH, temperature and trace elements (Compant et al., 2005). However, some pathogens will develop resistance to these antibiotics. Therefore, usage of multiple bacteria that produce multiple antibiotics which acts synergistically will show better effects (Glick, 2012). In addition, formation of allelochemicals by PGPB has the potential to suppress pathogens activities (Saraf et al., 2014). Besides that, the capability of PGPB in producing chitinase, cellulase, β1,3 glucanase, protease and lipases will breakdown the cell walls of pathogenic bacteria and fungus (Hamid et al., 2013, ElKatatny, 2010). In addition, the formation of siderophores will prevent some pathogenic bacteria from acquiring iron nutrient directly from the soil. This somehow will affect pathogenic bacterial proliferation and growth (Gupta et al., 2014). On the other hand, application of PGPB will increase the content of beneficial bacteria in the soil.

Abundant of beneficial bacteria will rapidly colonize plant roots before pathogenic bacteria could actually invade into the plant root system (Kundan et al., 2015; Glick, 2012).

Furthermore, PGPB are also capable to detoxify pathogen virulence factor by producing proteins that reversibly bind to the toxins (Gaiero et al., 2013). Recently, it was reported that PGPB suppress the virulence genes by quenching pathogen quarom sensing capacity by degrading autoinducer signals (Compant et al., 2005). Therefore, PGPB can be used as a biocontrol agent to defeat the pathogens.

Induced systemic resistance in plants

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Munusamy Biopriming plants with PGPB will trigger the induced systemic resistance (ISR) through flagellation, siderophore, lipopolysacharides and volatile organic compounds formation (Compant et al., 2005). This type of resistance is mainly demonstrated by rhizobacteria and endophytes, and they will not cause any visible symptoms of disease.

However, defence mechanism which is a type of resistant mechanism triggered by PGPB will regulate different sets of genes such as peroxides, phenylalanine, ammonia lyase, phytoalexins, polyphenol oxidase and chalcone synthase (Choudhary and Johri, 2009). Through this mechanism, accumulation of salicylic acid, jasmonate and ethylene will increase the strength of plant cell wall and alters host physiology and metabolic responses leading to an enhanced synthesis of plant defence against abiotic stress (Compant et al., 2005). Besides that, since water is one of the most limiting factors for plant development in semi arid climates, xerotolerant microorganisms can be used to increase growth of plants in such climatic condition (Petrovic et al., 2000). It is because microorganisms that can survive under drought conditions have several mechanisms such as the production of exopolysacharides, biofilm formation and osmolytes production that help to avoid cell water loss and boost the plant growth (Kavamura et al., 2013). In addition, PGPB can offer plant protection against desiccation through the maintenance of moist environment and by supplying nutrients and hormones which act as a plant growth promoter for root development (Vacheron et al., 2013).

Environmental sustainability Application of PGPB will naturally enhance soil fertility (Roychowdhury et al., 2014).

Increase of PGPB concentration in the soil will enhance the degradation of resources 100

Focus Environ (2016) Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria efficiently and will lead to reduction of leaches into water system (Reed and Glick, 2004). Therefore, usage of PGPB can be helpful in creating environmental sustainability. Plant microbe interactions apparently offer a favourable environment for cometabolism of soil-bound bacteria with recalcitrant chemicals (Ambrosini et al., 2016). The microbial transformation of toxic compounds into non-toxic material is mediated by the energy provided by the root exudates (Agarwal Pavan et al., 2011). In addition, PGPB are also known to produce biosurfactants that contributes in the removal of toxic contaminants in the soil (Bashan et al., 2008).

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES Soil microorganisms (PGPB) play an important role in maintaining soil structure, fertility and the growth of plants. They are able to influence these effects due to their close association with the plants. Studies regarding the root-microbe interactions that are affected by the genetic and environmental control along with the spatial and temporal aspects needs to be studied in detail.

Field application is very important for the successful implementation of PGPB. The importance of PGPB is slowly being recognized by farmers in all regions and they are slowly shifting towards replacing conventional agricultural methods with sustainable agricultural techniques.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank Editors for helping to improve the article content.

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Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

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World Soil Day: A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Global Sustainable Development Subhash Janardhan Bhore Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, AIMST University, Bedong-Semeling Road, 08100 Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia Phone No.: +60-4-429-8176; Email: subhash@aimst.edu.my / subhashbhore@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Food that we eat provides the nutrients to nourish our body. The world population is growing rapidly and providing enough food to meet the increasing demand will be a huge challenge. The United Nations most recent estimate indicates that the world population will be about 8.5 billion in 2030 and we need to double the agricultural productivity by that time to meet the expected demand. The whole agricultural productivity and our food security are mainly dependent on the health of soil. In fact, soil is the basis in providing our nutrients, water, climate, biodiversity and life. However, soils have been neglected at large. The damage caused by deforestation, extensive usage of synthetic fertilizers, mining, soil erosion, and rapidly growing urbanization are the major concerns. Because, all these soil destructing activities are not climate-neutral. Every year, the international community is observing December 5 as ‘World Soil Day’ to connect people with soils and raise awareness on soils critical importance in our lives. The purpose of this article is to highlight the importance of soil conservation, and a need to take up its preservation and restoration actions. Bearing in mind the sustainable development goals (SDGs), the role of soils health in enhancing agricultural productivity in a sustainable manner and its importance in global sustainable development is also highlighted.

Keywords: Agriculture; biotechnology; deforestation; environment; poverty; sustainable development goals (SDGs); synthetic fertilizers; world soil day

INTRODUCTION The 68th general assembly of the United Nations (UN), held in December 2013 had declared unanimously that December 5 will be observed as the World Soil Day (WSD). Every year, the WSD is observed on December 5th to promote the awareness about importance of

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soil in our lives and significance of sustainable soil management.

The themes for World Soil 2014 and 2015 were “Soils, foundation for family farming” and “Soils, a solid ground for life”, respectively. This year (2016), the WSD theme was ─ “soils and pulses, a symbiosis for life”. The purpose was to highlight the importance of cultivating pulses to enhance the soil fertility.

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Focus Environ (2016) A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Sustainability Pulses [plant species from family: Fabaceae (this family is also known as Leguminosae)] are known to fix the nitrogen from atmosphere and that helps in improvement of soils fertility, structure and microbial biodiversity (Wahbi el al., 2016; Luo el al., 2016; UN, 2016). This article highlights the various issues associated with soils degradation, loss and conservation as well as the role of heathy soils in sustainable development for people and planet in context with the sustainable development goals (SDGs) adopted by the UN. SOILS AS SOLID GROUND FOR LIFE The nutrients derived from our daily diet are essential for our body’s growth, development, repairs, and to lead an active, healthy life. In fact, soil is the basis for the production of all types of food in agriculture and aquaculture industry. Therefore, sustainable agricultural productivity is very important in order to feed the global population. The UN estimates suggest that rapid economic growth and increased agricultural productivity in last 20 years helped to make huge progress globally in eradicating extreme hunger; but, extreme hunger as well as malnutrition remains a huge challenge (UNDP, 2016) in several countries in general, and in developing and least developed countries in particular. The UN estimates also clearly indicates that about 795 million people are chronically undernourished because of poor agricultural productivity mainly due to a direct consequence of environmental degradation, drought and loss of biodiversity (UNDP, 2016; Hunter el al., 2016).

PLEDGE FOR FOOD SECURITY IN SDGs For the international community, one of the challenge is ─ how we can make sure that all people on the planet will have enough food in a sustainable manner? The UN are determined to ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Bhore end all forms of hunger and malnutrition by 2030 and it is clearly reflected in the seventeen-SDGs (Table 1) ambitiously adopted by the international community (SDGs, 2016).

The total agricultural production including milk, meat and fishes from aquaculture is completely relied on soil health; hence, conservation of soil is of prime importance to accomplish SDG 1 (end poverty in all its forms everywhere) and SDG 2 (end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture). Directly or indirectly, the efficacy of sustainable soil management will complement the efforts of accomplishing other SDGs (Table 1).

WHAT DEGRADES OR DESTRUCTS SOILS? Deforestation, extensive usage of synthetic fertilizers, mining, soil erosion, and rapidly growing urbanization are some of the major causes responsible for soil degradation and or destruction.

Through our daily diet, we are taking carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, fats, vitamins and trace elements to nourish our body.

All food items that we eat are linked with soils.

For instance, in agriculture, crop plants take their nutrients from the soil, while fishes or other aquatic animal we eat are dependent on phytoplanktons, zooplankton, seaweed, and or nutrients from specially designed fish food formulation (Alemzadeh et al., 2014; Gharajehdaghipour et al., 2016; Bentzon‐Tilia et al., 2016; Hehre and Meeuwig, 2016). Directly or indirectly, all the nutrients required for humans are originated from soil (Figure 1).

Hence, sustainable soil management is of prime importance for a sustainable global food supply as well as for global food security.

Destruction of soils by deforestation About 13 Million hectares of forest are cleared 108

Focus Environ (2016) A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Sustainability Table 1: Sustainable development goals adopted by United Nations (SDGs, 2016).

No Sustainable Development Goals 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.

2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.

3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.

5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.

9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.

10. Reduce inequality within and among countries.

11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.

12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.

15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Bhore manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.

16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.

17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development. every year for mining, inappropriate farming techniques, and for the construction of cities, roads (Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015). As a result, we lose fertile soils forever at the expense of forests, pastureland and its environmental benefits. By supporting forests, soil plays very important roles in biodiversity conservation, carbon storage and climate regulation (Bonan, 2008; Cohn et al., 2014).

Destruction of soils by mining Arable land and fertile soils are also destructed by mining activities for coal, metals and mineral extraction. Globally, less than 1% of the land is used for mineral extraction; however, its impact is huge and in the process we lose millions of tons’ fertile soils. Mining is also causing huge amount of adverse effect on the local, regional and global environment (Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015; Maier et al., 2014).

Destruction of soils by urbanization In general, people from rural areas migrate to cities for the employment purpose. In 2014, 54% of the world’s population was residing in urban areas (UN, 2014). The rapidly growing 109

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Bhore

Figure 1: A schematic diagram showing flow of nutrients depicting the importance of soils. urbanization in the world is also responsible for the soils destruction as the several developmental projects destroy the arable and fertile soils. For instance, usage of paddy fields for the housing projects. It is estimated that growing urbanization is causing the loss of 2 hectares of soil per minute (Huang et al., 2015; Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015; Takano, 2007).

freshwater (and marine) eutrophication (UNEP, 2014). Hence, we should avoid the usage of synthetic fertilizers to protect the soil fertility. In addition, the production and marketing of synthetic fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK)) utilize huge amount of natural resources (Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015).

USE OF SYNTHETIC FERTILIZERS

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE?

In agriculture of most of the countries, synthetic fertilizers are used widely. The extensive usage of inorganic fertilizers is definitely helping to enhance the agricultural productivity. However, for long term, if we completely depend on synthetic fertilizers then it is impossible to attain agricultural sustainability and to end global hunger (Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015). Use of synthetic fertilizers is not an environment friendly practice as it damages the soil fertility and causes the

For sustainable soil management and agricultural sustainability, we need to promote eco-friendly practices to enhance the soil fertility and agricultural productivity (Panel 1).

We also need to find out innovative ways of using eco-friendly agricultural practices. Innovative use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) (Robinson et al., 2016; Asmelash et al., 2016), plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) (Bharti et al., 2016; Kuan et al., 2016), and endophytes (fungal and bacterial) 110

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Focus Environ (2016) A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Sustainability

Bhore

Panel 1: Eco-friendly agricultural practices for sustainable soil management and for agricultural and environmental sustainability. AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi; and PGPR, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria.

(Molina-Montenegro et al., 2016; Pandey et al., 2016; Tétard‐Jones and Edwards, 2016) in agriculture does have tremendous potential to promote the growth, development and productivity of agricultural crops. In fact, eco-friendly agricultural practices will not only help in boosting sustainable soil management and food security but also benefit several other sectors including water supply system, socio-economic, social health etc.

(Panel 2).

A BROADER PERSPECTIVE As a whole, if we do sustainable soil management effectively then we should be able to keep soil in its healthy condition. As a result, healthy soil will serve as a gear to promote agricultural sustainability. In response, sustainable agriculture will be able to produce ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

enough food to meet the demand of growing population. It will also boost our chances of accomplishing two goals, “ending poverty in all its forms everywhere” (SDG 1) and “ending hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition and promotion of sustainable agriculture” (SDG 2). Furthermore, healthy soil and sustainable agriculture will complement directly or indirectly the efforts required in achieving rest of the SDGs (Table 1). Therefore, we must protect soil and make sure that it is in healthy condition as sustainable development of the people and the planet is dependent on it (Figure 2).

Bearing in mind the important facts about soil (Table 2) (UN, 2016); we need to understand that our survival on this planet is not possible if we do not manage soil and its health in a sustainable manner. Hence, we need to promote the awareness about sustainable soil 111

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Panel 2: Benefits of eco-friendly agriculture are beyond conservation of soil and its sustainable management.

Figure 2: The role of soil in achieving agricultural sustainability and sustainable development for the people and the planet.

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Focus Environ (2016) A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Sustainability Table 2: Facts about soils depicts the importance of sustainable soil management for the sustainable development (UN, 2016).

No Fact 1.

About 95% of our food comes from soil.

2.

Soils are the foundation for family farming, where food supply chain begins.

3.

Globally, up to 50,000 sq. km of soil, an area around the size of Costa Rica is lost every year.

4.

33% of our global soils are degraded.

5.

16% of the Africa continent has been affected by soil degradation.

6.

11 hectare of soils are sealed under expanding cities every hour in Europe.

7.

Soil is teeming with life – soils host a quarter of our planets biodiversity.

8.

There are more organisms in one tablespoon of healthy soil than there are people on earth.

9.

Healthy soil is the key to food security and nutrition for all.

10.

It can take up to 1000 years to produce just 2-3 cm of soil.

11.

Our soils are in great danger.

12.

Estimates suggest that we only have 60 years of topsoil left.

13.

Sustainable soil management could produce up to 58% more food. management and its importance among communities not only to commemorate the ‘World Soil Day’ but also in everyday life, till the sustainability goal is achieved. All public and private institutions, universities, and departments those are associated with agriculture and sustainable development also need to promote awareness about the importance of sustainable soil management by highlighting the role of healthy soil for our wellbeing, and local, regional and global sustainable development.

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Bhore CONCLUDING REMARKS To sum up, we have to make sure that we are managing soil and its health in a sustainable manner for a sustainable agricultural productivity. Healthy soil is essential to “end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture” (SDG 2) and to “end poverty in all its forms everywhere” (SDG 1). Sustainable soil management is also vital for the inclusive sustainability as all the SDGs are interdependent. Therefore, we need to promote sustainable soil management efficiently at local, regional and global level.

We need to bear in mind that without protecting the soil, we will not be able ― to feed rapidly growing world population; to achieve a goal of keeping global warming below 2°C, a pledge made through Paris Agreement on Climate Change (PACC); and to halt the loss of biodiversity.

Unquestionably, soil is not only a core component of the natural system but also a vital contributor to human wellbeing. Nevertheless, will power of policy makers, active participation and timely input from all stakeholders, and efficacy of soil conservation at local, regional and global level will determine the overall success of sustainable soil management and its contribution in accomplishing SDGs for the people and the planet.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Focus Environ (2016) A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Sustainability sian Gulf. Iranian Journal of Microbiology 6(4), 296–302.

Asmelash, F., Bekele, T., Birhane, E. (2016).

The Potential Role of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in the Restoration of Degraded Lands. Frontiers in Microbiology 7, 1095.

Bentzon‐Tilia, M., Sonnenschein, E.C., Gram, L. (2016). Monitoring and managing microbes in aquaculture – Towards a sustainable industry. Microbial Biotechnology 9(5), 576–584.

Bharti, N., Pandey, S.S., Barnawal, D., Patel, V.K., Kalra, A. (2016). Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria Dietzia natronolimnaea modulates the expression of stress responsive genes providing protection of wheat from salinity stress. Scientific Reports 6, 34768.

Bonan G. (2008). Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests. Science 320:1444–1449.

Chemnitz, C. and Weigelt, J. (Eds). (2015).

Soil Atlas 2015: Facts and figures about earth, land and fields. Heinrich Böll Foundation, Berlin, Germany, and the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, Potsdam, Germany. Available online: http://www.fao.org/home/en/ (accessed on 14 November 2016).

Cohn, A.S., Mosnier, A., Havlík, P., Valin, H., Herrero, M., Schmid, E., … Obersteiner, M. (2014). Cattle ranching intensification in Brazil can reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by sparing land from deforestation. Proceedings of the ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Bhore National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111(20), 7236– 7241.

Gharajehdaghipour, T., Roth, J.D., Fafard, P. M., Markham, J.H. (2016). Arctic foxes as ecosystem engineers: increased soil nutrients lead to increased plant productivity on fox dens. Scientific Reports 6, 24020.

Hehre, E.J. and Meeuwig, J.J. (2016). A Global Analysis of the Relationship between Farmed Seaweed Production and Herbivorous Fish Catch. PLoS ONE 11(2), e0148250.

Huang, J., Zhang, W., Mo, J., Wang, S., Liu, J., Chen, H. (2015). Urbanization in China drives soil acidification of Pinus massoniana forests. Scientific Reports 5, 13512.

Hunter, D., Özkan, I., Moura de Oliveira Beltrame, D., Samarasinghe, W. L. G., Wasike, V. W., Charrondière, U. R., … Sokolow, J. (2016). Enabled or Disabled: Is the Environment Right for Using Biodiversity to Improve Nutrition?

Frontiers in Nutrition 3, 14.

Kuan, K.B., Othman, R., Abdul Rahim, K., Shamsuddin, Z. H. (2016). Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria Inoculation to Enhance Vegetative Growth, Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogen Remobilisation of Maize under Greenhouse Conditions. PLoS ONE 11(3), e0152478.

Luo, X., Fu, X., Yang, Y., Cai, P., Peng, S., Chen, W., and Huang, Q. (2016). Mi114

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Scientific Reports 6, 20326.

Maier, R.M., Díaz-Barriga, F., Field, J.A., Hopkins, J., Klein, B., Poulton, M.M. (2014). Socially Responsible Mining: the Relationship between Mining and Poverty, Human Health and the Environment.

Reviews on Environmental Health 29, 83– 89.

Molina-Montenegro, M.A., Oses, R., Torres-Díaz, C., Atala, C., Zurita-Silva, A., Ruiz-Lara, S. (2016).

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Pandey, S.S., Singh, S., Babu, C.S.V., Shanker, K., Srivastava, N.K., Shukla, A.K., Kalra, A. (2016). Fungal endophytes of Catharanthus roseus enhance vindoline content by modulating structural and regulatory genes related to terpenoid indole alkaloid biosynthesis. Scientific Reports 6, 26583.

Robinson B. L., Feng, W., Gulbis, N., Hajdu, K., Harrison, R. J., Jeffries, P., Xu, X. (2016). The Use of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi to Improve Strawberry Production in Coir Substrate. Frontiers in Plant Science 7, 1237.

SDGs. (2016). Sustainable development goals.

Available online at http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopm ent/sustainable-development-goals/ (accessed on November 21, 2016).

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Tétard‐Jones, C., Edwards, R. (2016). Potential roles for microbial endophytes in herbicide tolerance in plants. Pest Management Science 72(2), 203–209.

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UNEP, (2014). UNEP Year Book 2014: Emerging issues in our global environment.

Available online: http://www.unep.org/publications (accessed on 19 November, 2016).

UNDP, United Nations Development Programme. (2016). Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Available online:http://www.undp.org/content/und p/en/home/mdgoverview/post-2015-dev elopment-agenda.html (accessed on 17 November 2016).

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Duponnois, R. (2016). Impact of Wheat/Faba Bean Mixed Cropping or Rotation Systems on Soil Microbial Functionalities. Frontiers in Plant Science 7, 1364.

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Short Note Basics for Sustainable Environment: Reduce Wastage, Reuse, and Recycle Rajesh Perumbilavil Kaithamanakallam1, *, Samudhra Sendhil2, Aarthi Rajesh3 1

Microbiology and Medical Education Unit, Faculty of Medicine, AIMST University, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia; 2School of Economics, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Nottingham University Malaysia, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia; 3Department of Pathology, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, 9016 Dunedin, New Zealand *Corresponding author; Email: rajesh@aimst.edu.my

We, in the name of consumerism, are destroying the only planet that supports the life. All resources are depleting very rapidly which makes global sustainability questionable. Our Earth which once hosted 5 billion species has lost about 99% of it to extinction (Novacek, 2014; Stearns et al., 2000). It doesn’t stop there. Predictions state that human activities will result in the Holocene extinction where 30% of the existing species today may be extinct by 2050 (Dawson et al., 2016; Hance et al., 2015).

Meanwhile, it is sad to state that we have managed to eradicate only one infectious disease so far. By 2050, the only infectious disease that we have hopes of eradicating is poliomyelitis.

The world is spiralling downwards.

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle is the mantra for waste management and environmental sustenance. The waste hierarchy scope ranges from the least favoured opinion of disposal through energy recovery, recycling, reuse,

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minimisation to the most favoured opinion ‘prevention’.

With this wide scope, we need to focus on people’s awareness of these issues at stake. The impact on the environment due to plastics, toxic components including radioactive elements, the growing usage and limited supply of potable water are just a few examples. Deforestation leading to global climate change as well as emerging diseases, the ecological ticking time bomb crisis that most of the earthlings are blissfully unaware off need to be addressed. Tapping the felt need of the people is the key element to health education. For example awareness campaign against infectious diseases promoting immunisation is best targeted against pregnant ladies; likewise the environmental issues are best made aware by the introduction of ‘Tragedy of commons’. The tragedy can include overfishing in the ocean to misuse of antibiotics to spam emails and many more. Each spam email, even if not opened, adds on significantly to the

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Focus Environ (2016) Basics for Sustainable Environment carbon foot print. World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Australia has a human footprint calculator on its website allowing people to track how much of the earth they are misusing with their lifestyle. The website also mentions that we would need approximately 3.6 earths to sustain life on this planet given our current lifestyle. By 2050, humanity needs to produce twice the amount of food we do today in order to feed the forecast 9.7 billion people (United Nations, 2015).

For more on tragedy, one just needs to review the Love canal landfill incident which signifies the importance of primordial prevention of waste generation. It also is a grim lesson on the precautions necessary to protect and cover a landfill, especially to prevent leakage of leachate (Beck, 1979).

This is an era where forests are cleared and cities built to accommodate a world congress on environmental development. This proves that most conferences do not achieve what they meant to in the first place. Deforestation has resulted in cities being built in place of jungles leaving rodents and other vectors homeless. This in turn has caused an alarming rise in the emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases.

To counter the vector problem, humans have used insecticides to fog the environment. This has resulted in reducing the number of queen bees (Goulson et al., 2015). Albert Einstein once prophetically remarked, “Mankind will not survive the honeybees’ disappearance for more than five years.”

Queen bees are master pollinators and their extinction would result not only in the world going honey-less but also will affect a huge list of fruits and flowers pollinated by the bees. Extensive research has been done recently to understand the developmental and ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Kaithamanakallam et al evolutionary genetics of Honey bees to aid in their conservation. Genetic approaches can be used to modify plants to become resistant to insects, even withstand drastic changes in the environment and increasing crop produce (DeWoody et al., 2010). This can reduce the burden of using insecticides and potentially increase food resources.

Natural resources exist in a fixed amount and can take millions of years to get replaced. Once they are depleted, they are depleted forever. Losses of forests lead to implications on the water and the atmosphere. Less trees result in less rains. To quote the department of natural resources, South Carolina from their study on Earth’s Natural Resources and Human Impacts, “Recycling helps the environment by slowing down the rate at which we have to burn garbage or put it in landfills. With fewer landfills we can have more space for people to farm, live, and work. Recycling also helps by reducing our need to consume fresh natural resources to make new products. As a result, we can save these resources for use by future generations.

Most importantly, recycling saves energy and reduces pollution. This could also help in slowing-down global climate change, another environmental problem caused by burning fossil fuels like oil and gas.

Earthlings have ignored long term and serious implications just to concentrate on short term gains. (A joke as usual with a deep message states Aliens observe that humans are the most intelligent species in the universe as they have utilised the nuclear power; however, they also note that the humans have directed nuclear missiles against themselves). Mitochondrial DNA and Ancestry genetic studies need to be 117

Focus Environ (2016) Basics for Sustainable Environment publicised more to prove and convince earthlings that they have arisen from a common ancestor. Each one would possess 99% of the same genome with each other. We all have varied genes, including the genes from the countries they have sworn to eternal enmity. This should reduce wars (the biggest waste that cause havoc for years) and help us to focus on environmental and human conservation. It is high time to join together to combat the environmental issues together.

Lack of awareness, poor planning and excessive tapping of resources has led to the Holocene extinction event including co-extinction of many species.

It was hypothesised that Dodo’s and the tambalacoque trees went into extinction as they needed each other for their survival (Temple, 1979). When a predatory species becomes threatened or extinct, this removes a check and balance in the food chain on the population of prey previously consumed by that predator. Consequentially, the prey population can explode (Primack, 2007).

We are in need of a forum where we can instil the awareness of the ecological crisis we are dealing with and the solutions that lies closely embedded within the problems themselves.

The environmental awareness programmes should aim to educate the younger generation about the importance of saving the planet for themselves and for the future generations.

In summary, everyone should practice reduce, reuse, and recycle concept in daily life which will help in part to minimize the damage to environment for a sustainable future. We can nurture nature, the next generation’s future by using AIMST. Where these alphabets stands for - A: Alternate ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Kaithamanakallam et al sources of energy and by creating Awareness about the benefits of reducing waste; I: Informing people to reuse a resource again without changing or reprocessing it, for instance, using glassware instead of paper plates should be preferred, Internalising these information and adopting a healthy ecofriendly life style; M: adopting Modern and Molecular methods of environmental conservation; S: Sustaining the environment by recycling materials that can be used in another item; T: Transforming the environmental and the peoples mind set to ensure a better tomorrow for the next gen.

REFERENCES Dawson, A. (2016). Extinction: A Radical History. ISBN 9781944869014.

DeWoody, J.A., Bickham, J.W., Michler, C.H., Nichols, K.M., Rhodes, O.E.Jr., and Keith E. Woeste, K.E. eds. (2010).

Molecular Approaches in Natural Resource Conservation and Management.

Cambridge University Press, 2010.

FAO (2016). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016.

Contributing to food security and nutrition for all. Rome. 200 pp.

Goulson, D., Nicholls, E., Botías, C., and Rotheray, E.L. (2015). Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers. Science 347(6229), 1255957.

Hance, J., (2015). "How humans are driving the sixth mass extinction".

The Guardian 118

Focus Environ (2016) Basics for Sustainable Environment Novacek, M. J., (2014). "Prehistory's Brilliant Future". New York Times. Retrieved 25 December 2014.

Stearns, B.P., Stearns, S.C., Stearns, S.C., (2000). Watching, from the Edge of Extinction.

Yale University Press. p. 1921. ISBN 978-0-300-08469-6. Accessed on May 2, 2016.

Temple, S.A. (1979). The dodo and the tambalacoque tree. Science 203, 1364. http://www.wwf.org.au/our_work/people _and_the_environment/human_foo tprint/footprint_calculator.

Accessed on May 4, 2016.

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Kaithamanakallam et al Love

Canal. Center for Health, Environment and Justice, P.O. Box 6806, Falls Church, Virginia 22040. Available online at http://depts.washington.edu/envir2 02/Readings/Reading05.pdf.

Accessed on May 3, 2016.

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015).

World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables. Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.241. Available online at https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Public ations/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2 015.pdf. Accessed on May 4, 2016.

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Short Note Natural Farming: Malaysian Farmers Experience N V Subbarow National Farming Unit, Consumers Association of Penang, Penang, Malaysia Email: subbarow@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION In February 2005, the Consumers Association of Penang (CAP) embarked on Sustainable Agriculture Project - to promote organic farming in Malaysia. The pioneers in this field were Namvalvar, Gopalakrishnan, a vermicomposting expert; a soil biologist and Director of the Ecosciense Research Foundation from India Prof. Sultan Ahmed Ismail; Rajamanikam, a herbal specialist in treating cattle diseases were invited by CAP to conduct trainings for farmers and public on sustainable agriculture.

The organized programmes have been popular among the Chinese, Indian and Malay farmers. The Chairman of the Farmers Association, Mr. Chayeemong took a keen interest in the programme and encouraged other Chinese farmers to join him.

These programmes have successfully educated many farmers about organic farming using vermiculture.

About 36 Chinese farmers went to India for Natural Farming Study Tour in 2006 which was organized by CAP. Various Training and Awareness programmes have been organized by CAP in Penang, Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Johor for farmers, public, students, teachers and trainee teachers.

What is organic farming all about?

Organic agriculture is a way of farming that ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

avoids the use of synthetic chemicals, pesticides, and other chemicals. Organic farming systems rely on crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity, to supply nutrients to plants, and to control weeds and pests. All kinds of agricultural products are produced organically, including produce, grains, meat, dairy, eggs, and fibers including cotton. Now growing crops is not all about using the latest, strongest chemical. It is also about using what is freely available from Mother Nature and churning it into something useful. In this short note, I am sharing Malaysian farmers experience about organic (also known as natural) farming.

FARMERS EXPERIENCE Case 1 Somasundaram is one of the first farmer who started Organic farming. During Mr. Gopalakrishnan’s visit to Malaysia he introduced Somasundaram to organic farming by guiding him in finding earthworms. The earthworms have multiplied fast and so has Somasundaram‘s income. He was full of praise for this system of farming and his new found friends-the earthworms. This pioneer project of producing vermicompost 120

Focus Environ (2016) Natural Farming: Malaysian Farmers Experience from farm waste started with just two beds, measuring three meters by 1.5 meters. These beds were sheltered from extreme climates and were covered with cow dung. The cow dung is produced by Somasundaram’s twenty cows and dried over a period of two weeks. During this time the chicken eat all the worms and keep the cow dung free of worms. The drying helps to make the cow dung completely safe and ready for use.

He also prepares ‘Panchakavya’, a multi-purpose fertilizer. This fertilizer can be easily prepared at home using fresh milk, yogurt, banana, egg, yeast, molasses, yeast, cow- urine, coconut and manure being an indispensable component. Its usefulness surpasses the unpleasant smell.

Somasundaram not only uses Panchakavya for his jasmine plants and vegetables such as ladies finger, brinjal, bitter gourd and chilly. He says the Jasmine plants have a strong fragrance and flowers remain fresh longer. He was surprised to find the growth rate of his chickens multiplied and his cows producing better quality milk.

Among the other fertilizers, Vermiwash is another famous one. Coconut milk serves as plant growth enhancer it is commonly used.

Case 2 K. Sanmargam started growing Jasmines in his backyard as a past time for his wife.

What started, as a past time is flourishing fast. K. Sanmargam was introduced to organic farming by Gopalakrishnan using vermiculture. The construction of earthworm beds is in progress. Sanmargam like many other farmers has set aside all his chemicals. He says that his wife had been suffering from breathing problems and on a visit to the doctor; she was diagnosed with asthma and underlying facial burns not visible to the naked eye. He swore to find a betISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

Subbarow ter way of farming. His search was soon answered by organic farming. He says he feels much safer working with the plants now.

Jasmine plants like any other plant has a peak season and at the end of this season the yield is very low; however, after switching to organic farming, Sanmargam says that the yield remained consistent till end of the flowering season. Another interesting thing that Sanmargam brought out is the difference in the way birds react to the herbal repellant and the chemical pesticide. Earlier, he says the birds never ate the insects after the chemical pesticide repelled them; however, thanks to the miracle herbal repellant the birds gladly eat the insects.

Currently, Sanmargam is renting one acre of land to breed earthworm, planting vegetables, rearing goats and chickens. He has 4 earthworm breeding beds whereby he produces vermicast.

Case 3 Kanniappan from Kulai, Johor has been ventured into organic lime planting after attending CAP’s organic farming training. He used to harvest ping-pong ball sized lemons on his one-acre orchard, is now reaping fruits that are bigger than hockey balls. It happened after he replaced chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers and pest repellents.

He has set up a vermiculture unit that produces 80 kg of vermicast per month which he uses as fertilizers. He earns at least RM 500 a month from lime, and RM 250 from vermiculture.

Case 4 Md Saad Bin Haji Ali is a paddy farmer from Alor Setar who experimented using panchakavya and neem oil on his farm last year. To his surprise, he realized a 35% increase in production after using panchakav.

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the smell of pesticides. This farmer is feeding his dog with panchakavya and finds it healthy and fat.

On the whole, about 200 farmers have already adopted non-chemical alternatives to farming and 500 paddy farmers are experimenting effectiveness of vermicompost and panchakavya in their fields. The number of farmers moving towards natural farming is expected to increase because of the benefits and sustainability.

Besides Somasundaram, Sanmargam, Kanniappan,, Md Saad and their friends, farmers from Hulu Yam are also shifting towards organic farming. Currently, they are trying composting in a bigger scale for their vegetable farms.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Author is grateful to the farmers (mentioned) for sharing their experience.

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Abstracts

Natural Resources and Conservation Fadzil bin Abd Kadir Sungai Petani Municipal Council, Kompleks MPSPK, Jalan Patani, 08000 Sugai Petani, Kedah, Malaysia Email: norriza@mpspk.gov.my

ABSTRACT Natural resources are resources that exist without the actions of humankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, and electrical properties and forces. On earth, we include sunlight, atmosphere, water, land, air (includes all minerals) along with all vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances. A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, and air, as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form which must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, petroleum, and most forms of energy. Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, and are known as ubiquitous resources. However, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localized resources. During my presentation, I will talk about ‘renewable and nonrenewable resources’, ‘conserving natural resources’, ‘reducing, reusing and recycling of waste’, ‘soil pollution’, ‘water pollution’, ‘air pollution’ and other aspects of environment to highlight the importance of natural resources conservation.

Keywords: Air; conservation; nature; pollution; resources; water

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Biodegradable Plastics for a Sustainable Environment Sudesh K. School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia Phone No.: (+6) 04-6534367; Email: ksudesh@usm.my

ABSTRACT Bioplastics are mostly derived from renewable plant sources such as sugars and plant oils. They have a high potential in substituting petrochemical plastics as a renewable and sustainable material. Most types of bioplastics are also biodegradable, which makes them popular in developed countries. Switching to the use of biodegradable plastics not only reduces our dependence on fossil fuels but at the same time helps to fight global warming. For the past three decades, biodegradable plastics, namely polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) has been the subject of intense investigation due to its thermoplastic properties as well as being biodegradable and biocompatible. PHA is also being researched in Malaysia because palm oil can be used as an efficient feedstock to produce PHA via microbial fermentation. It is accumulated as water insoluble storage polyester in the cell cytoplasm of bacteria. However, successful commercialization of this biodegradable plastic is currently hindered by its high cost compared to existing petroleum-based plastics in the market. The main reason for costly production of PHA is its recovery and purification process from bacterial cells. A novel biological extraction method has recently been developed by feeding freeze-dried cells containing PHA to animal models. Since PHA granules are not digested by the digestive enzymes, the granules are excreted in the form of fecal matter. The resulting whitish fecal matter consisted of more than 90 wt% of PHA. The biologically recovered PHA has been successfully used in the development of controlled release fertilizers.

Keywords: Biodegradable; bioplastics; fermentation; polyhydroxyalkanoate

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Focus Environ (2016)

Environmental Forensics: An Overview of Selected Cases Hj. Mohamed Zaini bin Abdul Rahman ACM, Director, Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Penang Branch, Malaysia Email: zaini@kimia.gov.my

ABSTRACT Environmental forensics is a complex discipline where forensic investigation techniques are applied to determine the origin and source of contamination. Successful investigations need to apply knowledge on chemical fate and sampling protocols with sound statistical understanding, apart from being trained in the fields of analytical and environmental chemistry. To promote the awareness, an overview of environmental forensics with few selected cases received by the Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Penang Branch will be presented.

Keywords: Contamination; detection; environment; forensics; pollution

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Environmental Pollution and Its Biological Impacts Palanisamy Arulselvan*, Katyakyini Muniandy, Sivapragasam Gothai Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia *Corresponding author; Email: arulbio@gmail.com

ABSTRACT The environment plays an important role in human and animal health along with its well-being.

Various key environmental factors such as physical, chemical and microbial can have implications for human and animal health. We have good constant cross interactions with the environment; therefore, health is considerably determined by the environmental quality.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), definition of health emphasizes on the physical, mental and social well-being, hence, human health is considered as a complete perception reaching beyond, in the absence of diseases. Apart from, human well-being and quality of life are matter to a notable number of environmental factors from indoor and outdoor.

In the last three decades, there has been accumulative global concern over the health impacts attributed from numerous environmental pollutions, especially the global burden of chronic disease. The WHO predicted that more than a quarter of diseases faced by mankind nowadays occur due to continued exposure to harmful environmental pollutants. These environmental factors associated diseases are not intermittently diagnosed, however, we identified in the later or chronic stages. Overall environmental pollution has an imperative impact on living organisms, including health and physiology of human and animals. The impact on our health not only comprises the consequences of air, ground and water pollution, but also other factors such as genetic susceptibility, food contamination, radiation, lifestyle and life quality. Adding to it, notable pollutants such as pesticides, heavy metals, fluorine and other agro-chemicals are the primary cause of environmental toxicity, which affects humans, animals, plants and wildlife. The chronic and minimal contact of pollutants is often linked to chemical residues in animal system.

As for subclinical effects, these include mainly oxidative stress, immunotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and endocrine disruption.

Keywords: Carcinogenicity; environmental pollution; immunotoxicity

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Impact of Environmental Alteration and Human Infectious Diseases S. Suresh Kumar Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia Email: suresh@upm.edu.my

ABSTRACT Climate changes by human activities influenced the distribution, reproduction, and survival of disease between pathogens and host. Several environment-associated variables also influence the means of pathogen transmission and the changeover of non-pathogenic to infectious diseases, including air-, water-, and food- or vector-borne diseases. This may present new health threat to human beings, and further multiply existing health problems. One of the key factor influencing the likelihood and outcome of disease emergence is the pathogen invasiveness, which may result from the combination of pathogen traits including opportunism. Particularly, high mutation rate in viruses and bacteria capable of acquiring genetic material and pathogens infecting multiple hosts are more likely to turn into an emerging disease agent. Some species such as Legionella spp. and non-tuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) are among the microbes that arise to be pathogenic due to environmental changes. Recently, numbers of peoples infected with nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) have increased worldwide. Disturbances to microbial ecosystems caused by the changes in environment system might lead to NTM diseases.

Environmental alteration cause disturbance on the ecosystems that leads to occurrence of infectious diseases and finally give impact on human society. Thus, clarifying the relationship between environmental alterations and changes in microbial ecosystems is important to contribute to the restoration of the health of the ecosystem and also to prevent further outbreaks of infectious diseases. It is imperative to recognize research development and gaps on how human society may respond to, acclimatize to, and prepare for the related changes.

Scientific advances, early warning systems, public health awareness campaign are needed along with research association between climate change and shifts in infectious diseases.

Keywords: Infectious diseases; nontuberculous Mycobacteria; public health awareness

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Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development

Focus Environ (2016)

Recycling of Household Wastes (Resources) for Cleaner Environment Don Theseira Green Crusaders, Bukit Mertajam, Penang, Malaysia Email: datoje@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Disposal of the household waste is a challenge in most of the counties. For public awareness purpose, I do demonstration on how we can recycle our household wastes for cleaner environment and income generation. I will be doing a demo on reducing, recycling and reusing wastes to promote the environmental cleanliness.

Keywords: Environment; household waste; recycle; reuse

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Appendices Appendix 1: A Brief Biography of Speakers Biography of Prof. Sultan Ahmed Ismail Dr. Sultan Ahmed Ismail, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D., D.Sc., (9.10.1951) is Managing Director of the Ecoscience Research Foundation, a notfor profit organization, in Chennai. He was the Head of Zoology and later the Department of Biotechnology, The New College, Chennai.

Has done extensive work (both research and applied) on ecology and environment, earthworms and organic inputs since 1978. He has been associated with several farmers and self-help groups promoting the concepts of ecology, sustainability, organic concepts, waste management, waste water treatment, etc. He was awarded the CASTME award for 1994-95 in the UK, the Arignar Anna Award by the Department of Environment of the Government of Tamil Nadu for 2005, and the award of Excellence presented by His Excellency Governor of Jharkhand in Dec 2010. Classified as one among the “TOP 10” people of Tamil Nadu for 2013 by Anantha Vikathan. He has travelled widely in India and abroad, with rich expertise in environmental issues. His book “The Earthworm Book” is popular among both academics and others interested in earthworms. He also authored “simple tasks great concepts” which is a boon to science teachers and students. It consists of 100 life science experiments which any child can perform without a laboratory. His earthworm book has been translated in Tamil as well as in Chinese. He has published more than 75 papers in National and International Journals, guided 32 M.Phil students and 17 Ph.D, students. More info about his work can be had from www.erfindia.org or just google his name.

Biography of Dr. Fadzil Bin Abdul Kadir

Dr. Fadzil Bin Abdul Kadir, AMK., BCK will enlighten us with his talk on ‘Natural Resources and Conservation’. He holds a doctorate in local government studies. He started his career in the Kedah state government service as a Kedah civil service officer (KCS) and has worked as a district land administrator, director of water services board and state chief auditor. Presently, Dr. Fadzil is the secretary of Sungai Petani municipal council.

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Speakers who delivered their talk in ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ Biography of Prof. Dr. Sudesh Kumar Prof. Dr. Sudesh Kumar’s main research interest is in the design and synthesis of biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) using microbial systems. He started research in this area in 1992 and obtained his Masters in Biotechnology from University Malaya.

Then, he continued his research for his PhD, which was sponsored

by Japanese Government (Monbusho). The research was conducted at RIKEN Institute, Japan under the supervision of Prof. Y. Doi. He obtained his PhD in 1999 and then continued as a Special Postdoctoral Researcher at RIKEN. He returned to Malaysia under the Brain Gain program and joined the School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia as a lecturer in 2001 and became a full professor in 2011. He has significantly contributed to the research and development of biodegradable plastics in Malaysia from palm oil products. In addition to the numerous scientific publications in both local and international journals, he has 6 granted patents, two of which has been successfully licensed.

Biography of Hj. Mohamed Zaini bin Abdul Rahman Hj. Mohamed Zaini bin Abdul Rahman earned his B.Sc. in Chemistry from the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada (1985) and joined the Department of Chemistry, Malaysia on 15 May 1985. He later continued his studies and obtained the Certificate in Forensic Medicine and M.Sc. in Forensic Toxicology, both from Glasgow University, Scotland (1991). He had enjoyed servicing the nation in various fields within the Forensic, Environmental Health and Applied Science Divisions.

He was promoted to the Senior Chemist position leading the newly formed Pesticide Residues Analytical Centre, Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Perak Branch on 1 April 2003. Six years later, he was seconded to the Office of the Permanent Delegation of Malaysia to UNESCO, Paris as Malaysia’s 1st Science Attache to UNESCO. Having completed his term, Hj. Zaini was called to serve the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), Putrajaya as Deputy Undersecretary, National Oceanography Directorate. He left MOSTI and moved back to the Department of Chemistry as Penang Branch Director on 17 December 2013. Hj. Zaini had been an active member of Institute Kimia Malaysia, having served the Institute as Honorary Secretary IKM Perak Branch and is currently the Vice Chairman of IKM Northern Branch.

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Speakers who delivered their talk in ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ Biography Mr. Don Theseira and Ms. Mylene Ooi

Mr. Don Theseira and Ms. Mylene Ooi from GreenCrusaders.com are two recycling enthusiasts, who started their household waste recycling project in 1996. This retired couple are based in Bukit Mertajam, Penang and they have travelled across Malaysia to educate various organisations, corporations and residents’ associations on the need to recycle household waste. They also teach the art of composting household scraps, using a method which Don has perfected over the years. Don and Mylene have successfully combined recycling with charitable causes by donating the proceeds of each recycling project to charity organisations. Besides being featured in countless magazines and newspapers over the years, they have also been awarded the title “Everyday Heroes” by Readers’ Digest in 2002 for their tireless efforts in helping the environment. They present on how you can achieve zero waste, how to recycle your household waste and at the same time, how you can raise money for your favourite charity organisation.

They have presented more than 250 talks on recycling and participated in 8 exhibitions. He has received many awards that includes:  Reader’s Digest ‘Every Day Hero’ (featured in December 2002 issue)  Guang Ming Heroes (Chinese daily 14 April 2005)  Received PKT title given out by The Governor of Penang (13 July 2008)

Biography of Dr. Haslinda Mohd Anuar

Dr. Haslinda Mohd Anuar is a Senior Lecturer at School of Law, Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). She obtained LL.B (HONS) from the International Islamic University in 1994, and LL.M (Public Law) from University of Wales Aberystwyth, United Kingdom in 1996, she then been awarded with her PhD in Environmental Law from Newcastle University, United Kingdom in 2015. In academic, she involves in a number of researches, i.e., Kajian Penerokaan Terhadap Hukuman Di Bawah Undang-Undang Berkaitan Pencemaran Perairan Daratan Di Malaysia; Kajian Terhadap Tahap Pengetahuan, Amalan Dan Sikap Berkaitan Alam Sekitar Di Kalangan Pelajar Sekolah - Kubang Pasu; and Peraturan Berkaitan Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal Di Utara Semenanjung Malaysia. Dr Haslinda Mohd Anuar also produced several articles in environmental issues: Mohd. Anuar, H., & Wahab, H.A. (2015). Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam: Pengurusan dan Perundangan.

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Speakers who delivered their talk in ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ Solid Waste Solutions Journal. 1(), 1 – 14; Yaacob, N., Wahab, H.A., & Mohd. Anuar, H. (2015). Peraturan Yang Mengawal Selia Industri Getah dalam Menangani Pencemaran Air di Malaysia. 4th International Conference on Law & Society. 1(1), 1 – 10; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2014).

Environmental Governance in Malaysia: An Overview. The UUM International Conference on Governance 2014. 00(), 154 – 162; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2013). The concept of environmental rights: an overview. 7th UUM International Legal Conference 2013; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2012).

Towards An Environmental Sustainability: Environmental Education or Environmental Rights?.

Proceeding of The 5th International Borneo Business Conference (IBBC) 2012. (), 108 – 113; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2011). An Overview of Public Participation under EIA. Proceeding of The 6th UUM International Law Conference 2011. (1), 346 – 351; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2011). Right to Information on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Proceeding of the International Soft Science Conference 2011 (ISSC2011); and Mohd. Anuar, H., & Wahab, H.A. (2010). Akta Pepejal Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam 2007: Satu Pandangan. International Seminar Economic Regional Development, Law and Governance in Malaysia and Indonesia.

Biography of Dr. PalanisamyArulselvan Dr. PalanisamyArulselvan received his Doctorate in the field of Biochemistry from the University of Madras, India and he was trained as a post-doctoral researcher at Academia Sinica, Taiwan.

Currently, he is continuing his scientific research career as a Research Fellow at Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. He has published over 65 papers in internationally reputed journals, refereed proceedings and book chapter. His current research focuses on natural products based drug discovery; nano-drug delivery system and role of inflammatory signalling targets in diabetic wound healing. He has won many national and international level scientific awards from different organization. He is serving as Associate Editor and Editorial board member of few internationally reputed scientific Journals.

Biography of Dr. Suresh Kumar Dr. Suresh Kumar has degrees in Microbiology (B.Sc), Life science specialization in bio-macromolecules (M.Sc.,) and Microbiology (Ph.D.,). He is currently working as a senior lecturer in Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. He has been Post-Doctoral research Fellow in National Central University and National Taiwan University, Taipei-Taiwan in the field of yeast genetics and Stem cells. He also has been Senior Research Executive (Fermentation of Microbial drugs) in IPCA Laboratory Ltd, Mumbai, India, R&D officer (Fermentation of Microbial drugs) in Gujarat Themis Biosyn Ltd.), Vapi, Gujarat, India, a Senior and Junior Research fellow (Fermentation and ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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Speakers who delivered their talk in ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ purification of enzymes) in University of Delhi South campus, New Delhi, India. Currently, he is also a consultant in one of the Project of King Saud University, Saudi Arabia and he is an editor for PLoS One and American Journal of Tissue Engineering, Columbia international Publishing.

His research interests have focused on Infectious Diseases in Tuberculosis, Dengue and Leptospirosis, Bio-macromolecules, Yeast genetics, Fermentation and purification of Microbial drugs and enzymes, Stem cells with Infectious diseases, Stem cell niches, Induced Pluripotent stem cells.

Biography of Prof. Dr. Kannan Narayanan Prof. Dr. Kannan Narayanan is essentially an Interdisciplinary person with background in biology and chemistry with a specific focus on environmental problems. He has done basic toxicology on pesticides on house hold pests in his B.Sc. & M.Sc (1970-75) and got into Environmental Analytical Chemistry during his PhD work in India (1976-85) where he studied the chemodynamics of pesticides in semitropical climate. Thus he acquainted himself with gas chromatographic techniques and has developed multiple residue methodologies for pesticides in agricultural produce. The work he developed in India fetched him a Monbukagakusho fellowship in Japan (1985-89) where he continued his environmental studies on industrial trace chemicals such as PCBs, Dioxins etc. He went from local to global studies involving migratory whales and birds to establish global distribution of anthropogenic pollutants. He was largely responsible for the scientific awareness on dioxin-like PCBs in humans and other biota. He also got an opportunity to observe and implement in-vitro cellular bioassays for the impact assessment of toxic pollutants in biota, marine sediments, water and terrestrial samples. His studies on co-planar PCBs took him to Germany where he worked for more than 10 years at GEOMAR HelmholtzZentrum für Ozeanforschung, Kiel (1989-2002). There he refined his knowledge on utilizing non-radioactive, anthropogenic chemical signatures in understanding biogeochemistry of ocean processes such as sedimentation, ocean circulation etc. He continued this research later in Korea (2003-2011) with a more regional focus, such as in the Yellow sea, South and East seas. Korea offered him an opportunity to develop his skills on outreach activities and capacity building for developing nations. He was the program director for APEC Marine Environmental Training and Educational Center (AMETEC) at KIOST, Korea. This international training and teaching experience gave him the power to be adaptive and innovative in his research at UPM, Malaysia (2013-16). With essential teaching load on environmental courses he utilized Final Year Project (FYP scheme) to work on environmental problems in Malaysia. He developed simple semipermeable membrane devices to monitor air pollution. With minimum equipment and measurement techniques like GCMS, HS GC-FID, AAS his team measured toxic chemicals in waste motor engine oil, atmosphere and marine sediments. They utilized marine micro debris such as plastic pellets to understand marine pollution in Malaysia. He is also involved in improving Gas Purge Micro extraction techniques with Yanbian University China and Università di Foggia, Italy on Green Chemistry for a sustainable world. Thus his academic interests include the transport and fate of industrial contaminants and hormone disruptors in the environment. This includes, aspects of intermediate transport, pollution modelling, degradation processes, human ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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Speakers who delivered their talk in ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ exposure pathways, bio-geochemistry of POPs and their use as unconventional chemical tracers in understanding Ocean Processes. He loves teaching and mentoring and he has taught students at tertiary level and guided students for their Master/M.Phil/PhD courses. He has a strong track record on publication and his current H index is 31. He has working relationship with Institutions in China, Korea, Japan, Europe and USA which could be utilized for the benefit of a hosting Institution.

Biography of Prof. Dr. P. K. Rajesh Prof. Dr. P. K. Rajesh has held academic positions at Chennai, India and at Kedah, Malaysia. He joined AIMST University in Malaysia in March 2005, where he is currently holding the posts of Head of the Unit of Microbiology and Medical Education. He was the former Deputy Dean of Preclinical studies and the former Dean of faculty of Medicine at AIMST University. Dr.Rajesh is a Fellow of the Academy of Clinical Microbiology, Life member of the Malaysian society of microbiologists, and also a life member of the college of chest physicians, New Delhi. He has authored 18 publications in peer reviewed indexed journals on various fields of clinical microbiology and medical education. Dr Rajesh has presented papers on many international platforms. In March 2011 Dr. Rajesh received the bioinnovation medal from Malaysian biotechnology society for his work on bacteriophage therapy. He is passionate about youth empowerment and leadership and has pioneered the world first preclinical quiz which was held at AIMST in 2011. He is also advisor to the RED committee a charity organization working in AID of the less privileged patients. He organized district 3310 RYLA 2013/2014 and was invited to be an inspiration coach at the international RYLA in Sydney in May 2014. He was the president of the Rotary Club of Bandar Sungai Petani 2015-16 and is in charge of new generations 2016-17. A winner of the Rotary International’s 5 avenues of citation award in 2014. Dr Rajesh was involved in international community service with regard to water and sanitation in India and Bangladesh in 2013-15. Dr Rajesh is a life member of the World Wildlife Fund and is an active supporter of the preservation of forests.

Biography of Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan

Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan has a Ph.D. in Biotechnology from Kyoto University, Japan. Prior to joining at Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM) as a full professor in August 2014 he was managing his own firm-Bioinnovare Co., Ltd., an international business development consulting company, based in Kobe, Japan which he founded in 2009.

Prior to that he was a Professor at Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (JAIST), a national postgraduate university, in Ishikawa, Japan (1997- 2005). He also worked for Procter & ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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Some of the key achievements of Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan are:  Professional biotechnologist with more than twenty five years of experiences in research and management (in Japan and USA)  Extensively experienced in both the Western and Japanese (multi-cultural) business settings.  Invented, co-developed and successfully launched a health-care consumer product, from original idea and laboratory test to prototyping and field-testing (Febreze- Allergen Reducer has been globally marketed by Procter & Gamble since 2004)  Recipient of Procter & Gamble Innovation Award  Published more than 50 patents and articles.

At UUM, currently Prof. Quamrul Hasan is also the Director of an international research center collaborating with the universities and companies in Japan, which were initiated by him.

Biography of Dr. Md. Aminur Rahman Dr. Md. Aminur Rahman has been working as a Senior Research Fellow (Senior Associate Professor Equivalent) in the Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) since January, 2010. He has been involved in teaching/supervising undergraduate and postgraduate students in various fields of marine sciences, fisheries and aquaculture as well as conducting research on “Biology, ecology, diversity, breeding, seed production, culture and biochemical composition of sea urchins, sea cucumbers and fishes”. Meanwhile, he is involved in some international collaborative research work on marine biology, fisheries and aquaculture with scientists of different institutes, including Smithsonian Institution (USA), Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization (Australia), Sultan Qaboos University (Oman), Kindai University, Japan, Sinop University (Turkey) etc., while others are under the process of establishment. Before that, Dr. Rahman had obtained his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Marine and Environmental Sciences from University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan (1995-2001), where he also did two years (2003-2005) JSPS postdoctoral research on “marine biology, reproduction, fertilization, hybridization, speciation and aquaculture in the Indo-Pacific sea urchins”. He also worked in the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, and USA for two years (2007-2009) in the same field with Atlantic sea urchins as the Smithsonian postdoctoral researcher. In addition, he worked as a Chief Researcher in the Ocean Critters Ranch, Inc., Crowley, Texas, USA on “breeding and propagation of various marine ornamental fishes and corals”. Moreover, he worked as a senior scientist in Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute during 1988 to 2007 in various fields of Breeding Biology, Nursing, Aquaculture and Fisheries Management. His expertise areas broadly lie in Marine and Freshwater Biology, Limnology and Aquatic Ecology, Reproductive Biology and Fertilization kinetics, Population dynamics, Breeding, Nursing and Seed Production, ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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Speakers who delivered their talk in ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ Aquaculture and Conservation, and Taxonomy and Evolution. His multidisciplinary research and educational backgrounds provide him a unique and novel perspective in conducting research work in a diverse field of Aquatic Biology and Ecology, Marine and Environmental sciences, Fish Nutrition, Aquaculture and Fisheries Sciences, and Biodiversity conservation, and thus enable him to coordinate with scholars in different academic disciplines. Dr. Rahman has published 110 scientific papers in international and nationally reputed high impact journals, 19 referred proceedings, 2 books and 12 book chapters. A good number (22) of scientific papers have also been presented and published in international conferences, symposia and workshops.

He has also been serving as editors and editorial board members of some reputed journals and proceedings.

Biography of Mr N V Subbarow Mr N V Subbarow has been serving with Consumers Association of Penang for the past 40 years. He has been actively involved in organising many Health campaigns in CAP namely Anti Smoking, Anti Alcohol and Anti Pesticides Campaigns. At present he is the Coordinator for the CAP’s Sustainable Agriculture Project. He has been advocating for Chemical Free farming and is working closely with farmers, teachers, government officials, housewives, students of primary, secondary and higher learning institutions. He is also engaged in developing urban garden techniques for urban dwellers.

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WED-2016 Events Held at AIMST University, Malaysia

Appendix 2: WED-2016 Events held at AIMST University A. WED-2016 Event 1 ─ Planting trees in AIMST University campus This event was held on June 6, 2016. The event information and some snaps are given below: Date of event: June 6, 2016 (Monday) Time: 8.00am – 10.30 am Meeting point: Foyer, Admin building

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WED-2016 Events Held at AIMST University, Malaysia B. WED-2016 Event 2 ─ Slogan writing competition Info: This competition was open to all staff and students of the AIMST University.

Participants were allowed to submit multiple slogans for the competition by following the guidelines made available on university’s website.

We had received a total of 417 slogan entries from which winners were selected by the judges.

Winners of the competition Prize

Winner

Champion (Cash prize Malaysian Ringgit (RM) 500 + Certificate)

Prize Winning Slogan of the Winner

“Nurture Nature, The Next Generation's Future” Dr. P.K. Rajesh

1st Runner up (Cash Prize Malaysian Ringgit (RM) 300 + Certificate)

“Earth is a divine expression; don't spoil it with carbon impression” Dr. Kailash Kharkwal

2nd Runner up (Cash Prize Malaysian Ringgit (RM) 200 + Certificate)

“Pollution is not an illusion, it is your creation” Ms. Ashadeep Kaur Vidwan

C. WED-2016 Event 3 ─ Trash to treasure innovation competition The event information and some snaps are given below: Date of event: September 22, 2016 Duration : 8.00 am – 5.00 pm Location : AIMST University, Jalan Bedong, Semeling, 08100, Bedong, Kedah Info: Twenty-two ( 22) school teams had participated in this competition ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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WED-2016 Events Held at AIMST University, Malaysia Special Presence:  DCP (R) Dato' Dr Yew Chong Hooi, Council Member, Institut Kimia Malaysia & President of Forensic Society of Malaysia  Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mas Rosemal Hakim Mas Haris, Chairman, Institut Kimia Malaysia (Northern Branch)  Tn. Hj. Mohamed Zaini b. Abdul Rahman, Director, Jabatan Kimia Malaysia, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Jalan Tull, 10450 Pulau Pinang.

Winners of the competition* Prize

Winner SMK ST George (Girls), Champion Pulau Pinag MRSM Transkrian Nibong 1st Runner up Tebal, Pulau Pinang nd SMK Ibrahim, Kedah 2 Runner up *The prizes were sponsored by Institut Kimia Malaysia (IKM).

D. WED-2016 Event 4 ─ Inter school quiz competition The event information is given below: Date of event: September 22, 2016 Duration : 8.00 am – 5.00 pm Location : AIMST University, Jalan Bedong, Semeling, 08100, Bedong, Kedah Info: In total, 24 school teams had participated in the interschool environmental quiz competition.

Winners of the competition Prize Champion 1 Runner up 2nd Runner up st

Winner (School Team) SMK Khir Johari SMK Kota Kuala Muda SMK Sin Min

E. WED-2016 Event 5 ─ Intervarsity debate competition The event information is given below: Date of event: September 22, 2016 Duration : 8.00 am – 5.00 pm Location : AIMST University, Jalan Bedong, Semeling, 08100, Bedong, Kedah Info: Six (6) teams had participated for this intervarsity environmental debate competition.

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WED-2016 Events Held at AIMST University, Malaysia Winners of the competition Prize Champion 1st Runner up 2nd Runner up

Winner Multimedia University Malaysia, Malaysia Multimedia University Malaysia, Malaysia University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

F. WED-2016 Event 6 ─ World environment day cycling event - ride for fun The event information is given below: Date of event: 16 October, 2016.

Duration: 7.30 am (Flag Off) Venue (Start and Finish): AIMST University to Tupah to AIMST University Info: 219 cyclist participated in the event.

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AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia

World Environment Day-2016 (WED-2016) Events Steering Committee

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How you can help in saving the world?

Appendix 3: How you can help in saving the world?

A. Things you can do from your couch 1. Save electricity by plugging appliances into a power strip and turning them off completely when not in use, including your computer.

2. Stop paper bank statements and pay your bills online or via mobile. No paper, no need for forest destruction.

3. Share, don’t just like. If you see an interesting social media post about women’s rights or climate change, share it so folks in your network see it too.

4. Speak up! Ask your local and national authorities to engage in initiatives that don’t harm people or the planet. You can also voice your support for the Paris Agreement and ask your country to ratify it or sign it if it hasn’t yet.

5. Don’t print. See something online you need to remember? Jot it down in a notebook or better yet a digital post-it note and spare the paper.

6. Turn off the lights. Your TV or computer screen provides a cosy glow, so turn off other lights if you don’t need them.

7. Do a bit of online research and buy only from companies that you know have sustainable practices and don’t harm the environment.

8. Report online bullies. If you notice harassment on a message board or in a chat room, flag that person.

9. Stay informed. Follow your local news and stay in touch with the Global Goals online or on social media at @GlobalGoalsUN. 10. Tell us about your actions to achieve the global goals by using the hashtag #globalgoals on social networks.

11. Offset your carbon emissions! You can calculate your carbon footprint and purchase climate credit from Climate Neutral Now.

B. Things you can do at home 1. Air dry. Let your hair and clothes dry naturally instead of running a machine. If you do wash your clothes, make sure the load is full.

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How you can help in saving the world?

2. Take short showers. Bathtubs require gallons more water than a 5-10-minute shower.

3. Eat less meat, poultry, and fish. More resources are used to provide meat than plants.

4. Freeze fresh produce and leftovers if you don’t have the chance to eat them before they go bad. You can also do this with take-away or delivered food, if you know you will not feel like eating it the next day. You will save food and money.

5. Compost—composting food scraps can reduce climate impact while also recycling nutrients.

6. Recycling paper, plastic, glass & aluminium keeps landfills from growing.

7. Buy minimally packaged goods.

8. Avoid pre-heating the oven. Unless you need a precise baking temperature, start heating your food right when you turn on the oven.

9. Plug air leaks in windows and doors to increase energy efficiency.

10. Adjust your thermostat, lower in winter, higher in summer.

11. Replace old appliances with energy efficient models and light bulbs.

12. If you have the option, install solar panels in your house. This will also reduce your electricity bill!

13. Get a rug. Carpets and rugs keep your house warm and your thermostat low.

14. Don’t rinse. If you use a dishwasher, stop rinsing your plates before you run the machine.

15. Choose a better diaper option. Swaddle your baby in cloth diapers or a new, environmentally responsible disposable brand.

16. Shovel snow manually. Avoid the noisy, exhaust-churning snow blower and get some exercise.

17. Use cardboard matches. They don’t require any petroleum, unlike plastic gas-filled lighters.

C. Things you can do outside your house 1. Shop local. Supporting neighbourhood businesses keeps people employed and helps prevent trucks from driving far distances.

2. Shop Smart—plan meals, use shopping lists and avoid impulse buys. Don’t succumb to marketing tricks that lead you to buy more food than you need, particularly for perishable

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How you can help in saving the world? items. Though these may be less expensive per ounce, they can be more expensive overall if much of that food is discarded.

3. Buy Funny Fruit—many fruits and vegetables are thrown out because their size, shape, or color are not “right”. Buying these perfectly good funny fruit, at the farmer’s market or elsewhere, utilizes food that might otherwise go to waste.

4. When you go to a restaurant and are ordering seafood always ask: “Do you serve sustainable seafood?” Let your favorite businesses know that ocean-friendly seafood’s on your shopping list.

5. Shop only for sustainable seafood. There are now many apps like this one that will tell you what is safe to consume.

6. Bike, walk or take public transport. Save the car trips for when you’ve got a big group.

7. Use a refillable water bottle and coffee cup. Cut down on waste and maybe even save money at the coffee shop.

8. Bring your own bag when you shop. Pass on the plastic bag and start carrying your own reusable totes.

9. Take fewer napkins. You don’t need a handful of napkins to eat your takeout. Take just what you need.

10. Shop vintage. Brand-new isn’t necessarily best. See what you can repurpose from second-hand shops.

11. Maintain your car. A well-tuned car will emit fewer toxic fumes.

12. Donate what you don’t use. Local charities will give your gently used clothes, books and furniture a new life.

13. Vaccinate yourself and your kids. Protecting your family from disease also aids public health.

14. Take advantage of your right to elect the leaders in your country and local community.

SOURCE: Sustainable development goals. The lazy person's guide to saving the world.

Available online at http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ (accessed on November 21, 2016).

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2

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WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS

WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS

WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS

WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS

About Editors Subhash Bhore, PhD: Subhash completed his BSc (Botany) and MSc (Botany) degrees education at University of Pune, India. Immediately after completing his MSc (May 1996), he got an opportunity to work at ‘Biochemical Engineering Department’ and ‘Plant Tissue Culture Pilot Plant’ of the National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, India. In June 2000, he received a Doctoral Fellowship (GRA) to pursue a PhD Degree in Molecular Genetics at the National University of Malaysia (UKM). In 2004, he was appointed as Senior Research Officer at Melaka Institute of Biotechnology (MIB), a research wing of Melaka Biotechnology Corporation, Malaysia. Based on his performance, in April 2005, he was promoted as ‘Principal Investigator & Head of R&D Department’ at MIB, Malaysia. In 2008, he was invited by the AIMST University as a ‘Visiting Faculty’ for their Department of Biotechnology and now serving as a Senior Associate Professor. In 2009, he was nominated for the AASIO (Association of Agricultural Scientists of Indian Origin) Young Scientist Award. He has published more than 47 peer-reviewed articles, 5 books, and submitted more than 11,900 DNA sequences in Gene Bank, and got more than 10 awards/fellowships. As of May 2016, he has supervised more than 67 students including postgraduates, undergraduates and industrial trainees. He is actively involved in research as well as teaching and advising of postgraduate and undergraduate students. You may contact him using email, subhash@aimst.edu.my or subhashbhore@gmail.com

Kasi Marimuthu, PhD: Marimuthu accomplished his BSc (Zoology); MSc (Environmental Biotechnology); PhD (Environmental Biotechnology/ Zoology Interdisciplinary) degree education at Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tamilnadu, India. In 2003 he joined as a Post-Doctoral Fellow at School of Biological Sciences, University Science Malaysia, Penang for 2 years. Presently, he is appointed as a Professor in the Department of Biotechnology AIMST University, Malaysia. He teaches Aquaculture, Biostatistics, Research Methodology, Biology of Invertebrates and Vertebrates courses for undergraduate biotechnology programme. He is specialized in fish reproduction and breeding, larval rearing, hatchery management, fish immunology and aquatic toxicology related research. He has published more than 95 research publication in fisheries and aquaculture in various reputed and indexed journals.

He has participated in more than 35 local and international conferences, seminars, and workshops. He has been appointed as an external examiner for six Indian Universities (Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Annamalai University, Bharathiyar University, Bharathidasan University, Madras University, and Priest University) Tamilnadu, India. He is also currently serving as a Deputy Vice chancellor for Academic and International Affairs at AIMST University. You may contact him at marimuthu@gmail.com.

Focus on Environment Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development Published by AIMST University