Angels of Mercy
White Women and the History of
New York’s Colored Orphan Asylum
Empire State Editions
An imprint of Fordham University Press
New York 2011
William Seraile
Copyright 2011FordhamUniversityPress
Allrightsreserved. No partofthis publicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrieval system,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans—electronic,mechanical, photocopy,recording,oranyother—exceptforbriefquotationsin printedreviews, withoutthe prior permissionofthe publisher.
FordhamUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthe persistenceoraccuracyofURLs forexternalorthird-partyInternetwebsitesreferredtointhis publicationanddoesnot guaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate.
FordhamUniversityPressalso publishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats. Somecontentthatappearsin printmaynotbeavailableinelectronicbooks.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Seraile,William,1941–
Angelsofmercy:whitewomenandthehistoryof NewYork’sColoredOrphan Asylum/WilliamSeraile.—1sted. p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN 978-0-8232-3419-6(cloth:alk. paper)
1.ColoredOrphanAsylumandAssociationfortheBenefitofColoredOrphans(New York, N.Y.)—History.2.Women philanthropists—NewYork(State)—NewYork— History.3.Women,White—NewYork(State)—NewYork—History.I.Title. HV995.N52C6572011
362.73 2—dc22
Printed intheUnitedStatesofAmerica 13121154321 Firstedition
2011006835
C.EarlyCOAMajorFinancialSupportersinthe1830s214
D.COAManagers/Trustees,1837–1946216
E.FirstDirectress/President232
F.Superintendent/ExecutiveDirector232
G.LocationsoftheCOA’sHomes233
Notes235
Bibliography265
Index273
Preface
TheColoredOrphanAsylum,foundedinNewYorkCityin1836,is aremarkableinstitutionthatisstillintheforefrontaidingchildren. Althoughnolongeranorphanage,itssuccessor,theHarlemDowling–WestSideCenterforChildrenandFamilyServices,maintainstheprinciplesofthewomenwhoorganizednearlytwohundredyearsagothe firstorphanageforchildrenofAfricandescentintheUnitedStates.
Remarkably,thetwenty-fivefoundersfoughtagainstgenderdiscrimination,financialdifficulties,andinitialblackresistancetohouse childrenwhowereeitherneglected,mistreated,ororphaned.Manyof thewomenwerethedaughters,wives,orsiblingsofinfluentialNew Yorkerswhomadetheirreputationandwealthasbusinessmen,bankers,merchants,orentrepreneurs.Somewereardentlyantislavery,if notabolitionists.
Thisstudyhasseveralmajorthemesthatwillbeexploredinits eightchapters.First,Iwilldescribetheeffortsofthewhitewomen managerstoprocureahomeforthechildrendespiteintenseracial hostilityandgeneralcivicdisinterest.Althoughtheywouldeventually receivefinancialbackingfromsomeofManhattan’swealthiestcitizens,includingJohnJacobAstor,RufusLord,GerritSmith,GulianC. Verplanck,JohnHorsburg,AnsonG.Phelps,AnnJay,andElizabeth andSarahDeMilt,tonameafew,theearlyyearsoftheorphanage representedafinancialnightmare.
Second,whilethewhitefemalemanagersandtheirmaleadvisers werededicatedtoupliftingtheblackchild,theyharboredextremepaternalisticviewsthatdidnotseekguidancefromtheAfricanAmerican community.Theexception,ofcourse,wasthehiringofJamesMcCune
Smithastheinstitution’sphysician,apositionheheldfortwenty years.Theorphanageacceptedmaterialaidintheformofnonperishablegoods,volunteerlabor,andsmallfinancialcontributionsfromthe blackcommunity,butitdidnotseektheiradviceandonlygrudgingly accepteditwhenitwasgiven.
Third,theevangelicalandmainlyQuakerfoundingmanagers soughttosavethesoulsoftheircharges.Later,inthenineteenthcentury,theirsuccessorsadoptedaharsher,moralistictoneasthey(and othersimilarinstitutions)becamemorebureaucraticandprofessional. Theirobjectivewastoupliftthepoorintheircareand,inasense,to ‘‘rescue’’theirchargesnotonlyfromtheevilsofthestreetbutalso fromtheperceptionthatthey,andnottheblackcommunity,could bestraisethechildrenintoresponsibleadulthood.
Fourth,itwasfrankcriticismin1913fromW.E.B.DuBois,editor of TheCrisis,thathighlightedtheconflictbetweentheorphanageand thecommunityitserved.Itwasnotuntil1939thatthewhiteleadershipdecidedthatitwasnotenoughsimplytoemployAfricanAmericansinmenialpositions;theyalsohadtoreachoutandincludethem intheleadershipoftheinstitution.Theorphanage’sfirstblackfemale trusteewaselectedinthatyearandwassoonfollowedbyothers,includingJewishwomenandAfricanAmericanmen.
Fifth,ithadbecomeclearinthefirstfewdecadesofthetwentieth centurythattheinstitutionwasanorphanageprimarilyinname,as mostofthechildrenundercarewere‘‘half-orphans,’’thatis,neglected ordelinquentchildren.Itwasduringthisperiodthatthetrusteesintroducedthecottagesystemasameanstoaccommodatechildrenina less-institutionalizedmanner.Boardingthechildrenoutledtoagreater interactionwithblackchurchesandfamilies.Anantidiscrimination lawinNewYorkStatepressuredthereluctanttrusteestoacceptwhite childreninthelate1940s.Itwasatthistimethatitwasdecidedto closethe‘‘orphanage’’intheRiverdalesectionoftheBronxandfind boardinghomesforallthechildren.
TheColoredOrphanAsylumsurvivedseveralfires,thenation’s financialpanics,wars,theGreatDepression,andracialhostilitysovirulentthatitledtothedestructionofitsFifthAvenuebuildingbyamob duringNewYork’sJuly1863draftriots.Overfifteenthousandchildren
wereraisedintheorphanageduringtheperiodunderstudy,and throughoutitshistory,lettersandvisitshaverevealedthathundredsif notthousandsof‘‘oldboysandgirls’’havelookedbackwithadmirationandrespectforthehomethatnurturedthemthroughouttheir formativeyears.
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Acknowledgments
InAugust2002,thehistorianGeraldHornewasinNewYorkresearchingabook.Iwasbetweenresearchprojects,anditwashissuggestion thatIcheckoutthevoluminousfilesontheColoredOrphanAsylum housedattheNew-YorkHistoricalSociety.
Iamindebtedtomanywhohelpedtomakethisresearchpossible. IwanttothankthelibrariansoftheNationalArchives;theSchomburg CenterforResearchinBlackCulture,NewYorkPublicLibrary;The New-YorkHistoricalSociety;andtheRareBookandManuscriptLibrary oftheUniversityofPennsylvaniafortheirassistance.IthanktheUniversityofPennsylvaniaforpermissiontocitefromtheTheodoreDreiserPapersandforthepermissionoftheNew-YorkHistoricalSocietyto quotefromtherecordsoftheManumissionSociety,theAssociationfor theBenefitofColoredOrphanRecords,Children’sAidSocietyRecords, the‘‘Riots,1834’’sectionoftheAmericanHistoricalManuscriptCollection,andthepapersofCharlesChapinandPhilipHone.TheNewYork PublicLibrary,theHarlemDowling–WestSideCenterforChildrenand FamilyServices,andtheNew-YorkHistoricalSocietygraciouslyallowed metousephotographsorillustrationsintheirpossession.GeorgeConliffeprovidedmewithaphotographofhimselfasamemberofthe orphanage’sgleeclub.Mr.VictorRemeroftheChildren’sAidSociety providedmewithassistanceasheretrievedoldvolumesthatdelineated thenamesofchildrenfromtheorphanagethatweresenttotheWest. JanetMunch,thespecialcollectionslibrarianatLehmanCollegeofthe CityUniversityofNewYork,wasextremelyhelpfulwithnumerous leadsthatimprovedmylevelofresearch.IwishalsotothankArica Easely,agraduatestudentinhistory,andhercousinFannyCrawford
forpermissiontoquotefromtheunpublishedrecollectionsofThomas HenryBarnes.Barnes,aformer‘‘inmate’’oftheorphanage,putaface tosomeoftheeventsdescribedintheannualreportsorminutes.This studyhasbeengreatlyimprovedbythefrankcriticismsofanonymous readersandtheinsightfulsuggestionsofTimothyHacsiandJanet Munch.KarenFranklin,theformerdirectoroftheJudaicaMuseumof theHebrewHomefortheAgedatRiverdale,intheBronx,whichoccupiestheformersiteoftheColoredOrphanAsylum,showedenthusiastic interestintheproject.MelbaButler,theformerexecutivedirectorof HarlemDowling–WestSideCenterforChildrenandFamilyServices, thesuccessortotheColoredOrphanAsylum,wasverysupportiveof thisproject,andIthankherforputtingmeincontactwithsomeofthe institution’salumni.IspentapleasantJuneafternoonin2003dining andconversingwithseveralalumnioftheColoredOrphanAsylum/ RiverdaleChildren’sAssociation.ThankstoMadelineDavisMarshall, GloriaTorrence,FitzHarvey,GeorgeConliffe,LouisEaddy,andAddisonEaddyforsharingtheirreminiscencesoflifeatRiverdaleduringthe early1940s.IgainedmoreinsightsintolifeatRiverdalewhenseveralof thealumnispokeeloquentlyabouttheirexperiencesatanApril14, 2005,symposiumatLehmanCollege.LourettaSmallwoodDeHaney,a nurseintheinstitutionfrom1940to1944,providedinformationabout theinstitutionalhealthcareprovidedbythestaff.
Finally,Iofferblessedthanksanddeepappreciationfortheladies whoconfrontedracialprejudiceintheireffortstoprovideasafeand comfortablehomeforthousandsofchildrenofcolorwhootherwise wouldhavebeensubjectedtothefateoflifeonthestreets.Iwould liketothankmywife,Janette,forherloveandsupport,andAden Seraile,GarnetSeraileMcKenzie,andKristenRichfortheirassistance withmystill-evolvingcomputerskills.
AngelsofMercy
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Introduction
Despitethe1827abolitionofslaveryinNewYorkState,AfricanAmericansinManhattanandelsewhereweretreatedwithcontemptand,at times,withcrueltybymuchofthestate’swhitepopulation.Blacksin whitechurcheswereassignedtositinseparatepewsorinhighbalconiescrudelyreferredtoas‘‘niggerheaven.’’Theyhadtostandonthe omnibusesorrideinseparatecars.Publicschoolsweresegregatedby race.PersonsofcolorwerenotpermittedincabinsontheHudson Riversteamersbutwererelegatedtothedecks,regardlessofweather conditions.AfricanAmericans,alongwiththeirfewbutvocalwhite supporters,werevictimsofviolence.Thefirsthalfof1834inNew YorkCitywasatroubledperiodoffraudulentelections,labortrouble, andbiasagainstimmigrants.IntothismixwasaddedavirulentNegrophobia.Animosityagainstthesmallpopulationofcolorbrokeoutin threedaysofriotingin1834.Thisriotwouldsetthestageforthe nineteenthcentury’sgreatestracialoutrage:the1863Irishdraftriot. Theinstigatorsin1834werezealousintheireffortstokillormaim innocentAfricanAmericansandtheirabolitionistfriendsandtopreventracialprogressthroughallianceswithwhiteprogressives.Raising thetabooofinterracialsex,JamesWatsonWebb,theracisteditorof the CourierandEnquirer,accusedabolitionistsofsupportingracemixing,achargelatervehementlydeniedbyDavidRuggles,aprominent blackabolitionist.
TheriotbeganonJuly4,whenhecklersinterruptedanintegrated celebration,whichwasrescheduledforJuly7.Onthatdate,Chapel’s SacredMusicSocietydeclaredthattheChathamStreetChapel,which themusicsocietyhadleasedtwonightsaweek,wasreservedforthem.
Angrythatblackswerein‘‘theirstalls’’(eventhoughonthatdatethe chapelwasfreeforanytaker),theriotbegan,accordingtothe Courier andEnquirer,whichallegedthatNegroeshadphysicallyharmeda peacefulgatheringofwhites.Afterward,vengefulwhitessackedthe homeoftheabolitionistArthurTappan,burninghisfurnitureand damaginghissilkstore.ArthurTappan’sbrotherLewissufferedasimilarfatewhenthemobbrokeintohishomeandburnedhisfurniture inthestreet.TheformermayorPhilipHonenotedthatthemob,encouragedthatneitherthepolicenorthemilitarycouldfireuponthem unlessorderedtodosobythegovernor,grewlarger.Theenragedmob attackedthehomeandchurchofDr.SamuelH.Coxandinvadedand destroyedfurnitureandtheorganatSt.Philip’sEpiscopalChurch, fueledbyarumorthattheblackpriest,PeterWilliams,hadofficiated ataninterracialmarriage.Eyewitnessesprovidedchillingaccountsof therioters’behavior.Fifty-fivecommunicationsweresenttoMayor CorneliusW.Lawrence.AnundatednotefromMilesOsborneindicatedthathehadmingledwiththeriotersandbelievedthattheiractionsweremotivatedbytheanti-AmericanremarksoftheEnglishman WilliamFarren,thestagemanagerattheBoweryTheater.Osborne warnedthatthemobintendedtoattackthepoliceandreleaseprisoners.OthernoteswarnedofattacksagainsttheAfricanMethodistEpiscopalZionChurch,atthecornerofLeonardandChurchStreets,and theAfricanFreeSchoolNo.4,atJeffersonStreetandEastBroadway. Individualswhoweremarriedtowhitewomenweretargetedforattacks,aswereblackmerchants.PhilipHonerecordedinhisdiarythat theriotendedwhenthepoliceandseveralthousanduniformedmilitia andprivatecitizensworkedtopreservethepeaceontheeveningof July12.1
Theoutrageousbehaviorofthemobagainstblacks,withtheir homesandinstitutionsastargets,causedmuchconsternationamong peopleofcolor.AntiblackriotsinPhiladelphia,Rochester,NewYork, andinseveralcommunitiesinNewJerseyandPennsylvaniaprompted thedelegatestotheFifthAnnualConventionfortheImprovementof theFreePeopleofColorintheUnitedStatestoadoptaresolution affirming‘‘thattheChristianforbearancepracticedby[blacks]during
theirpersecution...meritsthepraiseandrespectofthewholeChristianworld;andisamostsuccessfulrefutationoftheproslaveryargumentadvancedinthiscountry.’’Theresolutionconcludedthatcolored Americanshaddisplayedby‘‘theirpeace,quietudeandhumility’’that theywerebetterpersonsthantheiragitators.2
TheriotaddedmorefueltothesimmeringfireofNegrophobiain NewYorkCity.The CastigatorandNew-YorkAnti-Abolitionist newspapercontinuedtoaccuseabolitionistsofracemixing.Equatinganintegratedsocietywithamalgamation,therabideditorlamented,‘‘isit possiblethatwecaneverbewillingtoseeourdaughterspromenading ourstreets,arminarmwitha thicklipped negro ...orseeour sons ...sauntering...arminarmwithoneofthose kitchen appendages,a negrowench,becauseArthurTappanhassaidtheywereas goodas whitewomen.’’Theeditorbluntlycondemnedtheunspeakablehorror ofsexualrelationsbetweena‘‘strapping bucknigger ...withthedelicateandrefined white female.’’3 Theantiabolitionistfeelingwasso strongthatmanywhitesactivelyhuntedfugitiveslaveswhoescaped toNewYork.Intheireagernesstocapturerunaways,theywerenot abovekidnappingfreemenandwomentosendtoworkinSouthern cotton,tobacco,andriceplantations.ProgressiveNewYorkersrespondedin1835byformingtheNewYorkCommitteeonVigilance. OrganizersincludedWilliamJohnston,DavidRuggles,RobertBrown, GeorgeBarker,andJamesW.Higgins.Theirdiligencepreventedthe kidnappingof335personsin1837.4
ItwasinthiscontextofracialhostilitiesthattheColoredOrphan Asylum(COA)wasestablishedbywhitewomeninNewYorkCity. BlacksinManhattan,withtheirsmallpopulationandlimitedresources,trieddiligentlytoadvancethroughself-reliance.Theyhad, since1800,organizedmutualreliefandbenevolentsocieties,churches, schools,andnewspapers,butthepaucityofeducatedindividualsand thelackofindividualandcollectivewealthmadedifficultthetaskof speakingforthemselvesinmattersofcivilandpoliticalrights.Mutual reliefandbenevolentsocietiesprovidedtemporaryrelieftotheills sufferedbythepoor,buttheirlackofsufficientresourcesprompted benevolentwhitestoestablishanorphanageontheirbehalf.Alarge building,amatron,staffmembers,andfinancialsupporterswere
neededtorunanorphanage.Thesecouldbeprovidedbywhitewomen whowereculturallyprogrammedtobenurturers.Theircontrolofan institutionthatservedtheneedsofblackyouthmettheday’ssocietal standardsofwhitepaternalism.Withouttheinvolvementofblack leadershipintheday-to-dayoperationsoftheorphanage,thewomen avoidedscandaloustalkofsocialequality—orworse,amalgamation.
Thisstudyisanexaminationoftheeffortofagroupofwhite womenwho,aidedsporadicallybylimitedfinancialsupportfromAfricanAmericans,laboredforoveracenturytomaintainahomefor blackyouth,firstorphansandthenalsohalf-orphansandneglected, dependent,anddelinquentchildren.TheCOA,thefirstinthenation forAfricanAmericanyouth,wassimilartootherorphanagesinthe nation.SomeorphanagescaredforonlyProtestant,Catholic,orJewish youth.Incontrast,theCOAhousedblacksandoccasionallyAmerican Indiansuntil1944,whenastatelawrequiredthemalsotoacceptwhite applicants.TimothyHascidescribesnineteenth-centuryorphanages’ missionsas‘‘toclothe,houseandeducatechildren;providethemwith specificmoralandreligiouscode;andotherwisecareforchildrenuntil theycouldbeindentured;placedinafamily,orreturnedtotheir homes.’’TheCOAdidnotdeviatefromthispattern,althoughveryfew childrenwereindenturedtoAfricanAmericanhomes,anditwasnot untiltheearlytwentiethcenturywheneffortsweremadetoplace theminthehomesofblackfosteroradoptiveparents.5 Hascinotes thatorphanageswereeitherprotective,isolating,orintegrativeasylums.‘‘Protectiveandintegrative[asylums]hopedtoactastemporary replacementforchildren’sownparentswithwhattheyconsideredsuperiorparentingandsocializationtactics,’’henoted.6 Formuchofits history,theCOAactedasanisolatinginstitution.Itkeptthechildren insidethebuilding,providededucationalandreligiousstudies,made itdifficultforfamiliestovisit,andindenturedthechildrentowhite familiesinthehopesofmakingthemmore‘‘American’’—meaning Anglo-Saxon—incultureandvalues.Themanagersviewedmostof theirchargesascomingfromaprimitiveculturerifewithsuperstition, vice,andimmorality.Despitethispatronizingattitude,theAfrican Americancommunityallowedthemtocarefortheirchildren,asthe alternative—thealmshouse—wasnotanoption,withitsdepraved,
mentallydisturbed,andabusiveinhabitants.Later,likeotherorphanages,theCOAbecameanintegrativefacility,sendingitschildrenout toschool,church,parks,andplaygrounds.Likeotherearlyorphanage managers,thewomenwhostartedtheCOAwereelitebenevolent womenandevangelicalperfectionistswhowantedto‘‘eradicaterather thanamelioratesocialills.’’TheearlierfoundersoftheCOAcamefrom upper-classfamiliesandwerethewivesanddaughtersofprominent NewYorkerssuchasChiefJusticeJohnJay.7
Middle-andupper-classnineteenth-centurywomenfoundestablishingasylumstobeapracticaloutletfortheirdesiretobepartofa broaderworld.Theywereabletoleavethehome,wheretheywere nurturers,togointoanasylum,whichalsowasahome,withoutfacing condemnationfor‘‘desexing’’or‘‘unsexing’’themselves.Manyofthe earlierfoundersoftheCOAcamefromhomeswheretheheadsofthe householdweremembersoftheNewYorkManumissionSociety. Thesefamilieshadaninterest—albeitapaternalisticone—inassisting blacks.Thisinterestcertainlymadeiteasierforthewomentoworkto saveblackyouth.Thetwenty-fivewomenwhofoundedtheCOAcame frompredominantlyupper-classhomes.AnneM.Boylan’sresearchindicatesthat34.9percentofthefounderscamefromhomesheadedby merchantsormanufacturers.Theotherscamefromhomeswherethe headofthehouseholdwasaclergyman,artisan,lawyer,judge,shopkeeper,orphysician.8
Itisnotsurprisingthat67.7percentofthefoundersweremembers oftheSocietyofFriends,orQuakers,astheywerecommonlyknown. Presbyterians,ProtestantEpiscopalians,andMethodistEpiscopalians accountedfor10.7percenteach.Noneoftheoriginaltwenty-five foundersbelongedtotheBaptist,ReformedDutch,Unitarian,Congregationalist,orRomanCatholicchurch.TheQuakers’strongantislavery beliefsexplaintheirhighnumber.Amajority,55.8percent,oftheoriginalmembersweremarried.Unlikesinglewomen,theyhadtheirhusbandsasasourceofeconomicsecurity.Thefoundingmanagersofthe COAwerematurewomen,withamedianageoffortyattimeofjoining.Boylan’sresearchshowsthat30percentwereinthe30–39age range,23.3percentinthe40–49agegroup,26.65percentinthe50–59 agecategory,13.3percentinthe20–29agerange,and3.3percentwere
teenagersorsixtyyearsorolder.Workingonbehalfofblackchildren madeeasierthetransitionofleavingthehome(ifonlyforperiodsof theday),becausesocialevolutiondeemedthemsuperiortotheblack childrenintheircharge.Theirasylumworkprovidedthemwitha senseofauthorityandlegitimacythatallowedthemtoescapesocietal rolesthatdefinedtruewomenasthose‘‘whoembracedpiety,purity, submissivenessanddomesticity.’’9
ThewomenmanagersoftheCOAwereabletoacquirecorporate status,thankstothesuccessfuleffortoftheSocietyfortheReliefof PoorWidowsandSmallChildren,whoacquireditin1802.Incorporationpermittedthemanagers,asanorganization,tohavelegalrights thatnoneofthemcouldclaimindividually,‘‘includingtherighttoown property,bringlegalsuits,indentureminorchildren,investfunds,and controlwages.’’Themarriedofficers‘‘receivedconcreteandoftensurprisinglybroadpowersthatweretheoreticallyrestrictedtomaleor unmarriedfemalecitizens.’’Despitethesegains,thewomendidnot abusetheserightsnordenymasculineinvolvement.Maleadvisers counseledthemonfinancialmatters,offeringsuggestionstoinvestin stocksandbondsaswellasinrealestate.Thesemenwereinvolvedin bankingorWallStreetbrokeragehouses.Thisdependenceonmale financialadviceallowedfor‘‘masculineauthorityintofemininerealms devaluingwomen’smoneymanagementskills;andseparatingwomen leaders’vocationalworkmorefullyfromhomeduties.’’Asfinances werea‘‘man’sbusiness,’’women’sdependenceuponhisadvicekept themfromdesexingthemselves.10
ThisstudyisanexaminationoftheColoredOrphanAsylumfrom itsfoundingin1836until1946,whenitcloseditsbuildinginRiverdale (theBronx),NewYork.Duringthatperiod,itwasaidedbyprominent NewYorkerssuchasJohnJacobAstor;JohnJayandhisdaughters, AnnaandMaria;CorneliusV.S.Roosevelt;TheodoreRooseveltSr.; FrederickDouglass;JamesMcCuneSmith;EleanorRoosevelt;Lena Horne;Bill‘‘Bojangles’’Robinson;andothers.Theirgenerosityhelped tocareforfifteenthousandchildrenbeforetheColoredOrphanAsylum,laterknownastheRiverdaleChildren’sAssociation,closedits doorsandbegantooperateasafostercareagency.
Duringitsfirstcenturyofoperation,theCOAmaintainedapaternalisticrelationshipwithblackNewYork,acceptingtheirfinancial supportbutnotpermittingthemtoadvisethemonhowbesttoserve theAfricanAmericancommunity.Itwasnotuntil1939thatthemanagementdeemeditessentialtoaddanAfricanAmericanwomanasa trusteeandtoworkmorecloselywithHarlem’sreligiousandcivic leaders.
TheEarlyYears,1836–42
Alas!IamanorphanBoy, Withnaughtonearthtocheermyheart; Nofather’slove,nomother’sjoy Nokinnorkindtotakemypart. Mylodgingisthecold,coldground, Ieatthebreadofcharity; andwhenthekissoflovegoesround, thereisnokiss,alas.
AstheNewYorkOrphanAsylum,foundedin1809,admittedonly Caucasianchildren,itcameasnosurprisewhenQuakerwomenestablishedthenation’sfirstorphanageforchildrenofcolor.1 Originally slaveholders,in1774NewYorkQuakersplacedsanctionsonmembers whoboughtandsoldslaves.In1778,theyremovedslaveholdersfrom theircongregations.2
TheoriginoftheColoredOrphanAsylumhasseveralversions, influencedbythepassageoftime,boastfulpride,andmarketingobjectives.Anoriginalversionnotedthatin1834twoQuakerwomen,Anna H.Shotwellandherniece,MaryMurray,chancedupontwodirtyand unkemptchildrenatplayunderthewatchfuleyeofablackwoman. Uponlearningthattheyhadbeenabandonedbyfugitiveslaveparents, thetwogavethewomanafewdollarstocareforthechildren.Several dayslater,theyfoundthatthekindwomanhadfouradditionalchildrenunderhercare,havingreceivedenoughfundstotendtotheir needs.ThisledthetwoQuakerstoconsideropeningahomeforhomelesschildrenofcolor.Later,LeslieSkiddyParkernotedthat‘‘awhite
woman...hadtaken[thetwochildren]outofjailandnotknowing whattodowiththem,’’turnedthemovertotheQuakerwomen,who tookthemhome.Thisversionplacesthekindnessonthepartofa sympatheticwhitewomaninsteadofcreditingablackwomanforher generosity.AnnaShotwellandMaryMurraywerebothextraordinary women.Twenty-eight-year-oldAnna,thedaughterofWilliamShotwell,amemberoftheNewYorkManumissionSociety,wasastaunch opponentofslavery.Annahaddecidedatagetwelvenevertohavean AfricanAmericanservantorlaboreraslongasslaveryexisted.Eighteen-year-oldMaryMurray,thegranddaughterofJohnMurrayJr.,the long-timetreasureroftheManumissionSociety,‘‘wasapersonofa stronganddominantwill[whopossessed]agooddealofexecutive abilityunitedwithagreatpersistenceofpurpose.’’3
TheColoredOrphanAsylumwasformedonNovember26,1836, inthehomeofWilliamShotwell.Thefoundersdecideduponthename ‘‘colored’’indeferencetothecommunity’ssensibilities.Manyprominentmenofcolorresentedthewhite-ledAmericanColonizationSociety’sassertionthattheblackperson’sdestinywasinAfrica.These men,whohadbeenbornintheUnitedStatesandhadamixedAfricanEuropeanancestry,preferredthenomenclature‘‘colored’’over‘‘African,’’whichtheybelievedbetteridentifiedthemasAmericansandnot Africansinexile.ThefoundersoftheCOA,pioneersinchildwelfare foryouthofcolor,includedAnnaShotwell,MaryMurray,EuniceMitchel,SarahC.Hawxhurst,SarahShotwell,HannaL.Murray,Mary Shotwell,EleanorShotwell,PhebeMott,ElizabethLittle,AbbyAnn Cook,StellaTracy,ErnestineLord,JaneU.Ferris,SarahUnderhill, MargarettaCock,andSarahHall.Aboardoftwenty-fivefemalemanagersandfivemaleadviserswasquicklyorganized.TheAssociation fortheBenefitofColoredOrphansintheCityofNewYorkimmediatelyreceivedtheassistanceofprominentNewYorkersincludingRobertC.Cornell,CharlesKing,WilliamF.Mott,RobertJ.Murray,Dr. JamesProudfit,MahlonDay,IsraelCorse,WalterUnderhill,RobertI. Murray,JohnMurrayJr.,JohnJay,andJohnJacobAstor.Throughout thenineteenthcentury,awho’swhoofNewYorkphilanthropists,merchants,artisans,andbankerswouldbefriendtheinstitution.Butit
wouldbeyearsbeforetheColoredOrphanAsylumwouldhavefinancialsecurity,andeventhenitwouldbesporadic,asincreasedenrollmentwouldleadtodeficits.Thefledgingorganizationprovided womenwithanopportunitytodisplayleadership.Asmarriedwomen intheearlynineteenthcenturywerenotallowedtoownpropertyin theirownright,themanagersnotedintheirconstitutionthat‘‘the husbandsofanymarriedwomanwhoisormaybeamember...shall notbeliableforanylossoccasionedbytheneglectormalfeasanceof hiswife’’butwouldbeaccountableifhereceivedmoneyfromhiswife, amemberofthecorporation.Thus,thewomenwereableto‘‘buy,sell, andinvestpropertyandtosignbindingcontracts.’’Intime,theywould learnhowtolobbylegislatorsformunicipalorstatefunds.4
Inearly1837,afternoonewouldrentthemspacetocarefor blackchildren,themanagersdecidedtopurchaseahome.AfterreceivingonethousanddollarsfromtheLindleyMurrayEstate,the managersmadeathree-thousand-dollardownpaymentwithasixthousand-dollarmortgageonthelateDr.AlexanderMurray’stwo-story whitecottage,locatedonTwelfthStreetbetweenFifthandSixthAvenuesinlowerManhattan.InJune,elevenchildrenrescuedfromthe cellarofanalmshousewereplacedinthehome.Childrenwhoresided inalmshouses,asnotedbythecommissionerofalmshouses,livedin conditionsof‘‘neglectandfilthandputrefaction,andvermin,’’with ‘‘bedding[that]wasalternatelyusedbythesick,dyingandthe healthy.’’Thechildrenhadtowalkorbecarriedtotheirnewhome, becausenocarriagedriverswouldtakethem.Themanagersalso startedaschoolforblackyouth,astherewasnoneintheirvicinity. Staffingthehousewithablackmatron,ateacher,andanassistant,the womendependeduponthekindnessoffamily,friends,andstrangers tosurvive.Donationsofblankets,utensils,beans,potatoes,turnips, cabbages,wheatflour,cloth,andirons,andshoveltongsaidedthemin thebeginning.5
Thefoundersfacedthearduoustaskofcaringfororphanswith considerabledetermination.AsnotedbyChristineStansell,theyengagedin‘‘correctivedomesticity,’’employingrulesandregulationsto teachcleanliness,religiosity,andmorality—lessonstheybelievedthat theparentshadfailedtoimpart.Unfortunately,theydidnotdeemit
necessarytoconsultwiththeblackcommunity.Bynotseekingtheir adviceinmattersrelatingtoculturaldifferencesbetweentheraces, thisnegligenceledtoafractiousrelationshipbetweenthemanagers andtheAfricanAmericancommunityofNewYorkCity.6
Thefirstyearofoperationwasnearlyafiscaldisaster.Thefinancial panicof1837ledtowidespreaddestitution,hamperingtheeffortsof privateandpublicreliefagenciestoalleviatetheproblemsofthepoor. TheCOAdesperatelyneededfundstopurchasewintercoalandmeat andtomakepaymentsonthemortgage.TreasurerMaryMurrayfaced thefinancialsituationwithdistress.Oneday,shewalkedthestreets unsuccessfulinhersolicitationforfunds.Shefearedtoreturnhome withoutcashorpledges.Butuponherreturn,apackagewasdelivered thatcontainedtheexactamountneededforexpenses.7
BelievingthattheirswastheworkofProvidence,themanagers continuedintheirmissiontohouseanoppressedgroupofchildren. Differentcircumstancescouldhaveeasilyendedthenascentorganization’sefforttoservechildren,asthefinancialburdenwouldhaveoverwhelmedtheladies.Instead,theworkcontinuedwithhopesand prayersthatfurtherfinancialassistancewasforthcoming.
Theirhighlyanticipatedfinancialbreakcamein1837,butataprice thatcausedfrictionwiththecity’sAfricanAmericanleadership.WilliamTurpin’swillhadprovidedthattwohundredsharesofthecapital stockoftheMechanicsBank,valuedat$1,175.00,begiventoasociety orinstitutionto‘‘promotetheeducationandwelfareofthedescendantsofAfrica.’’8 ThetrusteesoftheWilliamTurpinlegacyweredividedoverwhomshouldreceivethefunds.IsraelCorse,asupporter oftheColoredOrphanAsylum,controlledthedistributionofthe funds,butthetrusteesArthurTappanandSimeonS.Jocelynfavored thePhoenixSocietyastheworthyrecipient.ThePhoenixSociety,establishedin1833forthepurposeofestablishingamanuallabor school,hadbeenledtobelievebyoneofthelegateesthattheywould receivethemoney.Expectingfunds,theyoverspentandwereforced togiveuptheirschoolroom,lackingthreehundreddollarsfortherent. Tocomplicatematters,theyarguedthatTurpinhadbeenanofficerof theirsocietyandwouldhavewishedtohavehisfundssupportablack school.The ColoredAmerican newspapercastigatedboththetrustees
oftheTurpinlegacyandtheladiesoftheColoredOrphanAsylum.Its editor,SamuelCornish,criticizedtheappointmentofwhitetrustees ‘‘ofeveryfundleftto,orforthebenefitofcoloredpeople.’’Heaccused themofdallyingsolongthattheydiedbeforethefundsgotdisbursed, whichledtomissingfunds.CornishlamentedthatsixtoeightthousanddollarswasgoingtotheColoredOrphanAsylum,whichwasnot ‘‘aninstitutionoflearning,butratherabranchofthealmshouse.’’The moneybelongedtothePhoenixSociety,heconcluded,because‘‘we havefiveorsixyoungmenofestablishedpietyandtalent,seekinga preparationforusefulness,andwhoarebysheernecessitydrivenfrom theseminaryoflearning.’’Cornishbitterlyaddedthat‘‘theladiesknew whentheyappliedforthefundsthatthePhoenixSociety[hadclaims onit],andofthe strongprobability thatitwasintendedsolelyforthat society.’’AcompromisewassuggestedinJuly1838,whenCornishand SimeonS.JocelynmetwiththeCOA’sadvisersWilliamF.Mott,RobertMurray,andDr.JamesProudfitandrequestedeighthundreddollarsfromtheTurpinlegacy.Anagreementwasreachedthefollowing month,wherebytheColoredOrphanAsylumgavefourhundreddollarstothePhoenixSocietyinexchangeforthelatterrelinquishingall furtherclaimsupontheorphanageandtrusteesoftheTurpinlegacy. Theladiesindicatedthatthefundsrepresentedtheirempathyforthe disappointmentexperiencedbythePhoenixSociety.9
TheladieswantedtoavoidaconfrontationwithSamuelCornish andthe ColoredAmerican. AstheonlyAfricanAmericannewspaper inNewYorkCity(andthethirdinthenation),itwieldedsignificant influenceamongitsreadership,anaudiencethattheColoredOrphan Asylumcovetedforsupport.InApril1837,themanagersinformed Cornishoftheirneedtohavethecoloredcommunityassistwith‘‘donationsof...furniture,clothingorbedding.’’EvenbeforetheTurpin controversy,the ColoredAmerican hadobjectionstotheorphanage. Cornishopposed‘‘separateinstitutionsforcoloredyouth,asbeingcontrarytotheprinciplesoftheBible,andatwarwiththebestinterestof ourcoloredpopulation.’’HeconcludedthatGodwoulddenyHisblessingstothosewhomaintainedseparateraceinstitutionswhichreflected ‘‘thespiritofslavery[and]contributedmorelargelytothepersecution, andneglectofourcoloredpopulation,thanallthepoliticsoftheland.’’
Thisviewwasconsistentwithanearliereditorial’sdenunciationof prejudice.Hevowedtousethepresstospeakagainsttheevilsofracism‘‘inthundertones,untilthenationrepentandrendertoevery manthatwhichisjustandequal.’’10
DespitethissentimentandhisangerovertheTurpincontroversy, Cornishmadearemarkableturnaroundthathelpedtosmooththeway fortheColoredOrphanAsylumtobettercommunicatewiththeAfricanAmericancommunity,perhapspreventingitfromfurtheralienationfromthecommunityitsoughttoserve.InlateOctober1837, Cornishvisitedtheorphanage,whichledtoadescriptionoftheroomy yardas‘‘suitedtotheinnocentgambolsofthe dearparentlesschildren.’’Cornishdeclaredthattheblessingsof‘‘thefatherlessandthe widowabideupon[thefounders],’’fortheasylum‘‘claimsourprayers, itsfoundersclaimourlittlecontributionsinclothingandprovisions.’’ Theimpressededitorrequestedthatthemanagersestablishamonthly visitingdayfortheblackcommunitytobringmoney,clothing,and provisionsortomendormakeclothesforthechildren.Ayearlater, Cornishenthusiasticallywrotethatthefemalemanagerswereworthy ofthenameChristianandthatprejudicewouldbeeliminatedifmore emulatedthem.Theydeservedimmortalityforactingintheimageof Jesusbyfeedinghungrychildren,clothingthem,andcaringforthem insickness.‘‘Goongoodladies,theBenefactoroftheuniversewillbe withyou,’’heconcluded.11
TheofficersoftheColoredOrphanAsylumhadmuchtoachieve duringthatfirstyear.LedbyFirstDirectressMarthaCodwise,who hadovertwentyyearsexperiencemanagingcharitableorganizations; SecondDirectressSarahC.Hawxhurst;SecretaryAnnaShotwell;and TreasurerMaryMurray,theysought,inadditiontofundraising,to stabilizethehome.Staffturnoverwascommonintheearlyyears,becauseoflowsalariesorincompetence.Theyneededamatronanda teacherforthegrowingschool,whichhadfortydaystudents,untiltwo schoolsforcoloredchildrenopenedinthearea.Theyalsohadtoconsidertherequestofthecommunitytoaccepthalf-orphansintothe institution,adecisiontheydecidedintheaffirmative.(Earlynineteenth-centuryorphanagesallwerefacedwiththedecisiontoaccept morethanfullorphans,ascontagiousdiseasesandwretchedliving
conditionsforthepoorleftmanyfamilieswithoutbothparents.The BostonFemaleAsylum,foundedin1800,acceptedbothhalf-orphans andfullorphans,buttheNewYorkOrphanAsylum,foundedsixyears later,sentinmateswhohadalivingparenttothealmshouse.The RomanCatholicorphanageinManhattaninitiallyacceptedonlyfull orphans.)Caringformorechildrendemandedincreasedfunding,but thealmshousecommissionersturneddownthemanagers’requestfor funds,becausethecommissionersdidnotfeelobligatedtofinancethe educationofblackchildrenwhowerenot‘‘inmates’’ofthealmshouse. Thecity’sCommonCouncilalsorefusedtorenderfundstothemanagers,adecisionthatLeslieHarrisarguesstemmedfromtheirreluctance toencourageanalliancebetweenblacksandprogressivewhitesinthe aftermathofthe1834riots.TheCommonCouncilmadethisdecision eventhoughtheorphanagerelievedthecityofprovidingforchildren removedfromthealmshouse.12
Admission
Thedecisiontoadmithalf-orphansledthemanagerstoformulatecriteriaforadmission.Childrencamefromthealmshouse,werebroughtto theorphanagebyrelativesorkindstrangerswhotookpityonhelpless children,orcameontheirownindesperatesearchforfoodandlodging.Themanagersdecidednottoturnawaythosechildrenwhowere abandonedorneglected.InNovember1837,themanagersrevised theirconstitutiontogivepreferencetoorphanswhilereservingthe righttoadmithalf-orphansattheirdiscretion.Sixhalf-orphanswere admittedthatyearafterthesurvivingparentagreedtopayamonthly feeoftwodollars.Overtheyears,somechildrenwouldbeadmitted fromtheColoredHome(whichwasfoundedin1839byAnnaJay, MaryShotwell,andAnneMottasahomeforboththeagedandabandonedchildren).13
ByOctober1837,thesmallasylumonTwelfthStreethousedfifteen children.Five-year-oldBenjaminMatthewscamefromthealmshouse, but,likemanyothers,hediedofconsumption.JacobBeckettLee,born intheSouthinabout1829,wasbroughttotheasyluminOctoberby
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