ANNEY WHITE
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See Me Now: Shining a Light on the Abstract Artist-Women Painters in 1950s America
Duncan of Jordonstone College of Art and Design University of Dundee
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Bachelor of Arts (Hons) degree in Fine Art.
Fine Art (Hons) - Exhibition Project
Word Count 7545
Acknowledgements
To my mother, a member of the same generation as these women, who would have fitted right in there and my inspiration to follow my own path however long it is.
To my partner and the rest of the support crew, you know who you are.
To all the others I have encountered in life who taught me the lessons I needed to learn.
List of Images
Figure 1. White, A. (2024) Interior [Photograph], Drawing Projects Scotland
Figure 2. Hartigan, G. (1957) Montauk Highway [Oil on Canvas], 232.1 x 325.4cm Available at: https://www.artnet.com/artists/grace-hartigan/montauk-highway (Accessed: 12 December 2024).
Figure 3. Hartigan, G. (1954) Grand Street Brides [Oil on Canvas], 184.3 x 260cm Available at: Available at: https://whitney.org/collection/works/1292 (Accessed: 12 December 2024).
Figure 4. de Kooning, E. (1960) Southwest Landscape #5 [Oil on Masonite], 96.5 x 139.7cm. Available at: https://www.vallarinofineart.com/artists/125-elaine-de-kooning/works/9903 (Accessed 16th December 2024)
Figure 5. de Kooning, E. (1956) Thomas B. Hess #1 [Oil on Masonite], 51.8 x 72.1cm. Available at: https://www.artchive.com/artwork/thomas-b-hess-elaine-de-kooning-1956/ (Accessed: 20 October 2024)
Figure 6. de Kooning, E. (1973) Bacchus 3 [Acrylic and Charcoal on Canvas], 127 x 198.12. Available at: https://nmwa.org/blog/artist-spotlight/5-fast-facts-elaine-de-kooning/ (Accessed: 12 October 24)
Figure 7. Girling, S. (2009) Days End [Acrylic and Collage on Canvas], 163 x258cm. Available at: https://sheilagirling.org/works/days-end (Accessed: 20 December 2024).
Figure 8 Girling, S. (1993) The Maharajas [Acrylic on Canvas], 178 x 269cm. Available at: https://sheilagirling.org/works/the-maharajas (Accessed: 20 December 2024).
Figure 9 Girling, S. (2007) Floral Mist [Acrylic and Collage on Canvas], 99 x 105 cm. Available at: https://sheilagirling.org/works/floral-mist (Accessed: 20 December 2024).
Figure 10 Girling, S. (1980) Bird Song [Acrylic on Canvas], 130 x 178cm. Available at: https://sheilagirling.org/works/bird-song (Accessed: 20 December 2024).
Figure 11 Krasner, L. (1956) Prophesy [Oil on Cotton Duck], 86.4 x 147.6cm. Available at: https://www.guggenheim-bilbao.eus/en/exhibition/prophecy (Accessed: 12 December 2024).
Figure 12. Krasner, L. (1957b) Sun Woman 1 [Oil on Canvas], 178.4 x 247cm Available at: https://www.artandantiquesmag.com/lee-krasner/201802_krasner_01 (Accessed: 12 December 2024).
Figure 13. Krasner, L. (1961) Gothic Landscape [Oil on Canvas], 176.8 x 237.8cm. Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/krasner-gothic-landscape-t03291 (Accessed: 6 Nov 2024).
Figure 14. Dalbera, J.P. (2017) Le Bunker De La Fondation Boros (Berlin) [Photograph]. Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/dalbera/23504580538 Accessed: (22 October 2024)
Figure 15. Lindsay, A. (2024) A Space to Breathe Expo, Bowhouse, St Monans [Photograph]. Available at: www.spacetobreatheexpo.com (Accessed: 26 September 2024).
Abstract
This exhibition dissertation explores the evolving perception and status of women abstract artists from the early twentieth century prior to the development of the second wave feminist movement in the United States where the Abstract Expressionist Movement emerged taking the art world’s focus away from Europe for the first time. It focuses on the impact of political and socio-economic conditions, gender dynamics, and the critical and curatorial practices that have influenced the reception, recognition, and working conditions of these artists. The study focuses on those in creative partnerships with male artists and how their relationships with each other affected the visibility and legacy of women artists and considers the tensions in contemporary approaches to curating and exhibiting abstract paintings. For balance I have include the work of Sheila Girling, a UK painter of the same generation, who worked in the shadow of her husband, the internationally celebrated sculptor Sir Anthony Caro but spent time in America in the early sixties and formed lasting friendships with Helen Frankenthaler and Kenneth Noland amongst others.
Introduction
The birth of Abstract Expressionism in early twentieth-century America shifted the art world’s centre from Europe to the United States, establishing a movement that would redefine modern art. However, despite their contributions, women artists have historically been marginalized within this scene, facing gender biases that limited their opportunities and visibility. Female artists in this period were frequently viewed as “hobbyists” or dismissed as outliers in a maledominated field. Amid the economic upheavals of the Great Depression and social shifts of World War II, historical scholarship would suggest that women struggled to gain representation in galleries and receive critical recognition. This exhibition dissertation will examine key female figures both celebrated and overlooked who navigated these challenges and contributed to the movement's development despite systemic barriers.
The movement has been divided into first- and second-generation Abstract Expressionist painters. The former arising from rebellion and reaction to the establishment after the first world war with many of its protagonists being readers of Jungian psychology and the expression of one’s inner self with no representation of object. The latter group were around twenty years younger than the former arising in the early fifties and had new ideas around the concept of abstraction and being more likely to portray figuration or representation of object in their work. Neither were however completely mutually exclusive.
Additionally, this study examines the experience of women abstract artists who were part of couples with male artists. In the early to mid-twentieth century, partnerships provided intellectual and emotional support but often resulted in female artists being overshadowed by their partners’ reputations. Many women were relegated to roles such as “muse” or “assistant,” and their creative identities were frequently diminished in relation to their male counterparts. This dissertation will investigate how these relationships influenced the career trajectories and critical reception of women artists, both historically and in contemporary contexts. It will analyse how evolving gender norms have impacted these dynamics and assess whether modern women artists in partnerships experience greater autonomy and distinct recognition.
In contrast, the first half of the twenty-first century has seen significant progress toward gender equity, influenced by feminist advocacy and a broader societal push for inclusivity Notably in
2016 The Denver Art Museum curated a show titled Women of Abstract Expressionism (Denver Art Museum, 2016) accompanied by a book of the same title (Marter et al., 2016)
Contemporary women artists now operate in an environment shaped by decades of feminist progress and more supportive institutional policies. They also benefit from economic opportunities provided by digital platforms and international collaborations. However, despite these advances, structural inequalities persist, affecting the visibility, representation, and economic sustainability of female artists today.
The exhibition dissertation also addresses the challenges of curating abstract art in today’s diverse exhibition landscape, which spans traditional wall-based displays and immersive digital experiences. Traditional gallery spaces, with their white-cube formats, emphasize an introspective, contemplative engagement with individual artworks, aligning with Abstract Expressionism’s inward-looking ethos. However, this approach may feel restrictive to audiences accustomed to interactive, multimedia exhibitions. Contemporary curatorial strategies increasingly explore digital and immersive formats, which use projections, VR, and interactive installations to create multisensory, enveloping experiences. While these methods attract wider audiences and offer novel engagement, they can risk diminishing abstraction’s contemplative nature by focusing on spectacle. I have considered various curatorial approaches, aiming to strike a balance between these contrasting styles.
The dissertation further considers the influence of second- and third-wave feminism on the increased visibility of twentieth-century women Abstract Expressionists. The second wave of feminism in the 1960s and 1970s exposed the systemic exclusion of women artists, catalysing efforts to recover and promote their contributions. Scholars such as Linda Nochlin (Nochlin and Reilly, 2015), Germaine Greer (Greer, 1979) and more recently, Dr Helen Gorrill (Gørrill, 2020) revealed how institutional biases had stifled women’s opportunities, inspiring exhibitions, retrospectives, and publications dedicated to rediscovering these artists. The third wave, emerging in the 1990s, expanded this discourse, emphasizing intersectionality and identity while leveraging digital platforms to make previously obscure artists more accessible. These movements have laid the groundwork for a more inclusive art history, transforming how Abstract Expressionist women are recognized today.
By examining the socio-economic conditions, relationship dynamics, and curatorial challenges faced by women abstract artists, this dissertation aims to illuminate how gender has shaped the visibility and recognition of women in the abstract art movement across two pivotal periods. It
contributes to ongoing discussions on gender, creativity, and equity in the art world, offering insights into both historical and contemporary landscapes. Ultimately, this research seeks to foster a more nuanced understanding of women’s contributions to Abstract Expressionism and explore innovative curatorial models that honour these artists' work and legacy.
Chapter 1
The idea for this exhibition dissertation comes from my own enquiry into what it is about abstract expressionist art that lights me up so much whether that be making it in my studio or looking at it, preferably in real life to better encounter the scale and feeling that it may or may not invoke depending on the work. Curator and critic and historian, Hans Ulrich Obrich speaks of curating as a means of making junctions thus allowing different elements to touch. (Hans
Ulrich Obrist and Raza, 2016) In Scotland it is rare to get that experience even in the city galleries and museums My aim is to bring that experience to the smaller parts of Scotland but especially to the women and girls, who given their backgrounds, may never experience those feelings and to show that even in times when women faced so many gendered obstacles that given the willpower, determination and strength it is achievable but don’t do it for fame, recognition or money.
In Gender and Genius: Towards a Feminine Aesthetic Battersby points out that Jung's theory of the animus/anima reflects and perpetuates cultural biases of his time, which devalued women's artistic contributions. (Battersby, 1989) By framing the animus as necessary for a woman's intellectual or creative output, Jung's model indirectly suggests that women are inherently less capable of genius unless they adopt "masculine" traits. I would argue that in the case of the women Abstract Expressionists they inherently possessed perhaps more of the animus than the “average woman” Do not all beings regardless of sex possess to some degree something of the “other” which would account for their toughness, resilience and determination in pursuing their dream? In Chapter 4 this is revisited by Siri Hustvedt in her novel The Blazing World (Hustvedt, 2015). Gorrill deals with the outdated concept of the “gendered aesthetic” in Women Can’t Paint (Gørrill, 2020) and it would be impossible to label the work of the women abstract artists of the New York School as “feminine” although many tried especially with the paintings of Helen Frankenthaler (Gohari, 2014)
In his book, Altered States; Creativity Under the Influence James Hughes suggests that where women gained admission into the male realm, they often had to assume masculine characteristics and, in the example of French novelist George Sand and artist Rosa Bonheur, a quasi-man appearance.” (Hughes, 1999).
It was not uncommon for female abstract expressionist painters to sign their work in a genderneutral manner in attempting to avoid any gender discrimination. Lee Krasner was previously known as Leonore or Lena before changing her name to the more androgynous Lee and signed her work LK. (Gabriel, 2018). Grace Hartigan – signed her work George Hartigan for a long time supposedly as a homage to writers George Sands and George Elliot. (Gabriel, 2018).
Corrina West was known as Michael West (Chernick, 2020) and Elaine de Kooning would use the abbreviated EdeK to differentiate her work from that of her husband Willem de Kooning.
This exhibition dissertation aims to show how feminism's social context influenced art in the late1940s and 1950s, even without an apparent feminist political movement. It highlights the challenges and achievements of women artists during this period, who worked without the support of a widespread women’s movement. Understanding the feminist art movement of the 1960s and 1970s requires an acknowledgement of these earlier contributions. Removing the barriers of historical misunderstanding allows us to appreciate the deliberate and meaningful work of female artists in the decades before feminism became a prominent cultural force. (Belasco,2008)
I hope to further illustrate that there is no discernible difference between art made by males and that made by females and that the whole concept of “feminine” art is a patriarchal construct created probably around the time of the early modern period of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and maintained and promoted by thinkers and philosophers through succeeding eras particularly in Western civilisation, in order to promote the idea of women being “less than” men. (Korsmeyer, 2004) What I do believe is that men and women make art in very different social situations and women have a choice as to how they observe and react to those situations. What they did not always have a choice about was how their work was received, interpretated and promoted by those with enough influence in the art world to determine the extent to which they would be recognised.
“In my case, I had no uncertainty or lack of conviction as far as art was concerned. That is my life. Society, personalities and problems are quite another story” - Louise Nevelson (Hess and Baker, 1978)
Art criticism and art historians have played significant roles in monitoring and evaluating the extent of the achievements of women artists
In her book Thinking about Women Mary Ellman describes “phallic criticism” as a kind of writing where women’s work is always evaluated in relation to men’s and they always come out the loser (Ellman, 2014). e.g. Lee Krasner/Jackson Pollock.
“Abstract Expressionist imagery was seldom identified in the forties or fifties as documenting sexism or racism; rather, it was characterized by the art establishment as powerfully universal,” wrote Ann Eden Gibson in 1999 (Gibson, 1999) but in his dissertation, Daniel Belasco states that the archival documentation of contemporary correspondence, journals, and unpublished writings tell a very different story than the published criticism, histories, and interviews. (Belasco,2008)
My own thoughts after researching the more prominent women of the Abstract Expressionist movement, also referred to as The New York School through looking at books, recorded interviews, biographies and exhibition catalogues is that they were extremely determined and powerful characters with a strong sense of “self” and an indefatigable urge to be artists. It appears to be some inner force which defined them and not their cultural backgrounds. For example, Lee Krasner and Grace Hartigan came from less privileged family backgrounds whereas Helen Frankenthaler and Joan Mitchell emerged from very wealthy and educated families. All were prepared to endure often harsh and hostile living conditions in downtown New York and, in Joan Mitchell’s case, postwar Paris, to pursue their passion. All were intellectually sharp and focused on learning their craft. In Art Talk: Conversations with 15 Women Artists, Cindy Nemser published a series of interviews with prominent female artists working during 1940s and 50s, most of whom rejected the term “woman artist” and refused to identify with the second wave feminist ideologies of the late 1960s and 1970s. (Nemser, 1995)
None of the artists interviewed by Nemser recalled the possibility of associating proudly with other women (Belasco, 2008). Bridget Riley resisted being included in Nemser’s book about women artists, responding to several invitations from the author with the following statement, “I wish you every success with your book of conversations with women artists, although it seems to have a slight ring of women’s lib about it, in which I am not interested.” (Nemser, 1995). Helen Frankenthaler also refused to have a previously published interview with the author in Arts Magazine in 1971 included in the book despite having had it previously reworked at the time of its original publication to her satisfaction. In an earlier interview published in Artforum she responded to a question about how she felt about being a woman painter with the statement,
“Obviously, first I am involved in painting not the who and how. I wonder if my pictures are more “lyrical” (that loaded word!) because I’m a woman. Looking at my paintings as if they were painted by a woman is superficial, a side issue, like looking at Klines and saying they are bohemian. The making of serious painters. One must be oneself, whatever.” (Geldzahler, 1965).
Lee Krasner stated in a 1972 ‘Vogue’ interview with Barbara Rose,
“I’m an artist - not a woman artist – not an American artist” (Rose, 1972)
In a lively dialogue with 1960s painter Rosalyn Drexler published in Art News in January 1971 in response to Linda Nochlin’s essay ‘Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?’ (Nochlin, 1971) Elaine de Kooning states,
“To be put in any category not defined by one’s work is to be falsified. We’re artists who happen to be women or men among other things we happen to be tall, short, blonde, dark, mesomorph, ectomorph, black, Spanish, German, Irish, hot-tempered, easy-going that are in no way relevant to our being artists.” (The Editors of ArtNews, 2015)
To better understand the tough and resilient characters so present in the female artists of this era, one must also consider the dynamics at play socially and politically at this time, between and following World War2.
Chapter 2
Venue
Drawing Projects Scotland, 1A West Bell Street, Dundee. First built in 1764 for the Antiburgher congregation, it was later amalgamated into the UP Church. In 1846, Frederick Douglass, a renowned orator and social reformer who escaped slavery in the United States gave a celebrated speech in the basement hall of the building. In 2019 it was purchased by Drawing Projects UK and is currently under renovation to become an exhibition space for Drawing Projects Scotland as well as a venue for drawing sessions, drawing discussions, a residency scheme hosting artists, musicians, writers and other public programmes.
I first visited the building during the recent G.R.I.T. Gestural, Reflective and Inquiring Tales, curated by artist, curator and drawing tutor at DJCAD, Alex Roberts. (G.R.I.T. Gestural Reflective & Inquiring Tales, 2024) and knew this would be the venue for my proposed exhibition. I was immediately reminded of the images of the artists working in the oftencondemned lofts and apartments I had seen and that I had conjured up in my imagination while reading Ninth Street Women (Gabriel, 2018). It impacted all my senses; the smell of decay, the monochromatic gloomy interior punctuated here and there by daylight coming in through the dirty but rather beautiful windows or by tiny torchlike lights, the chill air temperature and bare wooden floorboards. The interior space containing the G.R.I.T. exhibition is supported by blood-red painted cast iron columns and girders contributing to its loft-like ambience. The building has an interesting history as a public meeting place.
Dundee sometimes referred to as She-Town is also known for its strong, independent women, a product of the textiles industry of the last century whose workforce was predominantly comprised of women and girls, and this was another influencing factor in my choice. The women featured in this exhibition were particularly tough and uncompromising in their determination to be artists.
The Proposed Space:
Images of Drawing Projects UK building interior taken by Anney White during the GRIT exhibition in September 2024, pre refurbishment. Paintings in the main area will be hung on boards suspended from the support beams by wire cables. The lighting on each painting will be an important feature.
Fig. 1 (White, 2024)
Target Audience:
Scholars, artists, students and the public, particularly women. The exhibition space will draw on the ethos of the Boros collection in Mitte, Berlin in that the guided tours will be bookable in small groups which will allow for a discursive element.
As this could well be the first time some viewers have encountered the work of these artists, I would like to include some interviews given by the women to expand on displayed texts so the viewers can acquire some insight as to the strength of their characters. Therefore, I would propose using the small irregularly shaped area to the left over by the window as you enter the main hall for this purpose. TV screens, headphones and seating.
Curated Works:
At first, I intended to show artwork by both parties to a couple, however I decided to concentrate on the work of the women and the ways in which they navigated the compact artworld of the New York School in the 1950s I particularly like Elaine de Kooning’s portraits which so beautifully merge figuration with abstraction and I am drawn to them as I see them inspiring future developments in my own practice. These artists’ works dance between the nonobjective and figurative showing their resilience and adaptivity in a very male dominated environment The most influential writers and critics, Clement Greenberg and Harold Rosenberg championed the Abstract Expressionist painters and provided differing theoretical frameworks for understanding and legitimising Abstract Expressionism as a valid modernist movement but were quite disparaging and dismissive of the women painters with the implication that they were merely imitating the men.
Grace Hartigan (1922-2008)
Grace Hartigan's dedication to art was sparked by seeing a Jackson Pollock drip painting at the Betty Parsons Gallery in 1948. Her commitment was so profound that she made the difficult decision to send her seven-year-old son to live with his grandparents, allowing her the freedom to focus entirely on painting. While this might seem like a bold rejection of societal expectations, one must remember that for several years, Hartigan signed her works as “George.” This choice reflected her struggle for confidence as both a woman and an artist.
Hartigan ultimately became the first woman Abstract Expressionist to gain significant recognition and commercial success both in the United States and internationally. She enjoyed not only success but real fame in the New York art world of the pre-feminist 1950s, and she forged a reputation that was both national and international in scope. (Curtis, 2015) Her breakthrough year came in 1954 at age thirty-two when the Museum of Modern Art hung her painting River Bathers in an unprecedented exhibition of 400 works by major artists which included Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock, Franz Kline and Mark Rothko. In Ninth Street Women Gabriel points out that,
“Among her generation of artists Grace stood alone at the pinnacle of such achievements No one else had sold out a major show or had works in two of the three New York museums that featured modern art ……. using sales as a barometer of success, Grace had sold $5500 worth of work in 1954, just short of W. de Kooning’s $7000 in the same period”. (Gabriel, 2018)
However, Gabriel informs us that among the women of her circle, Hartigan stands out as the only artist who managed to achieve genuine personal fulfilment alongside professional acclaim.
Fig.2 (Hartigan, 1957)
Fig.3 (Hartigan, 1954)
As a student future art historian Linda Nochlin stated on hearing Grace speak during an assembly at Vasser College,
“I was just dazzled” Grace was just further proof that a woman “could do everything, anything” (Gabriel, 2018)
Grace refused to conform to the purist ideologies of the first generation of abstract expressionists regarding a complete absence of figuration.
Elaine de Kooning (1918-1989)
(de Kooning, 1960)
Elaine is identified with the second generation while Willem, her husband and former teacher fourteen years her senior, was considered first generation in terms of age but whose work became more figurative during the 1950s. Elaine’s best-known work is posited firmly in the second generation when she focused more and more on portraiture but with the big loose gestural brushstrokes and intense colour and mark making of abstraction. Before achieving recognition for her work however she was much better known as a successful art writer, working alongside Thomas B. Hess for many years at ‘Artnews, where she remained loyal to the first generation in her reviews and critiques. Her good looks, knowledge and warm outgoing personality contrasting strongly with Bill’s reclusive and introverted character allowed her to traverse freely between both iterations of the movement and she was ever present at all the parties and gatherings. While Elaine supported and promoted her husband vigorously throughout his career their marital arrangement was very different from Pollock and Krasner’s. It was always a very open affair, both parties freely indulging in extra marital activities though some harsher critics might say that Elaine used these affairs unashamedly to promote Bill’s career which took off much later than Pollocks when he was well into his forties. Although they split eventually, they never divorced, and Elaine remained as Mrs Willem de Kooning even after she moved out West away from the city. During her life she taught at several academic institutions including Yale and Parsons School of Design.
Elaine de Kooning’s work is interesting in that she successfully combines figuration with abstraction. She focused mainly on pictures of men, later creating large dynamic paintings of sportsmen and basketball players, turning the “female gaze” onto her subjects in anticipation of
Fig.4
Laura Mulvey’s theory of the male gaze (Mulvey, 1975). Her broad, loose application of paint and line also speak to me more of the animus than the anima where Carl Jung describes the animus as representative of the masculine component of a woman’s unconscious and the anima as representative of the feminine component of a man’s unconscious (Jung, 1970) thus dispelling suggestions of a feminine aesthetic.
Art critic and editor Thomas B. Hess (1920–1978) is the subject of this portrait, (fig.5) based on a drawing that informed its free, expressive strokes. This image captures Hess in a reserved pose, a contrast to many of Elaine’s other works where her male sitters take a more relaxed pose often slouched with legs spread apart and stands out for its bold yet muted palette of yellows, greens, greys, and deep red lines. (Stahr, 2003)
"Bacchus #3" (Fig.6) initially seems like a purely abstract work, but its bold black lines and broad areas of grey and green gradually reveal a group of figures. This is part of her Bacchus series, inspired by a 19th-century sculpture of the Roman god Bacchus in the Luxembourg Gardens, Paris. De Kooning used her unique take on Abstract Expressionism to convey the vitality present in this sculpture. She employed sweeping contour lines and flat colour patches resembling the sculpture’s patina framing the figures with energetic green and blue strokes, evoking the surrounding trees. This series, started in 1976, also marked her first use of acrylic paint
Fig.5 (de Kooning, 1956)
Fig.6 (de Kooning, 1973)
Sheila Girling (1924–2015)
Sheila Girling was a British abstract expressionist who, despite her immense talent, remains relatively unknown, likely overshadowed by her marriage to the famous sculptor Sir Anthony Caro. Born in Birmingham, England, Girling initially intended to study medicine but was encouraged by her family to pursue painting instead. She began her formal art education at the Birmingham School of Art in 1941, then continued at The Royal Academy in 1947, where she met Caro. They married in 1949 and spent their lives deeply intertwined in both art and family, with Girling playing a significant role in Caro’s artistic development, particularly in his use of colour on sculptures. In November 2024 during an interview with me at her home in Fife, Sophie Camu-Lindsay, the curator of Space to Breathe: Sheila Girling, an exhibition realised during July and August 2024 at Bowhouse in the East Neuk of Fife , re-affirmed the fact that both were mutually supportive of the other’s work and that Sheila, being a woman of her time, bore no resentment and acknowledged that her husband’s fame brought opportunities and prosperity, not least of which was the sharing of a very large studio space in London and opportunities for travel.( Sophie Camu-Lindsay interview Nov2024) (SPACE TO BREATHE, 2024)
In 1963, Girling and Caro moved to Vermont when Caro was artist in-residence at Bennington College, where Helen Frankenthaler was educated and where Girling connected with prominent colour field painters and evolved her own artistic voice. Their close circle included influential figures like art critic Clement Greenberg and artists Jules Olitski, Robert Motherwell, and Helen Frankenthaler. With encouragement from her friend Kenneth Noland, Girling began working with acrylic paints a medium she would continue to use throughout her career. In 1965, they returned to England, rejoining a dynamic arts scene while raising their two sons.
Fig.7 (Girling, 2009)
Fig.8 (Girling, 1993)
Girling resumed painting in 1973, creating large-scale abstract canvases that blended American abstraction’s expressiveness with a distinctive British sensibility. Working from her studio in Camden Town, London, she produced powerful and vibrant works from the 1970s until her passing in 2015. Her career saw some notable recognition, including a 2006 retrospective at the Institut Valencià d’Art Modern (IVAM) in Valencia. In 2019, the Yale Centre for British Art acquired her work, affirming her place in art history. (Wilkin, 2015)
Girling’s vibrant and energetic works combined with a superb interplay of colour and form at times show the influence of her friend Helen Frankenthaler but mostly speak in her own voice. It was interesting to note that when she returned to painting in the 1970s that voice was expressed in very large scale works from the outset. Parallels could be drawn here to Lee Krasner’s work following 1972 when she relinquished control of the Pollock estate. (Landau, Krasner and Grove, 1995)
Fig.9 (Girling, 2007)
Fig10. (Girling, 1980)
Lee Krasner (1908-1984)
Lee Krasner was already a formidable and established artist in her own right when she met Jackson Pollock in 1942. Both were first generation abstract expressionist painters. Krasner stresses repeatedly in interviews that theirs was a mutually influential relationship and made it perfectly clear to art writer Barbara Rose in interviews during the 1970s and 80s as the art world started to show interest in Krasner’s work long after Jackson’s death in 1956. (Krasner, 1960) She willingly set aside her own career to care for, protect and promote Jackson, and while this might not sit well in current times, it speaks to her character as a spouse and as an artist. With endless fortitude and resilience Krasner put up with Pollock’s explosive nature, his drunken exploits, his dalliances with other women and his failed attempts at sobriety. Yet, as she asserted, she had his respect, and he never failed her as a fellow artist. After Pollock’s death, the contentious Krasner continued her caretaker role as the head of the Pollock Estate and cut out no less a competitor than the Museum of Modern Art, selling his Autumn Rhythm to the Metropolitan Museum of Art for $30,000 after Moma’s Alfred H. Barr, Jr., delayed in raising funds for the earlier price of $8,000. Krasner’s shrewd and timely move forever changed market expectations for American art, opening the way for today’s stratospheric prices. Of the two paintings I have chosen, one was painted just before Jackson’s death during a turbulent period in their marriage due to his manic behaviour around alcoholism and womanising (Prophesy, 1956) and the other painted a while after his death (Sun Woman 1,1957) heralding the beginning of what was probably her best and most productive period where she was free of the responsibilities of
Fig. 11 (Krasner, 1956)
Fig.12 (Krasner, 1957)
caring for Jackson. She did however maintain control of his estate until her relinquishing of it in 1972 declaring that now she could be free to concentrate on Lee Krasner, the painter (Landau, Krasner and Grove, 1995)
Fig.13 (Krasner, 1961)
Spectacularism or Quiet Contemplation?
Curating today often requires balancing immersive spectacle with intimate, focused engagement a delicate act I think of as curatorial funambulism. This tightrope walk is about creating experiences that attract and engage broad audiences while preserving art’s power to resonate on a personal, introspective level. Although large-scale digital "art experiences" with immersive soundscapes have become popular, I question whether these installations truly deepen one’s connection to the art. In many cases, the crowded, noisy environments seem to prioritize spectacle and possibly financial gain through the masses over quiet contemplation, risking the reduction of an artwork’s subtle power. This is a point of view seemingly shared by Anna Kornbluh, author of Immediacy or, The Style of Too Late Capitalism and whom I first heard express this view in a podcast (Davis and Kornbluh, 2024) where she spoke of the huge, digital and immersive Van Gogh “experiences” currently touring major cities globally drawing vast crowds and takings. She calls the phenomenon “vanGogha” and states in her introduction
“The work of art becomes indistinguishable from its installation and the corporeality of its spectators, while the aesthetic experience stretches towards total engagement, mixing miasmic emanation, everything simultaneously without rest or distinction” (Kornbluh, 2024).
A recent neurological study in the Netherlands commissioned by the Mauritshuis Museum in The Hague, found that viewing artworks in person elicited an emotional response 10 times stronger than viewing those same works in reproduction. (Farfan, 2024)
For this exhibition, my goal is to prioritize close, thoughtful viewing that allows each piece to communicate directly with the viewer. I envisage a space that avoids sensory overload and instead encourages slower, focused engagement granting time for careful consideration and personal interpretation. This approach aims to bridge traditional gallery practices and newer expectations for accessibility and engagement, without surrendering to the need for constant visual or auditory stimulation. By creating a space that invites quiet contemplation and intimacy with the artwork, I hope to demonstrate that powerful, meaningful engagement can be achieved without relying on overwhelming spectacle.
In January 2024 I visited the Mark Rothko Retrospective at Fondation Louis Vuitton in Paris. Although this could certainly be called a spectacle, given the scale of the exhibition, it did largely adhere to a traditional format in that the vast quantity of works were displayed chronologically in white rooms. Although it was very busy with timed entry slots, there was ample seating around the rooms where one could sit in the(reasonably) quiet contemplation that this artist’s work demands. Mark Rothko asks that the viewer stands no further than 18 inches from the painting so that it permeates their entire field of vision. A guided commentary was available via an app on the museum website that one could follow using headphones. (Fondation Louis Vuitton, 2023)
In August 2024, while attending a course at the Berlin Art Institute, I visited the Boros collection at Boros Bunker in Mitte, Berlin (Sammlung-boros.de, 2014). I was immediately struck by the imposing but grim edifice and yet the concrete walls with their many markings and old paint layers laid down throughout its history provided an interesting and unique setting for this worldclass contemporary art collection amassed by Christian and Karen Boros who live in an apartment built on the top floor of this five storey ex-Nazi air raid bunker.
The Boros Collection, Berlin
Fig.14 (Dalbera, 2017)
The Boros Collection provides the viewer with an immersive experience combining art, history and creativity. Immersion is total as the thick concrete walls block all sound and light from the outside world.
Each artist is given at least one room adding to the viewer’s experience of connecting directly and completely with that artist’s work. This concept is not exclusive to the Boros Collection however as many major National Museums have adopted this practice.
No signage on the exterior of the building, merely some arrows directing you to an innocuous if sturdy blue steel door.
Visits are by appointment only and it’s advisable to book well in advance. The tour typically lasts around 90 minutes and is restricted to only about a dozen people at a time. The tour guides were knowledgeable, and it was very enjoyable and satisfying to be informed about the artworks and artists and provided the opportunity for interaction with the guide. This struck me as something lacking in many exhibitions I have visited unless one can book in for the (usually oversubscribed) guided tours or artist talks. The downside of this practice is that the viewer does not have autonomy over how long they spend contemplating each oeuvre. Some may resonate with different individuals more than others and there is no going back as the guide makes their way around the exhibits keeping their group under fairly close scrutiny and culminating at the starting point of the tour where the only way to go is out of the building
I thought that using the Boros Bunker for my exhibition might pose an interesting and amusing juxtaposition in that here would be a collection of abstract art that would almost certainly have been labelled as “degenerate” by the Nazi regime (Holocaust Encyclopaedia, 2020) The idea of the bunker as a protective environment built to safeguard its occupants from external forces and interesting too that the Abstract Expressionist movement was also seen as “degenerate” by the “House of Unamerican Activities” in the USA until post-war the movement was appropriated by the CIA as symbolic of all that America stood for in terms of freedom, opportunity and machismo (de Hart Matthews, 1976). I decided against this venue because that I wanted a space that more accurately depicted the tough conditions in the New York lofts and apartments where often of these women worked and lived.
A Space to Breathe
This exhibition showcased over 90 of Girling’s large-scale paintings and collages from the 1970s to the 2010s Her paintings, while abstract, suggest a connection to the natural world, exploring the materiality of paint with a remarkable immediacy and depth. In both her grand canvases and smaller paper collages, Girling's work captivates with its intensity, blending abstraction with hints of figuration.
Also included were select sculptures by Sir Anthony Caro, underscoring the influence Girling had on his decision to incorporate colour as a key element in his work. Girling once described their marriage as “a 64-year conversation about art,” and both she and Caro openly acknowledged her impact on his practice. Displaying their work side by side highlights the individuality of each artist while paying homage to Girling’s unique voice within their creative partnership.
Curated by Sophie Camu and Alexander Lindsay, the exhibition provides a “Wow!” moment immediately upon entry, with thoughtful presentation enhancing the impact of Girling’s pieces.
The Sheila Girling retrospective in 2024, The Art and Life of Sheila Girling (SPACE TO BREATHE, 2024) at Bowhouse, St Monans, Fife
Fig.15 (Lindsay, 2024)
The curatorial choice to suspend Girling's paintings within this expansive setting offers viewers an immersive experience, enhancing their appreciation of her work’s colour and scale. The paintings are beautifully lit, enhancing the depth and vibrancy of Girling's colour choices. Sophie Camu Lindsay, an art consultant and curator with 25 years of experience, began her career as a specialist in Impressionist and Modern Art at Sotheby’s, eventually rising to Director and Vice President. In 2010, she founded Camu Art Ltd., through which she advises private and corporate clients in building art collections. Known for her expertise in the international art market, Sophie continues to travel globally, attending art fairs and auctions on behalf of her clients. Now based in Fife, Sophie co-founded the annual Fife fine art festival “Space to Breathe” with her partner, photographer Alexander Lindsay. This exhibition demonstrates her commitment to showcasing remarkable yet under-recognized artists creating a bridge between Girling’s work and contemporary audiences who might otherwise miss this vital part of abstract art history.
Chapter 4
Siri Hustvedt’s novel The Blazing World explores themes of gender bias in the art world, resonating deeply with the struggles faced by women artists in the Abstract Expressionist movement. Hustvedt’s protagonist, Harriet Burden, uses male pseudonyms to present her work, which reflects the historical realities of women being marginalized or overlooked in mid-20thcentury New York’s art scene. This narrative echoes the experiences of real-life female Abstract Expressionists, such as Elaine de Kooning and Lee Krasner, whose contributions were often overshadowed by their male counterparts.
Art critics of the time, such as Clement Greenberg and Harold Rosenberg, wielded significant influence over the perception and reception of art. Greenberg’s formalist approach largely focused on the inherent qualities of the artwork, such as colour, line, and form, often disregarding the social and personal context, including the gender of the artist. This approach tended to marginalize women artists, whose work might have explored more subjective or narrative dimensions. Rosenberg, on the other hand, championed the concept of "action painting," emphasizing the artist’s physical engagement with the canvas. (Rosenberg, 1952) However, both critics predominantly celebrated male artists, contributing to the sidelining of women in the movement
The culture of mid-20th-century Abstract Expressionism was largely shaped by male dominance, both in artistic production and critical discourse. Women artists like Lee Krasner and Elaine de Kooning married to first generation abstract expressionists navigated a male-dominated art world that valued their partners’ contributions over their own. Hustvedt’s novel critiques this historical imbalance by illustrating how societal perceptions often dictate artistic success, challenging readers to reconsider the legacy of gender in art Ultimately, The Blazing World serves as a compelling critique of the systemic biases that women Abstract Expressionists faced, blending fiction with historical commentary to illuminate the enduring struggle for equality in the art world. (Hustvedt, 2015)
The film The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (1956), based on Sloan Wilson’s novel, provides an intriguing cultural parallel to the dynamics of masculinity and machismo in Abstract Expressionism during post-WWII America. The movie reflects the psychological struggles of men navigating societal pressures, personal ambition, and emotional repression in the mid-20th century a context that also influenced the art world and Abstract Expressionism. (The Man in the Grey Flannel Suit [Motion Picture], 1956)
In the film, the main character, Tom Rath (played by Gregory Peck), grapples with the conflict between conforming to corporate expectations and maintaining his individuality. This mirrors the post-war period's cultural demand for men to return from the battlefield and settle into stable, traditional roles as providers in a consumer-driven society. However, many men felt constrained by these expectations, leading to a crisis of masculinity. The corporate "grey flannel suit" became a metaphor for conformity and a loss of identity and parallels can be drawn with Abstract Expressionism's focus on the machismo.
Abstract Expressionism can be seen as an artistic rebellion against this stifling conformity. Artists like Jackson Pollock rejected the figurative precision of earlier art forms in favour of raw, gestural, and seemingly chaotic expressions. This approach was framed as a bold assertion of individuality, resonating with the ethos of rugged masculinity. Critics like Harold Rosenberg celebrated the Abstract Expressionist canvas as "an arena in which to act," a description that positioned the act of painting as an almost primal confrontation, reminiscent of war or survival. (Rosenberg, 1952)
At the same time, this hypermasculine framing often excluded women artists or relegated them to secondary roles.. Like Tom Rath in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, they faced societal pressures to conform, but as women, their challenges were compounded by entrenched gender biases.
Both the film and the art movement reflect the emotional repression and inner turmoil of the post-war generation. Tom Rath’s struggle to reconcile his past as a soldier with his present as a husband and corporate worker is reminiscent of the raw emotional undertones of Abstract Expressionism. The art's gestural style and explosive forms suggest an outlet for emotions that could not be openly expressed in everyday life much like Rath’s unspoken traumas. The film critiques the cost of societal expectations on individual fulfilment, much like the machismo of Abstract Expressionism critiques and perpetuates its own myths of male dominance. Both raise questions about authenticity, identity, and the psychological cost of adhering to rigid gender roles. Women were marginalized by both the corporate world depicted in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit and the artistic world of Abstract Expressionism, which valorised male experience and sidelined female contributions. In conclusion, The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit enriches the discussion of post-war masculinity and its expression in art. It highlights the cultural pressures that informed the hypermasculinity
of Abstract Expressionism and the struggles of women artists to navigate a system that valorized this machismo. By linking the film's critique of conformity to the art movement's gender dynamics, we see a fuller picture of how societal norms shaped creative expression and the exclusion of marginalized voices in mid-20th century America
Conclusion
I have had very limited success in finding contemporary couples who live together and work as artists for comment. Perhaps this is a good sign in that the same societal gendered expectations do not exist in modern society, or perhaps more women are averse to marriage and formal relationships, seeing them as patriarchal constructs to keep women perpetually in service to men therefore choosing to put their art practice first. The evolution of women’s roles and status in society has been the subject of countless cultural theories over the years and the subject far too complex and layered to address in this dissertation. Although there have been positive shifts in the representation of women in art institutions and galleries, there is still a way to go, but over the last decade the signs look ever more promising. It is important to inquire however whether this is a genuine shift in perceptions of women as artists in modern culture or simply the art establishment bowing down to pressure. It is necessary therefore to survey this scene over the much longer time frame of the last two centuries. Although the emancipation of women and the rising of feminism’s Second Wave in the 1970s and 80s did much to draw attention to the gendered imbalance in the representation of women’s art in institutions and the art market, it did very little in the way of shining a light on the forgotten women of the 1950s It was not until the end of the first decade of the 21st century that the women of the New York School began to slowly re-appear in group shows followed on by bigger women-specific and solo retrospectives
So, what happened in the 1950s?
In the post-World War II era, the art world reflected the broader societal shift that pushed women, even educated ones, toward domestic roles, with marriage being the primary goal for middle-class women (a common background for artists). This trend, especially strong in the 1950s, where the “ideal” woman was represented by Marilyn Monroe and Jackson Pollock as the archetypal male erased earlier examples of successful women and replaced them with harmful stereotypes of the neurotic career woman. Such portrayals, reinforced by media and prestigious schools, diminished the professional standing, ambition, and self-confidence of women artists, as it did for women in other professions. In an essay published in ‘Art News’ in January 1971 Elizabeth C Baker states that the climate for women’s careers was somewhat more favourable in the 1930s for several reasons. Notable was was the recognition of women like Georgia O’Keeffe, Sonia Delaunay, and Sophie Taeuber-Arp, who were respected participants in the avant-garde without emphasis on their gender. Their achievements paved the way for others. Additionally, the liberal attitudes of 1930s intellectuals included a comparatively progressive view of women.
In the 1930s, and 40s many group shows were juried by artists, who, despite competitiveness, were generally supportive and knowledgeable about the quality of work, often helping talented women gain recognition. At that time, American art was a small, non-commercial field where good art was valued for its own sake. This contrasted sharply with the later art world, where large exhibitions became dominated by museums and took on a more official, less inclusive air.
By the late 1950s, as American art matured and became highly profitable, commercialization began to push women artists aside. In earlier decades, when art sales were modest, women had relatively equal opportunities to exhibit. However, as men’s work became more lucrative, women were squeezed out of galleries and museums, which rely on commercial success and dealer influence.
Ironically, many collectors often women or advised by women played a role in reinforcing the notion that women should not be professionals. Some women collectors preferred to support male artists, not only as buyers but also socially, seeking their company as “extra men.”
These dynamics further marginalized women artists in the increasingly commercialized art world. (Baker, 1971)
Lee Krasner, in the previously referred to interview with Barbara Rose in 1972 reminisced about earlier times as an artist,
“No matter how depressed we were economically or psychologically there was a sense of warmth, vitality, meaning. There was the warmth of the artists’ community. I don’t know what happened to change all that but that it happened; I do recognise that”. (Krasner, 1960)
Commodification happened. Celebrity Artist happened. Marketing and Magazines happened. The exponential growth of the media, art critics and the art market happened.
As the daughter of a feminist and forward-thinking mother, I particularly identify with the women of the Abstract Expressionist movement who were of my mother’s generation and largely separated from Second Wave feminist movement of the 1970s and 80s. Their strength, willfulness and determination to create their own path through the maze of patriarchal constructs and with a liberal sprinkling of female toxicity holds a great deal of resonance and their version of feminism is largely absent from scholarly writings or at best has been imposed on them posthumously.
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Appendices
Appendix A
Dissertation Model Using Photographic Mock-Ups. The lighting on the paintings will be superb in contrast with the dimly lit building and as a nod to the title of the exhibition. There will be a playlist of music enjoyed by the artists playing softly.
A media room is set up in the small area immediately right of the entrance where filmed interviews with the artists that are currently available will be run on loop with accompanying headsets. Contemporary literature focused on the Abstract Artist Women available to browse.
A glass wall is installed in place of the current makeshift wooden barrier separating the main area from the east side lower mezzanine allowing viewers to see through to the paintings suspended there
Appendix C:
See Me Now Exhibition Playlist
https://open.spotify.com/playlist/4TqvYT53boCPqKAVXM0hEk ?si=cd4487e2f9a84bf8
Appendix D
Dissertation Musings
The Dissertation
Procrastination?
Is it fear of not being perfect?
It won’t be perfect. There’s not enough time for that.
I love researching but to commit all that acquired information to words Is hard
There can never be enough words and am I conveying the research and other people’s words because I don’t have enough confidence in my own, but they are real thoughts I have.
Why are my thoughts about the research less valid than anyone else’s?
Be brave
Use your words
Use your thoughts and your opinions
Soon it will be over
The research will continue
I’m not sure I’ll commit it to words though
Words are put there to be contradicted, disagreed with, criticised
There’s the fear
But why?
Because I haven’t done as much research as the critics, the markers, the readers?
You have to begin
You cannot begin already knowing everything
I just left it later in life to begin