Frank Lloyd Wright & Louis I. Kahn's Nature

RMIT UNIVERSITY

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT AND LOUIS I. KAHN’S NATURE UNDERSTANDING NATURE THROUGH ARCHITECTURE

Lost Garden of Eden

NAME: DANNY (DONG WOO) KWAK STUDENT NUMBER: S3278341 TUTOR: BELINDA GRANT 0930 FRIDAY th

ARCH: 1750 HISTORY WESTERN ARCHITECTURE 20 CENTURY

Table of Contents Introduction ...................................................................................... 1 Frank Lloyd Wright .......................................................................... 2 Taliesin (East & West) .................................................................. 3 Falling Water ................................................................................. 5 Guggenheim Museum................................................................... 7 Louis I Kahn..................................................................................... 9 Exeter Library.............................................................................. 10 Salk Institute ............................................................................... 11 Jatiyo Sangsad Bhaban (National Parliament House) ................ 13 Comparison ................................................................................... 15 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 16 Reference and Bibliography .......................................................... 17

NAME: DANNY (DONG WOO) KWAK STUDENT NUMBER: S3278341 TUTOR: BELINDA GRANT 0930 FRIDAY th

ARCH: 1750 HISTORY WESTERN ARCHITECTURE 20 CENTURY

Introduction

Figure 1: Frank Lloyd Wright’s ‘Mile Tower’ & Louis I. Kahn’s City Tower, showing both architects exploring similar fields

From high rise building to city planning, Frank Lloyd Wright and Louis I Kahn were the two people who gave identity and style to American Modernism in the field of architecture. The American traditions of modern architecture embedded in the works of the two are truly original and unique. They were not simply developing ideas from the European architecture, that they were exposed to but 1 inventing their own style, the American architecture . The interesting aspect is that their finished work looks nothing alike but in depth there are similarities. Wright’s buildings seem to be emerging from the landscape or the built forms are diving into the nature and Kahn’s buildings stand on landscape practicing monumentalism and striking to anyone who sees it. Frank Lloyd Wright prompted the idea of ‘Organic architecture’ which is about creating harmony and unity between buildings and the natural 2 world . The site should be enhanced by a building, which should derive its form partly from the nature of the site, creating a unique relationship which cannot be replicated elsewhere. Luis I. Kahn’s famous quote “You say to a brick, ‘what do you want brick?’ and brick says to you, ‘I like an arch.’ And you say to brick, ‘Look, I want one, too, but arches are expensive and I can use a concrete lintel.’ And then you say: ‘What do you think of that, brick?’ brick says: ‘I like an arch.’” Shows that both men care about nature, but what makes the two different? The key word in this essay is ‘Nature’ and how the two architects treats this design element to affect their form. Architecture attempts to create another 3 world, either augment or displace the natural world. What is the relationship between the nature and architecture, and how can it drive the architectural forms and functions?

Nature in this essay can be translated into three meanings, nature as living landscape, nature as surrounding context and nature as intangible atmosphere mankind can feel. This essay is going to unpack three precedents from the two architects, discovering relationships between architecture and nature.

1 2 3

Phi, P. K. (2003). The Other Tradition American Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright and Louis I. Kahn.

Wright, F. L. (1939). An Organic Architecture, the architecture of democracy.

Essays, U. (2015, 03 23). The Connection Between Man Nature And Architecture Philosophy Essay.

1

Frank Lloyd Wright

Figure 2: Frank Lloyd Wright liked traveling to Taliesin West in Arizona during winter

Frank Lloyd Wright was born in Wisconsin into a Welsh migrant family exposed to landscape and intrigued by its forms and processes. Wright wanted to use the nature as part of the architecture, he refers to the art of architecture is to meddle with the spirit that creates the building. He talks of nature 4 not as tree, rather the spirit which creates the tree. The context was just as important as the building blocks itself. He believed in manmade structure was to be born from the site or building to dig itself into the nature. This is why his projects emit harmony in every direction, blurring the boundaries wherever possible. You did not know exactly when the built environment started and nature ended despite that there is a door, floor and roof in the building. This is because he wanted to create this atmosphere, constant flow of movement and gradual change of experience, nothing too dramatic for the audience. The fundamental concept of Wright’s design theory was to create a shelter within the wilderness, preserving the beautiful natural surroundings that can be experienced through narrated design of movement around the building. Frank Lloyd Wright was born in the closing era of American th 5 civil war and died in the space age of 20 century , practicing ‘Organic Architecture’ for more than 50 years which can be analysed through some of his work below.

4 5

Kauffmann, E. (1955). An American architecture Frank Lloyd Wright.

Jones, I. M. (Director). (2017). BBC - Frank Lloyd Wright: The Man Who Built America

2

Taliesin (East & West)

Figure 3: Taliesin East (left) appear to grow out of the hill like a tree, Taliesin West (right) digging itself into the ground

Taliesin, meaning shining brow in old Welsh language, was Wright’s estate. There are two different Taliesins, East in Spring Green and West located in the desert of Arizona, but both served similar purpose which was to house his family and his apprentices. Both Taliesins are continuous pieces of architecture that expresses organic architecture. Taliesins were safe haven for the fellowship and it’s a place where Wright’s architectural philosophy was tested and expanded. The two are far apart from each other in a completely different environment, one in grassy hill and the other in the scorching desert, but both formed a relationship with the surrounding landscape in a similar method but at the same time forming drastically different identity, trying to camouflage itself into the nature. Figure 3 Taliesin East was built when Frank Lloyd Wright and Mamah Cheney returned from Europe, after 6 escaping United States due to their love affair. This house was to safeguard the two from those who see this relationship as unjust, and the designs of this house portray this concept. The site is located in Wisconsin, where his mother owned the land, and on a hilltop like a fort. However, the house is much more than a secure bungalow for the lovers, this house embodies Wright’s idea of how architecture and nature should co-exist. Richard Rogers said “I’ve learnt from Taliesin East, the way Wright marries his buildings with the landscape and the way they juxtapose with each other and the 7 way spaces flow through them allows the building to come out of the landscape.” Wright framed Taliesin into two words ‘Organic Architecture’ the definition of this concept was used throughout Wright’s future projects but in Taliesin it meant, using local materials to build both exterior and interior crating flow of movement and using short linear window to create a feeling of floating, these are the tangible expression of the ‘Organic Architecture’ Figure 4. However, the intangible concept within this house is bigger and more important. What it is and how we should live in this house is to be given 8 naturally by blending with the site condition through its unique form. Taliesin East belongs to this hill and could never be repeated anywhere else.

6 7 8

Hamann, C. (2017, 08 25). History western Architecture 20th century.

Jones, I. M. (Director). (2017). BBC - Frank Lloyd Wright: The Man Who Built America Wright, F. L. (1939). An Organic Architecture, the architecture of democracy.

3

Figure 4: Taliesin East’s courtyard where there’s no distinct point a building start and nature begins

Taliesin West started out as the winter of Wisconsin was unbearably cold. So a convoy was set off from Taliesin East to the Arizona desert, packed with tools and the entire Taliesin fellowship together.

The new Taliesin was constructed entirely by the members of the fellowship over 7 years, the design 9 loosely based on a diagram that linked the significant landscape feature to the site. This allowed Wright and his apprentices to test out the theory of ‘Organic Architecture’ to extreme environment as no conventional building method can be used in the scorching desert of Arizona. However, Taliesin West proved the strength of ‘Organic Architecture’. Materials were hard to come by, so Wright used what he calls ‘Desert Masonry’ which was inserting the local boulders into the cement mix to build 10 walls. These walls made Taliesin West to seem like it was growing out of the desert floor. Again the same materials were used inside, the house was not completely enclosed but designed to allow air to flow in and out of the building constantly creating natural air-conditioning. Merging the house with the site wherever possible made Taliesin West a ‘Green Architecture’ before that phrase was even invented, working with the environment and not against it. Figure 5

Figure 5: Taliesin West was built as if it was a camp site, thus all the material and atmosphere seem temporary

Both Taliesins shows Wright’s emphasis of site context. These houses could not be built anywhere else as without the surrounding landscape, it could not exist. The nature and building had equal relationship where one is not more important than the other.

9

Jones, I. M. (Director). (2017). BBC - Frank Lloyd Wright: The Man Who Built America Hamann, C. (2017, 08 25). History western Architecture 20th century.

10

4

Falling Water

Figure 6: All the material in Fallingwater seem natural & rough besides rendered concrete balcony

Deep in the rural town in south-western Pennsylvania lies Wright’s masterpiece called Kaufmann Residence more known to people as the ‘Fallingwater’. Figure 6 The Kaufmann family and their guests visited this place to see the waterfall, swimming in the potholes and having massage on the flat rocks and the existing house was inadequate as it was far from the beautiful waterfall Figure 7. The design of ‘Fallingwater’ was significant because the house was situated on the waterfall itself. Many architects when designing with picturesque landscape would think of preserving the nature and place the house 11 where the windows and views encapsulate the beautiful nature like a painting, why disrupt the harmonious nature with building blocks and cements? Wright, who was interested in the enormous flat rocks from the beginning, saw this already beautiful landscape as an opportunity to implement structure that benefits from each other enhancing both the house and the nature. By placing the house on top of the waterfall, not only did he create extraordinary experience for the residents but every room now has natural light which was not possible downstream. Figure 8

Figure 7: The flat rock before construction (left) and Mr Kaufmann swimming in the pothole (right)

11

Rawson, M. (Director). (1989). The House on The Waterfall

5

Figure 8: Diagram of Fallingwater showing how it tries to blend in with the surrounding

The Kaufmann family retreated to this house to reconnect with nature. Wright did not just provide what the client wanted, but understood the relationship between human and nature. This is shown through not only the exterior wonder of a house sitting on a waterfall but through every windows and porches Figure 8. The strip panoramic windows looking out on a hillside, this was not ordinary or logical place to have windows as naturally, even today you would want to see far and enjoy the vast landscape wherever possible. Bottom of the hill nor the skyline was visible, only parts of the vegetation was shown but carefully framed view way that creates the atmosphere of being part of the growing landscape. The house don’t have a constructed ground floor, it uses the boulder that the Kaufmann enjoyed lying during vacation as the interior floor, bringing the exterior inside. All the furniture has some kind of cantilevering design like the house and the colours relates to the 12 surrounding vegetation and colourful birds.

The ‘Fallingwater’ brought every piece of nature available into the house, both literally and as framed atmosphere. The structure was truly merged into the landscape and became part of the context.

12

Tice, P. L. (1992). Frank Lloyd Wright between principle and form.

6

Guggenheim Museum

Figure 9: Guggenheim Museum standing in the middle of Manhattan, New York like an artefact

This museum was Wright’s last masterpiece before his death, in fact it opened 6 months after his death. The Guggenheim was a statement from Wright to the ‘Glass Box Boys’ of New York. In the linear right angled vertical concrete jungle of Manhattan, Wright stole the show by bringing a low curvaceous artefact to the table while everyone was busy designing bigger and taller Figure 9. This building is essentially one room and one path Figure 10. However, like the houses within nature, Wright narrates the audience through his design with this path as if he is guiding someone through water stream of ‘Fallingwater’ or the hills and desert of the Taliesins. Wright’s philosophy and imagination stayed in the same course for the Guggenheim Museum. He used one of his unrealised old designs of car ramp which was turned inside out and upside down, creating wide top building with internal 13 ramp. By being exposed to ever tall interior which was all open, the audience feel as if they have just walked into different street with a cover instead of walked into a building. This natural flow of human movement allowed people to move freely enjoying the art. Art critiques and serious art observers may want enclosed quiet space to examine the art but Guggenheim Museum allowed ordinary people who are not highly educated in art or interested deeply to simply enjoy the presented work as if you are looking at a pretty street light or a blossoming street tree. Again Wright has understood what the site condition can offer and through the design. Figure 12

Figure 10: Section drawing showing the tall void within one giant space

13

Tice, P. L. (1992). Frank Lloyd Wright between principle and form.

7

Figure 11: Guggenheim Museum’s organic object within right angles blocks of New York

At the time of design, artists disagreed with circular art museum as ramped floor meant the paintings to lean backwards and windows meant there was no control over light. Wright had to compromise the design features making the paintings to be hung on brackets and mixing sunlight and artificial light.

This shows that architects cannot dictate what a building should look like nor design a shed for the function. The context of building identity, an art museum, is nature in this project and Wright had to respect and understand how paintings worked.

Figure 12: By adjoining, separating and overlapping units establishes a perceived relationship

8

Louis I Kahn

Figure 13: Louis Isadore Kahn, the brick whisperer

Louis Isadore Kahn was brought up in the city of Philadelphia, studied at University of Pennsylvania and worked at Yale University meaning he spent most of his time in the city surrounded by concretes 14 and bricks. Kahn treats nature differently compared to Wright. If Wright was master of tangible landscape such as tree, waterfall and boulders, Kahn was all about intangible spiritual aspect of nature. The by-product of nature such as wind, light and shadow were integral part of Kahn’s 15 architectural philosophy. Kahn was highly interested in the type of atmosphere which was expressible through materials and had small interest in creating sublime picturesque moments. Kahn was interested in monumental wonders of the world and how these monuments have been telling the same story for ages yet is just as strong anytime you hear it. Kahn was also into primitive method of communication, Egyptian hieroglyphics, American Indian’s pictogram and traditional Chinese characters. Every segment of these writing has specific meaning behind, unlike English or Korean which are lettering base and those symbols represent sounds meaning the letter A in car is not different to the letter A in ant. Kahn wanted to become a painter when young, the only thing that changed was instead of using oil paints to express his mind he used brick and concrete to portray atmosphere Figure 14.

Figure 14: Kahn’s sketches from his trip to Europe, where he got inspired by the classical monuments

Kahn was fascinated with nature he once said to his nephew that, if he could only read one book in his life, he should read D’arcy Thompson’s “On Growth and Form” Thompson explains the order in 16 nature and the relationship between natural organism and structural form. Kahn believed in the power of will, the aforementioned quote about the brick wanting to become an arch, the nature gave order which allowed things to exist.

14 15 16

Kahn, N. (Director). (2003). My architect: a son's journey Curtis, W. (2013). Louis Kahn the power of architecture.

Twombly, R. (2003). Louis Kahn Essential Tests.

9

Exeter Library

Figure 15: The tree different spaces of Exeter Library, Brick exterior, Timber bookshelves and Concrete atrium

In the midst of traditional Georgian style buildings in Phillips Exeter Academy lies one library that disguises to look like these historical building but is completely different in every way. The Exeter Library by Kahn is a monument. The cuboid brick building stands out of the campus lawn area just like how the great pyramid of Giza stands out of the Sahara desert Figure 15. Kahn used the landscape condition as a background that the building stood as a foreground which created hierarchy to the site.

The shape of this library is very simple, a generic extrusion, but when seen at up close you can 17 observe every detail on the bricks. The brick was asked by the client but Kahn brought the will of bricks to create a sense of timelessness, something that has been there since the beginning. The building has appearance of constancy, it looks so familiar yet so foreign to the site, and this is due to the use of common material and form but by isolating and exaggerating both of these conjures alienated atmosphere.

Figure 16: Diagram of Exeter Library pulling apart how simple geometry form a complex building

The more interesting part of this design is when you walk through the door and is exposed to completely different world. The bricks are gone and suddenly you are shown concrete and timber Figure 16. Where the exterior is absorbing the natural sunlight, the exposed concrete and timber are reflecting the light into all corners. The university believed that a library is not a place to keep and 18 preserve books but a space for the people to enjoy reading and studying , the library Kahn designed has three types of spaces. The outer area is made of brick housing the carrels, middle area is made of reinforced concrete containing heavy book stacks and an atrium in the middle. Kahn treated these tree types of space as if they were three buildings which express separate space within one building.

17 18

Stott, R. (2017, 02 20). Spotlight: Louis Kahn.

D, R. (2011, 02 15). Building Analysis Exeter Library.

10

Salk Institute

Figure 17: Salk Institute resembling Roman town planning with geometric forms and simple materials

The city of La Jolla, California has provided Jonas Salk with a picturesque site along the pacific coast for a new biological research centre and he approached Kahn for a design. “Create a facility worthy of 19 a visit by Picasso” was what Salk asked Kahn, but in depth there were more practical requirements.

Laboratory spaces are to be open, spacious and adaptable to new technology and materials to be simple but robust requiring minimal maintenance but all together an inspiring environment for the researchers. Kahn has delivered all these with confidence as he has experience with research lab, 20 Richards Medical Research Laboratories which had many short comings that Kahn learnt from .

Kahn’s scheme was to tackle this project as if it was a monastery, a community of private intellectuals.

The buildings are to face west towards the Pacific Ocean.

Figure 18: Sectional Diagram showing the separated space for ‘Served’ and ‘Servant’ spaces

The Laboratories consists of two symmetrical elongated blocks with concrete paved plaza in between Figure 19. The windows of detached towers are diagonally facing the ocean towards west. This was done of course for visual effect but the lessons Kahn learnt from Richard Medical Research Laboratories that scientist need careful control over light for technical reasons. Also Kahn before expected higher level of productivity if the scientists were researching in an open plan discussing theories and studies with each other, yet scientists were fonder of isolated enclosed space to work 21 in. The Salk institute solves by dividing the building into multiple rooms but is still a connected linear 19

Kahn, N. (Director). (2003). My architect: a son's journey Stein, K. (2013). Louis I. Kahn's Salk Institute Remains a Modernish Beacon.

21 Stein, K. (2013). Louis I. Kahn's Salk Institute Remains a Modernish Beacon.

20

11

architecture Figure 19. Kahn spent much time trying to understand the nature of working environment and what kind of nature can he bring to help the researchers instead of simply creating a warehouse with multiple rooms. Kahn made separated research space and utility space Figure 18. This alternation allows for the maintenance and update to occur without disrupting the research going on. The building is constructed with great flexibility for weight as support beams are designed for extra load and windows are detachable for transporting heavy equipment.

Figure 19: Salk Institute (top) and Richards Medical Research Center (bottom) indicating fundamental change in concept

The central courtyard, made from featureless off-white travertine stone, became a timeless paved square Figure 17. Kahn wanted to bring landscape into the central space for retreating from research but decided to leave it as void in order to create monumentality. Instead of filling with landscape, Kahn installed a thin channel of water that bisects the plaza, creating the atmosphere of Romanesque forum with aqueduct.

It has been over five decades that this institute opened, 1965, but majority of Kahn’s work has been unaltered. The concrete and stone have withstood the salty wind of the pacific coast and the building has imbedded itself to the site, still using the context as a pedestal for the monument to stand while adaptable to house hi-tech machinery.

12

Jatiyo Sangsad Bhaban (National Parliament House)

Figure 20: The National Parliament House became a monument to Bangladesh and sign of independence to her people

The National Parliament House is the last project Kahn was commissioned before his death and was 22 completed 9 years after his death. This building was symbolic in every way. Kahn had a chance to build a monument with monumantalism theory, symbolic to both Kahn as an architect as well as to the new country of Bangladesh. This building is unique in the sense that the design has modernism foundation but it has rooted itself to the physical context and the heart of Bangladeshis as beacon of democracy and independence. The building stands strong, surrounded by a lake and a plaza on one side Figure 20. The building borrows all the energy from the surrounding nature to emit the strong power of Bangladesh identity to the world.

Figure 21: Entire building is made from concrete and marble strips but combined with symbols create monumentality

Kahn used the most basic material to build the most important building in the country, concrete blocks, these were cheap and could be built with hands and Bangladesh had limited access to heavy machinery at that time. Figure 21 22

Lahiri, T. (2013, 01 18). Dhaka Journal: Louis Kahn’s Opus in the Delta.

13

Figure 22: The careful design of light and shadow is what gives variety to this otherwise simple building 23

The primary concern for this building was protection from sun and rain , which was solved by utilising the surrounding lake that helped cool the building down and enormous size of open window that allowed fresh air and light to flow through. The material concrete also is a great for protection against sun and heats up relatively slower than other materials. Kahn shows great possibility of intangible design element of sunlight through this project. The way he captures the outside sunlight and channelling it inside and articulating it by using shadow portrays that light can be more than simple illuminating tool. Figure 22

Figure 23: Plan of National Parliament House consists of very fundamental geometry and hollow columns 23

Lahiri, T. (2013, 01 18). Dhaka Journal: Louis Kahn’s Opus in the Delta.

14

Comparison

Figure 24: Taliesin (left) embedding itself into the landscape while Salk Institute (right) forming boundary against nature

The works of Wright seemed to be alive and constantly evolving, slowly but changing like the forest surrounding the house. Kahn’s work appears to be perfected and completed, timeless statue defiant to changes and stay true. When comparing the twos work, Wright’s Taliesin and Kahn’s Salk Institute Figure 24, Taliesin embraces the hillside and merges with the landscape while the Salk Institute sits on the edge of the coast opposing the sea. Taliesin allows merging of the garden with the house while Salk Institute seems a man must stand in solitude. Kahn’s work seems to reject the natural world that Wright wants to embrace. Wright perfected the marriage of structure and landscape and Kahn values metaphysical and ethereal sprit in buildings.

Both architects possess unique and specific aesthetic style. Nonetheless, if Wright’s houses are to be taken away from the forest, there are similarities with Kahn’s work, like the Guggenheim Museum.

Likewise, if Kahn’s work to be moved into the deep forest resembles Wright’s exterior aesthetics like The Oser House. Thus the physical appearance is not important in the topic of their understanding of nature. Figure 25

Figure 25: Guggenheim Museum (left) as a monument to New York and Oser House (right) blending into the nature

15

Conclusion Through unpacking and analysing the abovementioned architects and their projects we can now understand their relationship with nature. Nature is inseparable from human, it is not something we can decide to include in our lives but we depend on it. The field of architecture and built environment, nature can be summed up into context, the physical presence of landscape elements as well as the spiritual atmosphere of human interactions. Architects reveal what is already on site, augmenting and changing hierarchy by placing a brick on one another Figure 26. Frank Lloyd Wright and Louis I. Kahn are both experiencing the same nature but taking different aspects and encapsulate what they feel about nature through architecture.

Figure 26: National Arboretum Canberra (left) as part of nature and Shrine of Remembrance (right) a monument on site

Wright was born and raised in the country side with constant connection with nature. He was th fascinated with technology and had the urge to use them whenever possible, but always valued 19 century romanticism. Kahn, on the other hand, was raised in the city and remained to live in the city, th he was fond of European countryside and their historical monuments, but was a 20 century modern architect with classical roots. Figure 27

Figure 27: Frank Lloyd Wright (left) a romantic architect and Louis I. Kahn (right) a classical architect

There are clear orders in nature’s process, but this process is extremely complex yet the outcome 24 tens to looks simple. Appreciating nature isn’t about loving trees and flowers but understanding the process and the physical representation. Architecture therefore is a bridge that connects nature and man. The bridge may look different and the experience on it may be unique, but both Frank Lloyd Wright and Louis I. Kahn’s bridges take you to the same destination called nature.

24

Essays, U. (2015, 03 23). The Connection Between Man Nature And Architecture Philosophy Essay.

16

Reference and Bibliography Brooks, B. (2008). The essential Frank Lloyd Wright Critical Writings on Architecture. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Curtis, W. (2013). Louis Kahn the power of architecture. California : Vitra Design Museum.

D, R. (2011, 02 15). Building Analysis Exeter Library. Retrieved 10 30, 2017, from Roman D's theoretical design: http://arch3611s11romand.blogspot.com.au/2011/02/building-analysisexeter-library.html?m=1 Essays, U. (2015, 03 23). The Connection Between Man Nature And Architecture Philosophy Essay.

Retrieved 09 15, 2017, from UK Essays: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/philosophy/theconnection-between-man-nature-and-architecture-philosophy-essay.php Hamann, C. (2017, 08 25). History western Architecture 20th century. Melbourne: RMIT University.

Hodge, S. (2016). Architecture in minutes. London: Quercus.

Jones, I. M. (Director). (2017). BBC - Frank Lloyd Wright: The Man Who Built America [Motion Picture].

Kahn, N. (Director). (2003). My architect: a son's journey [Motion Picture].

Kauffmann, E. (1955). An American architecture Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Horizon Press.

Lahiri, T. (2013, 01 18). Dhaka Journal: Louis Kahn’s Opus in the Delta. Retrieved 10 20, 2017, from The Wall Street Journal: https://blogs.wsj.com/indiarealtime/2013/01/18/dhaka-journallouis-kahns-opus-in-the-delta/ Lobell, J. (2014, 03 06). Louis Kahn Survey. Online Lecture. YouTube.

Phi, P. K. (2003). The Other Tradition American Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright and Louis I. Kahn.

Retrieved 10 20, 2017, from questia: https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1108266609/the-other-tradition-american-architecture-frank-lloyd Rawson, M. (Director). (1989). The House on The Waterfall [Motion Picture].

Stein, K. (2013). Louis I. Kahn's Salk Institute Remains a Modernish Beacon. Architectural Digest.

Stott, R. (2017, 06 08). Spotlight: Frank Lloyd Wright. Retrieved 09 30, 2017, from Arch Daily: https://www.archdaily.com/513642/happy-birthday-frank-lloyd-wright Stott, R. (2017, 02 20). Spotlight: Louis Kahn. Retrieved 09 30, 2017, from Arch Daily: https://www.archdaily.com/334095/happy-112th-birthday-louis-kahn Tice, P. L. (1992). Frank Lloyd Wright between principle and form. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Twombly, R. (2003). Louis Kahn Essential Tests. New York: W.W. Norton.

Wright, F. L. (1939). An Organic Architecture, the architecture of democracy. London: Lund Humphries Publishers.

17