The Role of Housing in Developing a Sense of Belonging of International Migrants by Marina Mustakova

The role of housing in developing a sense of belonging of international migrants

Marina Mustakova

Faculty Advisor: Thomas Barrie

NC State School of Architecture, College of Design Campus box 7701, Raleigh, North Carolina, 27695-7701

The role of housing in developing a sense of belonging of international migrants.

Marina Mustakova

A Thesis submitted in satisfaction of Master of Advanced Architectural Studies (12.13.2024)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the College of Design for granting me this incredible opportunity to pursue graduate studies, conduct research within the Masters of Advanced Architectural Studies program, and be part of such a vibrant and supportive community. My heartfelt thanks go to my advisor, Thomas Barrie, for his invaluable guidance, encouragement, and unwavering support throughout my research journey. Without him, this research would not have come to life. I am also deeply grateful to Pepe Caudillio for inviting me to local events and facilitating the community engagement process, which was essential to this research project. To all the professors I had the privilege of learning from, your expertise and insights have profoundly enriched my academic experience. Finally, I extend my sincere appreciation to my family. Though miles away, their belief in me has been a constant source of strength and motivation.

My journey into this research began with a period of deep self-reflection. After working for nearly five years on high-end residential projects as an architectural designer, I found myself at a crossroads, questioning my career path and asking—what do I truly want to do? Within the same time frame a hospitalization due to suspected COVID-19 became a pivotal moment in both my life and career. While recovering, I witnessed the incredible dedication of medical professionals who worked 24 hours to serve people. This experience led to a profound realization—I had been designing for a particular group of people who could afford everything they desired, but what about the rest of society? How could my work contribute to a broader community?

With a primary background in residential architecture and interior design, I began exploring the field of Affordable Housing. Seeking to expand my knowledge and practice within Public Interest Design, I moved to the United States, where my focus and interests evolved further. I became increasingly aware of migration as a hot global issue, and my own experience of adjusting to life in a new country made me deeply empathetic toward migrant communities. This personal journey, combined with my professional aspirations, led me to embark on this research—an exploration of how housing can foster a sense of belonging for international migrants and support their integration into new environments.

ABSTRACT

Migration has been on the rise. The war conflicts, natural disasters, and unforeseen challenges continue to grow the influx of displaced people around the globe. Providing affordable and sustainable housing for migrants essentially becomes one of the utmost aspects in urban planning and architecture today. While there are a plethora of developments that focus on the physical aspects of migrant settlements, this study unfolds the social dimensions of housing, examining how the built environment can foster a sense of belonging and help migrants find a place to call home. Through this exploration, the study aims to highlight the critical role the housing environment plays in developing a sense of belonging and enhancing the overall wellbeing and social cohesion of migrant communities. The research is structured around three core subjects: sense of belonging, migrant community, and housing. The study specifically explores the sense of belonging within the framework of the built environment, home, place, and migration. Investigating relevant articles, books, and studies within a literature survey provided the theoretical foundation to explore the concept of sense of belonging, establish its key definition, determine its primary aspects, and examine the factors influencing its development or lack thereof. To complement the theoretical framework, data analysis was conducted using U.S. Census data, migration institution reports, and maps to analyze the national migrant community and identify a specific group for further study. Community engagement through interviews and surveys provided valuable insights about migrants’ housing experiences and the challenges they encounter. Additionally, a precedent study of recently built social housing projects was carried out to explore what design approaches architects employ nowadays and define strategies for creating an affordable and sustainable environment for migrants, while nurturing their sense of belonging. The research concludes by identifying three key principles of housing that can support international migrants in integrating into a new environment and fostering a sense of belonging. The study outlines potential areas for further research such as developing Belonging Index to assess neighborhoods and communities, an examination of homeownership policies for migrants in the US, and an exploration of alternative housing models, such as co-housing, that better address migrants’ needs.

For the past few years migration worldwide has reached an unprecedented level. According to the UN the number of international migrants was estimated at 281 million in 2020. The issue has been on the rise not only on a global but also national scale as the US has always comprised the largest migrant population.

Number of global migrants is on the rise

The reasons why people move are different. But most migrants are displaced people who have been forced to flee due to political and environmental issues. Considering the turbulence of today’s world in many aspects, migration would highly likely be even more escalated down the road.

ISSUES

SOCIETAL ISSUES ECONOMIC ISSUES

ASPIRATIONS

In this context, the role of architects becomes fundamental, as housing is a critical element in the process of migrant integration. However, this research does not focus solely on designing housing solutions for migrants—many developments addressing this need have already been implemented. Instead, this study examines the social dimensions of housing, how the housing environment can facilitate the integration of migrants, foster their sense of belonging, and help them discover the place to call home.

Brazil’s arid northeast is weathering its worst drought on record and has been rationing water for two years. Natan Cabral, 5, stands on the cracked ground of the Boqueirao reservoir in the Metropolitan Region of Campina Grande, Paraiba state, Brazil provided by Reuters.

The research is essentially divided into three parts - sense of belonging, migrant community, and housing. The first section investigates a sense of belonging as a concept, aiming to define its main aspects and understand what impacts development or non-development of sense of belonging. A literature review serves as the primary method for this exploration. The second part of the research is devoted to a migrant community, analyzing U.S. Census data, migration institution reports, and spatial mapping to understand demographic patterns and identify a target group for further study. Ethnographic methods, including interviews and surveys, provide direct engagement with migrant communities, offering insight into their housing experiences and the challenges they encounter. The final part of the research is presented by a precedents survey with the goal to examine recently built social housing developments to learn what strategies and approaches architects employ to create an affordable and sustainable environment with consideration of the community’s needs.

Photo by Hameed Maarouf. People fleeing Lebanon gather on the Syrian side of the Masnaa border crossing before it was closed to vehicles following an Israeli airstrike overnight.

Photo by Atul Pandey from Unsplash.

Definition

A sense of belonging as a concept is very broad and has been studied in many disciplines, mostly in social science. To meet the research objectives, the study was specifically focused on exploring a sense of belonging in the frame of built environment, place, home, and migrant experiences.

The construct of “belonging” lacks clarity and consistency across studies. However, most scholars frequently define a sense of belonging from a social perspective as a secure state that is firmly developed in contact with society. The researcher Henry Wellman argues that a sense of belonging comes from social interactions between people. Other scholars have a more diverse perspective on belonging like Kathleen Mee and Sarah Wright who introduced the term geography of belonging highlighting the essential role of place, culture, and heritage. Heide Castaneda, an author of the book Borders of Belonging, suggests that for immigrants belonging also refers to feelings of being “at home”.

In this study, the concept of belonging was explored holistically by synthesizing and analyzing various perspectives. Sense of belonging was determined as a secure state or feeling of being connected and related to society and surroundings.

Essential aspects of sense of belonging

The principal aspect of a sense of belonging is its gradual development through daily interactions and experiences. Nira Yuval-Davis finds that the sense of belonging among migrants is connected with various practices and activities in their everyday lives. Another critical aspect is social integration; without social connections, the development of a sense of belonging becomes nearly impossible.

Place and context also play a fundamental role, as the surrounding environment is where human experiences inevitably take place. Belonging is, at its core, an affective achievement, expressed through emotions and feelings. Thus, the sense of belonging is very subjective as we all have different backgrounds, experiences, and perceptions.

Lastly, the fluidity and multiplicity of a sense of belonging in relation to migrants’ experiences especially. Newcomers often evolve simultaneous senses of belonging by integrating in a new place and at the same time continuing to engage with past and transnational bonds. This phenomenon is referred to as transnationalism. In James Chaney’s research on Belonging among Latin migrants in Nashville interviewees expressed how feelings of in-betweeness complicate how they self-identify.

Sense of place

Throughout the research a plethora of scholars emphasized the significant role of sense of place when it comes to investigating a sense of belonging.

Throughout the research a plethora of scholars emphasized the significant role of sense of place when it comes to investigating a sense of belonging. We live in a material world where we inevitably develop attachment to certain places that have their own culture, geography, status, and image. We develop emotional associations to places we inhabit. Physical spaces as enabling places can give us access to different resources and provide opportunities for growth, development, and well-being.

The study of Roberta Raffaeta and Cameron Duff about place experience and sense of belonging among Ecuadorian migrants in Italy highlights the importance of understanding place as a social, material, and affective achievement. In the interview participants emphasized the importance of outdoor areas for sports and social gatherings, where family relationships can strengthen and communities can thrive. Celebrations are particularly crucial for maintaining cultural and social ties in their new environment. A number of migrants pointed out material aspects like clean streets, playgrounds, bus stops, and accessible local services. These features enhance their quality of life and contribute to a stronger sense of belonging. Migrants often expressed pride and hope for their children’s future, emphasizing access to education and career opportunities. This study reveals that migrants’ sense of belonging is grounded in tangible practices and material connections, rather than abstract cultural ties or psychological responses.

Exploration of sense of belonging and sense of place led to presume that these concepts are intertwined. By gathering the key features of each, connections have been identified, such as affective achievements, emotional associations, social integration, and sociality. This analysis leads to the conclusion that the two concepts are often interchangeable.

SENSE OF BELONGING + SENSE OF PLACE

What impacts development or non-development of sense of belonging?

Developing a sense of belonging comes with the process of integration that is considerably impacted by social, political, and economic conditions of a receiving place. Rosa Giralt in her study states that resettlement always presents challenges, but local dynamics can make it easier, or more difficult, to belong.

Social Impact

According to the study of James Chamney, for Latin migrants belonging is directly influenced by friends and family. Religious institutions such as churches usually play a significant role in facilitating migrants to identify themselves and feel attached to a new place. Migrants might be also exposed to constraints and preventions because of “legal” status, place of birth or skin color which will lead to socio-spatial exclusion. Angela García and Leah Schmalzbauer’s research explores the divergent integration outcomes between the positive incorporation and sense of belonging of Mexican immigrants in urban Southern California and the experiences of Mexican immigrants in rural Montana, where newcomers feel alienated by the established white population. The study underscores how both geographic location and societal context significantly influence immigrants’ perceptions of inclusion and exclusion.

Political impact

Local policies and opportunities for legal citizenship play an essential role in shaping how immigrants integrate into society. The researchers Kara Cebulko and Alex Silver highlight that DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program) provides partial inclusion through the liminal legal access to employment and some institutions. Additionally, access to political voice through participation in established organizations or by creating their own groups empowers immigrants to advocate for their needs and contribute to the political landscape.

Economic impact

Access to employment opportunities, professional growth, and financial stability contribute to a feeling of security and well-being. These factors are essential for migrants to establish themselves and thrive in their new environment.

Affective impact

A sense of belonging can be reinforced by feelings of gratitude and contentment towards the host country, often stemming from positive experiences like having better job and life opportunities. Memories also play a crucial role in shaping a sense of belonging. Woven from personal experiences and significant moments, memories contribute to feelings of connection and attachment. Tovi Fenster, in his article suggests that «memory in fact creates and consists of a sense of belonging”.

The majority of migrants in the US come from Mexico. According to Migration Policy Institution almost 11 million migrants are from Mexico in 2022. In North Carolina the largest migrant population also comes from Mexico. Wake county is the second populous region of Mexican migrants after Mecklenburg County.

Utilizing U.S. Census data, the Race and Ethnicity map was analyzed, revealing the density of various races and ethnicities across the region. This helped identify areas with high concentrations of Latin American residents. One of these areas is a residential neighborhood located in northeast Raleigh, along Green Road. The neighborhood spans the streets of Green Road, New Hope Church Road, and Brockton Drive. It is presented by a mix of middle housing options, including townhouses, garden apartments, and duplexes. Census data shows that the majority of residents in this area are of Latin American origin.

Exploring the surroundings, the Brentwood Boys & Girls Club was identified. This nonprofit organization is part of a national youth development program that operates in cities across the US. The club provides after-school programs, summer camps, and other youth activities. In the interview, Pepe Caudillo, the club’s director, confirmed that the area is approximately 90% populated by migrants from Latin American countries, primarily aged 18 to 40. The community is highly family-oriented, with most families consisting of 5 to 7 members, including 3 to 4 children. Soccer is a big part of their culture and many residents organize their own soccer clubs. Family gatherings and celebrations are also significant aspects of their lives.

Pepe mentioned that a myriad of migrants, especially newcomers, struggle with navigating essential services, such as contacting the police, accessing healthcare, and understanding educational opportunities. He also expressed his views on housing, highlighting three areas for improvement: reducing high maintenance costs by using durable materials and efficient construction methods; promoting sustainability through water conservation and urban gardening; and offering housing options for different generations, such as single-story homes for seniors.

Further engagement with the community was carried out by participating in a regular meeting with parents whose children attend the Boys & Girls Club, as well as by attending a celebration of the club. These interactions provided valuable opportunities to connect directly with the community. During those interactions, an open-ended question about their living experiences in the neighborhood was posed and encouraged parents to freely share their thoughts and feelings. This approach allowed for a rich exchange of ideas and perspectives, giving insight into their experiences and fostering a deeper understanding of life in the neighborhood.

Pepe Caudillo, director of the Brentwood Boys&Girls Club

Meeting with parents

The meeting included 15 parents who had immigrated from Mexico, Venezuela, El Salvador, and Honduras. An open-ended question was posed regarding their living experiences and the concerns they had about their neighborhood. Some participants highlighted the high cost of rent, while others suggested that establishing a set of rules for residents would help foster a community ethic, mindset, and mutual respect.

The majority of participants expressed safety as their primary concern, citing incidents of burglaries, package theft, and gunshots in the area. What was particularly alarming was the revelation that burglars might specifically target residents on certain dates, knowing that numerous residents are undocumented migrants who are paid by cash and unlikely to report crimes.

The analysis of Raleigh Police incident reports and Wake County crime maps revealed a high concentration of various crimes, including theft in the area, which corroborates the residents’ concerns about safety.

Celebration of the Brentwood Boys&Girls club

During the celebration, attendees were invited to participate in short interviews, where the same open-ended question about their living experiences and housing concerns was asked. Five participants, migrants from Mexico and Venezuela, took part in the interviews. They primarily discussed the reasons for coming to the U.S., focusing on their aspirations for a better life, access to job opportunities, quality education for their children, and hopes for a brighter future.

Regarding safety, one interviewee confirmed that during her time living in the research neighborhood, she saw police cars almost every night. Another participant pointed out that the cheaper the neighborhood, the more likely it is to be unsafe.

General survey

To gain more data and have a broader picture and deeper understanding of the community’s needs a survey has been conducted inviting Latin migrants who reside in the Raleigh area to participate. 11 people aged 18 to 45: students, researchers, workers, and housewives. They are from different Latin countries: Quito, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Venezuela, Chile, Honduras, Colombia, Mexico. The survey was conducted using a bilingual Google Form, allowing respondents to choose either English or Spanish. The survey employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative data collection through closed-ended questions for structured responses and open-ended questions for more detailed insights. The survey was completely voluntary and on the understanding that the data would be anonymous and held in strict confidence according to the university research ethics policy and guidelines.

Question 1. How would you describe your experience living in your neighborhood compared with what you have had before in your home country?

Comments:

- «The overall enhanced safety of the surroundings is a plus. However, the social environment, opportunities for interaction and the whole atmosphere of my current place/neighborhood might not be the best. These two aspects compensate each other.»

- «Quiet. Safe. Nicer. Maintenance comes to fix things that break down.»

- «The same level of safety.»

- «Basic services and utilities were considerably bad in my country.»

- «It’s the same now, but if you had asked me two months ago, I would have said it was worse— way worse. As a grad student, the place I could afford was in an unsafe neighborhood with poor lighting. Now that I’ve graduated and gotten a job, I can afford to live in a better area».

- «Greater security, greater comfort, less noise.»

- «There is no community, everyone develops their individuality and others do not seem to be important or necessary.»

- «Better quality of life, efficient transportation, I don’t spend so many hours traveling from place to place.»

- «The streets are better paved, and the houses are bigger.»

- «The neighborhood is very similar to the one I lived in Mexico.»

Conclusion

The current living situation offers enhanced safety, better maintenance, and improved quality of life in terms of infrastructure and transportation. However, the social environment and sense of community are lacking, which appears to be a trade-off for the improved physical and safety aspects. The respondents seem to be satisfied with the current living situation, especially compared to the previous one, but there is still room for improvement in the social and community aspects.

Question 2. What is your biggest concern about the housing and neighborhood you live in here?

Comments:

- «The cultural mix of my current neighborhood makes it hard to understand certain patterns. The concept of cleaning and respect for others personal space might not be the same.»

- «Rent is increasing rapidly year by year.»

- «I am scared someone can break in my house/car.»

- «Safety is still a big concern for me.»

- «The cost of living has increased since I arrived in 2021, but salaries, especially for students and researchers at State, haven’t kept up. It’s really hard to find places that are close to campus, safe, and don’t compromise on quality/safety.»

- «In the United States you can have a dream life if you have money.»

- «They are not durable materials and are not very reliable in the face of inclement weather.»

- «Paying rent is expensive compared to my country.»

- «I am used to the fact that in Mexico the neighborhoods are closed and not anyone can walk on the street.»

- «We live very peacefully and without problems.»

Conclusion

The current living situation presents several challenges for the interviewees. The cultural differences, rising costs, and persistent safety concerns are significant drawbacks, despite the potential for a «dream life» in the United States if one has sufficient financial resources. The respondents seem to miss secluded and peaceful neighborhoods of their home country, where they felt more secure. Overall, the person appears to be struggling to find a satisfactory balance between affordability, safety, and quality of life in their current living environment.

Question 3. How safe do you feel in your neighborhood?

Comments:

- «I feel comfortable leaving my place at any time of the day without any major concern. However, I am always alert at the same time.»

- «Nothing eventful has happened here or nearby. The area is nicely secluded by trees and away from the main streets.»

- «I feel scared someone will break in my house/car.»

- «The area has been victim of robbery and assault.»

- «It is an area were families live. but read 1.1 question.»

- «It’s violent as well as my country.»

- «There are always people walking around, which means they feel safe. There is constant police because I live near large buildings, banks and businesses.»

- «I find it unsafe that people smoke in and around the houses, I find it unsafe especially for my children that there are people who can have and carry weapons.»

- «I felt safer in my previous apartment, but I don’t feel in danger either for the same reason as in the previous question.»

- «It’s very quiet.»

Conclusion

Despite the quiet and secluded nature of the area, the respondents still feel a sense of unease and concern for their safety. The history of robberies and assaults in the neighborhood, as well as the presence of people smoking and potentially carrying weapons, contribute to the feelings of insecurity. While the constant police presence provides some reassurance, the residents still feel less safe than in their previous apartments. Overall, the respondents seem to be navigating a delicate balance between feeling comfortable in their surroundings and maintaining a heightened sense of alertness due to the perceived safety risks in the area.

Question 4. Among the places you live, work, shop, and spend leisure time, which one do you consider the best?

Comments:

- «Lakes and water bodies around Raleigh. My two favorites so far are Lake Jordan and Falls Lake.»

- «I like the place I work at (university campus).»

- «Home, i have my own bedroom that I designed to be very cozy.»

- «Work area is the best leisure time.»

- «Home watch tv and eat sushi.»

- «Where I live.»

- «Where I live.»

- «I spend my free time at the lake or at my house, also at the gym, I like to go out for walks home.»

- «My home.»

Conclusion

Overall, respondents most frequently identified «home» as their favorite place. This suggests a strong connection to personal spaces and a sense of comfort and belonging. Additionally, lakes and water bodies around Raleigh are favored for leisure activities. The workplace (university campus) is appreciated by some, but overall, home remains the top choice.

Question 5. What place here do you feel more connected and attached to?

Conclusion

To the question what place here they feel more connected and attached to 72% of participants answered - home, 18% - workplace, and 10% - recreation.

Question 6. What type of spaces do you wish you had in your neighborhood?

Conclusion

The survey reveals a strong desire among respondents for various types of spaces in their neighborhoods. The most popular requests include: 1) Sport Facilities - 81% of respondents expressed a need for more sports-related amenities; 2) Gardens - 45% of participants wish for gardens; 3) Communal Spaces for Gatherings - 36% highlighted the need for areas where community members can come together, fostering social interaction and community spirit.

Question 7. What places/things/experiences make you feel that you are at home in the US?

Conclusion

A notable 54% indicated that visiting national parks and public spaces contributes significantly to their sense of home. Additionally, 45% highlighted the importance of interacting with diverse people and cultures. Both enjoying American cuisine and popular culture, as well as a strong connection to their local community and neighborhood, were mentioned by 36% of respondents.

Question 8. What do you miss from your native household?

Comments:

- «Family, friends, traditions, and food.»

- «How close it was to markets and stores.»

- «The food and culture.»

- «My family.»

- «The sense of HOME, especialmente ‘El calor de hogar’.»

- «Nothing.»

- «My family, the food, the weather, the low cost of health and beauty procedures.»

- «Unprocessed food.»

- «Food.»

- «Family and food.»

- «Family.»

Conclusion

The overarching theme that emerges is the strong emphasis on family, community, culture, and the comforts of home. The respondents seem to deeply value the social connections, traditional foods, and familiar surroundings that were present in their previous living situation. The proximity to markets and stores, as well as the affordability of certain services, also contributed to a sense of convenience and quality of life.

Question 9. Do houses significantly differ from the houses you lived in your home country? How do they differ?

Comments:

- «They are pretty much the same. Housing facilities here may have more amenities like dishwasher or in-house dryer.»

- «Yes. Building materials are different. Designs are different. Commodities are different.»

- «Yes, heater/AC in the whole house (including bathroom), dish washer.»

- «Construction materials, the need of AC/heating most of the year, size.»

- «The houses do not differ but the neighborhoods do.»

- «Differ , here there is Ac, I have a closet, the bathroom inside, different types of lighting.»

- «Yes, in the United States they are larger, newer facilities, with a pool, with play areas.»

- «The construction materials.»

- «Yes, the material they are built from.»

- «Yes, this one is larger and has a large garden.»

- «No, they are very similar.»

Conclusion

Overall, the differences between houses in the two different locations are primarily due to the availability of resources, building codes, and cultural preferences. While the core function of a house remains the same, the level of amenities, size, and construction methods can vary significantly.

Question 10. Have you had any issues in the housing you live in?

Comments:

- «No ac , a lot of noise, very light structure.»

Conclusion

Notably, 45% reported encountering problems related to poor materials in their housing. In contrast, 36% indicated that they have not experienced any issues at all.

Question 11. If you were an architect what would you incorporate in your current house and neighborhood?

Comments:

- «I would certainly improve the outdoor space. Having more organization, green areas, and designated parking spots would be strongly appreciated. Improving the kitchen quality and distribution is also a major requirement.»

- «I would a storage unit. i would also have some areas fenced because sometimes we have animals (reindeers, racoons, etc.) that get too close.»

- «Use better quality for the materials.»

- «More efficient ac/heating systems, more private entrance/parking.»

- «I would incorporate a larger backyard with more green space and add bigger windows to bring in more natural light. I’d also address the humidity issue on the third floor, ensuring better ventilation and moisture control for improved comfort.»

- «My own bedroom.»

- «Large dog park.»

- «Facilities to encourage the creation of communities as a counternarrative to hyper-productive and hyper-consumerist individualism that is predatory of resources and nature.»

- «More lighting and ventilation.»

- «A covered pool that can be used all year round.»

- «Nothing special, I like it just the way it is.»

Conclusion

The suggestions highlight a desire for a more comfortable, functional, and sustainable living space that fosters community and promotes well-being. While some participants appreciate the current state of the location, others seek improvements focused on outdoor spaces, comfort, and a greater sense of community.

HOUSING

The first project is a transformative redevelopment in India aimed to improve living conditions of 298 families. The layout includes housing buildings organized around courtyards, fostering social interaction and recreation. Residents have actively participated in the design process, ensuring their needs are met. The project prioritizes quality construction tailored to local conditions, using load-bearing masonry and sustainable elements like bamboo screens.

Sanjaynagar Slum Redevelopment Project

A myriad of housing projects designed by Pyatok Architects were studied. Pyatok Architects is one of the leading firms in the US that is committed to creating sustainable housing for people of all income, backgrounds, and ages. Alta Madrone is a thoughtfully designed community for low-income households. Among affordable housing units it has a clubhouse with multiple amenities like a multipurpose room, computer stations, kitchen. It also has a covered terrace connecting to a central courtyard with play areas and raised garden beds. The architecture blends local vernacular traditions with modern materials and includes different sustainable design elements such as solar panels, water heaters, durable and non-toxic finishes, stormwater management, and so on.

Alta Madrone Affordable Family Apartments

Originating in Denmark, cohousing is a unique housing model where residents have private homes but share common spaces and facilities, fostering a strong sense of community and encouraging collaboration in daily life. Shared amenities such as kitchens, dining halls, playrooms, and workshops promote social interaction and collective activities.

Cohousing communities are usually resident-managed, with decisions made through consensus in a non-hierarchical structure. While it is not always cheaper, shared resources and active resident participation can help reduce costs. Additionally, many cohousing communities emphasize sustainability, incorporating energy-efficient and eco-friendly design elements. Charles Durrett, along with Kathryn McCamant, is credited with introducing the cohousing concept to the United States through their pioneering book Cohousing: A Contemporary Approach to Housing Ourselves.

Nevada City Cohousing

Although there is an extensive amount of research on sense of belonging in many settings and there is a number of scholars who have highlighted the big role of a place and physical environment, there is a substantial gap in research regarding the contribution of the built environment in fostering integration and developing a sense of belonging through the lens of real design practices and tools. The sense of belonging as a concept is very complex and subjective and often depends on an array of social, economic, political, and individual factors. In the author’s view, what has been mostly emphasized and stressed throughout different studies is the significance of social aspects especially in migrants’ experiences. Social relations, presence of family and friends, being part of the community play a paramount role in feeling attached to a certain place and developing a sense of belonging.

A key takeaway from the second part of the research, which aligns with the challenges faced, is the vulnerability of the migrant community. A number of individuals are undocumented, which makes them feel hesitant to engage with strangers. For future research, it’s better to be partnering with an organization that can act as a facilitator. Through interviews and surveys, it became clear that the biggest concerns community members have are the cost of living and safety along with the desire to build and strengthen their community. Home is an important place where migrants feel more attached and connected to.

After completing the precedents survey the strategies from all case studies were consolidated into a single chart to highlight key repeating approaches such as participatory and communityoriented design, sustainability, and affordability.

DESIGN STRATEGIES

The research concludes by identifying key design strategies. To answer the primary research question - What is the role of housing in developing a sense of belonging of international migrants? - further research is required. But based on the research findings of this study, three key principles of housing were highlighted that can support international migrants in integrating into a new environment and nurturing a sense of belonging - safety, social integration, and accessibility. By addressing them collectively, we may create a sustainable environment that is inclusive, safe, and promotes social well-being.

Safety

SUSTAINABLE E NVIRONMENT

SENSEOF B ELONGING INTERNATION A L MIGRANTS

The first strategy - creating a safe environment. From the author’s point of view, a safe environment is a well-developed environment that provides not only basic amenities like parking and dumpsters but also includes various spaces, where people can effectively spend time outside. Neighborhoods with thoughtful infrastructure, proper maintenance, and a vibrant atmosphere, in my opinion, naturally deter crime and foster trust among residents. As Jane Jacobs stated - “A city’s safety does not come from isolated areas or single-use zones but from the constant, casual surveillance of a vibrant and busy public life.” Another aspect of a safe environment is walkability - clear pathways that allow pedestrians of all ages and abilities to move safely and comfortably. Decent outdoor lighting is also an essential factor. Well-lit streets, public areas, and entryways help prevent crime and provide residents with a sense of security, especially after dark.

Social Interaction

The second strategy - creating an environment that promotes social interaction. First, starting from planning, housing units can be designed to encourage impromptu connections. Examples include courtyard housing like the redevelopment project in India, garden-style apartments, buildings with open rooftop spaces, and cohousing communities with shared areas.

Community engagement is central to this process. Involving residents in research, planning, and design helps identify their needs and ensures that design solutions are tailored to the community. MASS Design Group, a well-known design firm that promotes architecture for justice and human wellbeing believes that «Designing for dignity means engaging with communities to create spaces that reflect their values and aspirations.» Engaging residents in the implementation phase can be equally beneficial. In the case of the Latin migrant community it would be relevant as many of them work in the construction and landscape industry and they can effectively contribute to the neighborhoods they live in as well. While men in Latin migrant communities often work in construction, women could also play a significant role in architecture and construction. Employing local craftsmen and contractors, including residents will not only support the local economy but also empower individuals, instilling a deep sense of belonging and ownership.

As one of the interviewees in the community engagement part has suggested, establishing a set of community rules can help create a secure and respectful environment. Allowing residents to participate in neighborhood management and rule-setting further strengthens their investment in the community and promotes shared accountability.

Sanjaynagar Slum Redevelopment Project

Photo from Google

Accessibility

Lastly - creating an accessible environment. It begins with affordable housing that should not only provide accessible housing units but also good locations with access to public transportation and essential amenities like schools, healthcare facilities, and grocery stores.

The use of quality, durable, and sustainable materials in construction further enhances accessibility by minimizing maintenance costs. By incorporating low-energy building performance and environmentally friendly materials, neighborhoods can achieve long-term cost efficiency and support sustainable stewardship like it was exemplified in Pyatok Architects’ projects. A pedestrian-friendly design is also essential in creating an accessible environment, accommodating all residents, including those with physical impairments.

As Pepe Caudillo, the director of the Brentwood Boys&Girls club, has mentioned in the interview, migrants usually struggle with having access to basic information. Resources such as local policy, education opportunities, event announcements, guidelines on interacting with authorities, and online platforms (like local Facebook communities) help residents stay informed, understand local regulations, connect with others, and integrate easily into their new society.

Housing Access to Information

Materials and Sustainable Practices

1. Yeung, S. (2009). An Architecture of Belonging. Housing for New Canadians. [Masters thesis project, University of Waterloo].

2. Ahn, Mi Y. and Davis, Howard H. (2020). Sense of belonging as an indicator of social capital. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 40(7/8), 627-642.

3. Raffaeta, R. and Duff, C. (2013). Putting Belonging into Place: Place Experience and Sense of Belonging among Ecuadorian Migrants in an Italian Alpine Region. City & Society, 25(3), 328347.

4. Cantillon, Z. and Baker, S. (2022). Ketch Yorlye Daun Paradise: Sense of place, heritage and belonging in Norfolk Island’s Kingston and Arthur’s Vale Historic Area. Thesis Eleven, 172(1), 93-113.

5. Giralt, R. (2015). Socio-cultural invisibility and belonging: Latin American migrants in the north of England. Emotion, Space and Society, 15, 3-10.

6. Chaney, J. (2020). We’re From Here, Too: Identity and Belonging among 1.5- and SecondGeneration Latinxs in Nashville, Tennessee. The Latin Americanist, 64(3), 280-304.

7. Herslund, L. (2021). Everyday life as a refugee in a rural setting – What determines a sense of belonging and what role can the local community play in generating it? Journal of Rural Studies, 82, 233-241.

8. Sally, L. (2014). A search for a place to call home: Negotiation of home, identity and senses of belonging among new migrants from the People’s Republic of China (PRC) to New Zealand. Emotion, Space and Society, 10, 18-26.

9. Castañeda, E. (2018). A Place to Call Home: Immigrant Exclusion and Urban Belonging in New York, Paris, and Barcelona. Stanford University Press, 2018.

10. Smith, J. (2018). Explorations in Place Attachment. Routledge, 2019.

CITATIONS

1. Castañeda, H. (2019). Borders of Belonging: Struggle and Solidarity in Mixed-Status Immigrant Families. Stanford University Press.

2. Cebulko, K., & Silver, A. (2016). Navigating DACA in Hospitable and Hostile States: State Responses and Access to Membership in the Wake of Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals. Sage Journals.

3. Durrett, C., & McCamant, K. (1988). Cohousing: A Contemporary Approach to Housing Ourselves. Ten Speed Press.

4. Fenster, T. (2014). Memory and Place in Participatory Planning. Taylor & Francis.

5. García, A., & Schmalzbauer, L. (2017). Placing Assimilation Theory: Mexican Immigrants in Urban and Rural America. Sage Journals.

6. Giralt, M. (2015). Socio-Cultural Invisibility and Belonging: Latin American Migrants in the North of England. Elsevier.

7. Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Random House.

8. MASS Design Group. (2024). “About.” https://massdesigngroup.org/about.

9. Mee, K., & Wright, S. (2009). Geographies of Belonging. Sage Journals.

10. Wellman, H. (2018). Theory of Mind: The State of the Art. European Journal of Developmental Psychology.