Venetian Corfu

Venetian Corfu: The Defenses of One Island Against the Ottoman Empire

Derek Shultz

ARTH 0495 Capstone Research Dr. Thomas Russo 2 December 2010

Shultz 1 Throughout history there has been the constant struggle between national powers and this struggle has almost always posed an offensive attack against a defensive stance. Themes such as domination and destruction have been tried and tested against survival and oppression all across the pages of history. There is commonly a struggle of one body of people to stay alive and earn their right to exist against a people exceeding their own natural boundaries in a conquest to control. Native tribes, city-states and small empires have been submerged in the wave of entities such as the Persians, the Romans, the British and the Nazis in a conflict of human nature and beliefs. During the Middle Ages a wave of Christianity forced itself into the east and in retaliation Islam pushed back to the west. These disputes between religions became a blanket over the real reason for war which was greed for wealth, land, and power. The Republic of Venice and its Christian values gained control of the Mediterranean Sea in the early thirteenth century. Two centuries of relative calm introduced the Islamic Ottoman Empire and its powerful conquest from Asia into Europe, Africa and the Venetian controlled Mediterranean. Innovations in military strategies, weaponry, and architecture introduced a new breed of warfare, both land and naval, between these two conflicting empires. Venetian defensive fortifications were considered to be superior in architectural design to any other. The Ottoman military force was one of the strongest ever seen in the world with advanced technology and strategy. As the Ottomans swept across the Mediterranean Sea they overtook all Venetian cities that stood in its way, except for one. The Venetian controlled island of Corfu stood as a last defense in the Mediterranean Sea before Venice. It was on this island that the Venetian fortifications finally stopped the Ottoman Empire attack and halted the spread of the Ottomans and Islam into the West. This conflict between these two world powers eventually led to the demise of both. The

Shultz 2 Republic of Venice did not see the end of the eighteenth century and the Ottoman Empire survived two more centuries to the early twentieth.

Research and analysis will be involved in this quest to explain the reasons for why Corfu succeeded in a feat that so many others could not accomplish. These methodologies will historically examine the expanses of both the Ottoman Empire and Republic of Venice to determine the origin of their conflict with each other. This historical research will also include a study of both offensive and defensive warfare strategies in the Middle Ages that were employed by both empires. The intent of this history is to provide a context to pull from when examining the more detailed analysis of the specific battles. A comparative methodology will study the Venetian fortification of Nicosia on the island of Cyprus that was defeated by the Ottomans in order to better understand the components that led to the success of Corfu against its multiple sieges, and specifically the siege of 1716. This will include a detailed look at the islandâ€&#x;s history, population, landscape, and architecture of its fortification to determine their similarities and differences. Lastly, will be an exploration of the final siege of Corfu and a detailed narrative discussing where key moments occurred that ultimately led to success for the citizens of the island and the Republic of Venice as a whole. This methodology is meant to examine the importance of this time in history and explore the importance of architectural fortification in life and war. Less than a century before the fall of the Republic of Venice their establishment on the island of Corfu stood as a last defense between the East and the West; however, its success was not simply a result of the people defending it, but also the setting and architectural design of the fortification.

The Republic of Venice began like many empires do with a single city. This city was Venice and as the Western Roman Republic dwindled in power a group of smaller villages,

Shultz 3 called lagoons, joined together and elected its first official ruler and the generally accepted date of its birth is in the year 452 CE.1 Through well established leadership the Republic gained its independence in the first decade of the eighth century; however, it was still predominantly part of the Byzantine Empire. During the next few centuries the Venetians began to establish themselves through politics and military exploits against pirates and Slavic tribes. As the city expanded, it began to build into the modern city that we know today. Movement into the water required innovative structural solutions that are still marveled at in the present.2 A great national pride formed within the city and grew as the city expanded with every successful venture. The Venetians always pursued every endeavor with financial gain in mind. This lead to a dispute in 1084 CE where Venice was the loser in a conflict with the Normans, but maintained its financial and Christian drive as the Crusades began.3 William Roscoe Thayer describes,

Some historians regard the Crusades as an episode in that greatest of world dramas – the ancient conflict between Asia and Europe; the unending struggle, in which the wars between Greece and Persia, and between Rome and Carthage; the Saracenic conquest of Spain and Sicily; the Crusades; the expulsion of the Moors from Spain and the planting of the Turks in Europe, - marked each a crisis, but brought no conclusion.4

Venice participated in the Crusades from almost the very beginning in an ongoing attempt of the city to preserve its religion and gain power in land and finances. Venice also had the need to enter the Crusades because of rivals such as Pisa and Genoa who could not be allowed to

Shultz 4 advance beyond Venice. The fourth crusade and the sacking of Constantinople provided a crippling blow to the Byzantine Empire and gave birth to the Republic of Venice.5 Thayer elaborates on the success of the Venetians in the Crusade,

It not only gave them a great advantage over their old rivals, the Genoese and the Pisans, in ports where they traded in common, but also made them masters of a maritime empire which promised under their wiser rule to increase rapidly in wealth. It exalted their prestige as a nation, not merely of merchants and traders, but of warriors and rulers, in an epoch when success in war was the general criterion of worth.6

With the severely weakened Byzantine Empire, Venice gained territory across the northern Mediterranean Sea and gained control of many essential trading routes in the same area. A continuing conflict between the Venetians and Genoese continued for the next 1800 years as the last major battle between the two concluded in 1381 CE. Genoa gradually imploded from the inside and eventually gave into a far superior French rule.7 The Republic of Venice next turned its eye on threats from Italy itself, but eventually a threat from the east would require Veniceâ€&#x;s full attention. Its longstanding good relations with a now mobilizing Ottoman Empire would soon become unraveled.

The Ottoman Empire began to immerge in the east after the siege of Constantinople and the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Osman I led a group of emirates into the capital of Burza and began to expand an empire.8 Throughout the fourteenth century the Ottomans expanded in all directions moving into Asia, Europe, and the Middle East. The

Shultz 5 Ottomans, who were predominately Islam, did not attempt to convert the people living in their newly attained territories; rather they simply asked for allegiance to the ruler of the empire. Until the middle of the fifteenth century the Ottoman Empire continued to spread on all fronts by defeating foes such as Serbians to the north and Turks to the West.9 The ruler of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmed the Conqueror, made the decision to siege and capture Constantinople in order to continue conquests to the west and into the Mediterranean. In 1453 CE the Ottoman military successfully captured the city of Constantinople to gain control of the Black Sea and Bosphorus trade routes.10 The empire quickly converted the city to Islam by changing its name to Istanbul and redefining religious symbols, such as Hagia Sophia, to Muslim needs.11 The Ottoman Empire spread south into northern Africa as well as west into Greece and the Mediterranean Sea. This was Venetian territory and the first conflict between the two empires occurred in the early fifteenth century.

A period of oscillating war and peace began in the early fifteenth century between the Ottomans and the Venetians because both wanted control of the Aegean, Adriatic, Ionian and Mediterranean Seas. It was inevitable that both empires would collide based on their goals and ideals and their conflict would continue for three thousand years. Both land and sea battles commenced for half of a century and the Ottoman Empire gradually moved westward into Venetian territory. A peace treaty followed; however, war resumed at the start of the sixteenth century. The Republic of Venice began to spread itself thin from a military standpoint as conflicts arose in Milan and Romania while continuing with the Ottomans in the Mediterranean. In 1570 CE a big blow hit the Venetians as the Ottoman Empire laid full siege to Cyprus and overtook the fortified cities of Nicosia and Famagusta.12 This siege and massacre eliminated the Venetian occupation of the eastern Mediterranean and gave the Ottomans a firm

Shultz 6 stance in the Sea. Confrontations continued into the seventeenth century and in 1645 CE the Ottomans began another major advancement when they attempted to capture the island of Crete.

The Cretan War lasted a quarter of a century and eventually the Ottoman Empire was triumphant.13 In response to this major loss the Venetians commenced the Morean War that gave them possession of the Peloponnese Peninsula in Greece. These gains lasted until 1714 CE when the Ottoman Empire began a major campaign in the form of the last Turkish-Venetian War. The Ottomans captured strongholds on the Peloponnese such as Corinth and Nauplia. Soon after they moved further east and began overtaking establishments in the Ionian Islands. Finally the Ottoman Empire landed on Corfu, but after multiple failed attempts the Ottomans were forced to go no further west.14 This was the last conflict between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. The Venetians had been reduced to little more than a ruined city and it would be an empire for less than a century more then finally peacefully occupied by the French army. The Ottoman Empire had to divert its focus to its other warfronts in Europe and Africa after the defeat on Corfu. The empire did little expanding after this period of history and continued to be a world power into the early twentieth century. The conflict between the Venetians and Ottomans employed multiple military strategies, used a variety of common and innovative weapon styles and covered many different types of terrains. It introduced military organization, gunpowder, and effective maintenance of standing armies and navies. The military warfare exemplified in these confrontations is unique, but at the same time very telling of the world in the Middle Ages.

Military warfare within the Middle Ages is a broad, expansive, and general topic. It is much too broad to group into one category with one specific set of criteria. To better understand the military strategies employed by the Venetians and Ottomans, it is first necessary to examine the transformation of military organization throughout the Middle Ages. Since this era covered a

Shultz 7 geographical expanse ranging over all of Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa, military necessity varied from one location to another; therefore, military personnel also varied. The idea of what an army truly was underwent a great transformation throughout the Middle Ages. The start of the medieval period followed the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE. The militants of the Roman Empire were organized and fully devoted to a full time staff of warriors that were provided to the government as a form of taxation from the empire. Recruitment occurred all over the Roman Empire for capable men. These men would look at their recruitment as an honor and privilege which allowed for centuries of military success.15 Originally, throughout all geographic locations, the military personnel in the Early Middle Ages consisted of a two part system that combined professional warriors with part-time warriors who were all assigned to the ruler‟s army.16 The concepts of loyalty and honor were held in high regard and used as the main form of enrollment for these warriors. “A subject was expected to swear loyalty to the king, without receiving any reciprocal obligations.”17 This meant that assets such as land and money were not always the defining factor of military participation and military personnel fought until the very end for something that had strong meaning in their core. This system is commonly referred to as feudalism, but lost its use as a military strategy around the fifteenth century.18 At the center of each medieval army was the ruler‟s personal entourage who were dedicated to their leader and fought for glory, honor, and eventually the promise of a wealthy life. Added to this entourage were the recruits who fought to fulfill oaths of their families or pay a tax to their ruler. These recruits were usually called upon to fight in times of need and then sent home when the need was completed. Past the Early Middle Ages came a time when armies were composed of all men, age seventeen to sixty, who were eligible to fight. These men did not all

Shultz 8 answer directly to the supreme ruler, but rather fought under nobles who owed their oath to that ruler.19 Paid warriors began to gain resentment from not only the church but other, more loyal, warriors. These paid warriors could dictate their own terms of employment and essentially use money to get whatever they wished.20 Loyalty was becoming less important to the fighting army and the rulers were not only losing their money in paying them, but also the respect of their people.

The late medieval period introduced the idea of a large standing army that would constantly be employed and active in the military. Sizes would vary based on the necessities of the ruler, but all would be paid and controlled by the ruler and his high ranking officers.21 The large standing armies also introduced the concept of rankings within the military, many of which are still used in modern armies today. This provided discipline within the ranks and created incentive for warriors to better themselves and their careers for the greater good. Militants gained a certain elite status even though at times there were many non-militants fighting in the army.

Religious figures, slaves, merchants, and even women were allowed to fight in times of great need, but the status and fame always remained with the standing army.

The Republic of Venice became a well established entity in both politics and warfare; however, it kept both of these aspects separate in the form of a Republic. The Venetians established a unique and successful mindset that David Nicolle explains, “An almost modern sense of „national‟ identity unified the city and saved Venice from many of those class struggles which rent the rest of medieval Italy.”22 The Venetians were very focused on the profit of war and rarely pursued a battle that would not ultimately benefit the Republic financially.23 The Republic of Venice used a well developed feudal system that registered all able bodied males for reserved duty and maintained a smaller full-time active army and navy. A majority of these

Shultz 9 registered males owned weaponry, such as crossbows, swords, and javelins, which were surveyed for maintenance and a majority of these men were skilled in their military effectiveness.24 This created an efficient military strategy that gave purpose and pride to the entire population which also doubled as strength in numbers.

The Ottoman Empire also possessed strength in numbers, especially as its borders expanded further and further west. The Ottoman Turks began their campaign with a system based on military personnel being paid for their services in the form of raids and fiefs collected in the captured territories. As the Empire became more established it was transformed into a military staffed by foreign mercenaries on a payroll. This meant that a majority of the Ottoman military was assimilated from captured foreign empires and these foreigners were allowed to maintain their religious beliefs as long as they followed Ottoman rule.25 These military associates were skilled warriors who devoted their lives to the art of war in the hope to retire with great amounts of riches. Their skills included, but were not limited to; horseback riding, hand to hand combat, and they eventually gained sophisticated understanding of gunpowder and firearms. The development of gunpowder, originally in China during the ninth century, found its way to the Ottoman Empire around the thirteenth century and played a major role in the history of warfare from then on.26 The Ottoman Empire, more specifically all the people under the empireâ€&#x;s rule, were devoted to their ruler and owed their loyalty to him. Ground warfare; however, is only one aspect of both the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empireâ€&#x;s military assembly.

The navies of both empires were extremely important to the individual successes of each in their occupations of the Mediterranean. The Republic of Venice established itself as a military power around the ninth century and did this with a superior application of both ground and naval forces. The early history of the Venetian navy involved conflicts with pirates and other Italian

Shultz 10 powers such as Genoa, that were based on establishing control of trade routes between Europe, Africa, and Asia. Eventually Venice succeeded in taking control of these routes across the sea which gave them a significant strategic uplift of power and wealth. This strategic advantage created prosperity within the Republic for centuries and brought strong and valuable relations with the uprising Ottoman Empire.

Both Empires, throughout their naval expanses, used similar strategies and techniques that were based on superior size and strength. Standing fleets were not used by either Empire; rather boats would be used in the transport of goods and then called upon to fight when needed.

Merchant vessels would be able to quickly double as warships or military transports and each ship carried a base set of military equipment that was regulated by the government. 27 One item of weaponry was developed by the Byzantine Empire and later acquired by the Venetians and Ottomans. It was known as Greek Fire and basically used a propelled chemical that ignited on impact. This was obviously effective in destroying enemy ships quickly without threatening your ship or crew.28 These naval ships would also be fully stocked with sailors, especially in times of war, in order to be capable of victory in hand to hand combat between to vessels. Hand to hand combat through the art of boarding another ship was not used until later in medieval naval warfare. Initially, ships were designed after the Roman oar-propelled galley that was designed to sink an opposing ship with the use of an underwater battering ram mounted on each ship.29 As both the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire improved their naval fleets, ships increased in size and speed. This also changed the strategy of warfare that introduced the idea of capture over destruction. Warships were valuable commodities and hand to hand combat was used to overtake an enemy ship in order to assimilate it into the naval collective. David Nicolle describes Venetian naval warfare,

Shultz 11

Venetians used javelins as late as the 15th century, while other weapons included cooking pots filled with soap to make the enemyâ€&#x;s decks slippery, fire-grenades and blinding sulphur. Swimmers could even attack the foeâ€&#x;s hull, threatening to sink him- though in fact very few ships were actually sunk in medieval warfare.

Crossbows were now the main long-distance weapon, contact and boarding still deciding the final outcome.30

Battles on the open sea were the initial point of contact between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice before the land battles and sieges would begin.

Once the lines of naval and standing army fleets were broken through, then the siege of the fortification would transpire. Sieges were a vital aspect of medieval warfare and occurred all throughout the known world. The final stand of a city or an empire would occur at the citadel and surrounding fortification. This is where a battle would end and the victor would be the people who could outlast. In terms of the Venetians and the Ottomans it was really a one-sided battle. With the Republic of Venice on the decline at the hands of the expanding Ottoman Empire, it was a series of battles ending with the siege of many Venetian strongholds by Ottoman attackers. Throughout the medieval period there were a number of siege techniques and a variety of weapons developed for specific fortifications and castle designs; however, some constants were always in use. Towers and tunneling were constantly in and out of commission throughout the Middle Ages. These siege towers were armed with levels of soldiers protected by an outer covering and each had an adjustable draw bridge meant to attach the tower to the fortification. These towers lost their necessity as a direct means of access over walls with the

Shultz 12 introduction of trebuchets, incendiary ammo, and cannon fire. Tunneling was also a commonly practiced technique that only failed when rocks or a moat surrounded the fortificationâ€&#x;s exterior.

Tunneling avoided conflict outside the defensive walls and quickened the siege process.31 Siege weapons made dramatic changes throughout the period and evolved in both technology and ammunition. Throwing machines evolved and a counterweight system was constantly reinvented to gradually throw larger and larger stones over greater distances. Bows and javelins continued to have their place for closer ranged battles and swords and axes were still used in hand to hand combat. Incendiary ammo and chemical warfare was also introduced in the Middle Ages. This involved setting fire to almost all ammo, but also involved chemical strategies such as the application of Greek Fire.32 Cannon fire and gunpowder came later and led to increased distance that a siege could occur and increased thickness of fortification defenses.33 The Venetians and all other siege victims had the task of contending with this military strategy with usually limited resources and only had their architecture and military skill to protect them. It was this architecture and skill that would be put to the ultimate test during the sieges of the two Venetian islands of Cyprus and Corfu.

Located in the far eastern Mediterranean Sea is the unique island of Cyprus and it has been stricken by conflict and grief throughout most of its history. Tim Boatswain summarizes the historical significance of the island,

Cyprus lies on an axis of movement, both north-south and east-west. It stands at the crossroads of three continents, Europe, Asia ad Africa. It is, therefore, hardly surprising that throughout history the major powers in the region have taken an interest in controlling and settling the island. Its strategic position has always

Shultz 13 ensured that Cyprus has played a key role in history, but it has also resulted in the island becoming a victim of othersâ€&#x; power politics.34

The inhabited beginnings of this island date back almost eleven thousand years and this inhabitation continued for thousands of years with numerous tribes and peoples. By 709 BCE the island was beginning to establish its written history and it falls to its first outside ruler in the form of the Assyrian Empire. The fall of the Assyrian Empire in the fifth century BCE led to brief Egyptian and Phoenician occupations before the eventual occupation by the Persian Empire. During the Persian conquest of Greece, Cyprus became a valuable asset in the Mediterranean and was constantly volleyed back and forth between Greek and Persian forces.

Alexander the Great collected the island for a brief while, during his reign, until his untimely death in which case the Ptolemaic Age began. Cyprus remained under this Egyptian rule until 30 BCE when the Roman Empire gained enough power to complete their conquest of the Mediterranean Sea. The Roman occupation had similar results for the island that the Ptolemies provided which included a high level of wealth and prosperity. The Romans added infrastructure, created valuable shipping connections, and provided certain autonomy for the residents of the island. A series of Jewish revolts ravaged the island for years, mainly due to the lack of military occupation by the Romans. These eventually died down and the history of the island continued into the Middle Ages.

The fourth century introduced Christianity to Cyprus as the Roman Empire split and the city of Constantinople was established as a world power in the east.35

Shultz 14 It is not known how strong the Christian population in Cyprus was when Constantine adopted Christianity, but it is clear once it was the official religion of the Empire the whole island was quickly converted.36

During the Crusades of the next one thousand years came multiple possession exchanges of Cyprus. It was mainly used as a strategic military position for the Christian Crusaders because of its proximity to the battlefields of the east. After the Fourth Crusade siege of Constantinople in 1204 CE the island was given to the Republic of Venice as part of an imperial division for those empires involved in the Crusades. During their three hundred year occupation the Venetians fortified the cities of Nicosia, (the capital city of Cyprus) Famagusta, and Kyrenia with the looming threat of the Ottoman Empire to their north and east. As this imperial Ottoman threat grew, it set its sights to the west in a conquest of the Mediterranean Sea. The first obstacle in this path of dominance was the Venetian occupied island of Cyprus and these two entities clashed in the year 1570 CE.37 “The geographical distance of Cyprus from the mainland of Greece always leaves the island more likely to be subject to the powers of the Near East.�38 This fact rang even more true with the location of Venice being at the extreme northern point of the Adriatic Sea, further west than Greece from the island. The extreme distance of Cyprus from its Venetian motherland left it to fend for itself in many situations with little hope of reinforcements from its navy or army. The Cypriots received their initial sign of the wars to come in the first month of 1570 CE with a message from Constantinople claiming the declaration of war by the Ottomans on the Venetians.

The Cypriots, believing that the Ottomans would attack the island from the east near the port city of Famagusta, focused their attention to that city and its defenses. The Cyprus military planned

Shultz 15 to stage its forces at the eastern coast of the island to create an element of intimidation and provide local support in the event of an attack. The Ottomans; however, arrived on the island from the west and proceeded around the southern coast with little to no resistance from the native inhabitants. The original battle plan of the Ottoman attackers matched the preconceived idea of the Cypriots which was an attack on Famagusta, but two Cypriot traitors informed the Ottoman general of Nicosiaâ€&#x;s weaknesses in defense and organization, thus changing the generalâ€&#x;s plans.39 To still maintain the appearance of an attack on Famagusta, the Ottomans sent a regiment of foot soldiers toward the city while the remaining military forces marched toward Nicosia.

Upon reaching the city in July of 1570 CE, the Ottomans found no resistance and began to position batteries on hilltops around the perimeter of the fortified walls. [1.1] These hills; however, were too far away from the outer walls which resulted in little damage being done by the cannon fire of the attackers. The Ottomans moved closer to the counterscarps (exterior walls of a protective ditch) and constructed four forts that proceeded to attack the four southern bastions (fortified projections off of the main fortification wall) flanking each gate on both sides of the city. Battery from this distance also provided little progress in the siege because of the well built fortification of the Venetian walls. Once again, the Ottomans pushed closer to the city and established positions adjacent to the counterscarp which actually provided a shield against the defensive weaponry of the besieged within the fortification. Musket fire from the Ottomans toward the Venetians created sufficient defense while the Ottomans began deconstruction of the city walls.40

Shultz 16 They were already so well lodged in the ditch that they began to undermine and pluck down the walls, and there remained no way to hinder them from entering the town.41

The besieged Cypriots decided to mount a resistance against the Ottoman siege. At first they were able to remove the attackers from their forts by the application of brute force and began to push them away from the city, but an error in military strategy and communication marooned the defenders outside the city walls where they were quickly defeated. After this defeat, the Cypriots barricaded themselves within the city walls. The Ottomans eventually breached the outer fortified walls and southern bastions in September of 1570 CE which led to a full onslaught of attack on the interior defenses. Bastions which had maintained defenses from the exterior were suddenly attacked from behind, within the city, and eventually they all fell to the Ottomans. The Ottoman Turks brutally massacred the remaining citizens and pillaged all of the treasures held within the cityâ€&#x;s stores.42 With Nicosia conquered there was only Famagusta standing between the Ottomans and total control of the island. The Ottoman soldiers marched on Famagusta and experienced one of the most intense battles in history, but the city and island finally fell in 1571 CE. The natural landscape of Cyprus is first and foremost an island which requires a radial defensive perimeter. Its terrain includes a central mountain range that lowers in elevation toward the island extremities. A second mountain range hugs the northern coast and a third is located to the west. A series of bays surround the island and a large peninsula juts out at the northeast corner. Hills and valleys occur across the landscape in combination with rivers and lakes. Three fortified cities including Nicosia, Famagusta, and Kyrenia are scattered across the island along

Shultz 17 with smaller villages and settlements. These three cities had unique fortifications and site development, but all three ultimately fell to their Ottoman attackers. The failure of the Nicosia walls and defenses was primarily a result of failed military strategy, poor architectural design and inappropriate site planning.

When Cyprus was first obtained by the Venetians, they saw Nicosia as an indefensible city and were faced with the choice of building proper defenses or moving the capital to Famagusta with its sea access. Nicosia is situated in the center of Cyprus which poses a problem in terms of resupply and shipping capabilities. The city does have access to a major river, but this still adds more transfer time as ships must navigate the narrow channel. During the eighteenth century siege an inability for resupply vessels to reach the defending citizens only added to the superiority of the Ottomans over the Venetians. Another posed complication for the fortification design and defense was a series of hills. These hills were originally against the city‟s exterior; however, when the fortification was developed it was intentionally built away from these hills which reduced the city‟s size by almost half.43 This ultimately became a wise design decision because during the Ottoman attack the distance from the cannons to the walls was too great to cause severe damage. The Venetians eventually decided to maintain Nicosia as the island‟s capital city and thus proceeded to construct its walls.

The Nicosia fortification design was based on a theory of a Venetian Utopian City. Panos Leventis explains, “Nicosia was the first city to fuse an ideal city plan with a bastioned fortress…this urban and military experiment was developed with theoretical and philosophical consideration.”44 A new bastioned radial structure was constructed around a central point within the city. [1.2] The anthropomorphic strategy of applying the proportions of the human body to an ideal fortified city were the main concern of the Venetian builders in Nicosia. This structure was

Shultz 18 built just behind a manmade moat that used diverted water from the river that passed through the center of the town.45 Eleven bastions were placed around this fortified wall and each one nearly resembled the next with a pentagonal-shape and rounded orillons that covered setback flanks.

[1.3] These bastions stand about three hundred feet above the curtain walls and are spaced roughly one thousand feet apart. The fortified walls were not actually completely stone because of a technique the Venetians used to prevent cannon fire damage. The top portion of the wall was covered by grass turf and the stone portions of the wall were in filled with dirt. [1.4] This earthy material would absorb the force of the cannon ball and would prevent damage from incendiary ammunition. The moat that surrounds the city is about three hundred feet wide; however, the Ottoman attackers were able to easily divert the riverâ€&#x;s water supply and drain the manmade ditch. The excess dirt blown away from the walls by cannonball impact was used to fill in the empty moat and this unforeseen failure in the fortificationâ€&#x;s design only worsened the Cypriot situation. The lack of communication between the design of the new fortification walls and the existing town led to a city that stood in the way of a proper city defense. Roads and buildings created barricades between soldiers and the areas of the wall most in need of support.46 There were multiple unfortunate and unforeseen incidents that contributed to the ultimate demise of not only the city of Nicosia, but the entire island of Cyprus. The design flaws that arose in the attempt to build an ideal city combined with improper site management, poor defensive military command, and a well supplied enemy led to the ultimate downfall of Nicosia. Two hundred years were needed for the Venetians to learn the lessons of Cyprus and construct the fortifications of an island called Corfu.

Closer to the Greek mainland just off its western shores lies the island of Corfu. This Greek island traces its history back into Paleolithic times around 50,000 years ago when the

Shultz 19 island first became inhabited. Corfu was established, politically, around 734 BCE by the Corinthians of Corinth on the Peloponnese of mainland Greece. “The Corinthians brought with them public administration, law and institutions, as we also know of the existence of a parliament and a people‟s assembly.”47 With aid from Corinth the Corfiots developed an impressive naval fleet that ultimately led to the extended and wealthy success of the island.

Corfu fought for its independence from Corinth through out the Archaic and Classical Periods.

The island not only faced its mother city, but also defended attacks by Athens, Sparta, and other Greek city-states. Through it all, Corfu expanded its fleet and flourished in wealth due to deserved independence.48 Corfu was an important participant in the Peloponnesian Wars as its naval fleets were valuable assets to all who were involved. This importance led to further acquisition of wealth as feuding city-states fought financially for Corfiot aid.

The history of Corfu continued in this conflict ridden pattern until the introduction of the Roman Empire. Corfu was the first Greek city-state to fall under Roman rule; however, peace and security were all that occurred for most of the six centuries of occupation.49 Corfu underwent the conversion to Christianity late in the Roman occupation. This was met with obvious resistance by the native Corfiots, but eventually Christianity prevailed. Corfu experienced its first major military attack at the hands of the Ostrogoths. Even with Roman assistance, Gothic raids destroyed most of cities on the island and made way to a newly built city to which the island gained its name.50 As the city of Constantinople gained power and grew into the head of the Byzantine Empire, Corfu underwent changes in political and military organization. This structure resembled the Roman Republic and it remained unchanged for centuries. There is little known about Corfu throughout the early Middle Ages. It continued to grow in the Byzantine Empire and

Shultz 20 maintained a relatively low profile. Its navy continued to be one of the best in the world and is mentioned numerous times in expeditions of the Byzantines against enemies.51 The benefits that Venice received from the fall of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade were not limited to Cyprus, but also Corfu and numerous other Mediterranean locales which gave them control of valuable shipping lanes across the seas.52 A large amount of disapproval and revolt continued for the next century, but eventually the stability and security provided by the Venetians was accepted and instilled in 1386 CE when a sound arrangement was completed between the Corfiots and the Venetians. 53

Venice had the obligation to defend the island and for this purpose they built the magnificient complex of the cityâ€&#x;s defences which over the centuries proved impregnable. The local nobility in turn had to supply serfs for ship or castle building, food for the Army, and the Navy, money, as well as equip four ships of the battle line in cases of emergency.54

Corfu spent a majority of its Venetian occupation in conflict with the multiple enemies of Venice. These foes included Genoa, the Ottoman Empire, and the Normans; however, Corfu never fell and was constantly refortified by the Venetians. In the early seventeenth century a series of peasant revolts tested the integrity of the Corfiots; however, it was not until 1716 when they would face the greatest challenge in their history.

The siege of Corfu in 1716 was instigated by the Ottoman Empire on their conquest west across the Mediterranean Sea. It is noted in history as the last expanse west by the Ottoman Empire and marks an important victory for Christianity against the spread of Islam. The defense

Shultz 21 of Corfu became a battle between not just Venice, but all of Europe as they attempted to preserve the Western way of life. The Turkish naval fleet arrived in the Straits of Corfu on the 5th of July, 1716. They were met by a fully prepared defense that included Venetian, German, Slavonian, Italian, and Spanish militants and citizens. A multitude of Ottoman Turks made their way onto the defenseless points of the island along the south. The naval fleets continued their battle off shore as the Ottomans advanced on the fortified city of Corfu.55 The Ottomans knew of the impregnable fortress that the Venetians had constructed around their citadel. Therefore, rather than attacking the walls directly, they exploited the one weakness of the Corfiot fortification. A few hundred feet to the west of the fortified walls of the city are two landmasses, Mounts Abraham and St. Saviour, that tower above the low-lying city. [2.1] The Venetians had failed to address these two landmasses in terms of defenses, and even though they attempted a hand to hand defense, eventually the Ottomans gained the valuable elevated position.56 From this location the Ottoman invaders could attack not only the interior of the fortified city, but also both bays that flank its exterior walls. The vicious battery ensued,

‌instead of breaching the fortifications, they poured such a fire of shot and shell into the town, that the greater part of it was soon destroyed; and the inhabitants were driven to take refuge in the citadel and the subterraneous passages which communicated with that fortress.57

This strategy was due to the fact that the fortress could not be taken by typical siege methods and required a more violent bombardment to force surrender. With the city under heavy attack the civilians were forced to retreat to the citadel. This purely military establishment was a second

Shultz 22 level of defense that was meant to provide a safe haven should the exterior walls become unsafe.

Throughout this entire ordeal from both land and sea the design and construction of the exterior fortifications stood and gave the inhabitants an opportunity to strategize for a counterattack.

Sneaking out of concealed exits in the fortification gave the Corfiots the advantage to surprise the Ottomans and force them off of their elevated positions. The Ottomans, after losing their offensive position and now in a defensive stance, also learned of a defeat that their troops had experienced in Hungary. This demoralizing series of events provoked their general to launch one final attack on the fortified city of Corfu. Now on the 17th of August, 1716 the entire Ottoman army attacked the walls of the city only to be met by a defense strengthened with superior architecture and the will to live. The inhabitants of the city utilized their fortification to withstand the attack and ultimately launch counter measures that pushed the Ottomans into a retreat. Only after a torrential downpour of rain through the night and the appearance of Venetian reinforcements the next morning did the remaining Ottoman forces finally leave the island. What remained in their camp were discovered later that day and included tents, cannons, weapons, and some of their wounded.58 Though the island survived, the Venetians had to retreat to the west as their empire began to crumble from the toils of war. Eventually the Republic fell in the last decade of the eighteenth century during the French conquest and occupation.

The success of this Corfiot resistance did not solely depend on one aspect, but rather was a collaboration of human strength, architectural superiority, landscape, weaponry, and military strategy. Two of these factors, architecture and landscape, were brilliantly utilized to their full advantage based on ingenuity that combined the given site with military architecture. The island of Corfu is exactly that, an island. Similar to Cyprus, its defenses must be maintained in 360 degrees while addressing both the land and the sea in varying elevations. Corfu is a much smaller

Shultz 23 island than Cyprus which allowed for better communication between cities and a more vigilant protection of the coastal areas. Quentin Hughes describes the landscape of Corfu,

Coming upon the island from the south one sees the land rear up like the point of a Venetian bastion or the prow of some large ironclad. A long narrow peninsula runs inland to a point about three quarters of the way to the main town, where a ridge, running from coast to coast at a height of about fifteen hundred feet, straddles the peninsula. An enemy landing near this south tip would be forced to pursue a long march up the peninsula and over the ridge before he could attack the town of Corfu‌The northern part is mountainous, rising to over two and a half thousand feet‌Projecting into the middle of the bay is a small peninsula upon which stands the citadel and original habitations of Corfu‌Immediately to the south, rivers divulge into a large area of marshy ground leaving only a finger of land for the coastal strip.59

On the west coast of the island stands a steep rocky hill that supports the Angelokastro fortification. This structure has withstood the test of time and was constantly added to and refined since its Byzantine construction. This structure served as a center of commerce during peace times and a shelter for the island during war. The elevated position of the fortress gave a clear vantage point across the island and provided superior impregnability. The terrain on three of its sides was impassable rock wall. The fourth side, supporting the main gate, was protected by a circular tower.60 The site of this fortress combined with subtle architectural details provided a stronghold that provided sight, defense, and a symbol of strength for its people.

Shultz 24 Looking more toward the capital of the island is the fortified city of Corfu Town, located on the islandâ€&#x;s eastern shore. A natural peninsula became the main site for this first city building plan which then expanded westward into the mainland. [2.2] Quentin Hughes also further describes the terrain of this landmass,

The short rocky peninsula of the citadel thrust out into the sea was both too steep and too confined to provide an adequate platform for urban development on any reasonable scale‌the Corfu citadel was too small to hold a prosperous town, To some extent this was an advantage, for it separated out the functions, prevented a mixing of civil and military activities, and provided opportunities for a last ditch stand in a purely military citadel.61

A manmade barrier, in the form of a moat, separated the peninsula from the outer city. [2.3] Another fortified wall surrounded the outer city and created the first line of defense against a land attack. Four gates were placed along this fortified exterior with bastions, and these bastions were essential to Venetian design not only because they provided protection, but they added an extra layer of fortified wall between city and attacker. 62 [2.4] The Corfu Town peninsula was regarded by many as an impenetrable fortress by both land and sea. Surrounded by walls and water, this fortification separates two bays and contains two elevated positions adorned by fortified citadels. An eye-witness account describes the site by sea,

Pietro della Valle, who visited the island in 1614, gives the following description of it: „Our vessel arrived at the port of Corfu; about which the Venetians have

Shultz 25 constructed, on roads which frown defiance, some very strong fortresses‌ The only thing that I found remarkable was the fortress, which is defended more by nature than by art, and is impregnable.â€&#x;63

A wooden bridge crossing the manmade moat is the only land access into the city and is heavily fortified by a series of bastions and towers with the sole intent of protecting the main gate. [2.5] This bridge has a section that can be drawn up in times of attack. Other towers that look toward the water, protected a secondary entrance toward the galley port, and supported the naval fleet on the Straits of Corfu.64 The bastions placed on adjacent sides to the main gate provided a method of crossfire which eliminated blind spots and provided a wide range of ground for the defenders to protect. Window designs were extremely innovative in terms of their size, position, and uses. Thin slits provided a small target for attackers to hit, but also provided normal views for the defenders concealed behind. These windows around a tower could provide a panoramic view for a defensive soldier, while keeping them perfectly protected. Structurally the fortifications were equally advanced in their building technique because the upper half of the fortified wall was filled with grass turf to help absorb cannon fire.65 This building technique is similar to the technique used in Nicosia; however, on Corfu lessons were learned for a more solid earth construction and any displaced dirt could not benefit the enemy as it did in the moat of Nicosia.

The area within this fortified peninsula, the citadel, was purely designed for military purpose. Two hills were strategically used as the sites for fortresses in order to perch defenses above both the land and the sea. With these elevated positions, the Venetians could have a strategic advantage over its enemies in both the range of their views, the range of their weapons,

Shultz 26 and the solid protection of their fortresses. Quentin Hughes gives a brief description, “On the twin hills of the citadel the Venetians placed casemates and half-moon batteries, typical of the heavy gun platforms they used elsewhere.”66 Between these two fortresses were a series of tunnels that could provide safe passage for inhabitants in case of emergency. These tunnels were efficient and many of them provided secret access beyond the city walls.67 The technology employed by the Venetians in the creation of this protective military shell on Corfu was essential to their successful stand against not only the Ottoman attack of the eighteenth century, but other numerous sieges by multiple foes. No matter the strength of the defenders or the strategy of their military leaders, if the fortification did not hold, then the defense did not succeed.

Less than a century before the fall of the Republic of Venice their establishment on the island of Corfu stood as a last defense between the East and the West; however, its success was not simply a result of the people defending it, but also the setting and architectural design of the fortification. In the comparison between the fortification of Nicosia on the island of Cyprus and the fortification of Corfu on the island of Corfu it is evident that there are key issues that contributed to one‟s success and the other‟s failure. Military personnel, military strategy, landscape, and architectural design were all factors in both Ottoman sieges. Both Corfu and Nicosia had inhabitants ready and willing to fight and die for their right to survive. Their spirits were not the issue; however, their military strategies did have some dissimilarity. On Nicosia the Cypriots initiated a counterattack that would push back the attacking Turks, but this ended in disaster because of disloyalty among the military ranks and miscommunication between regiments. Corfu had a well orchestrated counterattack that was successful in repelling an intense Ottoman battery.

Shultz 27 The important difference between these two sieges was the landscape and architecture of the fortifications. The landscape of Cyprus was misused by the Venetians in their attempt to create an ideal city. The landlocked city with its river access cannot compare to the well developed peninsula of Corfu that produced a separation of military and civilian fortifications.

Corfuâ€&#x;s position on the water also provided an adequate source for reinforcement and naval protection with their superior Venetian navy. Corfu also used its mountainous terrain and smaller island size to gain strategic elevated positions that were nearly unattainable from the lower elevations. The fortifications themselves were essential tools for the people of these islands to even stand a chance against their Ottoman foes. Nicosia had a symmetrical design that was inappropriate for its terrain, and also for the city it protected. The technological advancements of this Venetian fortification were also misused in a way that gave an advantage to the attacker when they were in close proximity to the walls. On Corfu the fortified walls segregated different parts of the city to provide layers of protection throughout. The same design advancements were used in the Corfiot bastions and walls; however, they were used appropriately to hinder the success of the attacking forces. Corfu had two centuries of fortification development to perfect what Nicosia failed to achieve. This ability to adapt and evolve with their enemy allowed the Venetians to achieve a success that had eluded them for centuries, which was a military victory against the Ottoman Empire. There is no doubt that the architectural decisions made on the island of Corfu led to its successful stand as not only a fortification of the town, but a fortification of western civilization.

The siege of 1716 in Corfu has not been looked at, by all historians, to be the stopping point of the Ottoman Empire in its relentless move to the west. This is because the Ottomans, in the same year, suffered a debilitating loss in Hungary which is identified as the beginning of the end for the Empire. This loss in Hungary obviously had lasting effects on the Ottoman Empire; however, had the Ottomans captured Corfu they would have had easy access to Venice and complete control of the Mediterranean Sea. This control would have translated into valuable resources and

Shultz 28 a revamped military with the acquisition of the Venetian naval fleets. Had the Islamic Ottomans expanded further west, there would have been a dramatically different religious landscape as most of the Mediterranean would be Muslim and the religious battleground of today would be located in Western Europe rather than the Middle East. It is obvious that there were dramatic consequences involved with the stand of Corfu which not only affected the Mediterranean, but the world and the history that we know today.

Shultz 29 Images: ________________________

1.1

Nicosia. JPG. http://warandgame.com/2008/03/28/nicosia/ (Nov. 30, 2010)

1.3

Perbellini, Gianni. "The Venetian defences of Cyprus." Fort 16, (1988): 7-44. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 13

Shultz 30

1.4

Bowman, Glen. City Walls in Nicosia. 2006. JPG. http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BF: City_walls_in_Nicosia.jpg (Nov. 30, 2010)

Shultz 31

2.1

Hughes, Quentin. "The Defences of Corfu." Fort 14, (1986): 17-38. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 19

Shultz 32

2.2

Hughes, Quentin. "The Defences of Corfu." Fort 14, (1986): 17-38. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 18

Shultz 33

2.3 Debby. Corfu, Old Town moat. Aug. 18, 2009. JPG. http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/u7H8DKrKU13ZotJU60UcYw. (Nov. 30, 2010)

Shultz 34

2.4

Hughes, Quentin. "The Defences of Corfu." Fort 14, (1986): 17-38. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 18

Shultz 35

2.5

Hughes, Quentin. "The Defences of Corfu." Fort 14, (1986): 17-38. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 22

Shultz 36

1.2

Leventis, Panos. “Projecting Utopia: The Refortification of Nicosia, 1567-70.” CHORA 5: Intervals in the Philosophy of Architecture. ed. Alberto Perez-Gomez and Stephen Parcell. (Montréal: McGill-Queens, 2007) 227-258. 247

1.3

Perbellini, Gianni. "The Venetian defences of Cyprus." Fort 16, (1988): 7-44. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 13

Shultz 37

1.4

Bowman, Glen. City Walls in Nicosia. 2006. JPG. http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BF: City_walls_in_Nicosia.jpg (Nov. 30, 2010)

Shultz 38

2.1

Hughes, Quentin. "The Defences of Corfu." Fort 14, (1986): 17-38. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 19

Shultz 39

2.2

Hughes, Quentin. "The Defences of Corfu." Fort 14, (1986): 17-38. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 18

Shultz 40

2.3 Debby. Corfu, Old Town moat. Aug. 18, 2009. JPG. http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/u7H8DKrKU13ZotJU60UcYw. (Nov. 30, 2010)

Shultz 41

2.4

Hughes, Quentin. "The Defences of Corfu." Fort 14, (1986): 17-38. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 18

Shultz 42

2.5

Hughes, Quentin. "The Defences of Corfu." Fort 14, (1986): 17-38. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010). 22

Shultz 43 Annotated Bibliography: ________________________ Barrett, Matt. Corfu Town. Greek Travel. http://www.greecetravel.com/corfu/town.html.

(Nov. 22, 2010) This website provided a nice description of the town of Corfu on the island of Corfu, Greece. It seemed to be meant for present day travelers and provided good details for the tourism of the town. It also provided accurate locations and documentation of some key historic sites.

Boatswain, Tim. A Traveller’s History of Cyprus. Northampton, Massachusetts: Interlink Books, 2005.

This book gave a thorough description of the entire history of the island of Cyprus. All key events of the island were addressed and the history spanned from the first appearance of man on the island to 2005. Political, military, and cultural aspects are all addressed in appropriate detail.

Bradbury, Jim. The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare. London: Routledge, 2004.

This is a book that analyzed the history of military warfare in the centuries consisting of the Middle Ages. Military strategy ranging from soldier organization, to naval composition and siege tactics were all discussed with constant referral to the evolving nature of military technology. This book covered a wide range of geographical area, but it did not break down military points based on empire or century.

Brown, Horatio F. Venice: an Historical Sketch of the Republic. New York: G. P. Putnam‟s Sons, 1893.

This literature was a thorough investigation of the history of the Republic of Venice. It accurately followed all aspects of the history from political and cultural to military.

Military and political entities were discussed often and a large amount of contextual evidence was supplied to establish the reader in the text.

Climis, Charles C. The Illustrated History of Corfu. Corfu: Charles C. Climis, 1994.

This book both described in word and image the history of the island of Corfu, Greece from its primitive establishment to its present day setting as part of the Greek culture.

This history included quotations and valuable sources that give first hand accounts of the island throughout history.

Cobham, Claude DeLaval. The Sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta in Cyprus. London: St. Vincent‟s Press, 1899.

Shultz 44 This book was written in a way that was easy to follow and provided an exciting account of the two most important sieges on the island of Cyprus. Details are provided that allow the reader to understand and appreciate the people, architecture, and strategy of both the attackers and the attacked.

Edwards, Nick and John Gill. The Rough Guide to Corfu. London: Penguin Books, 2003.

This book examined the island of Corfu in an in depth and satisfying manner. The book breaks the island down into sections that look at the history, terrain, ecology, wildlife and language. With this analysis comes a unique point of view on the island that is not focused solely on history, people or architecture. Rather it focused on the island itself and what makes up the sole of the island.

Faroqhi, Suraiya. The Ottoman Empire: A Short History. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2009.

This book was up to date and easy to read as it undertook the task of presenting the history of the Ottoman Empire. All historical aspects are covered from conception to deletion with acute attention paid to the minds behind both political and military decisions.

Forbes-Boyd, Eric. In Crusader Greece: A Tour of the Castles of the Morea. New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 1964.

This book was written as the author‟s personal inspection and analysis of fortifications and castles within the Peloponnese of Greece. Architectural details were analyzed and this became helpful when analyzing the fortifications of Corfu and Cyprus. The book however focused on structures all throughout the Middle Ages which was too broad for the purposes of the paper.

Horst de la Croix. “Military Architecture and the Radial City Plan in Sixteenth Century Italy.” The Art Bulletin 4 (1960): 263-290. Accessed September 24, 2010. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3047915 This essay explored both the scientific and artistic qualities of the radial city plan in both art and architecture. It examined the purpose of a radial city as a theoretical solution to the perfect city. This helped to establish motive in the design of Nicosia and the circular fortification approach.

Hughes, Quentin. "The Defences of Corfu." Fort 14, (1986): 17-38. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010).

This essay was essential to the understanding of the Corfu fortifications for multiple reasons. It included valuable images of the Venetian fortresses and combined first hand accounts of the island that further enhanced the author‟s analysis. Historical context was

Shultz 45 provided to add layers of data to the discussion that made for a revealing and informative piece.

Jervis, Henry Jervis-White. History of the Island of Corfu and of the Republic of the Ionian islands. London: Colburn and Co. Publishers, 1852.

This book revealed the conflicted history of the Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece. It focused on occupations ranging from the native Corinthians to the outside influence of the Venetians and the French. This history extended until the nineteenth century as the Ionian Islands were put under Greek occupation. Ultimately it gave a broader context for Corfu with an analysis of the islands bordering it.

Kazantzakis, Nikos. Journey to the Morea. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1965.

This book was another analysis of the Medieval fortifications within the Greek Peloponnese. It provided details of fortress locations and design details which provided a more detailed context to relate to both Corfu and Cyprus.

Keen, Maurice. Medieval Warfare: A History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

This book was another important find for the purpose of this paper. It provided a detailed contextual analysis of Medieval warfare through every aspect. Foot soldiers, naval fleets, siege warfare, and fortification design were all analyzed under a veil of constantly evolving weaponry. Everything from early metal work through the invention of gunpowder was all covered as a basis for military evolution.

Leventis, Panos. “Projecting Utopia: The Refortification of Nicosia, 1567-70.” CHORA 5: Intervals in the Philosophy of Architecture. ed. Alberto Perez-Gomez and Stephen Parcell. (Montréal: McGill-Queens, 2007) 227-258.

This essay provided another vantage point to the Venetian radial city plan which enhanced the overall understanding of the motives and decisions of the builder. The writing outlined the artistic and anthropomorphic reasoning behind the “Ideal City” and analyzed the fortification of Nicosia as a specific example.

Miller, William. “The Ionian Islands Under Venetian Rule.” The English Historical Review 70 (1903): 209-239. Accessed September 8, 2010. http://www.jstor.org/stable/549461.

This was another analysis of the Venetian occupation of the Ionian Islands which further emphasized design ideas and the importance of Corfu as a strategic military position.

Corfu was revealed as the most important island of the Ionian Sea and it was established as the last strongpoint between Venice and the Mediterranean.

Miller, William. “The Last Venetian Islands in the Aegean.” The English Historical Review 86 (1907): 304-308. Accessed September 24, 2010.

Shultz 46 http://www.jstor.org/stable/550570 This essay looks at another sea off of the Greek coast which is the Aegean and provides a context of fortification and inhabitation in the Venetian civilization. The information from this writing showed Venetian design decisions throughout the Middle Ages and created a link in fortifications throughout the Mediterranean Sea area.

Miller, William. “The Venetian Revival in Greece, 1684-1718.� The English Historical Review 35 (1920): 343-366. Accessed September 24, 2010. http://www.jstor.org/stable/551502 Nicholson, Helen. Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of War in Europe 300-1500.

New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004 This book provided a theory behind Medieval warfare that was not touched on so much in other works. Battle strategies and military operation were highly influential in warfare at this time and this book touches on this very well. Historical context is consistently provided and the writing is easy to follow and interpret.

Nicolle, David. The Venetian Empire 1200-1670. Oxford, Great Britain: Osprey Publishing, 989.

It was important to establish a context for the reader to follow throughout this paper and that was accomplished through the histories of the two conflicting empires. This book gave a detailed look at the early history of the Venetian Empire which included its participation in the Crusades and its establishment as a naval power on the Mediterranean.

Nossov, Konstantin. Ancient and Medieval Siege Weapons: A Fully Illustrated Guide to Siege Weapons and Tactics. The Lyons Press, Konstantin Nossov, 2005.

To fully understand the effectiveness of the Corfiot fortifications and the ineffectiveness of the Cypriot fortifications it was important to understand the technology they were against. This book gave straightforward and detailed analysis of siege warfare including weapons and strategy for the siege. It was easy to read and gave an unbiased review of military strategy.

Perbellini, Gianni. "The Venetian defences of Cyprus." Fort 16, (1988): 7-44. Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010).

The defenses of Cyprus were very unique and it was necessary to gather a wide variety of research in order to fully understand the details of the fortification design. This essay gave a more detailed analysis of the design decisions within the city walls that were militarily related rather than an analysis of the radial city plan. This writing gave a perspective of the built form as a result of the theory that was discovered in other readings.

Shultz 47

Piperno, Roberto. "Venetian Fortresses in Greece."

2007.http://romeartlover.tripod.com/Venezia.html accessed September 14, 2010.

Similar to the readings on the fortifications in the Peloponnese of Greece this website provided important information about the Venetian construction across Greece. It also provided excellent images of both present day and historical structures in the same areas.

Potts, Jim. The Ionian Islands and Epirus: A Cultural History. Oxford: Signal Books Limited, 2010.

This book was an up to date look at the Ionian Islands that provided history in terms of culture with some regard to history and landscape. The culture and the people are examined in this writing to establish a connection between the reader and the beautiful humanity of the Mediterranean.

Soucek, Svatopluk. “Naval Aspects of the Ottoman Conquests of Rhodes, Cyprus, and Crete.” Studia Islamica 98/99 (2004): 219-261. Accessed September 30, 2010. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20059216.

This essay was an important look at the specific naval impact of the Ottoman Empire on the Mediterranean islands. Strategy and tactic were combined with technological advancements such as incendiary ammunition to provide a detailed look at the conquest of three islands during the early reign of the Ottoman Empire.

Thayer, William Roscoe. A Short History of Venice. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1905.

This in depth book specifically looked at the history of Venice and its expansion into the Mediterranean Sea during the Middle Ages. It provided a unique aspect to the research with its detailed analysis of the city of Venice itself and the political structure that began in Italy before ever moving into the sea to the east.

Whatson-Northcyprus. The Venetian City Walls: Nicosia, Cyprus. http://www.whatson-northcyprus.com/interest/nicosia/north_nicosia/walls.htm.

(Nov. 22, 2010) This website provided some information on the Venetian fortifications of Nicosia through an analysis of the ruins currently residing in the city. The website showed much needed value in its images and ability to provide the written word with corresponding images.

Notes: 1

Horatio F. Brown, Venice: an Historical Sketch of the Republic, (New York, G. P. Putnam‟s Sons, 1893), 5 William Roscoe Thayer, A Short History of Venice, (New York, The Macmillan Company, 1905), 24 3 Ibid, 44-45 2

Shultz 48

4

Ibid, 46 Ibid, 71-72 6 Ibid, 73 7 Ibid, 158 8 Suraiya Faroqhi, The Ottoman Empire: A Short History, (Princeton, Markus Wiener Publishers, 2009), 41 9 Ibid, 55 10 Ibid, 51 11 Ibid, 51-52 12 Thayer, 259 13 Ibid, 301-302 14 Ibid, 305 15 Helen J. Nicholson, Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of Ware in Europe 300-1500, (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 40-42 16 Ibid, 46-47 17 Ibid, 45 18 Ibid, 45-47 19 Ibid, 47 20 Ibid, 49 21 Ibid, 50-51 22 David Nicolle, The Venetian Empire 1200-1670, (Oxford, Great Britain, Osprey Publishing, 1989), 4 23 Ibid, 5-6 24 Ibid, 5 25 Faroqhi, 58 26 Jim Bradbury, The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare, (London, Routledge, 2004), 297 27 Nicolle, 6 28 Bradbury, 321 29 Bradbury, 320 30 Nicolle, 7 31 Konstantin Nossov, Ancient and Medieval Siege Weapons: A Fully Illustrated Guide to Siege Weapons and Tactics, ( The Lyons Press, Konstantin Nossov, 2005), 66 32 Ibid, 63 33 Ibid, 64 34 Tim Boatswain, A Traveller’s History of Cyprus, (Northampton, Massachusetts, Interlink Books, 2005), 3 35 Ibid, 4-46 36 Ibid, 46 37 Ibid, 47-97 38 Ibid, 21 39 Claude DeLaval Cobham, The Sieges of Nicosia and Famagusta in Cyprus, (London, St. Vincent‟s Press, 1899), 15-26 40 Ibid, 27-30 41 Ibid, 30 42 Ibid, 30-40 43 Ibid, 37 44 Leventis, Panos. “Projecting Utopia: The Refortification of Nicosia, 1567-70.” CHORA 5: Intervals in the Philosophy of Architecture. 227-258ed. Alberto Perez-Gomez and Stephen Parcell. (Montréal: McGill-Queens, 2007), 228 45 Ibid, 242 46 Gianni Perbellini, "The Venetian Defences of Cyprus" Fort 16, (1988): 7-44, Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010), 37-39 47 Charles C. Climis, The Illustrated History of Corfu, Corfu: Charles C. Climis, 1994, 19 48 Ibid, 20-21 49 Ibid, 29 50 Ibid, 30-31 51 Ibid, 38 52 Ibid, 41 5

Shultz 49

53

Ibid, 47 Ibid, 49 55 Ibid, 70 56 Henry Jervis-White Jervis, History of the Island of Corfu and of the Republic of the Ionian islands, (London, Colburn and Co. Publishers, 1852), 136-137 57 Ibid, 138 58 Ibid, 139-142 59 Quentin Hughes, “The Defences of Corfu,” Fort 14, (1986): 17-38, Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals, EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2010), 17 60 Nick Edwards and John Gill, The Rough Guide to Corfu, (London, Penguin Books, 2003), 180-181 61 Hughes, 20 62 Matt Barrett, Corfu Town, Greek Travel, http://www.greecetravel.com/corfu/town.html, (Nov. 22, 2010) 63 Jervis, 126-127 64 Ibid, 122 65 Whatson-Northcyprus, The Venetian City Walls: Nicosia, Cyprus, http://www.whatson-northcyprus.com/interest/nicosia/north_nicosia/walls.htm, (Nov. 22, 2010) 66 Hughes, 20 67 Jervis, 138 54