A Guide to Newswriting

A GUIDE TO NEWSWRITING

PRODUCED

BY TARA CUSLIDGE-STAIANO, COLLEGIAN ADVISER

LEARNING JOURNALISM

IN THE DIGITAL AGE

This is an era of dynamic communication. Since the early 2000s, social media usage has grown to the point that the one-to-many paradigm of mass communication has shifted. In today’s media sphere, every person with a computer or smart device has the ability to become a news gatherer, maker, producer and content mover.

That ease of communicating to the masses makes learning journalism more complex than it once was. As quickly as legitimate information can move, misinformation can also spread. That makes doing sound, quality journalism more important than ever.

This guide serves as a starting point for education and conversation. It is not all-inclusive. It may not explicitly tell you what to do when facing an ethical conundrum, but will help you build the toolkit to be able to solve those issues for yourself.

We explore seven areas of study: newsroom basics, ethics, reporting, newswriting, design, photojournalism, and social media. The hope is you walk away from your reading and learning with greater knowledge of these areas. Moreover, the hope is that a fire is fueled in you to want to do your own good journalism.

ABOUT THIS GUIDE

Unlike a traditional textbook, which typically aims to act as a comprehensive, standalone resource, the lessons in this guide will be complemented by in-class lectures and instruction. The guide serves as a base. Elements will be updated in lectures. We will expand upon topics. We will reinforce areas of struggle. We will discuss, in detail, how everything presented here applies to doing First Amendment journalism on a community college campus.

PRO-TIPS

Every time you see this symbol pop up in the guide, a connection to professional journalism will be noted. The intent of these asides are to help student journalists make connections to the real world.

This guide reflects the experience, education, and advising of Tara Cuslidge-Staiano, Professor of Mass Communication/Journalism at San Joaquin Delta College. Cuslidge-Staiano was a professional journalist and editor for nearly 10 years. She worked across newspaper departments before ending her journalism career as an online editor at a for-pay newspaper website. Much of what is covered here is basic journalism knowledge.

When moving through this guide, consider the experiences of the writer may not be the experiences of every journalist. The workflow of Collegian, the student newspaper at Delta College, also may be different than what you have experienced at high school, other college, or professional environments you have worked in. You are encouraged to ask questions that will clarify your journey in newswriting.

NOTE: This guide was developed as an Open Educational Resource. The author retains copyright on original material where applicable. Content use and adaptation is permissible as long as the author is credited. A Guide to Newswriting © 2024 by Tara Cuslidge-Staiano is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0

TABLE OF CONTENTS

NEWSROOM BASICS

PAGES 4 - 8

• Getting started in the newsroom

• Newsroom hierarchy

ETHICS + LAW

PAGES 9 - 17

• Ethics vs. Morals

• Veil of Ignorance

• DEI in reporting

SECTION

1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3

SECTION

4

SECTION 6

5

REPORTING

PAGES 18 - 35

• Types of Interviews

• Sources to consider

• Setting up an interview

NEWSWRITING

PAGES 36 - 46

• Inverted pyramid

• Story structures

• Straightforward news

• Common newsroom terminology

• Finding story ideas

• Go-to locations for story ideas

• Libel

• Libel in the digital age

• Conflict of interest

• Protections + privilege

• Unethical behaviors

• Making deadline

• Production cycle

• Newsroom communication

• Bok Model for Decision Making

• Ethical case studies

• Prior restraint

• Interview process

• Open-ended questions

• Pre-reporting for planned coverage

• Online sourcing

• Narrative (AKA ‘The Martini Glass’

• Feature style (AKA ‘The Kabob’)

• Artificial intelligence

• Using a news release

• Sourcing relationships

• Public records

• Covering a meeting

• The Turn (AKA ‘The Hourglass’)

• Types of stories

• Anatomy of a story

• Writing good ledes

• Basic quotes & AP Style

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

PAGES 47 - 60

• Terminology

• Principles of good design

• Designs to avoid

• Front page design mock-up

• Inside page design mock-up

• Sample pages mock-up, broadsheet + tabloid

• Published pages from mock-up

PHOTOJOURNALISM

PAGES 61 - 71

• Types of photos

• Photojournalism ethics

• Limits on manipulation

SECTION

SECTION 7

SOCIAL MEDIA

PAGES 72 - 75

• Social media done right (consistency, planning, and SMART goals)

• Photography basics (ISO, aperture, shutter speed)

• Get to know a Canon camera

• Best practices

• Free, inexpensive resources for shareable content

• Caption writing

• Adding captions in Photoshop

• What makes a good photo

• Posting for Collegian, review of what works and what doesn’t work

NEWSROOM BASICS

So you’ve joined a newspaper staff. Now what? It’s likely you’re going to feel a little intimidated, particularly if you have little to no experience in journalism or writing. While some students enter collegiate journalism programs with high school or other experience, many start out brand new.

Newswriting sets the base for your experience. It is where you learn how to report and write your stories. It is where your foundational knowledge of page design will come from. It is what prepares you for everything that comes next in a two-year college journalism program, a four-year program, and a professional job. Even if you aren’t part of the staff that’s expected to build and produce the newspaper, it means you are learning how to contribute to the churn of content.

TIPS FOR SUCCESS

1 PITCH WELL

You will be expected to contribute story ideas. You will need to justify the reasons for your pitch. It’s not enough to say you want to do a story about “football.” You have to give the staff reasons why. Do some research. Don’t just regurgitate what’s on the college website.

2

4

KNOW INTERVIEWING IS ALWAYS ANXIETY-INDUCING

You’re likely used to communicating via text message, social media or email. We are a society that doesn’t talk to one another. This course requires you talk to people. Take a deep breath, compose yourself and know it is OK.

EVERYONE NEEDS AN EDITOR

7

Even college professors. Don’t hang on to words. Don’t fight to put something in a story just because it makes YOU sound good.

Newswriting, as mentioned before, needs to be egoless.

5

DON’T DELAY REPORTING

This isn’t the class you want to wait until the night before to start your work in.

Once assigned a story, begin reporting immediately. Start asking questions and talking to people. If you run into a problem or hit dead ends, see the editor or the adviser immediately.

MANAGE EXPECTATIONS

This style of writing is different than an English course. The expectation is that you let your sources speak, while suppressing your own voice. You don’t matter in newswriting.

The story content and reporting does.

BE ACTIVE IN THE PROCESS

8

Don’t blame your editor if your story gets pulled from the page because YOU didn’t do the work. It’s your responsibility to be active in the process and be a present, productive member of this course.

3

HAVE A CONVERSATION

Particularly conversations with your editors, the editor in chief or your adviser. Not asking for help when you are challenged isn’t a way to succeed. If you wait until the last minute to say you needed help, we can’t help you navigate the process.

6

9

PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE ISN’T ALWAYS APPLICABLE

Previous experience doesn’t mean you know everything there is to know about journalism. An “A” in a high school journalism course doesn’t always translate to an “A” in college.

Don’t be offended if you’re told you need to get better.

DON’T FEEL EXCLUDED Students who’ve been around longer have deeper connections. They’ll seem to joke around the adviser better. Please, feel comfortable joining in the conversation. Stick around in lab for a bit. You’ll get out of this experience what you put in.

NEWSROOM HIERARCHY

The beauty of a student newspaper is that it is run by students. The adviser acts in a professional role to serve as a sounding board, but is not empowered to make decisions. Students in beginning newswriting classes will often learn the chops to pitch, report, write, and edit under the advisement of an instructor (who is typically the newspaper adviser, but not always). Students then advance to a newspaper production class where they work mostly independently to do all the things they learned in a beginning class, just at a more advanced level. The hierarchy of newsrooms is usually built around a central editor, with middle managers. This is a sample of what that hierarchy may look like in a college newsroom.

EDITOR IN CHIEF

COPY EDITOR

The Editor in Chief (also stylized to “Editor” in some newsrooms) is the highest of all positions. This person has final say on all newsroom-related decisions.

In a professional newsroom, this person manages day-to-day newsroom operations while the Editor manages business. This role may or may not exist at college newspapers, depending on staff size. An “Editor In Chief” may manage both business and operations instead.

NEWS OPINION FEATURE SPORTS ENTERTAINMENT

Page/section editors tend to be from production-related classes. These individuals are responsible for a single section of the newspaper/website. These roles may include page design responsibilities and copy editing. Some newsrooms have separate copy editors who are responsible for story edits before the stories move to the page. These differences often depend on newsroom size.

REPORTER

Reporters are at the bottom of the hierarchy. These individuals are the ones who pitch, report, and write stories for publication in the newspaper or on the news website.

COMMON NEWSROOM TERMINOLOGY

REPORTER

The person who is assigned or pitches a story, goes out and interviews people for content, and then writes the story.

LEDE

The first one or two paragraphs of a story, which usually includes elements including who, what, where, when, why, and how. It may not always include every element.

COPY

The words or content in a story. When an editor refers to “copy” it is usually in reference to the story. The copy on a page also includes headlines.

OFF THE RECORD

When a source asks to be “off the record,” a journalist must respect that what is said can’t be used for publication. A source can’t revoke consent after the fact.

EDITOR

Person or persons responsible for making content decisions, directing newsflow, and managing operations. Different editors have different responsibilities.

RIM

A copy editor. The “rim” desk was a horseshoe shaped desk in historic journalism days where editors sat and passed edited stories to one another.

SOURCE

The person or persons interviewed for a story. Sources can also include official documentation, such as public records, news releases, or other primary-source content.

CUTLINE/CAPTION

The text, including an attribution line, about what is in a photograph. Cutlines/captions should be written in Associated Press Style.

DEADLINE

The submission time for a story, which represents the time a story is needed to ensure it progresses through proper review before publication.

GRAF

A shortened reference term for a paragraph. In stories conforming to AP Style, grafs are usually one to two sentences that are concise and precise.

EDITORIAL

An unsigned opinion piece that runs on the opinion page, but typically represents the view of the editorial board or a majority of the newspaper staff.

CORRECTION

If a story runs with an error, it is corrected online (immediate) and in the next print issue. Corrections never repeat the mistake (don’t write the mistake again).

FINDING STORY IDEAS

News is always happening, but not every event results in something that is coverage-worthy. You are tasked with developing news judgment during your time as a member of a newspaper staff. That means you will need to determine if a story needs to be covered, the depth of the coverage, the placement on a page (or whether it should be featured on the website and shared extensively to social media), and whether you will need to write a “folo” or follow-up story.

You are tasked with bringing your own story ideas to the newsroom. You should always bring more than a few, just in case your idea doesn’t gain any traction or interest during pitching. Here are six leads on where to find story ideas:

• Breaking news

• Scheduled events (including recurring events)

• News releases

BREAKING NEWS

PRO-TIP

One idea can lead to another. Use your reporting to inform your next pitch. Listen to your sources. They may give you a heads up on something great happening soon.

• Picking up ideas from your surroundings

• Suggestions from instructors/friends

• Reader-directed content

SCHEDULED EVENTS

Anything not a scheduled part of your day is considered breaking news. Breaking news often takes of the form of tragedy: bank robberies, explosions, resignations, etc. The newsroom moves to an “all hands on deck” mentality, often devoting as many reporters as possible to the story. There’s an adage that says journalists run toward the fire as everyone else runs away, it’s often true during breaking news events. These stories are reported live, without notice.

NEWS RELEASES

Newsrooms across the country receive a barrage of news releases daily. Releases are often sent out by public relations professionals who have a vested interest in getting publicity for their client or represented product. A release typically includes quotes. DO NOT use the quotes. You may call the sources on the release and ask questions, which may have similar answers, but you should never regurgitate quotes. Your reporting must go beyond the release.

SUGGESTIONS FROM OTHERS

People may tell you things when they realize you are on the newspaper staff. It’s often for their own selfinterest, as a group or organization they belong to is doing something they think warrants coverage.

Listen to the idea. It doesn’t necessarily mean the newspaper will do a story on it. You may find yourself getting great tips from the people you interact with outside the newsroom.

Considered the nuts and bolts of journalism. These events can be picnics, memorial services, festivals, library read-ins and other happenings the newsroom knows about ahead of time. Newsrooms often plan art activities around these events.

Scheduled simply means the newsroom knows the event is happening and can schedule it for the next day’s newspaper.

YOUR SURROUNDINGS

Have you ever wondered what type of person paints their door red? Do you drive by the same business daily and admire the changing words on its outdoor signage? There may be a story there.

Your news sense will develop over time, but sometimes just asking yourself a question can be the premise of an awesome news story.

READER-DIRECTED CONTENT

Most newspaper websites have an “email news tips” function and accept letters to the editor. Social media also allows direct connection from reader to newsroom. Newsroom walk-ins bring content to our doorstep. While all content gets reviewed, readers can and do suggest coverage. As your news judgment becomes more refined, you’ll understand the difference between an inner-page story and the top of the fold story.

GO-TO LOCATIONS FOR STORY IDEAS

Still stuck? Don’t overthink this part of the process. It is likely if you think something is a story, it is. More often than not, college newspapers repeat stories year after year because the issues remain the same. So even if you saw the newspaper did a story two years ago, it is likely it can be reported again and will have all new facts (as well as an entirely different slate of sources).

College website (particularly news portal): College-related stories are published here in conjunction with the college sending out a news release. Be aware that nearly all beginning students are going here first, too. These are good starter ideas, but you’ll need to look beyond this for truly original ideas.

2 3 4 5

Social media: Follow club and organization accounts. Follow all the official college accounts. A photo of something happening on campus may turn into a larger story. Most colleges use social media to give short updates, but not full stories. You can report a bigger story.

Campus bulletin boards: It’s not necessarily the most modern way to get information, but many students and organizations still put information on our campus bulletin boards. This is especially true of associated student body organizations hosting on-campus events. While many campus organizations have pivoted to social media for information delivery, many still post fliers to campus bulletin boards.

Conversations with friends: Know someone involved in a really cool project? Or maybe you’ve heard someone is doing something amazing with the fashion club? Start paying attention to conversations. A friend could have a friend who will become a lead source for one of your stories.

Other classes: Nearly every program or discipline on campus puts on student events. When your professor makes an announcement, take note. This includes announcements posted in the online learning management system. Your sphere of coverage may grow every semester depending on the classes you take.

MAKING DEADLINE

Deadline is not a suggestion. It is an essential journalism learning outcome. Missing deadline as a member of a student publication lowers your grade and may cause your editors to lose faith in you.

Missing deadline in the professional world gets you fired. When a deadline is assigned, student reporters typically have ample amount of time to report and write compared to professional ones.

At a professional level, having a day or less to complete a story is the norm.

Not making deadline creates production issues, including:

• Delay in copy flow: If your story doesn’t come in on time, it may delay its movement in production. One day leads to another and to another. Your missed deadline creates a chain reaction.

• Holes on print pages: If you miss a deadline or don’t turn in a story at all, you create a hole that needs to be filled. Editors have to work overtime to come up with something to fill the space.

• Lack of trust: At a personal level, your peers may doubt whether or not you are good on your word and can come through. This means breaking news stories may not be assigned to you in the future.

The bottom line is that missing deadline impacts more than just you. It affects the entire newspaper.

PRODUCTION CYCLE

All news outlets have production cycles. The cycles can differ based on publication times and dates, which can make the cycle similar, but different in turns of turnaround. These are common cycles:

• Daily: Most professional newspapers operate on daily cycles where stories are expected to be submitted once a day (sometimes more frequently).

• Weekly: Alternative publications, as well as some former dailies, operate on weekly cycles where stories usually come in at the beginning of the week (but are started the previous week), for design and publication later in the week.

• Bi-weekly: Community college newspapers usually live in this category, with production cycles confined to a two-week period.

• Monthly: Magazines are in this category, but often work months ahead. Content for a holiday issue may be shot and reported sometime in the summer.

• Quarterly: Niche publications often fall into this category where stories are written from a more in-depth standpoint, covering a longer period of time.

While all of these time durations are different, all include similar elements to get from concept to creation to publication. These five steps are universal:

PITCHING

REPORTING

WRITING

EDITING

Stories are brainstormed by a reporter. This includes doing some, but not all, initial reporting to ensure the story is worth coverage.

Writers will go out and cover the story. This may include showing up at an event, or doing interviews remotely. All stories require reporting.

After reporting, a reporter will write a story with the information from reporting. The deadline here may be less than a day or up to a week.

Stories are submitted by deadline and move through an editing process. At the least, two people will edit a story before it is published.

PUBLISHING

Production and publishing vary depending on the media outlet. This stage may involve designing pages. It may involve publishing a story to a website.

Publishing presents the biggest wildcard nowadays, as many news outlets have gone online only. That removes the designing element that is associated with newspaper publication.

PRO-TIP

Production looks different depending on the media organization and the level or operation. Small newspapers often employ people to do all aspects of the production process, from writing to editing to designing. Larger newspapers usually have people designated to do each of those roles. You may be doing it all for the student newspaper, but only writing stories and making edits if you intern at a professional newspaper.

COMMUNICATION

While some students will pick up easily on the pattern and repetition of the newspaper process, it may not be as easy for others. This is why communication is key to being a successful journalist. We’ve all seen movies with rogue reporters going against the wishes of their editors or boss. In reality, informing your editor helps you report and write better. Editors tend to have more experience than reporters, so keeping the communication loop open and flowing may help you write a better story for the reader.

ETHICS & LAW

How do you know what is right and what is wrong? It’s likely you are guided by an internal compass, one that tells you through gut feeling or personal decision whether an action goes against the norm. That internal compass isn’t ethics. If you know what the right or wrong answer is, often without deep consideration, that means you are engaging your morals, which are often connected to religious philosophies or learned behavior from your upbringing.

Ethics looks to decision making in the absence of a right or wrong answer. Journalistic ethics considers the good of the profession, the story, the reporter, and the source. The answers and outcomes sometimes don’t align with morals, but they are the right choice in that moment.

Let’s define what each of the terms mean to provide a contrast:

ETHICS [eth-iks]

Verb. Branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct, with respect to the rightness and wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such actions.

MORALS [mawr-uhls]

Adjective. Of, relating to, or concerned with the principles or rules of right conduct or the distinction between right and wrong; ethical.

Clear as mud, right? For the purposes of this guide, let’s simplify it:

• Ethics: Ethics is an internal toolkit we engage for decision making in a journalistic setting that allows us to make decisions outside of our moral principles, particularly when engaging in coverage that may be different than those moral principles. We use ethics to guide our reporting, writing, and journalistic decisions.

• Morals: Morals are your internal principles of right or wrong that are guided by upbringing, religion, previous experience, or understandings of the world around you.

These two concepts may be in conflict with each other, particularly when it comes to moral principles that you have believed in since you were a child or have accepted as part of your life. Let’s consider issues of abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, and the death penalty (yes, these are topics that have been discussed in newsrooms across the country).

Consider the following questions:

• Can you turn down an assignment covering an anti-abortion rally if you are pro-choice?

• If you once wrote a personal blog about believing marriage is between a man and woman only, should you accept a story from an editor without disclosing your bias?

• Can you fairly report on the death penalty case if you are against the death penalty?

You may be able to answer yes or no to these. You may not. If you can’t, you will likely need to engage ethical thinking in the newsroom related to each of these scenarios. We all come to the newsroom with different beliefs and customs. Journalism has been historically about setting aside our own bias in lieu of unbiased, ethical storytelling. That sort of storytelling requires us to set ourselves apart from the content and reporting, considering what Philosopher John Rawls called the “Veil of Ignorance.” That “veil” allows us to make decisions that are impartial and don’t consider the populations impacted by our reporting.

In the era of social justice, though, reporting isn’t always best when impartial.

VEIL OF IGNORANCE + IMPARTIAL REPORTING

Aligning with Rawls’ philosophy, media professionals shouldn’t consider a person’s community standing, circumstances, backgrounds, wealth, upbringing, etc. Instead, the focus should be on reporting a story and covering topics with no bias.

This is, in theory, a good premise to go into reporting with. Remember those questions on the previous page? All of those can be answered more easily if you operate under a veil of ignorance. You wouldn’t have to wonder whether you should be covering certain topics if you stopped considering your sources’ backgrounds as part of your reporting and writing.

The problem, though, with veil of ignorance is that it only works if you remove your own personal bias too. Not only can you not consider all of those things about your source, but you need to remove yourself as well. As humans, we don’t do that. Even when we say we are being impartial, we often have some sort of bias lingering in the background.

So is any reporting truly impartial? That’s a question that has come up more frequently as journalists cover social justice topics.

DIVERSITY, EQUITY + INCLUSION IN REPORTING

Objectivity wasn’t always a fundamental trait of journalism. In mass media history, newspapers started with a slant based on ownership or reporter opinion. Removing oneself and bias from a story only truly took hold as a practice in the 1920s when newspapers realized competition from other news outlets was pushing changes in readership. To compete, newspapers began reporting with even keel because stories with a slant turned away readers with different opinions.

These tried-and-true methods, which originated when journalism was very much a white-male dominated field, may not relevant to modern newswriting because they may actually hinder modern-day journalists from telling complete and accurate stories of marginalized communities.

As journalists we need to consider:

DIG DEEPER

Download “Amplifying Every Voice,” a guide to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion for college newsrooms and media environments at bit.ly/collegiandei for more information on this topic.

• Reporter’s role: We bring different lived experiences to our coverage. Who writes a story can change how the story is told. When considering who gets assigned what during pitching, attention should be on who will be the most effective reporter in the news-gathering process. Care should also be taken to not assign based on tokenism, i.e. assigning a reporter to cover a Chinese New Year Parade because the person is Asian American.

• Coverage diversity: Newspaper staff makeup dictates coverage. If enrollment doesn’t reflect the larger student body, story variety will be incomplete. That’s why it’s important to consider newsroom diversity, specifically who is left out of the room.

• Conflicting interests: Let’s not be so quick to remove reporters with established interest or connection to a story. Additional or specialized knowledge may make a person qualified to cover a topic better.

• Lifting the ‘veil’: We have to lift the veil to truly tell the stories of marginalized populations, particularly as reporters pitch and pursue stories they have experience with or in.

LIBEL

Libel is defined as “a published false statement that is damaging to a person’s reputation; a written defamation,” according to Oxford Languages. You may hear people saying colloquially that they have been “slandered” by a media organization. Slander is verbal defamation. Libel is written.

To be libelous, a story or content piece must meet three standards:

• The information published must be untrue: You aren’t libeling someone if you say they have been convicted of fraud when a court of law has, indeed convicted them of fraud.

• The person being libeled must be identifiable: It’s not enough to say “a man in Stockton is having an extramarital affair.” There are many men in Stockton. A news source can argue that this description is vague enough to not truly reveal anyone (this is an extreme example, only because news media wouldn’t necessarily write something like this). Identifiable, though, also means you can’t say “a full-time professor of Anthropology has embezzled money” and not expect to be called out on it if there is only one full-time professor of Anthropology on your campus. That person is clearly identifiable if your readers just do a little searching.

• The information must be published: A source can’t sue for libel on grounds that a story is potentially being written. The story or content must be published for the general public to view. The size of the public also does not matter. Libel can apply if as little as a few people have seen the content in question or many have.

Libel law in the United States was codified with the 1964 Supreme Court case New York Times vs. Sullivan. The case stemmed from an advertisement in support of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in the Times. Montgomery, Ala., Police Commissioner L.B. Sullivan believed the advertisement to be libelous toward him on the following grounds:

• The advertisement identified him: Sullivan argued that because he was in charge of the police, the public could make a connection to him and the content of the advertisement, specifically police misconduct during the noted event at the Alabama State College campus. Sullivan was not noted by name.

• The advertisement contained inaccuracies: It was noted that students sang “My Country ‘Tis of Thee.” Sullivan argued that the students did not sing that song. There was also a question of whether police actually “ringed” the campus, which would indicate the campus was completely surrounded. Sullivan argued it was not completely surrounded.

Sullivan initially asked for the Times to retract the advertisement. The Times refused. It was a paid advertisement, not editorial content. Lower courts initially ruled for Sullivan, awarding him $500,000. The award was more of a reflection of the time than a punishment for the Times. Consider that in the 1960s, Alabama and the South was still very much segregated. Sullivan was a white man. The advertisement was in support of a Black activist. The lower court ruling made a lot of sense for the era.

When the Supreme Court returned its judgment noting that public officials in particular had to prove content was published with actual malice (knowingly false or with reckless disregard for truth), but also that “erroneous statement is inevitable in free debate.”

LIBEL IN THE DIGITAL AGE

Times v. Sullivan has been the law of the land since 1964. Under the Trump presidential administration, much conversation happened whether the landmark case needed to be re-evaluated for the digital age.

In what could have been a case to define the future of libel as it relates to digital content and creators (expanding the scope beyond journalism), musician Courtney Love tweeted that her former lawyer Rhonda J. Holmes had been “bought off.” The full tweet:

PRO-TIP

Without a definite case to direct action on social media, the general rule of thumb for reporters should be to treat social media posting like you would writing and publishing content to run in a news source. “I was f***ing devestated [sic] when Rhonda J. Holmes esq. of san diego was bought off.”

Love published the tweet in 2009. She later claimed that she meant to send it as a private message and removed the tweet from her public-facing feed.

Holmes sued for defamation, saying the tweet had hurt her reputation and caused her monetary damage. The case wasn’t decided until 2014 when courts ruled that Love’s tweet was opinion, which can neither be true nor false. Love told the court that she believed the tweet to be true when she published it.

The court essentially decided that the tweet was not defaming, which removed its responsibility to make a judgment on it that could have established precedent in social media libel. There have been calls for revision or re-interpretation of Times v. Sullivan in a world where social media is a method of mass communication, but as of the publishing of this version of the guide, that hasn’t happened yet.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

Journalists, students and professional, are generally prohibited from covering events in which they are involved in or have inside knowledge about for the newspaper. While it is understandable that student journalists may not be able to separate themselves from a story entirely, newspapers typically make every effort to avoid conflict of interest.

In the Diversity, Equity + Inclusion area, though, it is noted that sometimes reporters with connections to specific cultures, events, or happenings can make for better storytellers. This is why communication remains important.

DO YOU HAVE A CONFLICT?

How do you know if you have a conflict that can be overcome? Consult this chart. Are you directly involved in the story

You may notice that most paths here end up in you consulting with an editor. The reality is that conflict of interest is something we usually don’t see in ourselves.

You should always talk conflicts through with editors, whether perceived or real. Collaboration will help decision making.

Do you have first-hand knowledge that could change the direction of the story? You likely shouldn’t cover the story unless you do so in first person.

it knowledge that could contextualize storytelling?

your lived experience make you report differently?

are OK to report on this story.

PROTECTION + PRIVILEGE

“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.”

— First Amendment of the United States Constitution

Press liberty is protected. Not just in concept, but in practice. By law. History has shown us that abuse does exist in this area. People will violate this notion. This is why journalists defend these rights valiantly. The First Amendment protects against government interference into reporting, which has opened the doors to access for journalists. Other protections, though, exist that allow journalists to do their jobs by allowing them to report without the fear of retaliation, jail, or harm. These protections are standard in the professional industry, but also protect student journalists on public college campuses.

ACCESS TO PUBLIC RECORDS FAIR REPORTING PRIVILEGE

Journalists have access to public records for review and reporting. In California, members of the public can submit a California Public Records Request for documents that are produced on the public dime. At the federal level, a Freedom of Information Act request can be submitted for documents.

OPINION PRIVILEGE

ACCESS TO PUBLIC MEETINGS

All members of the public can attend government meetings to examine and vet decision making processes. Journalists in the room allow for reporting beyond who is present. Journalists generally cannot be removed from open meetings, though some governments have tried under the auspices of legal issues.

FAIR COMMENT + CRITICISM

Anything said in public meetings is open to report upon, even if someone is defamed in the process, if the quote is reported with accuracy. This means a newspaper can publish name-calling comments said in a public meeting without fear of being sued for defamation by libel.

SHIELD LAWS

Opinion can be neither true or false, so it is typically protected from libel. The trickiness in this caveat is that what is reported must contain fact. A writer cannot make up facts to support their opinion. They may use facts to support criticism, however. The story, too, must be noted as opinion to readers.

Public figures can be criticized by nature of their positions (they work for the public). These opinions and criticisms are protect. Again, the comments and criticism must be rooted in factual reporting and accuracy. If the mayor of a small town is failing in their role, you can typically say it outright as long as it is backed.

California is one of 39 states with a Shield Law, which protects journalists from having to divulge information garnered while reporting. A journalist cannot be compelled to give up notes or reveal confidentiality of sources. Shield Law protections apply to all information gathered, even if it was not published.

UNETHICAL BEHAVIORS

A press pass (or any other form of identification connecting you to a news organization) is not a “get away with anything” or “get into anything” card. Yet, there are cases in which journalists behave badly and abuse their position and power. Here are some of those uncouth scenarios with explanation as to why they are unethical behaviors.

BEHAVIOR WHY IT’S UNETHICAL

Lying to a source to get information

Taking food or other “gifts” from a source

Trespassing on private property or not leaving when asked

Making up sources or information

Invading privacy or reporting private facts

Lifting another reporter or news source’s work

Using your reporting to get back at someone

Not observing “off the record” and burning a source

Making a mistake in a story

As a rule of thumb, you shouldn’t misrepresent yourself when reporting. Your source should know who you are, who you represent, and why you are interviewing them.

While your source may be well meaning, journalists shouldn’t accept gifts that would appear like a bribe for coverage. This includes free meals, wine, and other tokens of appreciation.

A journalist doesn’t get special privileges related to private property. If you are asked to leave, you need to leave. Don’t jump fences or force your way into environments where you’ve been asked to leave.

Don’t do it. The quickest way out of the field of journalism is lying to your editors and readers. If you didn’t do the work, admit you didn’t do the work. This includes using AI for reporting or writing.

Some facts are not related to your story. If you find out a source is having an affair, but otherwise is doing their job fine, that’s not necessarily a story. Ask yourself: Is this information pertinent to the story?

This is plagiarism. You didn’t do the work, so don’t include the work in your story content. This is laziness, particularly when you are lifting quotes verbatim from another’s work (or letting AI report for you).

A news outlet is not your personal vendetta machine, so don’t treat it as such. If you are trying to get back at someone or something, consider how detrimental that is for the entire newspaper staff.

When a source says “off the record,” that means you cannot record, write, or use anything said after that point. Don’t violate that. Know, though, that a source has to say it before they give you juicy details.

Mistakes happen. Reporting is not an exact science. You could spend a hundred hours on a story and still not get it quite right. Own the mistake, offer to make it right for the source (to not burn the source).

WHAT TO DO INSTEAD

Don’t lie. If a source is confused as to why they are being interviewed, stop the interview. A source should always know what they say can be published.

Be polite, but decline. It is not common for a reporter to leave a place where food is being served and go eat elsewhere when reporting. If you must stay, pay your way.

Streets and sidewalks are typically (but not always) public property. You can report from a distance. If you believe you are being asked to leave public property, seek clarification.

If you are struggling to find sources for your story, consult an editor or your adviser. They may be able to help you with sourcing strategy. Don’t set yourself up to be bounced out.

Use your own ethical toolkit (the Bok Model on the next page is a good one) to have an internal conversation about what information is necessary to include in the story.

Do your own reporting. If you find yourself near deadline and not getting calls back, you should have started your reporting process sooner. Acknowledge that error to your editor.

Acknowledge your conflict of interest. Tell your editors if you have had previous experiences with a source that could impact your coverage for certain topics or stories.

Be careful in these conversations. Make sure a source goes back “on the record” so that you aren’t left wondering whether you can or can’t use information. When in doubt, ask.

If the mistake was genuinely a mess up (with no malice attached on your end), the easiest thing to do is write a correction. A correction should run online and in the newspaper.

BOK MODEL FOR ETHICS

It’s important to have an ethical toolkit for how you navigate your work in journalism, but also how you navigate decision making where it is not immediately clear what the right answer is. While we touched on Rawls, a more modern ethicist is Sissela Bok.

The Swedish philosopher created a threepart ethical toolkit for navigating difficult decisions.

It combines morals, specifically the consulting of conscience, but also looks to alternatives and asks you to hold an imaginary conversation with all those that could be impacted in your decision making.

ETHICAL CASE STUDIES

CONSULT YOUR CONSCIENCE

What are your morals telling you in the situation? Do you get a gut feeling that something is bad or good? You are implored to consider your conscience in this model.

SEEK ALTERNATIVES

Is there something else that could be done in lieu of what you are trying to do? Could that lead to a more desirable outcome? Are those alternatives something to consider instead?

HOLD AN IMAGINARY DIALOGUE

What would the stakeholders impacted by this decision say? If you could engage them in conversation, would it change the results of your own decision making? Consider their views in your thinking

Now that you have some basis for your law and ethics thinking in journalism, consider the following scenarios. How would you have responded before this section of the guide? How would you respond now? Consider that these are actual examples of ethical conundrums that have come up in a collegiate newsroom. We will discuss some during an in-class exercise as well.

AGAINST YOUR RELIGION

An editor hands you an Easter Day assignment. It’s a morning service at Weber Point Events Center where members of various congregations come together to worship. You are an atheist. Can you refuse the assignment? Why or why not?

AFTER THE FACT

You interview a student government officer. Five minutes after you finish, the student frantically approaches you and says you can’t use any of the information he said because he didn’t clear it through the ASDC president. Can you use his quotes? Why or why not?

FOR THE LOVE OF MICKEY

At Disneyland a 20-percent discount is offered for working journalists if you present a press pass. Not a lot of people know about it, but someone mentioned it to you. Do you present your press pass for a discount? Why or why not?

A SOCIAL MATTER

Your Facebook profile lists that you 1) Love cats, 2) Enjoy Ethiopian cuisine and 3) Are a Democrat. Your editor calls you into his office to discuss removal of one of those profile traits. Which one do you think it is? Why?

PRESSING GIFTS

At an arena event a public relations representative notices you’re a member of the press and wants to hand you a “gift bag” as a “gesture of thanks” that includes a spa gift certificate and a year Beer of the Month Club subscription. Can you accept the bag? Why or why not?

INTERVIEW TO FIRST DATE

A water polo player you’re interviewing asks if you’d be free for dinner the same night you’re doing the interview. Is it ever OK to date a source? Why or why not?

SOMETHING PERSONAL

In the middle of a conversation, a source says “off the record” and then provides salacious details of a prominent public employee’s affair with a city council member. Are you allowed to use the information in print? Why or why not?

QUOTING FROM MEMORY

Your audio recorder breaks midway through an interview and you don’t realize it. Your source doesn’t have time for a second interview. She tells you to “go ahead and make me sound good” and “quote from memory.” What do you do?

CHECKING QUOTES

A source asks you to read her quotes back to her after an interview. Do you? Why or why not?

PRIOR RESTRAINT

While student journalists face can potentially face many ethical and legal issues to their reporting, censorship in the form of administrative asks for review or threat thereof has been cited often as one of the greatest threats to publication in recent years. The First Amendment protects news media against prior restraint from the government. That means that a publicly-funded, state institution cannot and should not ask to review stories or content before publication. Student journalists should be able to do their jobs without fear of retaliation. An act of prior restraint happens when material is suppressed from being heard, seen, or distributed.

Two court cases are considered landmark rulings related to prior restraint:

NEAR VS. MINNESOTA

In 1931, the United States Supreme Court ruled that prior restraint was unconstitutional, per the First Amendment, except in times when national security is involved (which is rare, but has happened during wartime).

The case involved the publishing of Jay Near’s The Saturday Press, which ran expose pieces about alleged illegal activities being committed by elected officials in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Near had been publishing stories related to alleged corruption and criminal connection.

The court ruled a Minnesota public nuisance law was unconstitutional as Near’s paper was censored after he alleged elected officials were “Jewish gangsters.” The 5-4 ruling also affirmed only in very rare cases would censorship of that kind be allowable, among the potential offenses is content involving military secrets or containing obscenity.

TYPES OF PRIOR RESTRAINT

POLICIES THAT LIMIT EMPLOYEE INTERACTION

NEW YORK TIMES VS. UNITED STATES

Also known as the Pentagon Papers case, in 1971 the United Stated Supreme Court ruled that President Richard Nixon and the government did not have the right to suppress the publishing of New York Times related to information turned over by Pentagon whistle blower Daniel Ellsberg.

The New York Times began publishing stories related to and citing the paper on June 13, 1971. Two days later, a District Court judge issued an order to cease publication. By June 18, 1971, The Washington Post had begun publishing stories, and was also served with an order to cease publication. The Supreme Court heard the case on June 25-26, 1971. The court issued a 6-3 decision to allow publication, noting the conflict between government and the First Amendment would alway be present, but expressing that the government shouldered the burden of showing explicit need for restraint.

Managers or administrators may put policies in place that limit speaking to the press. These policies may not be codified, but a reporter may notice all comment has to go through a specific person, such as the campus public information officer. You may reach out to anyone on campus for comment. If you believe that an unspoken policy is in place, ask for clarification and note that comment was deferred to another person in the story.

THREAT OR INTIMIDATION

A story source or someone who is connected to coverage may try to threaten or intimidate a journalist, specifically as a way to prevent a story from being published. At an academic level, this may include a threat of student discipline. This could also include an instructor who threatens to change a grade or report you to a dean for reasons related to your reporting process.

PRE-PUBLICATION REVIEW

If a source asks to review the story before it is published, this is a form of censorship whether you interpret it that way or not. A news source doesn’t get to dictate story content. A source also cannot revoke access or take back an interview after the fact for you not providing the story for review. Student newspapers are run by students. Students make the final decision about what publishes and what doesn’t, not an adviser or a source.

STOPPING THE PRESSES

A source, manager, or administrator may try to prevent a newspaper from being published. This may include pulling of funding from the student newspaper. The best way to protect the staff from this type of censorship is to have policies in place to be proactive rather than reactive.

RESOURCE FOR STUDENT JOURNALISTS

If you think your content is being censored, don’t think you don’t have resources for help. There are several organizations devoted to free speech and protecting the First Amendment that student journalists can turn to for help. The best advice is to not delay. An affront to press rights on campus is an affront to press right for all student journalists. The nature of media programs means that students are often the only ones doing reporting on their campuses, but you are not alone in your fight to protect your rights.

ADVISER + SUPPORT STAFF

You can start with your adviser or other support staff connected to your program for guidance to resolve or escalate prior restraint. Most campus journalism programs have advisers who previously worked in the industry.

If your adviser is the problem, whether intentionally or unintentionally, it is recommended you ask for help from student journalists off campus or one of the noted organizations.

CNPA LEGAL COUNSEL

The California Newspaper Publisher’s Association has a legal hot line that can be contacted for all legal issues journalists need consultation to navigate.

REACH OUT: CNPA General Counsel Brittney Barsotti can be reached at (916) 288-6006 or helpline@cnpa.com

MORE INFORMATION: cnpa.com/legal-help

STUDENT PRESS LAW CENTER STUDENT PRESS FREEDOM

The Student Press Law Center answers all legal questions related to student media for free. The site includes information related to student media rights.

REACH OUT: Fill out a form (note if the need is urgent) at splc.org/legalhelp MORE INFORMATION: splc.org

PRIOR RESTRAINT AT THE LOCAL LEVEL

The Student Press Freedom Initiative (SPFI) is part of the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression (FIRE) and has a legal hot line for student journalists.

REACH OUT: SPFI’s legal line is open 24 hours and can be reached at 1(717) 734-SPFI MORE INFORMATION: canipublishthis.com

In 2019, The Bruin’s Voice at Bear Creek High School in Stockton was in national news after school and district administrators acted to stop publication of a story about an 18-year old student who worked in the adult entertainment industry.

Lodi Unifed School District alleged it was acting on a policy that allowed officials to review content that could be considered a safety issue. An outside review of the story was done by the Student Press Law Center. The story ran online and on the newspaper website, bruinvoice.net

The fight over the article ultimately led to the upholding of California student press rights, which are still protected on a high school campus.

REPORTING

You’ve got a lay of the land now. You’ve likely pitched your story. You’ve considered how to approach your storytelling. It’s now time to start the reporting process. Before you get bogged down in how anxiety-inducing this part of journalism is, remember that every journalist started out where you are now.

Let’s consider, first, that interviewing has changed since March 2020 when the Covid-19 pandemic began. Journalists who typically considered in-person interviews as the gold standard for reporting suddenly were forced to conduct interviews on the phone or through video communication means. Contacting people, too, became digitally mediated. Social media groups and direct messages replaced cold approaches in the streets.

Journalism instructors once lectured that the best way to engage in an interview was to see the person you were interviewing, to be able to pick up on interpersonal cues, and to be able to guide your follow-up questions based on reaction. That hard line isn’t as applicable anymore, particularly as news professionals learned that good reporting could be conducted in a variety of ways.

Consider the following ways to connect with and interview your sources:

IN PERSON

This is still a preferred method for interviewing. In person interviews allow you to gauge your source and adjust follow-up questions if you need to. This type of interview is particularly powerful if a person is explaining something to you or doing a walk through (consider a tour of the campus horticulture garden or farm). Take a notebook and write fast, or learn some shorthand, to keep up.

SOCIAL MEDIA DIRECT MESSAGE

It’s common now to find sources via social media and interview them that way. Use social media as a starting point. Transition a DM into a phone interview. If you can’t, make sure your subject knows that you are interviewing them for a news source. Remember that some people don’t go on social media, so you may need to contact them another way too, particularly to avoid a note that the person didn’t respond.

TEXT MESSAGES

Because we have a generation of media consumers who don’t like phone calls, some interviews are done via text message. Generally you need to quote people exactly as they respond in text, which leads to punctuation issues. Again, start your conversation here, but try to transition to a phone or video interview that would allow you to have a deeper connection to get better responses.

PHONE

Millennials were the first generation to move away from talking on the phone, but this type of interview allows you to quickly connect. Phone interviews allow you to be in front of a computer to type your notes quickly and usually in a more readable way than you would be able to with a notepad. The silences may be awkward, so be sure to note to your source that you are “just typing everything up.”

EMAIL

Email interviews tend to benefit the person answering the questions rather than the journalist. If you ask three questions that would have elicited two sentence responses, you will likely get paragraphs back in an email interview. Oftentimes a source may have an expectation that all that content will be used. Email interviews may also take you longer to get answers, so make sure you note your deadline.

VIDEO CALL

Skype. Zoom. Teams. All of these are available for a safe way to connect to people that mostly resembles an in person interview. Technology makes it easy to record these encounters, but make sure you are noting to your source that you are recording (that’s universal) because California is a two-party consent state. The recordings can be used for quote playback, but also for potential website video.

SOURCES TO CONSIDER

Every story will include a different cast of characters that make up your sourcing. Unless you cover a beat, which often involves interviewing the same people again and again, you will end up talking to five to seven different people for every story. So how do you know who to consult? Here are some ideas:

DECISIONMAKERS

Decision makers will be in the news. The President of a college is more likely to be interviewed than, perhaps, a counselor on campus. Public and elected officials are quoted frequently because their decisions that impact the populace. These are often primary sources in articles.

FASCINATING PEOPLE

Don’t discount the odd. Embrace it. Feature stories in particular are driven by people who go against the norm. These individuals tend to be doing their own thing, which may not lend itself to news stories, but makes for good profiles.

ADVOCATES + ACTIVISTS

In the age of social media, it has become easier for people to express opinions and build platforms. Advocates, activists, and general community organizers are more present in news stories than they once were, just by virtue of you being able to access them more easily.

SPOKESPEOPLE OR COMMUNICATION DIRECTORS

The movers and shakers at companies or institutions often delegate communication down to a given an expert or spokesperson whose job it is to work with media. These people are usually reliable. Sometimes working with a spokesperson can be frustrating, especially if there is a perception that higher ups that should answer are hiding behind that person.

EXPERTS (INCLUDING FACULTY)

Working on a complex story about something that may be over the typical reader’s head? Need someone to back up a position or theory in a story? Experts are good interviews, just make sure they’re really experts. Surprisingly, evaluating an “expert” at a subject isn’t as easy as it seems.

PUBLIC RECORDS

Public records are powerful. Have charges been filed against a specific person? Then there is a record to quote from, even if the characters in the story don’t want to be quoted. Does that mean you don’t interview the “human” voices? No, you make an attempt. The record should serve as a complement to the other voices.

‘MAN’

ON THE STREET

Stories where you cover events often involve cold approaching normal people. Does it happen for every story? No. Is quoting an “everyday Joe” always necessary? No. Do we need to quote a “man” on the street to respond to police staffing going down? Not always. You can file the story with a quote from the police chief or spokesperson, maybe a business owner in a crime heavy part of town.

OBSERVATION

This is often a good tool for “setting the scene” for a story, but watch interpreting how people “feel.” You don’t know how they feel, because you’re not in their head. Also remember that sometimes your observation isn’t accurate. Don’t guess.

WEBSITES

Watch quoting the Internet excessively. Don’t find a random website that supports what your story is about and quote it. Don’t run to Wikipedia for the hard truth on a subject without checking the page edits and sources. Some websites are typically reliable, such as the Centers for Disease Control, but even at that, check the date.

SETTING UP AN INTERVIEW

After you pitch your story and it gets assigned to you, it’s time to start doing interviews. Even if you are covering an event for the future, you should still do some background interviews to get the lay of the land. And you’ll want to start reporting sooner rather than later. Why? The likelihood someone will pick up a call immediately or return your phone call the day of are low (but not impossible). Don’t rely on luck to get you a last-minute quote. Plan ahead.

There are different ways to set up interviews that are not day-of or event related: cold calls, calls to an administrative assistant to set up an appointment, or an email to set up the interview.

COLD CALLS

The easiest way to get someone on the phone to answer questions is to simply call them. If this strikes anxiety in you, don’t worry, it does for everyone. Consider this a peel of the Band-Aid kind of approach. When you call someone, be ready to ask questions. Don’t assume you will get to leave voicemail and then get some lead time on the person calling you back.

Make sure you immediately identify yourself when you are cold calling people (and for purposes here, cold calling means that they were not expecting you to call them). If you are writing a story on enrollment woes and trying to get the Vice President of Instruction on the phone, you can say the following:

“Hello, my name is John Rodriguez and I’m a reporter with The Collegian student newspaper. I am working on a story about enrollment woes at Delta College and trying to get a sense of what is causing low enrollment. I am hoping to ask you some questions, is now a good time?

CALL TO GET ‘ON THE SCHEDULE’

IDENTIFY

YOURSELF

Make sure you say your first and last name and that you are a reporter with the student newspaper.

GIVE CONTEXT

Explain clearly why you are calling. Make sure they understand the line of questioning.

BE POLITE

If you have the option to interview when the person has more time, you may get a better interview.

Decision makers often have gatekeepers. That means you may not be able to easily call the President of campus for a quick interview. Most division office numbers go straight to Administrative Assistants and not to administrators themselves.

First things first: Respect department administrative assistants. This is a universal rule of thumb across any organization you are calling. These individuals are often who gets you access to any time on the schedule of a decision maker. Do not treat these folks as a means to an end, treat them well and you may get a call back sooner rather than later.

When you call an office and reach an administrative assistant, make sure you the same things you would do for a cold call, but also add some important details about your deadline to ensure you get called back in a timely matter:

“Hello, my name is John Rodriguez and I’m a reporter with The Collegian student newspaper. I am working on a story about enrollment woes at Delta College and trying to get a sense of what is causing low enrollment. I am hoping to ask Important Administrator a few questions about Delta’s enrollment woes, is there a time they are available in the next three days? My deadline is three days (be as specific as possible) from now at 5 p.m.”

PRO-TIP

You may be able to easily schedule a 15 to 30-minute phone or in-person interview by calling, but you may be directed instead to send an email. And then you may be directed to email questions. Generally email interviews aren’t recommended. Your sources may not answer certain questions. Email interviews preclude followup questions by nature. Sources may overwrite answers. You will have to note in your story that the interview was conducted via email and not change punctuation or grammar.

EMAIL REQUEST

You can always start the interview process through email, particularly if you are in a place where people have shifted to work-from-home scenarios in light of the pandemic (and have continued to do so). Some sources may not be in the office five days a week.

The best advice when sending an email is to include as much detail as possible. Tell your subject who you are, what you are covering, why you need to talk to them, what your preferred method of interview is (particularly if you are not comfortable interviewing someone in person), when your deadline is, and how you can be reached. The sample here also notes that if the person you sent the email too is not who you should be talking to, they are asked to refer you to the person who you should talk.

What you don’t see in this email are the questions you want to ask. If your hope is to get a phone interview, don’t include questions. If you include questions, it allows the source to answer (and they may not respond to you until a few days later so you won’t even know they got the message.

BE FORMAL

Your email is representing yourself and the newspaper. Address your potential source by full name and title.

IDENTIFY YOURSELF

Even if you had a previous conversation, make sure you remind your source who you are and what you want to interview them about. Be specific.

Hello (Address by formal title here, i.e. Dr. Lawrenson),

My name is (insert your name here, first and last) and I’m a reporter for the Collegian student newspaper. I am working on a story about (subject of your story here). I would like to request an interview with you on the topic, specifically (what you need the person to answer questions about. Note that this is NOT the place to list all your questions, email interviews should only be done if the person absolutely cannot meet)

My deadline is (insert deadline here), so I am hoping to speak with you before then. I prefer a (format of interview) The interview will take approximately (time you think it will take to answer your questions). If you are not the correct person to talk to about this topic, please refer me to who is and I will contact them.

Thank you, (Your name)

NOTE DEADLINE

Make it explicit. You can even give a deadline before your deadline that would allow you time to add/make edits to your story before it goes to your editors.

ASK FOR REFERRAL

Sometimes the person you contact may not be the person you need. Ask them to pass along the name of who is responsible.

Treat every interaction with a potential source like the beginning of a relationship. Before you send an email asking for an interview, read it and re-read it. Remember that a spelling or grammar mistake on your end can change the way a source feels about you and treats you (yes, you’re a student, but you’re also in experiential practice that mimics the professional environment). If you struggle in that area, consult an editor or classmate before hitting the send button.

THE INTERVIEW PROCESS

There is no predetermined set of questions to ask at each interview. Newspaper-style stories require different approaches, depending on the content. You wouldn’t ask every single person you talk to whether or not they enjoy eating peas. Instead, you need to think ahead. Remember, it all starts with the pitch. You are pitching a story. You should have some knowledge about the subject content you’ll be covering. Let’s road map how to work through the interview process.

FIND THE KEY PLAYERS

Whether you’re covering a one-time event on campus or investigating a problem with administration pay, it’s best to find the right people to ask questions. If you’re writing about the elevators being down, don’t contact the horticulture department. Colleges have facilities departments. Don’t know who to talk to there? Ask an advanced staff member or your adviser.

You’ll know how to cater your questions if you know who you are asking.

START WITH NATURAL CONVERSATION

It’s best if you don’t get too close to your interview subjects, as it may impact your objectivity, but it’s OK to engage in chit chat ahead of the question/answer time.

There’s often a weird lag between when you introduce yourself and walk into a room and when you sit down and start talking. Look around the person’s office. Use that to scope out information. See a degree from a university you hope to attend? Mention it.

Don’t be fake, though. People can read when someone is pretending to be interested. Be inquisitive.

This changes if you are cold approaching someone. Don’t start a conversation with a person and NOT tell them you are a journalist. You need to make it clear that you’re doing a job, not trying to be their friend.

DON’T ASK “YES” OR “NO” QUESTIONS

The best way to shut down an interview is to ask questions that will get “yes” or “no” responses (More on page 24). Instead ask open-ended questions.

Consider these two questions:

• Is your favorite color green?

• What is your favorite color and why?

Those two questions will get two responses. One will lead to a conversation. The other will lead to a oneword answer. One-word answers rarely make good quotes (there are obviously exceptions).

Whether you’re in print, broadcast or multimedia journalism, you need soundbites to make your story flow well. Aim to get those soundbites.

WRITE YOUR QUESTIONS DOWN IF YOU NEED TO

It’s OK to show up to an interview with questions written down. In fact, it reassures your subject in many cases. It means you’ve prepared to have the conversation. Best practices would have beginning newswriting students scripting out questions ahead of every interview.

More advanced students and professional journalists often don’t have to write questions down. It does get easier over time to identify what the relevant questions are, what works and what doesn’t.

READ YOUR SUBJECT

Body language is telling. If you ask a bland question, your subject will cue you in on it. If your subject all of the sudden comes to life (hand movements, eyes awake) then you know you’re on to something. Read those more engaged moments to direct your questions into whatever it is you just asked and ask for elaboration.

Sometimes reading body language means you scrap the questions you came into the interview with. That’s OK, just go with it.

The inverse of that is someone who doesn’t want you to ask more questions. You know when an interview is starting to slow down, often through body language. Consider when someone starts to rub their eyes, or turns their body away from you, or allows even the slightest interruption (like answering every time the phone rings). Some of these are tactics to stop an interview. You can say “OK, I just have a few more questions ...” to move the interview along.

NOTE: Sometimes an interview goes really, really bad. It happens. If you find yourself in a confrontational setting and become uncomfortable, such as if a subject begins yelling at you, excuse yourself from the interview as quickly as you can. Our intention for reporters is to never put you in a dangerous or in a threatening situation. While we understand sometimes this can’t be avoided, and in fact happens a lot in professional journalism, at this level you’re learning.

BUT DON’T BE AFRAID TO GO OFF SCRIPT

You have 15 questions about a play you’re doing a story about, but then the student director suddenly tells you that the performances will be dedicated to the brother of a cast member who lost his life in a drunk driving incident. Do you stick to your questions about the production? No.

It’s OK to tell your subject you didn’t know that information when you were considering this story and you’d like to know more. It’s OK to be honest if the story changes midway through the interview. Take a moment, scribble some notes down, and then re-direct your questions.

Don’t get flustered. Journalism is about life changing at a moment’s notice. Go with it. The worst possible thing to do is to stick to the original script you put together for yourself because you fear upsetting an editor, or even your adviser. You can pre-plan your stories to the point of anxiety, walk into a situation that is completely different.

The best advice in a situation like this is to consider what the reader would want to read. You’ll find yourself making different storytelling decisions.

ASK IF THERE IS SOMETHING YOU DIDN’T ASK

This question typically leads the subject to reveal a lot more. Nine times out of ten, the interview subject will add more on to the interview. Be ready to write quickly to capture that additional information.

BE HONEST

Is this the first time you’ve ever interviewed anyone for an assignment like this? Be honest. More times than not, your subject will want to help you get through it. Interviews are hard on both sides.

Journalists are jacks of all trades and masters of none. You won’t be an expert soccer player after interviewing a soccer goalie. That’s OK. If the coach makes reference to something you don’t understand, don’t pretend to know what they’re talking about. Tell them that you don’t cover sports often, or ever, and ask for clarification.

Better stories come from clarification.

ASKING OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

People don’t often think in soundbites unless they are familiar with the media or a member of the media themselves. That’s a problem when reporters are searching for quotes that help tell a story. Asking bad questions is easier than asking good questions. Yes, there is such thing as a bad question.

In journalism, bad questions are usually ones that can be answered by “yes” or “no” responses. These are conversation killers. That means that your source can answer the question quickly and you can note that in a story, but those questions usually don’t lend themselves to follow-up.

Let’s consider some questions you may ask when covering an annual festival where nearly everyone is experiencing the same things, but you are trying to elicit different responses that are print-friendly and move your story forward.

PROMPTING FOR MORE INFORMATION

Are you enjoying the event?

Why it doesn’t work: You will get a “yes” or “no” answer. You can ask a follow up, but if this is your first question, you kind of kill the flow of the conversation immediately.

What are some of the things you’re enjoying about the event today?

?

Why it works: It makes an assumption (that they are enjoying themselves) but it’s an assumption that can be corrected through answer. You will also get extended answers because you’re asking for that.

GIVING LEVERAGE TO ELABORATE

There’s a merry-go-round, a giant slide, and a Ferris wheel here. Did you go on all of them?

Why it doesn’t work: This gives the reader back the obvious of what is around them. It asks a question, again, that can give a one-word answer. This is the type of question you ask when running out of questions.

What rides defined your experience today?

Why it works: You give the source a chance to explain and elaborate on their own. You also aren’t prompting them to be specific to those rides. They may have enjoyed the Tilt-A-Whirl instead.

GETTING MORE DETAILS ABOUT THE ‘WHO’

Who did you come with today?

Why it doesn’t work: The source can answer with simple names, which may be confusing since you likely don’t know the people. You can ask for specifics, but those, too, are one-word answers.

Who is in your fair entourage today? OR Who did you pull out with you to the fair today?

Why it works: This is a subtle change, but the elaboration and use of word “entourage” will usually lead to a deeper answer, but also will prompt the people around the source into the interview.

IMPLORING THE SUBJECT TO SET THE SCENE

What brought you out today?

Why it doesn’t work: Again, simple answers can come from this. Some people may have longer answers, but for the most part, this doesn’t prompt a substantial response.

What have you done so far on your adventure here today?

Why it works: Spinning the language a bit will prompt a more exciting answer, specifically when you position a trip to the event as an adventure. The source will likely respond with more color and detail.

PRE-REPORTING FOR PLANNED

COVERAGE

If you have pitched and are assigned a story in advance, do you best to get some pre-reporting out of the way. This is particularly helpful if you plan to show up at an event. You don’t always have to give people a heads up that you will be attending an event, but doing so allows you to establish points of contact to ease anxiety (especially important for firsttime reporters).

Here are some scenarios were pre-reporting is recommended:

• Getting deeper information about an event or happening: Fairs and festivals are usually held annually, which means not a lot changes from one year to the next. If something is different this year, you’ll want to report on it. A news release may give you insight, but getting a representative on the phone allows to ask questions that will guide your coverage and have fill-in quotes if needed for the live story.

• The event is hard to get into or has limited space: Calling ahead allows you to give a heads-up to organizers that you and possibly a photographer will be present at the event. If you don’t, you may not be able to get access to the event or venue.

• There’s a possibility you will get called away: This is true for weekend reporters at professional newspapers who typically write two daily stories in addition to covering crime happenings in a regular shift. You may think you have two hours to report at an event, only to find out you are getting pulled away to cover something else after 30 minutes. Getting some reporting done early ensures you have a story.

• If it makes you feel better to have something going into the coverage: This is a personal call. If calling and talking to someone before you go helps you be less anxious as a reporter, do it. Being able to say you talked to so-and-so before arriving usually smooths out your arrival a bit.

ONLINE SOURCING + REPORTING

Misinformation is everywhere nowadays. The likelihood that you will find something online that matches your opinion, whatever your opinion is, is incredibly high. While it can be assumed that students in journalism classes are more in-tuned to vetting falsehoods, sometimes you may miss an important clue and assume information you find online is accurate. All information from web sources, even ones that look like legitimate news sources, should be vetted. Here are three ways to help you vet content:

DIG INTO THE ‘WHO’ RUN IMAGE SEARCH CHECK SOURCING

When you get to a website, go to the “about” page first. You may be surprised by what you find. If the about includes information that indicates bias, consider that when you consider the source. Also check the URL to see if there are any additions that would make it appear legit, but is not the real version of a website. If you see a site that has .ed on in addition to .edu (.edu.ed) it’s likely not legit.

When you read the story, don’t be afraid to Google search names quoted within it. There have been cases of “fake doctors” on Twitter being quoted in the media, when the accounts are meant to be spoof accounts. Just because other people aren’t vetting their sources properly doesn’t mean you can slip. Dig into the sourcing to ensure you are seeing real people rather than made-up characters.

Don’t think a story is real just because it contains a picture. A general rule of thumb is that content with images does better. Out-of-context images are bad, stolen images are worse. Run a reverse image search (https://www.labnol.org/reverse/) to see where the image in question was first published. It may lead to you a source where the image has completely different context and narrative.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Most students know the definition of plagiarism, which is the presenting of another’s work as your own. Teachers generally have policies against this, including rules that prohibit self plagiarism which usually entails not allowing for work completed for another class to be submitted for credit as if its new. The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI), specifically the debut of Chat GPT in November 2022, has introduced an array of ethical issues when it comes to copyright, ownership, and reporting related to journalism and other fields.

If you’re wondering whether you should use AI to help report or write, the answer is simple: Don’t.

You may think it’s not that simple given the resource AI presents to journalism, but here are some things to consider before you try to engage AI in your own work.

WRITING IS NOT CLEAR OR CONCISE

It’s likely at some point you have had to meet a page count in a paper and just weren’t quite there. You have maybe already added extra spaces, increased the font size just a little bit, and paragraph broke to the next page. When all else fails, you just start writing nonsensical. “The sky is blue” may become “The sky is a wondrous shade of pale blue that is reminiscent of a clear lake on a sunny day.” AI generated text has a tendency to go a bit more above and beyond than journalistic writing.

While the AI is learning to write in a more lean fashion, it’s still pretty easy to figure out what was generated by computer, specifically since humans tend to edit themselves. Journalists, in particular, should be regularly editing themselves when they write.

CONTENT IS MADE UP

Ask ChatGPT to “write a news story about San Joaquin Delta College’s first day of school” and what comes up (bit.ly/3OiuCek) is a fake news story with flowery writing (starting with “amidst a palpable atmosphere of excitement and anticipation”) and made-up people. The results include quotes from Dr. Karen Martinez, President of Delta College, and sophomore student Alex Ramirez. While Delta may have a student named Alex Ramirez, Dr. Karen Martinez doesn’t exist. The quotes attached to the names are also completely fabricated.

GENERATORS TEND TO BE BEHIND IN THE TIMES

A news synopsis will come up really quick, but stories that are new and now won’t have any context. The information isn’t available to scrape for what’s happening today. If you get assigned an Election Day story, it’s likely AI will not have any context for who won that night’s election. This is also the case with other major breaking news events. Chat bots take time to gather information from across the web and they are not all that timely.

BOTS NOT LOCAL ENOUGH

You’re covering a college campus and, perhaps, the local Stockton community. Unless an AI tool is specific to the area, it’s likely it will not produce information with local context. Results showed that AI didn’t understand local geography or landmarks enough to make sense of them. In one example, the main branch of the Stockton/San Joaquin public library system was noted to be in Manteca. It’s in downtown Stockton.

COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT

Where does the text come from? Where do ideas for images come from? When AI scrapes content, it’s looking somewhere to learn. The content it pulls inspiration from could very well be copyrighted. This is especially the case with visual content. Websites like Midjourney are fun to play with, but the content produced should be scrutinized. An additional tidbit: The United States Copyright Office has said, as of early 2023, that AI-produced work is not eligible for copyright.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN AI

One of the central issues with the use of AI is that it can appear to be correct to the untrained eye. Unless you have great familiarity with the beat or story at hand, you may not know you’re being fooled, which means readers may not know. We live in an age of misinformation where rumors can spread by a person sharing a single social media post. Let’s look at some case studies showcasing why AI should be engaged with extreme caution.

FAKE WRITERS TAKE ON REPORTING DUTIES

In late 2023, Sports Illustrated came under fire for publishing articles on its website that were created by fake authors, with fake profile images, all generated by Artificial Intelligence. In particular, stories from “Drew Ortiz” were called out. According to his profile on the website, Ortiz “likes to say he grew up in the wild, which is partially true. He grew up in a farmhouse, surrounded by woods, fields, and a creek.” An article by Futurism (bit. ly/4eLnh3c) noted that the author didn’t exist outside of Sports Illustrated coverage. The same articles would then magically be reassigned to other authors. Sports Illustrated released a statement saying that the articles were produced by AdVon Commerce, a company partner. The statement noted the use of pseudonyms — fake names — were actions that Sports Illustrated didn’t “condone” which is why content was removed.

KEY ISSUES: Loss of credibility. Sports Illustrated deleted all of the alleged AI-report articles. The public embarrassment that came with it was a reputation hit. It’s important to know where and from whom news originates.

BASKETBALL PLAYER ‘USELESS AT 42’ DUE

TO DEATH

Perhaps one of the worst offenses in 2023 was the AI-created obituary about former Orlando Magic and Boston Celtic player Brandon Hunter. Hunter’s career was mostly played overseas. He had a storied college career at Ohio University. When he died, MSN.com published an article titled “Brandon Hunter useless at 42” to announce his death. The byline simply said “Story by Editor” (archive.is/jKJHn). Among Hunter’s noted achievements: “He performed in 67 video games over two seasons and achieved a career-high of 17 factors in a recreation in opposition to the Milwaukee Bucks in 2004.” If that sentence left you scratching your head, you weren’t the only one.

KEY ISSUES: Obituaries should always be treated with respect. Here it appears an AI scraper took bits and pieces of another story and found synonyms that had nothing to do with the actual story. The publication of this story shows very little care taken to ensure correctness or to be sensitive.

POTENTIALLY HELPFUL AI TOOLS

There are some tools being engaged by reporters and editors that could be helpful with a caution: Use of AI may try to parallel human behavior and patterns, but may always fall short. Use at your own risk.

OTTER.AI

The application’s AI Meeting Assistant can be deployed within Zoom, Google Meet, or Microsoft Teams to capture meeting notes. Just be aware that not all recording transcripts are accurate (bit.ly/3W3Pb3i), so always double or triple check before publication.

GRAMMARLY

A big caution about Grammarly as it relates to Generative AI: Turnitin. com has been known to flag content run through Grammarly as AI written. If you struggle with grammar, Grammarly may be a good tool to help you grow as a writer, but be careful.

AI CALENDARS

If you struggle with trying to fit everything into your day, use of an AI calendar may help. There are several out there: Motion, Clara, and Trevor are three. Of note: These help with organization. They will not call a source and help you set up interviews for you.

USING NEWS RELEASES

News release should be used to start your reporting, not be a comprehensive reporting tool. Releases are often not written in Associated Press style, with the hope of the sending organization to be an informational item to garner interest in potential stories. Not every news release leads to a story. But all news releases typically include context, scope, quotes, and general information about the organization. You may be tempted to quote a news release (and that happens). Don’t do it, instead use the news release to guide your reporting.

FIND AN ANGLE

This release points out the uniqueness of this person being named president of the college as the first Latina to lead the campus. Delta College is a Hispanic Serving Institution. Your story could be a reaction piece talking to Hispanic students on campus about this history-making appointment.

GET BIO INFORMATION

Skip asking for Lawrenson her biography if you can get her on the phone. The college provided biographical information, that can go at the end of the story. You can say “according to college communications” or note that it is from the news release.

IDENTIFY TALKING POINTS

Lawrenson notes that she is hoping to provide excellence in education and workforce development. Use this as a talking point when you interview her and ask her elaborate on what that means and what her first actions will or may be. It’s also noted that she has experience in culturally responsive teaching. Find out what it means and why it will be relevant to her experience at the college. Also note her deep community college connections.

IDENTIFY OTHER SOURCES

Here the Board of Trustees president is quoted. You can contact that person for a fresh quote or to get more insight into the choice.

There may be cases where people quoted in a news release aren’t available to answer more questions. You need to make good faith attempt to report beyond the news release. Waiting until the last minute to start reporting is not a good faith effort. Don’t do lazy reporting.

MAINTAINING SOURCING RELATIONSHIPS

It’s easy to talk to someone once and never call again. The likelihood, though, is that you’ll be talking to people over and over again. Don’t burn your sources, they’ll lead you to other stories and provide tips if you build a relationship.

1

EXCHANGE CARDS

Ask for a business card and always exchange your own. Why? That way you have an accurate spelling of a person’s name and basic contact information. Buy a Rolodex, keep all your business cards together. Plus, a business card always works when the power is out.

CALL BACK

4

You expect your sources to call you back. Your job will be contingent on them calling you back. So if a source calls you, call them back. Even if they call about something completely unrelated to a story.

PRO-TIP

2

RESPECT ‘OFF THE RECORD’

Many times a source will not provide you information, particularly if they know if will put their job in jeopardy. If someone asks you to go “off the record” or asks that they only be used as background to confirm or deny something, don’t break that trust. It’s unethical, and it also is a reporter/source relationship killer.

DON’T GET TOO FRIENDLY

5

Stay on the reporter side of the street. Don’t get too friendly with your sources. Don’t do dinner outside of work related duties. Don’t have drinks after work. Be cordial, but don’t be a BFF.

3

PROTECT YOUR BEAT AND SOURCES

Don’t let other reporters burn bridges and don’t do it to them. If you have a working relationship with a source, protect it. Ask your colleagues to go through you and have you make the initial contact. In some cases, introduce them.

HONOR YOUR WORD

6

Have an appointment with someone? Show up on time. Follow-through is important. You need to trust your sources and they need to trust you. They won’t if you come off as flakey.

It’s never easy to interview people you don’t know, but there are ways to decrease your anxiety about cold calls or in-person interviews.

• DO YOUR HOMEWORK: Before you call someone, do a Google search of their name. You may find information related to your story, but you may also get a better sense of who the person is and what they value. You should always have context going into your interviews.

• READ THE ROOM: When you first arrive at an event, gauge the situation by checking out the scene. You may find yourself gravitating toward certain figures as opposed to the first person you meet (which may lead to an interview you can use, but not one that’s as good as something you can after you look around a bit).

• ASK FOR GUIDANCE: If you cold call someone and they can only give you a bit of background or answer a few questions, ask that person who you should be talking to next. That will be your in for the next conversation, since you can say “I was told you are someone I should talk to by ...” Those word-of-mouth referrals work to engage someone in a conversation.

• ACKNOWLEDGE WHEN YOU HAVE A QUESTION: The worst thing to do in an interview is pretend that you are en expert in a subject or understand something you do not. Journalists tend to be a jack of all trades and experts in none. It’s OK to ask your source to explain something to you. You can say: “Hey, I don’t have a lot of knowledge in this area, could you explain?” It’s better to ask the clarifying question than publish something wrong that you assumed in print.

INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC RECORDS

...“Public records” includes any writing containing information relating to the conduct of the public’s business prepared, owned, used, or retained by any state or local agency regardless of physical form or characteristics.”

— Government Code section 7920.530(a)

It is likely that you have heard the term “public records” before. We generally categorize public records with the above definition, but more specifically content (which means not just documents these days) related to running of government, including local, state, and national offices. Publicly funded colleges, as well as groups and committees within them, produce public records.

The list of items that may be considered public record is long:

• Emails that have to do with the conducting of public business (even if a public employee tries to put a confidentiality notice at the bottom)

• Calendars

• Meeting agendas (usually published publicly under Brown Act before a meeting)

• Meeting minutes

• Meeting audio or other associated recordings

• Court records (civil and criminal)

• Surveillance/video footage

• Letters

• Contracts

Any member of the public can request and examine public records, not just journalists.

Records may be requested under the California Public Records Act, but a record:

• Must be related to public business

• Must be “retained” by the agency

• Must be an existing record, not something the agency has to create for the request

PUBLIC RECORDS FAQs

WHY IS ACCESS IMPORTANT?

• Doesn’t need to be written, it can be produced a variety of other ways

• Doesn’t need to be printed, it can be electronic

• Doesn’t need a reason given for the request

The public has a right to know where taxpayer money is going, which means that the public has a right to inspect records related to those decisions. If decisions are made by state agencies, including colleges under the purview of the state, a trail of records exists. Access is transparency.

IS THERE ANYTHING I CAN’T REQUEST?

The simple answer is no, but it’s more complicated than that. You can request any documents you believe exist, but a government agency may deny requests based on a few things: privacy, personnel-related matters, consultation with lawyers included. An agency may choose to redact certain parts of a public record. Agencies may also say that certain content is not public.

WHAT HAPPENS IF I THINK A RECORD SHOULD HAVE BEEN RELEASED, BUT WASN’T?

The agency must provide a reason for the denial of the records. The agency also needs to provide a reason for redaction in cases where documents have been redacted (the most common causes cited are privacy or pending litigation). A denial in writing provides content and context for a story. It also notes the reason for denial publicly.

CAN A NEWS MEDIA ORGANIZATION BE RECORDS REQUESTED?

Generally no, because it’s not a public organization. That hasn’t stopped people from trying, but those situations are generally retaliatory in action.

CALIFORNIA PUBLIC RECORDS ACT

The California Public Records Act (CPRA) is a 1968 law requiring publicly-funded entities to disclose and provide requested information to citizens, unless specifically prohibited by the statute.

Local and state organizations abide by rules in the original law, including:

• Responding within 10 days, that period may be extended to 14 days

• Providing a reason for any denial

• Not asking for/requiring a reason to justify why records are sought

• Charging a reasonable amount for duplication of records, but not charging to view (requester can ask for electronic records)

• Not withholding all record(s) if only one part is exempt

• Not proving privileged or confidential information

It’s best to be specific in your request. Asking for something too broadly could mean a instant denial. The organization or agency also shouldn’t be producing new reports as part of the request.

The intent of the act considers two elements when considering turning over records:

RIGHT TO MONITOR GOVERNMENT

When enacting the CPRA, state Legislature “stated that access to information concerning the conduct of the public’s business is a fundamental and necessary right for every person in the state,” according to a 2004 summary of the CPRA (bit. ly/3RWjPcm). The “primary purpose is to give the public an opportunity to monitor the functioning of their government” specifically because “the greater and more unfettered the public official’s power, the greater the public’s interest in monitoring the governmental action,” according to the summary.

MORE ON EXEMPTIONS

RIGHT TO PRIVACY

The CPRA doesn’t throw privacy out the window, though, as it is still a “fundamental interest.” The Legislature “recognized the individual right to privacy in crafting a number of exemptions,” according to the 2004 summary. This means agencies have to balance the public’s right to access with information that could be considered “personal or intimate.” Oftentimes decisions are made based on how strong the public’s right to know is, and whether there is truly an invasion of privacy. No two cases are the same when it comes to making a decision.

Agencies can deny records for various reasons, sometimes legitimately and sometimes illegitimately. Ask any journalist who has ever filed public records’ request and they will likely note an occasion in which they were delayed access to or denied public records.

DELAYING OF RECORDS

A public agency generally has to respond to a request within 10 days. An extension may be sought by the agency. Noted reasons for extensions are: inability to process records quickly and need for consultation with lawyers. If an agency continuously delays, a story could be warranted if a reporter no longer believes the agency is acting in good faith.

DENIAL OF RECORDS

Some records request with be denied. Reasons for denial can range from the agency noting the request is too broad, to the agency saying the records do not fall under public purview. The agency must provide a reason for the denial very specifically (i.e. an agency can’t just say that a reporter isn’t getting the records).

Some records that have generally been denied release are: documents that are related to pending litigation, works that are in draft form (generally only finalized versions of a document are released), files that are deemed “personnel” related and may include private information, or communication that is protected under attorney-client privilege relationships. While it is not guaranteed a request of these items would be denied, it is likely.

FILING A PUBLIC RECORDS REQUEST

There is no need to reinvent the wheel when it comes to writing a public records request. Several organizations, including the California Newspaper Publisher’s Association and the First Amendment Coalition have sample templates can be easily modified to fit the needs of the request.

PRACTICE NEWSROOM SCENARIO

PRO-TIP

Get more information about public records laws and requests:

• bit.ly/calFOIA

• bit.ly/carecordaccess

Let’s adapt the First Amendment Coalition’s letter (bit.ly/samplecpra) to fit a newsroom scenario. Reporter Jenny Jones finds out that Jerry T. Juckley, the men’s volleyball coach, was recently arrested for assault. The arrest happened a week ago. Juckley’s bio information is still on the college website. The reporter reaches out to the athletic department for comment only to be told the coach is not employed by the college. The reporter quickly screenshots the website and sends it off to the athletic director asking, again, for comment. Athletic Director Martin Pushla again says the coach is not employed by the college. The reporter finds that there is a hire date for the Juckley in Board of Trustees documentation, but no separation date. The reporter is trying to verify employment and sends this request to school Public Information Officer Gina Tanzien.

July 2, 2024

Re: Public Records Act Request from The Collegian

To Gina Tanzien, Public Information Officer:

This is a request made under the California Public Records Act, Government Code sections 7920.000 –7931.000, for records in the possession or control of your agency.

I am seeking a copy of employment information on Jerry Juckley, Delta College men’s volleyball coach, specifically his date of hire, his date of termination (if applicable), his current status as an employee, his specific salary and any titles held during his employment.

I am also asking for campus emails between Athletics Director Martin Pushla and Juckley between June 1, 2024 and July 2, 2024

Keep in mind your agency’s obligations under the law require you to:

• Respond within 10 calendar days.

• Produce electronic records in the format in which you hold them.

• Help me to make a focused and effective request by (1) identifying records and information that are responsive, (2) describing the information technology and physical location in which the records exist and (3) providing suggestions for overcoming any practical issues.

• Segregate or redact any exempt information contained within a record so that the public information in the remainder of the record may be released.

• Broadly construe all provisions that further the public’s right of access, and apply any limitations on access as narrowly as possible, per Article 1, Section 3(b)(2) of the California Constitution.

• Provide written justification for denial of this request, in whole or in part, stating the specific exemptions from disclosure you assert and the name and title or position of each person responsible for the denial.

I ask that you notify me of any costs exceeding $50 before you incur them, so that I may decide which records I want copied.

Thank you for your timely attention to this matter.

Sincerely,

Jenny Jones, Collegian reporter (209) 555-5151 or jenniferjones23@gmail.com

ANALYSIS OF THE SAMPLE LETTER

Let’s do a color-coded review the sample letter what Jenny Jones wrote to make her records request effective.

IDENTIFYING THE RECORDS AGENT

Address your request to the agency’s public records agent. If you don’t know, ask. It is better to do some initial leg work here and send the message to the right person, rather than avoid having your email end up in the wrong inbox or ignored.

RECORDS REQUEST PART #1

The reporter seeks to verify employment dates. While some of this info is publicly available through Board of Trustee files, she is asking for more detailed information. Notice she does not say which records she is seeking, but is asking for employment verification.

RECORDS REQUEST PART #2

The reporter also decided that emails may exist between the athletic director and the coach. While she has the screenshot of the coach still being listed on the website and the athletic director saying the coach no longer works at the college, she is seeking emails to see if any exchanges between the two could clarify employment.

PLAYING THE WAITING GAME

REMINDER OF RESPONSIBILITY

A public agency should know its responsibility to turnover appropriate records, right? Not always. There may be a new person in the role of public records agent. There may be someone who has never done a records request. This part of the form letter may seem like a given, but it’s important to offer a reminder of what the agency’s responsibilities are as outlined in the CPRA.

NOTE YOUR COST CEILING

You can ask for review of electronic records, which should be free, but a public entity can also charge a reporter to produce records. Always note your cost ceiling so an agency doesn’t suddenly tell you that a records request is going to cost $1,000.

PROVIDE CONTACT INFO

Always provide at least two points of contact. If you want, one can be the general email address for the Collegian newsroom, deltacollegian@gmail.com. This will hopefully push the agency to contact you if there is a need for clarification.

Agencies are given 10 days under the CPRA to turn over public records, but may request extensions. What happens when the extension goes beyond 14 days? Or an entire semester?

That scenario was one Collegian editors faced in 2024-25 when a records request for information related to Delta College’s alleged violation of an Education Code in the working of part-time employees was delayed again and again. The college kept asking for extensions.

The request was made by Entertainment Editor Nick Michelsen. When he left staff after Fall 2024, Sports Editor Andrea Rivera picked up the chase. She went back and forth with the campus public information officer until April 2024, when records began being released. In that time, she compiled a stock of open records, including board documents, audio recordings, and public meeting comments.

“Did I want to play the waiting game? No. But did I constantly remind the college that I was there? Yes. I did my best to never let the questions or clarifications regarding records that we began to receive throughout the semester stop me. I began asking questions that involved research I found in board documents and recordings to stay on top and not lose momentum,” said Rivera, who was in constant communication about the records.

The records were released over five dates, the last happening after publication of the “In violation” special section in May 2024 (bit.ly/inviolationcollegian). A delay isn’t the best case scenario for reporting. If reporters and editors believe records are being stalled in bad faith, they may write a story about the delay for publication.

BASICS OF COVERING A MEETING

Covering meetings are the bread and butter of journalism. Similar to covering a crime or court-related story, these stories serve as rites of passage for the green or student journalist. Consider it a way to hone your chops on content with a little bit of predictability — but only a little.

Meetings can be wild cards. Public comment can get rowdy. Members at the dais, the platform of seats, may speak out of turn. When money comes into play, meetings can make for pretty exciting stories. But the reporter needs to be in the right mind frame. Don’t go in to regurgitate what has been said. Listen. Dig deeper. Here’s an easy guide to help you through for your first time.

RULES OF ORDER

All meetings are run in parliamentary procedure by Robert’s Rules of Order. The rules are a list of does and don’ts.

You don’t have to memorize every rule, and likely won’t, but you should review them at least once before you attend a meeting and then once a year. It’s especially important to understand the jargon (adopt, rescind, etc.).

robertsrules.org rulesonline.com

GETTING THE AGENDA

Agendas must be made available to the public at least 72 hours ahead of the meeting time.

Agendas were once printed, now most are easy to find online. San Joaquin Delta College utilizes BoardDocs for most meetings, including the Board of Trustees.

bit.ly/sjdcboard

QUOTING IN PUBLIC FORUM

Anything said during public comment or in a public meeting is quotable in a story.

That means if an elected official calls another by a name, you may report it.

You may also be protected from a libel suit if an elected official made a libelous statement during a meeting if you reported it accurately.

Best practices dictate you always approach a person who provided public comment and ask for their name.

PUBLIC COMMENTS

Public meetings have a period, usually at the beginning, of public comment. People wishing to address the board, council, or commission must fill out a piece of paper with their information (name and address).

Speakers are given three minutes make their address. Representatives cannot answer during this time. It’s one sided.

The public comment period can be brief or long depending on what is being discussed.

RALPH M. BROWN ACT

This 1953 Act that’s in California Government Code 54950, guarantees members of the public the right to be present and involved at public meetings. Named after former Assembly member Ralph M. Brown, the act prohibits board or council members from holding what can be considered “secret” meetings to make decisions.

It applies to all councils, boards, and governing bodies of agencies. It also applies to subcommittees operating under those boards. If members of a board meet together outside of the regularly-scheduled meeting to discuss an upcoming vote, it’s considered a Brown Act violation.

The Brown Act is sometimes cited inappropriately. Boards can use it to delay proceedings by saying decisions can’t be made without a public meeting. Worse, board members can use it as a reason for not answering questions related to a story. You can ask board members questions about decisions as it pertains to the public. It is not a violation.

BROWN ACT VIOLATIONS

Members of a governing board, or a board’s subcommittees can be found in violation of the Brown Act, which may result in proceedings being invalidated (there is potential for that, but it is not always the case). The purpose of the Brown Act is to ensure transparency. Be on the lookout for some common violations.

DISCUSSING BUSINESS OUTSIDE OF MEETING: If the intent of the Brown Act is to do business in public purview, it is a violation for board members to discuss public issues (anything that could be voted on) outside of meetings. If a board member casually mentions that he and another member discussed a proposed plan at dinner, that may be a violation.

CLOSED (OR SECRET) MEETINGS: Boards can meet in closed session, but must report out any actions during open session. If a board meeting that has historically been open, is suddenly closed to the public, seek clarification as to why.

DISCLOSING CLOSED SESSION CONVERSATIONS: Boards are required to report out any action taken in closed session. Conversations may include personnel matters or other private information that cannot be reported out.

IMPROPER NOTIFICATION: Boards have to post meeting agendas within 72 hours of a meeting (24 for an emergency meeting). If agendas are not posted in a timely manner, the meeting may be canceled and rescheduled.

A board may be served with a “cure and correct” letter by any member of the public if there is an alleged Brown Act violation. A “cure and correct” letter must be sent within 30 days of the alleged violation. For more about this type of corrective action, visit the First Amendment Coalition at bit.ly/3XXhOAj.

WRITING THE STORY

The meeting alone isn’t the whole story, though it can be. There are three types of stories related to meetings:

PREVIEW: Published as a lead-up to the meeting, these stories develop after the agenda is published. These are done to give insight into discussions to happen or decisions to be made.

LIVE: Can be a play-by-play, but likely shouldn’t. Instead focus on one part of the meeting, or one critical decision, and then round out the end (at the bottom of the inverted pyramid) with other, less important, details.

FOLO: A story run after the decision. Live stories are typically short with few detail. A folo story may dig deeper into ripple effects of an issue.

FOLLOW UP & CONTACT

Decisions made in the public trust, on the public dime, need follow up. Public meeting coverage an ongoing, long-term commitment.

You may not get to every meeting, but you should read agendas to know what’s going on.

You should also know how to contact public officials. Members of boards and agencies are elected officials. Normally a phone number or email address is provided for them where you would find agendas. Home addresses are also typically public.

NEWSWRITING

Now that you’ve done the ground work for your story, it’s time to put it together. Newswriting uses a very specific format that is not like what is required in your English classes. Instead, your focus is on synthesizing the information you received and organizing it in terms of importance. The most important information goes at the beginning of a story. The deeper you get into a story, the less important the information becomes.

Why are stories written this way? It’s tied to journalism history. In the early days of journalism, the newspaper was assembled using a Linotype machine. These machines took words, sometimes individual letters, and put them together to create plates for publishing. Once a story was typeset, which was a laborious process, it was easier to remove content from the bottom rather than go back and reflow the text on the machine. The terms here are ones we sometimes use in the modern, digital newsroom.

If a writer wanted to keep content in a story, it needed to go closer to the top. The further down information was in a story, the more likely a typesetter would cut it if there wasn’t space available on the page.

For that reason, stories are written in inverted pyramid format. Inverted pyramid style puts everything relevant up high, moving down importance paragraph by paragraph.

THE INVERTED PYRAMID

Inverted pyramid structure assumes you will take the information from your reporting and consider where it needs to be placed in a story.

Let’s consider what is usually categorized into each of these areas:

MOST IMPORTANT

This is usually the first two or three paragraphs. It includes your lede and usually answers: Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?

IMPORTANT

This is information your readers need, but is not as important as what you have higher in the story.

• MOST IMPORTANT: This section will include your lede and some sort of scope sentence (the nut graf). The lede introduces your story and gets to the point of the 5Ws and 1H quickly. Scope tells people why they should care about the story. The lede can be succinct in that it includes the scope. Scope may come in a later sentence. These paragraphs sometimes include your early source quotes.

LEAST IMPORTANT

This is information with good details, but what is here can be cut and won’t impact the story badly.

• IMPORTANT: This information is important to the story, but not critical to tell people immediately. Consider that people read paragraph to paragraph and don’t commit to a whole story all at once. If someone stops reading early, they may miss something essential. If they stop reading around this point, they will still get the basics, but be missing some lesser details.

• LEAST IMPORTANT: Consider this the “cut zone.” Beginning writers usually make the mistake of putting quotes here instead of sprinkling them throughout the story. If you do that, you take away the human element that helps your narrative. This is information that is nice to have, but not essential to story telling. Don’t save the best for last.

STORY STRUCTURES

Writing in English classes prior to coming into a Journalism course often conditions writers to formula-base writing where you have an intro, thesis, concrete details, and supporting details. Journalism is similar, but instead of research guiding your prose, it’s your interviews and reporting. Don’t overthink it. Your story structure will likely fit into one of the following four journalistic structures.

STRAIGHTFORWARD NEWS

The most basic of story structure that never fails and gets to the point immediately.

SCOPE/NUT GRAF QUOTE FOR SCOPE

DETAIL 1

QUOTE TO SUPPORT DETAIL 1

DETAIL 2

QUOTE TO SUPPORT DETAIL 1/END STORY

FEATURE

Consider this a framework and not a literal how-to. This style gets your lede and scope up high before using quotes to support your details. Whether you have two details or five (which is a solid number for a news story) you want to use the quotes to either support or amplify those details. It’s OK to end on a quote. Resist ending on a cheesy note.

STYLE (AKA ‘THE KABOB’)

This style focuses on drawing the reader in with an anecdote before building the circular narrative.

NARRATIVE (AKA

‘MARTINI GLASS’)

This style establishes the lede and scope, but then goes into storytelling mode for more details.

LEDE

SCOPE/ NUT GRAF

SCOPE/NUT

DETAILS

DETAILS W/QUOTES

Nearly all feature stories are written using “the kabob” style, which begins with an anecdote that brings the reader in. You establish scope and nut graph early, building your story to support the anecdote - building connection to itbefore coming back to it right before the end. The end of the story usually goes back to the original anecdote.

THE

NARRATIVE TELLING (IN ORDER) KICKER END

This style looks at setting up the scene with a direct lede and laying down of scope. It then moves into telling the story of how something happened and who was involved in a chronological way. That chronology is supported with quotes (evoking that straightforward news structure). Since the path here is storytelling, the later part of the story flips inverted pyramid structure in a way that builds up to a climactic ending. This structure is tougher to trim down because of the detail.

TURN (AKA ‘THE HOURGLASS’)

Similar to the Martini glass, this one includes a turning point in the story bridging news with feature.

LEDE SCOPE/ NUTGRAF NEWS HOOK

This is a structure seen on a majority of follow or “folo” stories. You may introducing new information at the top, but then connecting to older information and an established narrative later in the story.

If you are covering a court case, you will likely use this structure. You will introduce new concepts at the top, but then revisit previous happenings. You’re writing the story as if a person doesn’t have the context or history going in (though some people may).

STRAIGHTFORWARD NEWS

Most news stories will take on this format and that is just fine. When you are writing news for the first time, it’s better to focus on your reporting than try to swerve off into a different style of writing immediately. Straightforward news structure allows you to state what is most important immediately, then work your way through down the inverted pyramid.

Let’s consider this story from Spring 2022. When the Collegian returned from winter break, much of the second floor of the Shima building where the newspaper lab is located was flooded out. An HVAC line broke, which meant water flowed across the third, second, and first floors of the building.

While there weren’t many people on campus, the flood impacted the Culinary Arts program, which had to essentially gut a lab, and the Student Food Pantry, which is a vital service to the campus community. Then Collegian Editor in Chief Jahdai Spikes wrote a news folo, one that described the problem, but also dug into the scope of why this sort of flood was problematic for campus.

LEDE

The first sentence tells the reader what happened, when it happened, and how much damage was caused.

SCOPE/NUT GRAF

The scope here is longer than normal, but includes good details. It answers the “who” in terms of who is taking care of the flood. It gives a “what” in terms of what needs to be replaced. This area also addresses what program was most impacted by the flood.

QUOTE FOR SCOPE

This quote backs up the paragraphs before it and gives a timeline for repairs. You should use your quotes to back up what is immediately in the paragraph before the quote. Think of it as using a quote to back up a concrete detail.

DETAIL SECTION 1

These paragraphs go into detail about what was impacted by the flooding. Note that in this case, there are no quotes to back this up. This story would have been better with quotes, particularly quotes from impacted programs. In this case, the intent was to write tight because there wasn’t space in the newspaper.

DETAIL SECTION 2 + QUOTE TO SUPPORT DETAIL 2

Here the writer introduces the age of the building as a factor in the flood. Jahdai learned that the building’s age may have played a role in what happened while reporting. They noted it in the story, but then brought in the quote to back it up.

LESSER DETAILS

These details are good, but not necessary to the overall storytelling. They are prioritized at the end because they can be cut easily.

NARRATIVE (AKA ‘THE MARTINI GLASS’)

Narrative storytelling aims to take readers on a journey. While there may not be a news hook (a specific reason why the story is being told now) in the writing, most good narrative pieces connect to current events and evoke feeling in the reader. Narrative writing brings moments to life.

In Fall 2021, Santiago Martinez was a staff writer for Collegian. He was also a student athlete adjusting to new rules and regulations to get on the mat. Santiago was grateful for a chance to compete, but also conflicted about how much the sport he loved had changed. This story is a narrative, first person that ran on the front page.

DELAYED LEDE

Santiago opens by painting a picture for readers. He recounts the world we’re living in. He funnels down into Covid restrictions as it pertains to athletes.

SCOPE/NUT GRAF

The scope/nut graf here is single sentence, again, to focus on narrative.

NARRATIVE TELLING

Santiago starts at the beginning here. He digs into dealing with adversity. He talks about mental challenges. He moves the reader through the past year-plus of his life as an athlete living through a pandemic.

CONCRETE DETAILS

A lot of good details that support the narrative telling are sprinkled throughout the story.

KICKER ENDING

The ending here circles back to the beginning, but also evokes wordplay with “takedown” and “defeat.” Narrative style looks to leave the reader with something to think about. Santiago looks back to the nut graf here for readers.

FEATURE STYLE (AKA ‘THE KABOB’)

Feature stories typically follow a “kabob” flow, with either a direct or anecdotal lede, nut graf, and various details supported by quotes. Feature style also allows you to dig deeper into your own writing, pushing you to explore wordplay and turn of phrase if you want to.

Annabel Lock was a first-semester member of the Collegian staff in Spring 2022 who had a knack for feature storytelling. Her story about the Edible Schoolyard Project was her first as a staff member. Annabel let quotes tell the story and really bring her subject to life.

LEDE

The opening two sentences describe the Edible Schoolyard Project and give context for what it does.

SCOPE/NUT GRAF

This paragraph tells the reader why this is a story now, specifically that the project now has a lease and land.

QUOTE FOR SCOPE

The quote here links back to the paragraph immediately above it. This is proper quote structure.

DETAIL SECTION 1 + QUOTE

The introduction of a new source, plus quotes from that source moves the story along. This also helps transition.

DETAIL SECTION 2 + QUOTES TO SUPPORT DETAIL 2

Notice the back and forth of formatting here. Each time Annabel includes a tidbit of information, she follows it with a quote from a source. This structure helps move the story along. This is what we consider the “meat” of the kabob. Notice that this whole section uses a single person to quote. You don’t always have to get a new source to dig further into a story. Information here can also be paraphrased. Annabel uses her interview and reporting to tell the story by adding new content to consider through this one source.

LESSER DETAILS/SPIN AHEAD

While feature stories are typically not cut the same way that news stories are, it is still recommended that lesser details go later in the story. Here, Annabel looks to “spin ahead” by examining what comes next for the Edible Schoolyard Project.

KICKER/ANECDOTE ENDING

Annabel saved a strong quote for the end. The “children’s children” here shows that the creators of the Edible Schoolyard are hoping to create something that will sustain for a long time. Notice how Annabel uses her lesser details to move into this quote. She sets it up by establishing plans for the future. This quote is strong enough that an editor likely wouldn’t want to cut it, because it grabs the reader’s attention.

THE TURN (AKA ‘THE HOURGLASS’)

This style is reminiscent of the narrative approach, but also explores previous reporting whether done by you as a reporter or already covered by the Collegian staff. New information is introduced at the beginning, while a retelling of previous information comes later. As a writer, you should assume your reader needs that additional context.

One of the big topics for reporting during the 2021-22 school year was the student vaccine mandate. In early Fall 2021, the Board of Trustees approved a vaccine mandate for all students taking in-person classes (students taking only online classes were exempt). The mandate became the center of a lot of news stories, but not the story in total. Each issue staff members reported on it piece by piece as they tried to work out the full picture of how it would be implemented.

LEDE

Writer Jason Diez touches on immediate news here: an approaching deadline.

SCOPE/NUT GRAF

Note that the story addresses the conflict of the mandate not being clear, pinning the recent news to the Sept. 21 meeting. This tells the reader why they should care and why this story is relevant.

QUOTE FOR SCOPE

The quote gives more context for the nut graf. It also brings a human voice into the story fairly high up.

DETAIL SECTION 1 + QUOTE

This section introduces new details about the vaccine mandate, specifically the concept of contact tracing. Here the contact tracing information is relayed in somewhat of a chronological order. You also get the quote about contract tracing in this section.

THE TURN

Here the story stars to move into rehash, but it’s necessary rehash to help the story along. Some readers may not know this information. This section combines things already known with new information to support the mandate.

CIRCULAR END

The story returns, after the turn, back to the premise, which is that the vaccine mandate is slated to happen. It also looks forward to potential for another story.

TYPES OF STORIES

Newspaper stories typically fall under five section types: news, opinion, feature, entertainment, and sports. All of these stories type employ inverted pyramid style in some way, but storytelling tactics are used differently.

NEWS

These are stories that are fact based, contain neutral language, offer both sides and are unbiased. These are stories that typically start with a lede addressing one or more of the following: who, what, where, when, why and/or how. A writer must cite sources for all information included. Paragraphs are typically one sentence. Structure is tight, with precise language preferred over long-ish sentence and flowery words.

These stories are written concisely, with special attention paid to use of language. No loaded words or phrases, or anything resembling opinion should be included. News stories are the tightest written stories you will write.

FEATURE

Feature stories are similar in structure to news, but contain more wordplay and creative prose.

Feature stories focus on topics that are newsworthy, but maybe don’t have a news “peg” at that very moment. Instead these are what we call “evergreens” in the industry. These stories are characterized by delayed-style ledes, which typically wrap the lede to the ending paragraph or quote. It follows a “kabob” style of writing. Feature stories also typically have art that draws people into the page. The topics that get pitched are ones about “slice of life” topics, things that are important, but do not elevate to the news level.

SPORTS

This style of writing is broken into support opinion, feature style, and game coverage.

A supported-opinion sports story is one where you discuss a specific topic, while allowing outside voices to move it along.

Feature-style writing is particularly good for pieces where you want to focus on something with athletics as part of it, but not a game or a immediate event.

Game coverage, or a “gamer,” is a story that is about a sporting event only, with no feature or opinion details. A gamer is the news story of sports.

OPINION

These stories are the only ones in the paper where the word “I” should be used. Opinion stories are easy to write badly. Just saying you hate or love something isn’t enough. Opinion should include thoughtful analysis of the topic you choose, with sources to back up your opinion. Sound opinion stories will also include counter viewpoints and answer questions that the opposition would likely bring up.

These are stories that are personal to you, but be careful about ostracizing your reader by making them too personal. Good opinion stories will get your feelings across without having to use the “I.”

ENTERTAINMENT

These stories are often broken into supported opinion and feature-style writing.

Supported-opinion stories are when you have an opinion about a topic and use sources to support that opinion. You would not use the word “I” in these pieces, instead using the flow and tone of your writing to convey your message.

Feature-style writing again reflects a more detail-oriented approach to journalism. The topics change from regular feature to entertainment writing, but the writing style doesn’t.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS

The basic expectations for ALL stories are:

• INCLUDE A THREE-SOURCE MINIMUM. All of the sources should not be Internet based. You should aim to have live interviews with at least two of your three sources.

• BE TRUTHFUL. You need to make sure your stories include the truth, to be the best of your ability.

• NOT INCLUDE BIAS, unless it’s an opinion story. Remember your job is to provide the facts and let the reader interpret the message.

• BE WRITTEN TO THE BEST OF YOUR ABILITY. You will get better over time. You will learn to remove bias. Do your best.

ANATOMY OF A STORY

HEADLINE

Editors are responsible for writing headlines. You may make a suggestion and have a consultation with the editor. Be aware that headlines must contain a verb and attempt to relay story content in as few words as possible.

LEDE

The first sentence of your story should grab your reader’s attention. It should focus on either the who, what, where, when, why and/or how. It is up to you to determine which element will grab the most reader attention.

SCOPE

What makes this story special/unique? Why is this story being reported? This scope of this story is that Lawrenson is the first Latina president, but also that she was named to the role after serving as Interim for the entire school year.

TRANSITIONAL STATEMENTS

Don’t stack your quotes one after another with little or no detail/context between them. Transitional statements can help you set up quotes to make the flow of your story better. You will use them throughout your work. These statements move the story along.

BYLINE

Stories reflect the byline of the author, unless the story is an unsigned editorial that is meant to reflect the opinion of the staff. Unsigned editorials are typically composed by a member of the editing team in MCOM 12.

CONCISE WRITING

Avoid long, jargon-laden sentences. Keep it simple. This sentence moves the story along without crowding it.

QUOTES

Don’t save the quotes until the end of the story. Bring them up high to add your human element early. Then use them help you tell the story. One of the biggest mistakes beginning writers make is trying to put all quotes at the end of the story. Your quotes will help you tell the story.

ADDITIONAL CONTEXT

Don’t be afraid to dig a little deeper in your storytelling. If you found out a relevant fact while reporting, add it later in the story. In this case, more biographical information is added to the end.

WRAP UP

Most stories end on a quote, but they don’t have to. You can end with statements that give more detail about your subject. Resist tying a bow around your work, i.e. don’t end on a cheesy personal note. That will get cut.

WRITING GOOD LEDES

Lede writing is an art. You may not be good at it immediately, but you can get better through practice. Lede writing will be the thing you do over and over again, since it sets up the flow of your story. Your first lede may get written and rewritten five or six times before it publishes. Let’s look at some ledes that were published (none are bad!) and make some changes that get to the point faster, take conciseness into consideration, and ensure the reader knows what the story is about.

ORIGINAL LEDE

March has become known as Women’s History Month (WHM), five weeks dedicated to appreciating the women in one’s life as well as taking into consideration everything that influential women have contributed to history and society as a whole. The importance of WHM is recognized and celebrated in a number of ways at Delta, all with the help of the Delta’s Women’s History Month Committee.

In 2014 a group of women at Delta realized the celebration of WHM was inconsistent and decided there was a need for this group to bring awareness to what this month represents, thus the Women’s History Month Committee was born.

THE PROBLEM

While giving good history about Women’s History Month on campus, it doesn’t give any inkling about what events are happening on campus or what the scope of now is. This could be considered a delayed lede, but the story ran on the news page. Each paragraph moves readers along to another paragraph, but these paragraphs don’t really give a sense of why this story is important for readers.

RECAST LEDE

March marks Women’s History Month at Delta College and a campus committee is presenting five weeks worth of events to commemorate influential women who have contributed to history and society as a whole.

ORIGINAL LEDE

While fully vaccinated students won’t encounter difficulties registering for Spring 2022 courses, students seeking to get approved exemptions are being encouraged to register for online Spring 2022 courses after the exemption form options for them were delayed.

Delta College published exemption forms on its website for employees during the second week of this month, but this option wasn’t made available to students until Oct. 14, one day before the Oct. 15 deadline for students and employees to show proof of vaccination or approved exemptions.

THE PROBLEM

There are a lot of words here. That may seem like a flippant comment, but too many words bogs down the start of your story. Plus, there is repetitiveness that makes readers skip a bit as they work through the first two paragraphs. This lede needs to be simplified to be better understood.

RECAST LEDE

Communication delays with the board-mandated vaccine exemption procedure means that students seeking exceptions to the rule may be delayed in registering for Spring 2022 classes.

CRITICAL THINKING

You will note that both examples start out as two paragraphs and then condense down to one. Those single paragraphs can be followed by quotes. Ask yourself: What makes the recast ledes better?

EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 2

BASIC QUOTE STRUCTURE

Quotes follow a very simple structure. This usually is an area you need to unlearn what has been taught to you in your English classes because journalistic style differs from assignments submitted for a paper grade elsewhere. Let’s examine what that looks like:

START WITH QUOTE

Don’t put prose in front of your quote. We call that “leading the quote.” That’s a crutch in writing. Your quotes should be able to stand by themselves in the writing, that’s how you move the story along.

“I really enjoyed the boat ride,” said Jubilee Johnson, a Stockton resident. “It was a nice way to escape the hot summer day.”

ATTRIBUTE IN THE MIDDLE

In this case the quote comes first, followed by the name of your source and some further identifying information.

HOW QUOTE VARIATIONS LOOK IN A STORY

COMPOUND QUOTING

Here the quote gets split to introduce your source in the middle. That’s OK. This style of quoting is very common.

LEAN ON “SAID”

You may be tempted to use another verb (exclaimed, remarked, wondered, pondered). Don’t do it. Lean on said. It will make your writing concise and precise.

Let’s consider you did a longer interview with Jubilee Johnson about beating the valley heat during summer and you are going to use here for more than a single quote. Let’s dissect what a few of her quotes could look like in a story and why they are structured that way. For the purposes of this exercise, we’ll just consider Johnson’s section of a story (no lede or scope here).

TRANSITION STATEMENT

This is your entry point to Johnson as a source.

INTRODUCTORY QUOTE

This compound quote sets up who Johnson is (a Stockton resident)

DETAILS TO SET UP NEXT QUOTE

This is information that stems from your reporting and provides context for the next quote. Consider how the next quote would read without it.

STRAIGHTFORWARD QUOTE

Notice the structure here, the quote comes first, with Johnson’s attribution at the end.

TRANSITION STATEMENT

This statement sets up the next quote from Johnson.

LEADING THE QUOTE

If you need to lead a quote, this is the proper way to do it.

COMMA, QUOTE

Stockton’s Deepwater Channel offered a cool spot on a hot day for those lucky enough to be able to take a watercraft out.

“I really enjoyed the boat ride,” said Jubilee Johnson, a Stockton resident. “It was a nice way to escape the hot summer day.”

Johnson and her family including her husband John and her fiveyear old twin daughters, launched from Stockton Marina in the early morning before returning to the berth around 2 p.m., the hottest point of the day.

“We knew it was going to be a warm one, so we wanted to get out early. When we left, there weren’t a lot of people at the marina, when we returned it was full,” said Johnson.

The plan for the family was to head out for ice cream before heading home.

Johnson said the family “just have to find ways to beat the heat” on days when the temperature tops over 100.

You may have noticed where the comma and the quote fall in the examples. Your quotes should never have the comma outside the quote mark. Standard quote structure is: “I went to the grocery store,” said John Davis. The wrong way to do it is: “I went to the grocery store”, said John Davis. Your comma should always be inside your quote.

SIMPLE AP STYLE

The Associated Press updates its Stylebook every year. Style evolves. Years ago, the Stylebook asked for the term “Web site” to be two words before AP made the decision to streamline and use the word “website” with no capitalization. There are some style consistencies, however, that will be common in your writing. These are simple AP Style rules you will regularly use in your reporting.

IMPROPER USE OF ‘THEY’

A team is never a “they.” Neither is a band. In fact, collective groups should never be referred to as “they” or “their.” Instead, use a proper noun to describe the team: “the team” or “the Mustangs.” A band is also never a “they.” Refer to band members as “the band” or by the band name.

‘OVER’ TO DESCRIBE QUANTITY

The common preference, by AP, is “more than.” As in “more than 1,000 people attended the gathering.” Why? “Over” usually indicates a direction, as in “I went over my manager’s head.” If you are describing any sort of quantity or numeric, use “more than” instead. Note that AP now accepts “over,” the last style discussion for Collegian indicated a want to continue to use “more than.”

PERCENT OF ANYTHING

We never use the % sign. There are no instances in which we would use the symbol. Always spell out “percent.”

NUMERAL ISSUES

One through nine are always spelled out. All double-digit numbers are written, unless the number is at the beginning of sentence.

NAME GAME

The first time you write a source’s name out, you put the first and last name. Upon second reference, you refer to the source by the last name. The exception to this would be if you are quoting two people in one story that have the same last name, related or not. Journalists will solve this issue by using the first name again or the title before introducing a person again. Another way around this is only introducing one source at a time and only using the name once. This is easier in a news story than a features story.

TITLE PLAY

There are many professors with PhDs on campus. We include the “Dr.” in front of a source’s name, but we don’t use the title after that. If a professor tells you he or she wants to have the title “Dr.” applied to all instances of his or her name, please say that isn’t our style. Some newspapers use Mr., Mrs. and Ms. as abbreviations in front of names as well. The New York Times commonly does this. Why? The New York Times generally has its own style. It’s formality. More newspapers than not drop the formality.

CAPITALIZING TITLES

When you introduce a title before a name, it’s capitalized. After a name, it is not.

OXFORD COMMA

In journalistic writing, we drop the Oxford comma. That is the comma before the “and” in a list. In AP style, we remove the second “,” before the “and.”

WRONG: “I enjoyed eating eggs, bacon, and waffles for breakfast.”

RIGHT: “I enjoyed eating eggs, bacon and waffles for breakfast.”

PROPER NOUNS

This may seem like a given, but you need to capitalize proper nouns. This includes names of people, companies, clubs, etc. Don’t just run spell check, actually read and edit your story. Don’t just capitalize random words. Ask yourself: “Why am I capitalizing this?” If you don’t have a legitimate reason, don’t do it.

DOLLARS AND CENTS

You always use the sign in this case. Don’t say “the school owed 18-million dollars.” Instead, it’s “the school owed $18 million.” Also, it’s not $5.00.” It’s just $5. The only reason to add the cents is if something is $5.50 or $6.78.

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

In a digital age, newspaper design has become a second thought. Not every college journalism program still publishes a print newspaper. Why? It’s cheaper to run a news website because the overhead is lower. A lot of professional newspapers are heading in the direction of online only.

Well designed pages are what bring stories to life through art, illustration, and photojournalism. While newspaper design is often “set” based on templates, the amount of creativity you can unleash within those templates is limitless.

Consider that in the past few years, The Collegian has built full pages around holiday cocktails, TikTok recipes, and navigating to virtual graduation. Staff members once used two full feature pages to design a “Sweet 16” candy bracket where staff members put Halloween candy tastes against each other to crown a winner. The winner was gummy worms.

Here’s the thing about good design: It’s not something you have to be born understanding to create amazing pages. It starts with an idea. Art direction elevates that idea into something special. Consider the three on this page:

• Plans for fall ‘50/50’ return: The split photo is meant to represent how students (and their schedules) would likely be split 50 percent on campus and 50 percent virtual for the Fall 2022 semester. The images were taken in Shima 204/205 and spliced together.

• Black. Lives. Matter.: No pictures were used in this design, instead leaning on inverse text, which is rare for newspapers. Note that large amount space around the story, which is meant to bring the readers’ eyes in and center the words “Black. Lives. Matter.”

• Holidays of a different hue: A simple map turned into a very telling look at how Covid-19 would be impacting the 2020 holidays. The colors used in the background were pulled directly from the map. The map was meant to be a striking reminder that we were still very much in a pandemic.

TERMINOLOGY

Let’s discuss the components of a newspaper. Here we see a front page and an inside page. Design tactics for these two pages are different. For one, front pages have to be designed to balance art above the fold, which means that if the newspaper is folded in half (which is how it is usually delivered) the designer wants visual content be above the midpoint of the page. Focus for a front page is on the center package (also called the dominant element), whereas inside pages can be built by pagination. Pagination looks to create a structure to ensure there is a center package, but also understands that other elements have to be on a page. The biggest difference between the two:

• Page Design: A page designer looks to maximize visual interest in a page by creating dynamic artistic concepts that draws reader in. While space is considered, page designers can opt to jump text or move stories off the page (to put elsewhere in the paper) in order to have more space to design.

• Pagination: A paginator usually deals with inside pages in a newspaper where the focus is on fitting a defined number of stories into a certain space. While photos and boxes are part of this, there may be less focused placed on visual content and more on making sure the content selected fits in the newshole, which means how much page space you have for news.

TEASERS OR SKY BOXES

Teases to inside pages are standard for most newspapers. Collegian’s are at the top of the paper. One is usually a cutout. Most newspapers won’t showcase more than two teasers.

BYLINE

All standard length stories include a byline. Shorter stories, also called brief, usually do not carry a byline.

HEADLINE HIERARCHY

Note that bylines change sizes as you move down the page. On this page the “Filling in the blanks?” story is meant to be the center package (with art). That’s where the largest headline goes. The top story has the second largest story.

DECK HEADLINE

This is a longer, more descriptive headline that allows designers to use less descriptive, but more impactive, large headlines.

FLAG

The flag, also called the nameplate, is the branding for the publication. The font used here will only ever be used for the logo. Our logo also includes a color called “Collegian Blue” which is #00496b as a hexadecimal color. Flags generally don’t change from issue to issue and always stay in the same location.

CENTER PACKAGE OR DOMINANT ELEMENT

The main art spot on the page, meant to draw readers in.

STRIP

A story that goes across the entirety of the page. A top strip usually doesn’t go deep into the page to ensure the center package can be seen when folded.

RAIL

A story that runs down the page, usually from close to the top or the top.

SECTION NAME

Inside pages are noted by section heads. All inside pages have a section header. The section header includes page number, date, and section URL for the website.

PHOTOS

Nearly all pages will include photos of some kind. On this page, each story contains at least one image. Running a story with art tends to bring readers in.

COLUMNS

While it appears the paper is designed with five columns (you can clearly see five text columns in the top story), Collegian is built on a 10-grid. That means there are 10 columns to design across on the template.

PICA SPACING

Content should run with Pica separations. A Pica is a unit of increment that is equivalent to 0.16604 of an inch. The pica is a standard unit of measurement for newspaper and publication design.

JUMP AND JUMPHEAD

Line denoting that story will continue on another page, and then the connection headline on the second page.

PULLQUOTE

A quote pulled from a story and inserted into a separate box. This is usually a design feature (or a way to fill space).

BODY TEXT (JUSTIFIED)

Body text is a set style (Adobe Caslon Pro, 11 point, with 11 point space between the lines). On news and feature pages, the standard is for body text to be justified, which means the text runs all the way to edge of the column.

BODY TEXT (RAGGED RIGHT)

Body text for opinion or first person stories is usually in ragged right, which means that the text does not fill the column in a square style. The text for this description is in ragged right. Ragged right text usually denotes to the reader that the story includes opinion.

CAPTION (CUTLINE)

All photos include captions, which is also called a cutline, which gives a description of what is happening in the photo. It also includes a credit line, with the name of the photographer.

STAFF BOX

All newspapers have staff boxes. The staff box typically includes names of staff members, notes about which to professional organizations the newspaper belongs to, and contact information.

BOX

Information set aside in a story. This is a design element that allows for displaying of important information.

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DESIGN

Once you see good design principles in action, it’s hard to not see flaws in designs. We won’t go into all of those flaws (but know that some involve bad typography, like when you know someone who wants to use Papyrus as a font on everything). Instead, we’ll briefly take a look at four concepts to follow to ensure your pages don’t fall into the bad category. Daily newspapers get a chance to figure out new design styles every day. College newspapers get more time for design, so the push for Collegian editors is to create something so eye catching our campus readers want to pick it up and take it with them. Here are some things to consider to achieve that goal.

USING MODULES FOR DESIGN

Newspapers employ modular design principles.

That means that when designing, we create a different module (or four-sided shape) that the entire content packable fits in. This means that the headline, byline, story, related images, cutline, etc. should all be part of the module for that space. The larger image here shows a page that includes three modules, one for each story.

PLAY UP ART BIG

Modular design can only be broken for advertising. In the smaller image included here you can see that the single story on the page has the KWDC cutting into it.

This practice is called doglegging. It’s the act of creating a “leg” of text in a story.

Modular design ensures that all the elements of your story are bundled together in a coherent, cohesive way that allows your reader to signal to your reader that the content belongs together.

Collegian has had two major redesigns impacting structure. Until 2016, Collegian was built in a smaller tabloid format. It published seven times a semester (view the digital archive at issuu.com/deltacollegian). Editors at the time often complained about the lack of space to do big design work. That year, the newspaper shifted to a larger format. The push was then to run art big. In 2023, the newspaper went back to a tabloid format, with a photo front. It’s still important to run art big. Center packages can take up an entire page (a single story page is fine). You can break into the header space to display larger.

The two pages here show the current format for Collegian. The front page now takes a single photo (the best of what we have). The inside page displays an entire page of photos with an extended caption that described the content. Your art or art design will dictate placement. It’s OK to showcase art big.

PRO-TIP

GO CONCEPTUAL

Newspaper editors sometimes find themselves with no photojournalism to illustrate stories. Collegian subscribes to a Freepik.com and has access to base images that can be used to build pages. The operative here is that these are starting points for art and editors should work to be creative in their use of the service. Think of it like a wire service subscription to art, which is kind of is, that you then personalize to fit the needs of the story and the page. These two pages are examples of conceptual design.

The larger page is meant to show where and how students live, with each icon representing a survey result. The bench represents unsheltered homelessness, the tent represents respondents saying they lived in tents. The design shows that while most students are housed, many others are not.

Gas flowing down the second page moves what could have been a boring page (with only a photo of prices) into something more dramatic.

THINK OUTSIDE THE BOX

The best pages are ones where we break the rules of design. But it’s important to remember you can’t break the rules without knowing the rules. Consider the big differences between these Feature pages. One focuses on a “Countdown to Virtual Graduation” where the editor decided to take what could have been a boring numbered list and turn it into a board game-style presentation that was meant to illustrate students moving through the motions related to the event. The vibrant Delta College colors and fun display really makes the page pop.

The “Nifty + Thrifty” spread is illustrated with simple photographs with dominance given to a cutout that pushes into the page. A text wrap around the largest moves the reader’s eye into the center of the page. The prices give a highlight that work nicely with the story on the page. This package took an entire page up for good reason. The editor worked to show off the fashion while also having fun and truly thinking outside the box with that cutout.

Designing your first page will likely be an intimidating experience. You will have to learn InDesign, Photoshop, and maybe a little Illustrator as you build your page. Don’t sleep on the page design tutorial in the class. It’s meant to give you a skill base that you will then expand upon as you put pages together. Former student editors have said they enjoyed designing pages more than writing. There are careers in just page design, but it helps to have a solid writing base too, particularly copy editing experience.

DESIGN DECISIONS TO AVOID

The average reader will likely not notice bad design in a way that they will be able to tell you exactly what is wrong. Instead, they may just feel like something is off when looking at a page. When a page isn’t quite right, it confuses your reader. Editors and designers don’t want readers to have to search for content, or not understand the path from Point A to Point B. Design starts with core templates that are unchanging. Newspapers use the same fonts, sizes, and general content from one issue to the next. The goal is to make the page look different each issue while working within those styles. Let’s dig into some design decisions that detract from the story content and make your reader wonder what the heck is happening.

HEADLINE TOMBSTONING

Notice the two top stories on this page. They are on different subjects. But they appear to be related. The “Delta dabbles in Hunger Games” story is the lead here, but the “Students push back on plans to cut photo tech at board meeting” is also really important. The way they are arranged puts them in direct competition with each other. These headlines are right on top of each other. This is called tombstoning.

GUTTERS

WHY IT’S BAD: Your content gets lost in brain translation. As you look at the larger page, you aren’t sure how to interpret the two top stories. It’s confusing.

HOW TO PREVENT

IT: The easiest way to prevent tombstoning is by added a screen behind the story. Notice the grayscale box behind the rail story on the smaller page. When putting a box around a story, make sure you use pica spacing all around your elements (headline, byline, and story) to ensure float (space) around your story.

If you have ever bowled, you know that gutter balls are bad things. No one wants their ball to end up in the gutter because it means you’ve missed a chance to hit the pins. A open gutter all the way down the page creates an odd gap that disrupts the flow of the space.

WHY IT’S BAD: The empty space between stories and running down a page draws readers down the page, which is bad if you want them to read every story on the page, at least engage in some of the content.

HOW TO PREVENT IT: When designing, consider how your stories will stack on a page. Try to prevent a single pica line of gutter going all the way down the page. On the smaller sports page, there is a long gutter at the bottom of the page from the image, but the top game photo breaks that line so a gutter doesn’t run down the entire page. A strip story or image at the bottom of the top of the page will fix this issue by creating a block to the gap.

PRO-TIP

CONFUSING PLACEMENT

Tombstoning can be avoided with an image, as shown here in the larger of the two pages. But adding an image doesn’t necessarily fix the page. Modular design is employed here, but the page looks confusing. The image could be interpreted as two people voting on their phones. The placement of it and its vague nature make this page hard to interpret for the reader.

USING BLAND ART

WHY IT’S BAD: Even when good design tactics are used, a page can still not come together well. Here art isn’t considered. If it was, the layout would give more importance to the top photo. Notice here that the photos in the top modules are also the same size, which means there is true no dominant element.

HOW TO PREVENT

IT: Think before you put your stories on the page. On the second page the sex work story is the one the editor wants you to see first. How do we know? The module for the food column is smaller. The sex work story includes a eye-drawing color and image too.

Good photojournalism requires planning. The skybox/teaser on the top of the larger front page is supposed to highlight how bad the air quality was at the time of this issue. Instead, the drone photo reproduced as a muddled mess. It didn’t look like it was supposed to. Some quick thinking would have pushed a photojournalist out to the parking lots as school was called off right in the middle of the day to take traffic jam photos. That didn’t happen.

WHY IT’S BAD: Concept doesn’t always equal execution. This was one of those cases. The gray box on the larger page is technically good design, but it made the page very gray in general. The page just had nothing eye catching.

HOW TO PREVENT IT: Think about color as you assemble the page. The smaller page here has images with no action or people (work to get people), but the colors are vibrant and the perspective is unique (drone photos). The full-width skybox also draws the eye in.

Not every page you design will be good. Most former student editors look back on some of their early work and aren’t satisfied with what they initially turned out. The lab environment is set up in a way where if you have questions about design, you can ask and get help. Lean on more experienced editors. Ask questions. Don’t think that an idea is too much and can’t be done, because it may be something that can be easily accomplished. Make mistakes, but don’t dwell on them. See every page as a learning experience.

Use this front-page mock-up for in-class exercises on page design.

BROADSHEET INSIDE DESIGN GRID MOCK-UP

Use this inside-page mock-up for in-class exercises on page design.

FEATURE 120422

The Collegian • deltacollegian.net/xxxx

SAMPLE BROADSHEET PAGE MOCK-UP

This

BY JAHDAI SPIKES Editor-in-Chief

Delta College’s Superintendent/President semester-long search has come to a close after the Board of Trustees announced Dr. Lisa Aguilera Lawrenson to be the college’s 12th Superintendent/President during a May 10 special meeting.

Board President Charles Jennings reported that the district would be moving forward with contract negotiations with Lawrenson. The special meeting was originally scheduled at a board workshop on closing equity gaps.

“I am truly honored to have been selected to serve Delta College and the community as its next superintendent/president,” said Lawrenson in a press release from the college. “I look forward to working with the Board of Trustees, as well as community and campus leaders to provide excellence in education and workforce training in support of economic development in our region.”

The hiring makes Lawrenson the first Latina to lead Delta College during its 59-year history. Delta College is a Hispanic Serving Institution with 46 percent of students identifying as Hispanic, according to the 2019 Student Success Scorecard.

“I hope I’ve been able to express to you my love of this college and I don’t say that lightly,” said Lawrenson during a forum on May 2 in Atherton Auditorium. “I love coming to work here everyday. I love the people that I meet in the community and that sense of working together for the sake of the greater good and I just love that.”

This decision comes more than a week after final-

“We’re trying to create the Delta of the future. We need to be prepared and provide the best college we possibly can for this region.”

- Dr. Lisa Aguilera Lawrenson

ist forums and interviews that were held on May 2 and 3. Lawrenson, the current acting Superintendent/ President vied for the campus’ top spot against Dr. Lisa Cooper Wilkins, currently the vice-chancellor of Student Affairs at City College of San Francisco. Wilkins previously served as vice-president of Student Services at Delta College before her hiring by City College in 2020.

Lawrenson came to Delta college nearly two years ago as Interim Assistant Superintendent/Vice President of Instruction and Planning in July 2020. She was named to the top instruction role in November 2020. Lawrenson was named Acting Superintendent/ President during the Fall 2021 semester after Dr. Omid Pourzanjani announced his intent to resign at the end of his term, which expires June 30. During his time at Delta, Pourzanjani oversaw the rollout of the MyDelta student service system, as well as the initial response to the Covid-19 pandemic, and early work to roll out a bond measure, now tentatively slated for the November 2022 ballot.

See LAWRENSON, page 12

On April 12, the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service announced that it would begin accepting online renewal for DACA.

Online DACA renewal only applies to those who have already received deferred action under Deferred Action of Childhood Arrivals (DACA). First-time applicants should still send paper applicants in the mail.

“The expansion of online filing is a priority for USCIS as we make our operations more efficient and effective for the agency and our stakeholders, applicants, petitioners and requestors,” said USCIS Director Ur M. Jaddou in a new release. “The option to file DACA renewal requests online is part of USCIS’ ongoing move to minimize reliance on paper records and further transition to an electronic environment.”

The application can be found in uscis.gov under “1-821D, Consideration of Deferred Action of Childhood Arrivals”

Once there navigate to “File Online” and it will take you to a login page to start the process.

For those who haven’t created an account with uscis.gov you can click on “Create an Account.” USCIS advises having only one account.

Once logged in, there is a “Before You Start Your Request” and an Eligibility list where it lists all the requirements a DACA recipient needs to meet before filing online.

These requirements should be the same as previous renewals: Not departing from the U.S. after August 15, 2012. Having continuously resided in the U.S since submitting the most recent request DACA that was approved up to the present time. Haven’t been convicted of a felony or significant misdemeanor or three or more, and do not pose a threat to national security or public safety.

USCIS advises DACA recipients to submit renewals 150 days prior to expiration of their current period of deferred action because USCIS can reject the submission and return it to the instruction to resubmit if necessary.

The ideal renewal date is 120 days according to USCIS. It also advised those to submit the “Form 1-765” online because it would be added to and completed after signing the “Form 1-821D.” Renewal fees totaling $495 will be assessed after the forms are filed.

At the end of the request USCIS will highlight documents that should be provided by the request. Recall evidence and supporting documents should be submitted at the time of filling. For additional information about evidence requirements listed in: uscis.gov/i-821d

DACA requesters should also still submit biometrics.They will receive a schedule to appear Application Support Center for biometrics collection (ASC).

The online system also allows for filing of other documents, including the Request of Evidence (RFE) or Request for Information (RFI).

DACA renewal recipients can track their file on the USCIS account.

In fiscal year 2021, USCIS “received more than 8.8 million requests for immigration benefits and other requests, including 438,950 Form I-821D DACA requests,” according to a release announcing the new online services.

Local students can contact Delta College’s Undocumented Students Resources/Dreamer Success Center located in Holt 201. DACA support is just one of the many services provided by the center.

BY GRACIELA GABRIEL Staff Writer

Dr. Lisa Aguilera Lawrenson answers questions during a forum featuring her and Dr. Lisa Cooper Wilkins from City College of San Francisco on May 2. PHOTO BY JAHDAI SPIKES

TABLOID GRID MOCK-UP

Use this front-page mock-up for in-class exercises on page design.

TABLOID INSIDE DESIGN GRID MOCK-UP

Use this inside-page mock-up for in-class exercises on page design.

SAMPLE TABLOID PAGE MOCK-UP

This is an example of what a page mock-up looks like when complete.

PHOTOJOURNALISM

We’ve all heard the saying noting that a picture is worth a thousand words. In journalism, photography often works overtime to accomplish what writing cannot. Story text can describe a scene, it can note the vibrant hues of Fall, or the look on a child’s face after receiving a surprise gift, but the words come alive when accompanied by a photograph.

Photojournalism is based on photography foundations, but the reality is that there is much more to it. The practice and profession merges art basics with mass communication practices to create images than convey message and meaning. By definition, photojournalism is:

“The practice of communicating news by photographs ...,” according to Google Dictionary.

What does that mean? Images tell stories. Photos support words. Visual content brings newspapers, magazines, websites, and social media to life. Photojournalism is photography communicating purpose.

Consider the images below. A woman calmly holds a snake, something most people won’t do. A young man looks upward in an environmental portrait. Social Media Influencer GloZell takes an energetic photo with a student during a campus appearance. You may not have the context in these photos, but you can get a sense, in the faces of these individuals how they feel. Photos have a way to translate emotion and truly capture “the moment” often than even the most powerful writing.

TYPES OF PHOTOS

Generally you will shoot or edit with four general types of photos for a newspaper: news, feature, sports-action, and environmental portrait. The type of photo shot will depend on the story and photo assignment. If you’re shooting, always clarify with an editor what type of photo they are seeking.

FEATURE

Readers want to see action and faces. You want the image to convey a story itself. These photos make the photographer get into the personal-space bubble around a person. Look for emotion, specifically in the face, but also make sure your image is giving a sense of what’s happening.

Common mistakes: Shooting too close or too far away, turning in images that are static in nature, shooting someone’s back

SPORTS-ACTION PHOTOS

Sports is the most direct subject to shoot. You will have access to a roster (Delta College’s Athletics website includes rosters). You know who and what to shoot (i.e. the Mustangs). Sports require the photographer to stick around for a bit. Rarely do you get a great shot from the first click. A good rule of thumb is to let it play out, literally, for good shots.

Common mistakes: Slow shutter speed leading to blur and exclusion of playing item (i.e. the ball, you need the ball)

Feature photos allow creativity. Professional photojournalists will often shoot the same concept (a play or production) over and over again. How can it be made to look different? You’ll need to vary angles. Showcase your skill for image diversity.

Feature also requires more photos, as multiple images will likely run on one page. Think outside the box.

Common mistakes: Not shooting enough images

ENVIRONMENTAL PHOTOS

Environmental Photos, or an EP, challenges the photojournalist to take an image of a person in their “natural environment” while not having the subject look directly at the lens. These images often accompany profile pieces or feature stories with a single-person topic.

The challenge is to give a sense of place and person.

Common mistakes: Rushing the image, which makes the subject uncomfortable

PHOTOGRAPHY BASICS

Beginning photography classes focus on teaching three elements of cameras for shooting: ISO, Aperture, and Shutter Speed. A change to one of these elements impacts the other two.

Can you shoot in auto mode? Sure. But learning how to adapt and adjust these elements means more control over images, which make for better photos. We’ll look at each to better understand how one change can translate into different images.

UNDERSTANDING ISO

ISO controls how much light you are allowing into the camera, which impacts how dark or light an image becomes when shot. The higher the ISO value, the more light going into the image. The lower the ISO, the less light is going into an image.

Why is it important? If you are in a high-light situation, you’ll likely want to dial down the ISO. If you are in a lowlight situation, you’ll want to crank it up. But again: This is situational. A higher ISO may necessary in a darker environment, to allow more light to come into the camera in a darker room. If you are at an outdoor concert in the middle of the day, you may want to dial down the ISO.

PRO TIP: Upping the ISO factor can also introduce noise into your image, which appears as a general grain on the picture. While grainy photos can be run in the newspaper, that doesn’t mean they should be run in the newspaper.

How to avoid light issues:

• Get to your shoot location early to scout out the light and take a few test shots.

• Consider practicing with a bracketing exercise where you adjust the ISO for the same subject (similar to what was done above with the keychain), where you get a sense of the concept before heading out to an assignment.

• Get to know your camera, while this should go without saying, the better you know the camera you will use to be shooting with, the better your images will be. If you are using a loaned camera from Collegian’s stock, spend some time with it before shooting.

APERTURE

The camera’s aperture setting also controls the depth of field in an image. The lower the aperture number, the shallower the depth of field. The higher the aperture, also called the f-stop, the deeper the depth of field.

The image above shows aperture from f/1.4 to f/22 in some variation, depending on the camera. The lower the aperture number, the more shallow the depth. Shallow depth shows less, deeper depth shows more.

At a lower aperture, only the item nearest to the camera is shown in focus.

Increasing the aperture begins to bring the cords into focus here.

Increasing the aperture brings the mouse into the depth of field, notice the monitor is still out of focus.

The highest depth of field brings all elements closest to the camera into focus.

Image from Cbuckley from Wikimedia Commons under Creative Commons License

f/4.5

Shutter speed also helps control how much light gets into the camera, but also impacts motion capture:

• The slower the shutter speed, the more light is allowed into the camera.

• The higher the shutter speed, the less light is allowed.

Fast shutter speeds are often associated with action, as a fast shutter helps stop a moment in action. Sports photography, or anything involving action is usually shot with a fast shutter speed.

Shutter speed is measured in a fraction of seconds typically. Most cameras will start at 1/60 (you can access shutter speed in manual mode by clicking the ISO button and then turning the wheel adjacent to it). You can also shoot in Shutter Priority Mode, marked Tv.

PRO TIP: If you slow down the shutter too much (1/30), you will likely need a tripod, and maybe a remote control to operate the camera. Slowing down the shutter too much may result in a blurred image if the camera is touched.

1/60 of a second

Beginning photography classes usually have some sort of exercise that looks at water for shutter speed practice. Here you can see that a slower shutter speed gives a bit of a blur to the water.

PRO-TIP

1/2000 of a second

FAST

Here you see the droplets of the water at a more detailed level. This is because the shutter is moving much faster, so it is capturing a smaller amount of time where the water isn’t distorting to a blur.

When the shutter is open longer, more time passes. When something is moving quickly (a runner, a carnival ride, a basketball) you will get a blur with a lower shutter speed. When shooting at a lower speed, consider a tripod, and perhaps a remote controlled device to activate the camera, because even a small shake can ruin a photo if nudged.

GET TO KNOW A CANON CAMERA

The Collegian has a stock of Canon cameras to checkout for students in newswriting, newspaper production, and photojournalism class sections. In addition, an array of lenses are also available for checkout. While the cameras range in model, all are Canons (and the lenses are all Canons).

This diagram gives a general idea of the Canon DSLR setup. Note that Canon lenses generally do not fit on Nikon cameras and vice versa.

INTERNAL FLASH: The flash that comes embedded with the camera. It’s not always the best for using to fill in light. Utilizing natural light is recommended.

OVERRIDE: The lenses have functionality that allows for override of manual focus. You will have more control with manual focus. While it’s not against the rules to take photos in Automatic mode, photographers have more control over images shot in manual.

LENS: The Canon Rebel cameras available for checkout come with a 18-55 mm lens.

You may check out a larger lens that easily clip on and off. Consider what you are shooting before you checkout an additional lens. The Collegian’s stock includes 70-200 mm and 100-400 mm to check out for use on class assignments.

CAMERA FUNCTIONS

A-DEP

Automatic Depth of Field. User tells the camera what should be in focus, the camera responds by adjusting aperture.

Manual Mode. User programs aperture, shutter speed, and ISO. Av

Aperture Priority Mode. User programs the aperture, and camera responds by setting shutter speed and ISO. Tv

Shutter Priority Mode. The user programs the shutter speed to use, and the camera responds by setting aperture and ISO.

HOT SHOE: A metal bracket that allows for attachment of supplemental flash or audio recording device (make sure to check for model compatibility, not all cameras support external audio systems)

SCREEN: Allows user to view image, called “chimping” after shoot. You generally cannot view image while it is being shot.

This may seem really annoying if you’ve only ever used point-andshoot cameras, but the act of looking through the lens is a necessary when taking photos.

FUNCTION DIAL: See detailed image at the bottom. Each preset functions differently. Pay attention to what your camera is set in before you shoot.

DRIVE MODE: Allows for changing of rate in which photos are shot. Continuous drive is good for action shots. This may not be something you use frequently, but you should be aware of it.

Portrait Mode

Face profile icon. The camera will set automatic aperture, allowing single focus and narrowing depth of field.

Full Auto

Green box. Camera will make all decisions on aperture, ISO, and shutter speed.

Landscape

Mountain icon. Camera focus will be set at infinity.

Macro Mode

WHITE BALANCE: Allows for adjustment of a true white value. Good white balance allows your colors to match reality more perfectly.

Action

Running icon. Camera will set shutter speed and aperture to ideal conditions for capturing action.

Flower icon. The camera will set focus on close-up objects.

Video

Video camera icon. Camera will shoot video. You may have less control in this mode than a video camera would.

ETHICS OF PHOTOJOURNALISM

In courses within the Mass Communication/Journalism/Digital Media areas at San Joaquin Delta College, we adhere to the National Press Photographers Association’s Code of Ethics

This includes:

• Being “accurate ... in the representation of subjects.”

• Resisting “being manipulated by staged photo opportunities.”

• Providing “context when photographing or recording subjects. Avoid stereotyping individuals and group.”

• Treating “all subjects with respect and dignity.”

• Not intentionally contributing to, altering, or seeking “to alter or influence events.”

• Not manipulating images or adding or altering “sound in any way that can mislead viewers or misrepresent subjects.”

• Not paying “sources or subjects or reward them materially for information or participation,” or accepting gifts.

For the complete list, visit the NPPA website: bit.ly/2ON62Ta

Generally, this means:

• You should not be posing your subjects or asking them to redo something that you missed

• You should not write captions that inaccurately describe what is happening in the photo

• You should not be shooting “creeper” photos of people with long lenses from far away

• You should always identify yourself as a photojournalist for the organization you are representing and never abuse your press identification to access events you are not covering

LIMITS ON MANIPULATION

Generally speaking, photos shot under the auspices of journalism should not be altered any differently than you would alter an image in the dark room.

What does that mean? You are mostly limited to cropping, dodging, and burning.

CROPPING

Adjusting the frame of the image via cutting it down to a smaller size, or removing something extraneous from the frame

DODGING

Allows for lightening of specific parts of an image, essentially exposing the “dodged” areas to less light

BURNING

Works the opposite of dodging, exposing area being “burned” to more light to darken down an area of the image

You may also adjust the color through Photoshop or Lightroom, but not in a way that makes the image look unauthentic from the real world, i.e. don’t make the sky purple. If you are from an art background in regards to photography, this will be an adjustment. In photojournalism, we aren’t over correcting images to make them look better. Our job is to present an accurate photographic account of the subject. Make someone look real, not better.

PRO-TIP

Photojournalists get fired for too much manipulation of photos. Take as an example the case of Bryan Patrick, a photojournalist from The Sacramento Bee who digitally manipulated photos. In one, which he had submitted for and earned an award, he made flames look larger in a post house-fire scene. In an investigation, the Bee also found that Patrick had created a single image out of two (what is called a composite), that was published. Patrick had been a long-time Bee photojournalist.

Don’t manipulate your images and think you won’t get caught. You will. It will likely end your journalism career when (not if) you do.

All photos submitted to publish in the newspaper or online must include captions, also called cutlines, in order to be published. Those photo captions must be written in Associated Press Style. This is important as AP Style provides basic framework that allows the photograph to give context, while also providing identifying elements.

This example presents the basics of what must be included in a photo caption. Of note: If a person is in your photo, you absolutely need to include first and last name. Photos with no names should not be published.

NAME: The first and last name of a subject are required.

If the name has unique spelling, add a (cq) to editors know.

IDENTIFICATION: Give a sense of why this person is relevant to the story/photo. Here it says “second-year” student. This can be a simple identifier like “concert goer” or more detailed like “who lives near to the house fire location.”

Laney Smyth (cq), a second-year San Joaquin Delta College student, eats lunch near a new rock garden located in the Shima Center at the campus in Stockton, Calif. on April 15, 2018.

DATE: Give the date, in proper AP style.

Months with more than five letters are abbreviated. Months with five or less are spelled out.

LOCATION: Notice how the Shima Center is given its proper title and Stockton, Calif. is written out. This is required information, even if it is removed later in the editing process (i.e. on the page).

Pay attention to spelling in captions. The spelling in your captions should be accurate. It is not uncommon for an editor to receive a story and photos with different spellings for a subject (whether it’s a location or a person). Someone has misspelled in that case, which means the editor then has to track down who is accurate.

Note that spell check will not catch everything or will tell you that a word is wrong when it is not. For example, “Shima Center” noted here usually comes up wrong in spell check. On the other name, a name like “Laney Smyth” will show as wrong, but can be the spelling of a person’s name. When you have checked an uncommon spelling of a name and know it is right, us a (cq) to indicate that name is “correct as quoted.”

Read the AP style lecture here: bit.ly/2LZSiXu

CAPTION WRITING EMBEDDING CAPTIONS IN PHOTOSHOP

All images need captions embedded in File Info

Open your image in Photoshop (you may also use Lightroom). Make allowable (within ethical guidelines) edits to the original image.

Right before you are ready to save the image as a .jpg (a requirement, no RAW images will be accepted because of the size), follow the path to File>File Info.

Under the Basic tab, you will be prompted with the screen above. Add your name where it says Description Writer. Add your caption, in Associated Press style, next to Description

You may also select Copyrighted where Copyright Status is asked for. It may offer an extra level of protection to your image.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD PHOTO

Now that we have a general sense of the camera and expectations, lets look at some strong images shot by student journalists for the newspaper and website in recent years.

THINK BEFORE YOU CLICK: The behind-the-scenes on all of these photos included conversations between staff members about what was needed to complement the print story or layout. Consider whether these are good images to you. If they are, what makes them good? How can you replicate that in your own work?

Certificate graduate Adrian Darling watches the ceremony with her adorned hat. This image doesn’t show a face, but captures a mood. The fun saying on the cap also makes this image a bit more comical than most.

Rug artist Erik Sandoval works on a creation during the Fall 2023 semester. This image was part of a series for the Multimedia Storytelling class. Here we see Erik intently working on his piece. The colors are vibrant here and the focus is exact: We know what to look at, but also can read a lot in Sandoval’s face.

Delta College Wide Receiver Devyon Coleman catches during a Fall 2022 football game against Shasta College. Images at games can be difficult for beginning photographers, specifically when working in manual with shutter speed.

If the photographer had slowed down the shutter too much here, we wouldn’t get the great ball capture. We know where the ball is going (into Coleman’s hands) which gives this image a hint of suspense.

PHOTOJOURNALISM DOS AND

DON’TS

You’re a student, yes, but that’s not an excuse to find yourself in an ethical misstep. When in doubt whether something is allowable or not, please ask. Your editor or adviser will have an answer. Before you head out, though, here’s some dos and don’ts that have come up in Collegian reporting over the years.

DO DON’TS

• Shoot both horizontal and vertical images: You never know what the page editor might need or use, so it’s best to bring back images that would fit both layout scenarios.

• Bring back multiple images: The more images you have, the more options a designer has. The higher the likelihood, too, that an editor will run more than a single image on a page, which gives the photographer more clips (if a print publication) or a photo gallery (if an online publication).

• Pay attention to rule of thirds: Images look awkward and unnatural when you frame everything in the middle, for more about rule of thirds, visit this link: bit.ly/2LGPvgO

• Zoom with your feet: Get closer to the subject rather than rely on the zoom to make your subject closer. Don’t rely on your lens to do the work, or to get close when you don’t want to.

• Ask your subjects for full names: Not just a first name. Photos generally cannot run without first and last names for the subjects included. Does that mean you have to get everyone’s name in a large crowd? No, but you should get the names of those who are highlighted in the photograph.

• Pay attention to faces: The best images will have human emotion conveyed through expression, don’t disregard expressions. You may have to stick around a bit longer for the “moment” but it will be worth it. And: Get faces. One of the greatest mistakes first-time photojournalists make is coming back with photos that show a lot of things, but no people. Take pictures of people.

• Identify yourself: You should always identify yourself as a photojournalist with the student newspaper or media organization. If you are issued an identification, please wear it while shooting.

• Be respectful: Don’t shove your camera in people’s faces.

• Make up names: Don’t do it, it’s lazy and it’s not journalism.

• Setup photos: Miss a key moment? Don’t ask someone to recreate is. It’s unethical.

• Ignore background: Make sure your subject doesn’t have something sticking of their head. Reposition yourself, not your subject, if necessary.

• Take creeper photos: If you stood behind a bush to take your photos, it will show. Don’t be weird. Don’t check out a long-range lens just so you don’t have to get into the action (though if the action is dangerous, don’t knowingly put yourself in danger).

• Let your subject look at the camera: Again, this is creepy. Photojournalism is about capturing the moment, if someone keeps looking at the camera, wait a bit for when they are comfortable enough to ignore it. If that doesn’t happen, find a new subject if possible.

• Abuse your press pass: It isn’t a “get in free” pass for events. If you aren’t covering an event specifically for The Collegian you should not be gaining access with your press pass.

• Pass off another person’s image as your own: Did you let your friend or sibling shoot one of your images? It’s not yours, don’t turn it in. It’s good practice to not let anyone else handle your camera.

• Come back empty handed: There’s always something to shoot.

• Don’t get sloppy: Don’t turn in blurry or badly framed-images if you are short on time, instead make sure you give yourself enough time to properly shoot the assignment.

PRO-TIP

Most ethical pitfalls can be avoided if a photojournalist gives themselves more time. Are you shy? Give yourself time to adjust and scope out the environment? Didn’t get a name because you had to leave? Make sure you budget your time better. Messy captions? Slow down. Don’t set yourself up for failure by limiting your time on assignment.

SOCIAL MEDIA

There is no denying it: We are a social society. In the early 2000s social media posting became a regular and expected part of a journalist’s job. While many newspapers have organizational accounts on social media channels, professional journalists also tend to run their own pages to build their communities independently (this is especially common among those in television news who may move from station to station).

Social media is the mass communication tool of multi-generational audiences, which is exactly what Delta College has among its student body. While Delta College as an institution is active on Facebook, Instagram, X (formerly Twitter), and TikTok, The Collegian and the Digital Media department have independent accounts on various platforms.

Anyone on the newspaper staff can post to the social media accounts. It’s encouraged. Social media presents an opportunity for you to share your work more broadly, both on the newspaper’s channels and your own. Past staffs have established tenor and personality related to each of the Collegian’s three social media channels.

Facebook is where we link to Delta College content, specifically news that we don’t cover, but want shared out from the main pages. Historically we have also linked the Issuu newspaper here when it publishes.

WHO IS OUR TARGET AUDIENCE?

Instagram has generally operated as a behind-thescenes look at the staff. This could include images of staff members working, or extra tidbits about reporting after the newspaper comes out.

Students. That definition is broad, though, on a campus as diverse as Delta College. Each social media channel caters to a different audience. Facebook generally hits 35+ in terms of age. Instagram attracts a larger audience of 18-29 year olds. X generally has lower engagement numbers, but also has a high following of 18-29 year olds. Your content should be informed by the demographic your post will reach.

X, formerly Twitter, is kind of a catchall where we post links to stories, but we really haven’t worked to grow the audience. We rely on automatic posting through WordPress to publish links here.

WHAT ARE OUR GOALS?

The social media platforms for Collegian exist mainly for content promotion. While we have a social media certificate program at Delta College, Collegian runs its own accounts. That means in some semesters we have less content then others (because its based on student participation). The main goal is to promote. Secondary goals are to build audience and engage community.

SOCIAL MEDIA DONE RIGHT

Social media is necessary to any communication field. Your stories will post on a website, but how do you get people talking about them? How can you build audience for your work? Through the social media platforms associated with student media and your own personal accounts (you may want to set up an account specifically for your media work), you can build an audience. Here are tips to increase spreadability.

CONSISTENCY IS CRITICAL

To be successful in delivering social media messages and engaging with audiences, you must be consistent.

“For your audience to recognize your brand, you must be consistent. Being consistent in your brand allows you to grow in audience engagement and reach. From the tone of voice used in messages to the aesthetics of your profiles, you need to be recognized to gain traction among your intended audience,” according to Lauren Payne of Auburn Advertising (bit.ly/socialconsistency).

This includes:

• Keeping voice similar

• Posting consistent content (i.e. posting certain content on the same day), even when the newspaper isn’t publishing you can build an audience

• Having regularly-scheduled posts or a calendar to inform content push

• Creating regular content features (which can be scheduled), like “behind the scenes” of reporting, just don’t give away too much of a story that would equate to prepublication review

• Understanding lack of consistency is a issue, not a creative choice

KEYS TO PLANNING YOUR PERSONAL STRATEGY

Implementing a social media strategy means considering the following areas:

• Goals: What is the goals your posts? How do your business (future) goals support social media objectives?

• Target audience: Who are you trying to reach? Who are we trying to make aware of your work?

• Platform choice: Which platforms best serve that target audience? Are there opportunities for expansion to other platforms? Can content be shared?

• Planned engagement: What type of posts will you be creating? What tone will you use? What images will represent you and your company? Will you be sharing content? Or using a formula such as the 60/30/10 (60 percent engage, 30 percent shared content, 10 percent promotion)?

• Other considerations, including crisis communication: How can we be prepared for the unexpected? What happens when conversations go awry? How can our campaign be made stronger?

DEFINING GOALS

Let’s consider first what our media outlet’s goals are, then ask: How can we align those goals with social strategy? Goals for strategy need to examine how we can meet the needs of our customers. Our goals also need to be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time Bound.

S M A R T SPECIFIC MEASURABLE ATTAINABLE RELEVANT TIME BOUND

You need to have an idea of what you hope to accomplish.

How will you track success? What metrics will you use?

The goal can’t be too lofty (or too easy) it needs to be realistic.

Your desired outcome should relate to your organization.

Beginning and ending dates serve to measure benchmarks.

BEST PRACTICES FOR SOCIAL MEDIA POSTS

KNOW YOUR TARGET

The target audience is called out here: parents. Those who aren’t parents know the content may not be relevant to them. You are not ostracizing. This directed greeting allows readers to engage or disengage based on their preferences.

INCLUDE AN IMAGE

Research from various social media think tanks and marketing firms has shown posts with images do better. Images that provide additional information are more share worthy than those without. Messages move when audience members share them with their friends list. Aim for that.

BE LIVELY

A strong voice selection helps viewers connect to the content. Don’t be drab. Be upbeat. Use catchy phrasing. Notice here there is a emoji, that gives it a little more visual appeal (waving at the user).

SHORTEN URLS

Yes, a URL will turn into a hyperlink. But what happens when social media turns into word-ofmouth marketing for you? While not done here, shortening is recommended. Viewers may not remember long URLS, but they remember bit. ly or tinyurl.com links. Bit.ly allows for customization, where you could turn the link here into something more verbally digestible, like bit.ly/deltachildcare.

A free, web-based WYSIWYG resource to build eye-catching social media images for posting.

HOOTSUITE

hootsuite.com

Web-based social media management allowing for pre-scheduling and advanced metrics.

FREEPIK freepik.com

This site provides copyright and royalty-free images and graphics, most require attribution.

HASHTAG GENERATOR all-hashtag.com

Pair your content with hashtags already being used by searching for what’s out there.

GIVE DETAILS

Don’t make the viewer search for basic event details. Provide ample information. This may include defining words or concepts.

ANSWER QUESTIONS

Understand your audience may not be familiar with what you do. People who read this may not know anything about Delta College childcare, so think about the questions that could be asked before they are even asked. This post also addresses that the daycare is open to the general community as well, a likely question.

CALL TO ACTION

The last paragraph gives the intended action of the post: “Apply now!” It also gives a phone number and lists the website that direct would-be patrons to information on how to apply for the child care. Consider what you want your users to do and prompt that response. Tell them what to do next.

BIT.LY bit.ly

URL shortening service that allows users to customize end of bit.ly for better verbal sharing.

HEADLINER headliner.app

An inexpensive multimedia editor allowing for audiogram, story-to-social, and video creation.

POSTING FOR COLLEGIAN

Let’s look at a post on Collegian’s Facebook page made during the Spring 2023 semester and do a critique on it, examining what works and what needs work. Use the recommendations here to inform your social media posts.

WHAT WORKS

This post was published during a particularly crazy weather semester. This post offers a nice “slice of life” through imagery.

Other positives:

• Strong visual imagery

• Identification of who took the photos to give credit to the photographer

• Linking back to January storms in the viewer’s mind

• A note that “cold weather is expected” to provide context

• Hashtags to unite the content with other similar content

WHAT NEEDS WORKS

This post is mostly fine, but more detailed information would have been useful for the viewer. If looked at in the context of the rest of the Facebook feed, there are no images from January that would have helped someone from out of the area understand what the weather was like then.

Other negatives:

• No link back to previous coverage, specifically when there was a lot of coverage of storms during the time

• Noting of cold weather, but no information about how cold the weather will be, definitely needs more context

• Generic hashtags that don’t say much

• No indication of where these images were taken on campus for user to avoid that area or at least know that there may be impediments to their walk through campus

• There is no call to action

REVISING FOR MORE SPECIFICS

Considering what works and what doesn’t work here, let’s revise the chatter (what the text is known as) to create a more detailed, context-based post:

Photo Editor Christina Goodman was out and about on campus today in the wild wind and can across downed branches in the Shima (first photo) and Budd (second photo) center. Cold weather is expected through this weekend, with high temperatures only projected at 48 degrees on Saturday. Visit deltacollegian.net for more stories related to the wet weather that’s been hitting the Stockton area and all of California since January. #winterstorm #stockton #sjdeltacollege #wetweathercalifornia

Note here that the images were identified in the chatter, and more specific information was given. A call to action was also included (sending readers to the website) with more detailed hashtags at the end.