FASHION AND GENDER: A SOCIETAL AND RETAIL SHIFT
Instituto Marangoni Miami
Cristina Vigliarolo
Introduction
"Except for the medieval codpiece and the bra, garments have never had a gender." Jean Paul Gaultier, a designer who has used male and female models in his couture shows for years, spoke these words. This quote could not be more relevant in the twenty-first century, where designers and stores continue shifting towards the trend of genderless fashion, a fashion that all genders can wear. This thesis demonstrates that the world has a long history of genderless fashion. However, recently, it has become more mainstream with genderless designer labels, fast fashion stores creating genderless lines, and even a gender-free store. This trend is changing fashion at all levels, retail, online, design, and marketing.
Historically, genderless fashion is not a new trend, but the present generation (Gen Z) is embracing it and helping to further its acceptance. This thesis will establish that sex and gender are two concepts, particularly in fashion, and that Gen Z defies the gender norms associated with fashion. The correlation between clothing and makeup and gender and sexuality will be explored. The research will show that retailers and designers have recognized the growing demand for genderless fashion and are creating and selling clothing that is not skewed to the binary consumer but to a broader market, no matter their gender identity. As gender roles change, fashion has had to change as well. However, Gen Z consumers have generated an interest in gender-fluid fashion that has caught the world's attention.
Aim and Objectives
Gender is a socially constructed concept. This thesis proposes to demonstrate that fashion, clothing, and beauty do not correlate with a person's gender identity. The aim will be accomplished by meeting the following objectives:
1. Review and present the history of genderless fashion from ancient times to the present to illustrate how the gender divide is a socially constructed concept.
2. Demonstrate that sex is biological, and gender is sociological. Illustrate gender roles and societal expectations.
3. Explore how gender roles have changed and influenced genderless fashion and how the fashion world recognizes the need for gender-fluid clothing.
4. Discuss current genderless fashion and beauty trends, social media, designers, and brands that encourage individuals to express themselves beyond the boundaries of gender.
5. Display that the focus of fashion is not on the gender of the wearer but the spirit of the garment.
6. Highlight how powerful and liberating fashion can be.
Methodology
My research will demonstrate that fashion and beauty do not correlate with gender. It will discuss the historical roots of gender identity as a social construct, how changes in gender roles have influenced fashion, and how the fashion world is embracing the need for genderless fashion. The research of primary and secondary sources chosen will support the thesis premise. As a primary source, I randomly selected interviewees of differing gender identities and cultural backgrounds who participated in a question-and-answer session and a photo shoot. They were told about the premise of the thesis and that they would be photographed and recorded. They were also told to wear clothing in which they felt comfortable. This qualitative research was selected to represent the lived experience of individuals within their chosen gender identity and if it affected their fashion choices and purchases. The goal of interviewing the respondents was to obtain different perspectives and provide an understanding of the interviewees’ motivations and
emotions as they related to genderless fashion. Each interviewee was asked the same questions to keep the data gathered from the interview consistent. They were: Research questions:
1. Name and Pronouns
2. What made you want to start doing drag? (For Drag Performers)
3. How do you use drag to express yourself? (For drag Performers)
4. How do you feel about drag bans happening right now?
5. How would you describe your Style?
6. How do you express yourself/ what story are you trying to tell?
7. What is your opinion on genderless fashion?
8. What would you say to the haters or opposition?
From the responses received, I discovered that each participant, whether they had changed their identity or not, felt that clothing and their fashion choices were not always based on their gender but rather their identity and how they chose to express themselves through clothing at any given moment. One participant, Matt Donavan, stated, "Not allowing yourself to be defined by what you are wearing is very powerful." Another participant, Alita, the mother of a ten-year-old, raises her son outside of the gender binary. She believes "parents should worry more about their child's character than what they choose to wear," While the respondents interviewed represented a small sampling, the responses supported that fashion and gender are not connected and that the trend towards genderless fashion is growing in popularity.
The secondary research was conducted by reading books, excerpts from books, a perusal of articles, social media influencer pages, and non-influencers on Instagram and TikTok. The secondary sources were books, articles, and social media. From a historical and present-day
perspective, books like Androgyne: Fashion + Gender by P. Mauries and B. Mellor and the articles from Smithsonian magazine, such as “How Katharine Hepburn Became a Fashion Icon,” provided historical accounts related to gender identity and fashion and how gender is a social construct. Several articles about the retail aspect of genderless fashion, i.e., the Business of Fashion, presented the rise of genderless fashion in the retail world and the increase of genderless fashion lines and purchases of genderless clothing by a diverse market of consumers. Instagram and TikTok were utilized to provide real-world examples of how gender does not determine the path of a person's fashion or beauty choices. A clear example is TikTok creator Jay Beech, a male with a gender-fluid wardrobe who wears whatever he wants regardless of gender. Many of the books and publications I read were written by fashion historians, industry professionals, and experts. This helped me further understand and better understand the correlation between fashion and gender.
Literature Review
This brief literature review provides an overview of the sources used to provide evidence and explore the topic further. The research will include firsthand accounts by various authors about how society treats sexuality, statements that express personal stories of identity, and societal expectations for genders. For example, Fashion: The Definitive Visual Guide, published by the Smithsonian, are book documenting dress and fashion trends throughout history. Androgyne: Fashion + Gender, by Patrick Mauries, presents a history of androgyny through art and literature. Other sources will identify the history of genderless fashion, how it has evolved, its rise and fall, and its current resurgence. In addition, media sources, fashion publications, and articles written by industry professionals, journalists, and trend forecasters will be utilized to analyze current trends in genderless fashion and beauty and the influence of social
media. For example, WGSN and Business of Fashion are trusted sources by industry leaders, brands, and professors. Vogue, Vogue Runway, Women's Wear Daily, and other publications are trusted resources.
Interviews with people who dress outside of society's gender norms and identify as nonbinary, trans, or different gender identities provided insight as to how the present generation is reacting to the genderless fashion trend. Interviews helped demonstrate how and why people dress, what they consider when shopping, and how they express themselves through clothing.
Discussion
History
From the fifth century B.C.E. in Greece to the present day, the concept of gender has been explored, debated, and defined by many. Aristophanes believed there were three kinds of sexes, male, female, "and a third, composed of the first two and comprising them both. This third type was called androgynous" (Mauries, 2017, p. 11). It consisted of one body with four legs and arms and two faces on a single head. Eventually, the third type was cut in half, leaving these two halves "to search desperately for their missing person" (Mauries, 2017, p. 11). While rooted in mythology, this belief explains why women are attracted to women and men are attracted to men. It speaks to gender and sex. We are gendered at birth based on biological sex characteristics. However, gender can also refer to the features of males/females that are socially constructed, such as behavior and roles associated with being a man or woman. However, gender identity assigned at birth "may or may not align with a person's true gender identity. Gender identity is the internal feeling of one's gender. This can be different from gender expression and gender assigned at birth." (Gottlieb, 2022) When an individual is assigned as male or female at birth, the Individual is set on a socially constructed path where they must wear "gendered
clothing that is consistent with their assigned sex at birth, which may feel inauthentic and uncomfortable" (Rahilly, 2015) (Reilly and Barnes, 2020:47.)
Thus, sex is biological, gender is sociological, and gender expression is how someone shows their gender through dress, social behavior, or demeanor. In Seeing Gender, Gottlieb explains that "…gender expression does not necessarily indicate gender identity! A cisgender boy can wear dresses and still be a cisgender boy." (Gottlieb, 2022, p. 38) Consequently, how a person dresses do not necessarily define their gender identity. In their book, Crossing Gender Boundaries, Reilly, and Barry quote Bugg 2013; Eicher and Roach-Higgins, 1992, "Dress is a fundamental aspect of embodied communication and the social construction of meaningful gender identity." Dressing can express the gender felt within a person regardless of assigned sex. It can be used simply as a fashion statement and not necessarily connected to sex or gender identity. It can be a state of androgyny demonstrated through clothing.
The concept of androgyny from the fifth century B.C.E to the present day has preoccupied many in and out of the fashion world. Its reference herein notes that gender/sex has deep historical roots and can be connected to the concept of genderless fashion. Let us fast forward to eighteenth-century France, where many men and women chose to wear clothing of the opposite sex. According to Sylvie Steinberg, author of The Confusion of the Sexes (2001), Pierre Aymond Dumoret, a lawyer's son known as Madame Rosette, lived most of his life dressed as a woman. Actresses Sophie Arnould and Mademoiselle de Raucourt chose to wear male garments. Their choice, deemed unacceptable by most in their society, was made because Dumoret, Arnould, and de Raucourt rejected convention and societal boundaries.
uniforms were called "bloomer suits" Stanford and Cal first wore them in 1896.
During the late nineteenth century in Britain, there was a school of thought on dress reform called "hygienic dress" (Mauries, 2017, p. 22). With roots in the bloomers era, this reform was started to provide "comfort and utility" (Reilly and Barry:2020:23). The divided skirt or bloomer, which some women adopted, was seen as unattractive and masculine. The women who chose to wear this garment, thus, eschewing the wearing of a dress, were mocked, and considered unfeminine. However, while many may think this changeover was to challenge gender norms, it is attributed to "the visual discourses extending out of the art world that would play a significant role in accepting the divided skirt…" (Reilly & Barry, 2020, p. 23). As originally quoted in Crane 1999:253, "Rigid sartorial practices in nineteenth-century Victorian culture were based on an understanding of gender as an inborn trait that was both inherent and fixed" (Reilly & Barry, 2020, p. 23).
As we move through the first decade of the twentieth century, the rise of genderless fashion is seen throughout Europe and the United States. In the early 1900s in Europe, Natalie Clifford Barney, a young American writer living in France, had various relationships with other celebrated female writers (Vivien, Delarue-Madris, Brooks) of the time. They influenced the designs of Coco Chanel and the creation of Yves Saint Laurent's 'Le Smoking' suit in 1966. These young female writers expressed their free living through their words and fashion and were called 'Amazon.' "These Amazons, along with the 'tomboys' or garcons and their somewhat
different priorities, helped to pave the way for the integration of men's clothes into women's fashion." (Mauries, 2017, p. 85).
The feminist movement in Europe and America slowly changed attitudes toward gender and fashion. From the European cabarets to Hollywood, "the playing with, and assertion of ways of being male was no longer restricted…to the privileged few." (Mauries, 2017, p. 56). In 1930s Hollywood, actresses like Marlene Dietrich, Greta Garbo, and Katherine Hepburn challenged the social norms of fashion. Marlene Dietrich, famous in the 1930s for her acting and love affairs with both men and women, helped to pioneer the trend of women wearing men's clothing. In her article, A Look at Marlene Dietrich, and Her Trailblazing Modern Style, Burrows says of the actress, "The German siren was a trailblazer in pushing the boundaries of fashion's gender constructs… and captured the world's imagination. Dietrich also paved the way for androgynous Style, often dressing in menswear; her Style inspires fashion trends today." (Burrows, 2020). Designers like Edith Head and Howard Greer worked with Katherine Hepburn to create her often masculineinfluenced Style. She wore clothes that allowed her to move freely. In 1985, Hepburn was recognized by the Council of Fashion Design with a Lifetime Achievement award. Regardless of gender, "Her 'look' was an essential expression of who she was…" (Henderson, 2015). During World War II, women went to work to replace the men fighting in the war, and their work clothes reflected a male aesthetic. After the war and well into the 1960s, societal
culture changed in various aspects. "…the social movements and student protests of the late 1960s, which challenged establishment values and rejected social conventions, also led to a reevaluation of artistic movements, figures, and ideas that, until then, had been dismissed as minor or marginal interest." (Mauries, 2017:116) The fashion world also changed. The emergence of unisex clothing in the Sixties and Seventies was seen as a resistance to the present postwar culture. While many pioneers of the past and present centuries chose to dress as they pleased, wearing men's clothing was a form of selfexpression, not a fashion or social statement. Although many women emulated Dietrich and Hepburn, their purpose was rooted in individual expression and a desire for comfort. They did not set out to start trends. "It was only in the late 1960s that fashion was set on its present-day trajectory, on which it has become a trend, a template, and a shared orientation – the expression of an era, of its confused desires…." (Mauries, 2017:116) This shift in fashion to include a unisex aesthetic was seen in the designs of Pierre Cardin, Paco Rabanne, and Andre Courreges in the late 1960s. In the 90s, Calvin Klein shifted his brand to become inclusive. Reilly and Barry (2020) note, "In the last decade, Ruth La Ferla (2015) identifies 'the great gender blur,' in which fashion has undertaken the 'deliberate erosion' on the runways of a once rigid demarcation between conventionally feminine and masculine clothes, a shift furthered in the casting of androgynous and transgender models (Chew-Bose, 2014; La Ferla, 2015b; Mellery-Platt, 2015; Meltzer, 2015)
Apart from designers, other societal influencers included Mick Jagger and David Bowie. Both were clients of Michael Fish, a London-based designer known for his standing collars, puffed sleeves, crushed velvet jackets, and flounced tunics. He designed "the famous white voile tunic worn by Mick Jagger at the Rolling Stones' Hyde Park concert in 1969, and the richly patterned gown modeled by a reclining David Bowie on the cover of the U.K. release of the album, The Man Who Sold the World in 1971." (Mauries, 2017, pp. 116-17). One can see his influence on such designers as Alessandro Michele for Gucci and Jonathan Anderson. Both these designers ``have revived the idea of going against type, and against gender, by using the most 'feminine' of fabrics – brocades, velvets, lace, and prints – for menswear." (Mauries, 2017, p. 117). The 1980s saw the rise of ready-to-wear, with Yves Saint Laurent, Thierry Mugler, and Karl Lagerfeld, among others, emerging as "the iconic figures of this new era." (Mauries, 2017, p. 120) A new style surfaced, especially for women. It was the era of 'power dressing.' Women wore suits that were well-tailored, sharp, and had giant shoulder pads. They embraced the strength and masculinity of these suits, feeling empowered by these designs. As Thierry Mugler stated, "There is one constant, and it is a victorious woman. These women are never sad or weak. They are fighters." (Mauries, 2017, p. 120) The research has shown that celebrities from all walks of life, past and present, and their fashion choices, have influenced the choices that both men and women make when dressing. Figures like Grace Jones, with her androgynous image, and Boy George, a "feminized man"
(Mauries, 2017, p. 121) influenced their generation to see
clothing not as an expression of identity or gender but as a dismissal of gender stereotypes in fashion. During the 1980s and for the next 30 years, no one designer carried forth this message with more passion than Jean Paul Gaultier. He used his designs to reshape society's thinking that clothing/fashion should not be separated into male or female categories. As he said in May 2015 at a retrospective of his work in Paris, "I like to reverse roles, to smash the established codes that are meaningless today. I do not believe that fabrics have a sex, any more than garments do."
(Mauries, 2017, p. 121)
Current Trends
Consumer market segments for stores are different from what they used to be and are no longer the typical demographics. Fast fashion brands like H&M, Zara, and ASOS have created their own gender-fluid and unisex lines. High-end London department store Selfridges revealed its gender campaign in 2015, dedicating a section of its store to "gender neutral clothing" and accessories that offer (according to their website) "an alternative to the classic men's and women's dichotomy." The U.S.-based shopping app RIGit is a completely genderless shopping app where consumers shop by Style and occasion rather than gender. In July 2017, United States Vogue released a cover of model Gigi Hadid and musician boyfriend Zayne Malik wearing each other's clothing. Many applauded Vogue's covers, yet it still faced criticism because many felt that simply swapping clothes did not make it genderless. The genderless trend also reached the highest-end designers. Prada's fall-winter 2015 menswear show had a tagline that said, "Gender is a context, and context is often gendered." Jean Paul Gaultier has featured male and female models since 1985, when he introduced and endorsed skirts for men, especially kilts, and emphasized corsets. Designers such as Vivienne Westwood and Gucci also featured high-end genderless collections. In 2016 model Jaden Smith wore a skirt
in Louis Vuitton's spring-summer campaign and became a symbol for androgynous fashion.
French designer Ludovic de Saint Sernin, a finalist for the LVMH prize for young fashion designers, is labeled a gender-neutral designer. He has said: "The only time the question of girl or boy comes into the conversation regarding design is when I do underwear. I want the clothes to be looked at as garments – I wear both men's and women's clothes and do not care about labels or if I am shopping in a store's women's or men's section." (Freeman, 2018) Today, the Gen Z generation is ready to let go of preconceived notions of gender and the clothes that accompany them.
Continuing the trend to create a retail outlet for genderless fashion is The Phluid Project. A former store in New York City that opened in August of 2018 was entirely gender-free and the first of its kind in the world. The store had no gender sections, and clothes were divided by Style and labeled by number rather than specific sizes like small, medium, and large. The merchandise consisted of skirts, pants, dresses, fur coats, graphic tees, shoes, jewelry, and beauty, all free from gender labels. Phluid also released the first gender-free jean in the Spring of 2019 and was the clothing supplier for World Pride in 2019. The store, which featured a coffee shop and an Instagram photo room, was about creating a shopping experience for non-binary customers and establishing a community. The creator and C.E.O., Rob Smith, was partly inspired by his Native American heritage, wherein Native Americans had both male and female traits and were equally respected as every other community
member. He has said, "There is a paradigm shift currently happening in our society. Today's young people are leaving behind the traditional roles and structures that constrained generations prior. They are choosing to live a freer and more self-expressive life." (Smith 2018) Smith often wears women's jeans, sparkly nail polish, and foundation. He even criticized H&M and Zara collections, stating that genderless does not mean shapeless and colorless clothing. Smith hopes to eliminate the expression of gender and believes that stores like the Phluid Project will soon become more common (the store closed in 2020 but is an active online retailer).
Genderless fashion lines benefit many people who are gender fluid or non-binary. Retailers like the Phluid Project create a more accessible and better atmosphere wherein customers can shop without being challenged or judged for shopping in the opposite section of their gender. It also correlates to a more significant move to help eliminate gender roles or stereotypes. However, this effort is faced with some opposition as many feel genderless fashion is hurtful to males' and females' efforts. For example, the British department store, John Lewis, faced public backlash for its gender-neutral line. However, despite some opposition, genderneutral fashion has allowed people to express themselves like never before. The emergence of retailers like the Phluid Project will allow all genders to express themselves free from societal constraints. According to an article in Vogue, interest in gender-fluid fashion is driven by younger generations, particularly Gen-Z consumers. An article in The Business of Fashion.com stated, "…around 50% of Gen Z globally have purchased fashion outside of their gender identity, and around 70% of consumers say they are interested in buying gender fluid fashion in the future…" (B of F Team, McKinsey & Company, 2022)
Social Media
The rise in social media usage and the popularity of Instagram and Tik Tok have likewise brought awareness to genderless fashion. While it may seem like a trend or a quick way to go viral, others use their platforms to express their Style and break social norms. In a study at the Marche Polytechnic University, writer Barbra Kulaga stated that "influencers and celebrities often have a positive view of genderless collaborations." She also stated, "Product posts of influencers and celebrities are more effective than brands in inducing a purchase of a genderless garment." For example, many beauty influencers are men with large followings. Beauty brands often choose these men to promote their products rather than women with less of a following. However, it is more than going viral or following trends for some users. "TikTok is proving users eschew Instagram's perfect curation for messier, more authentic moments. Moreover, folks far from the nucleus of fashion can create their aesthetic." (Martin, 2021)
Cosmopolitan interviewed influencers who dress outside their gender binary. Digital content creator Joan Dominic Rai said, "my Style is very androgynous. I believe in transcending boundaries of gender codes through my ensembles, and a blend of masculine and feminine pieces plays a key role. Finding and owning your style language is important and that comes from knowing your body and what works for you." Famous influencers such as "The
their 60s and 70s, have amassed a following of 7 million. What started as a fun nickname has become a platform to combat ageism and defy gender by wearing dresses, collaborating with celebrities, and dancing in famous Tik Tok trends. A popular Tik Tok family, the McLeods, features a single mother, Eeka Rocha McLeod, raising three adopted kids and her transgender daughter Evan. She chronicles her experiences raising a trans child who loves to strut in dresses. Her then-son loved going to Disney and often dressed within the gender binary. Then, as he grew up, he expressed his desire to wear dresses and look like a princess. At first, he would identify as a "boy-girl" and then express that she was a girl. McLeod has supported her daughter every step of the way. In an interview with Pink News, McLeod stated that she has learned to "just roll with it because something new emerges every day as Evan explores her identity." Many people think this is unrealistic and not preparing her daughter for the real world. In response, she made a Tik Tok shaking her head at the comments that Evan wearing dresses is "just a phase" or that she needs to dress within her gender binary. At the same time, Evan strutted like a model wearing a gown; an article from In Style mentioned a Tik Tok creator, Triple Minor, who recently felt most comfortable wearing his red dresses, pleated miniskirts, gold platform heels, and sequin dusters for his 34.6K TikTok followers. In the interview, he stated, "I started wearing skirts and women's clothing on TikTok, where I knew no one. The next step was taking it from social media into the world around me. Back in the day, it was the streets. It is social media now that has influence."
TikTok creator Jay Beech joined the platform in January 2021 and already has over 780K followers. He posts fashion videos showing a gender-fluid and retro-chic wardrobe incorporating bell bottoms, pearl necklaces, handbags, and cardigans. "I am going to wear what I want," Beech says. (Martin 2021) "Spaces like TikTok, Instagram, and YouTube have given androgynous stylists, post-gender visionaries, and queer creatives the freedom to embrace their authentic
selves, tools to build a platform, and the potential to have a broad reach and impact. The result is an empowered generation of tech-savvy trendsetters whose content and preferred clothing subvert gender norms and transcends the mainstream." (Martin 2021) Another popular Tik Toker, Dylan Mulvaney, a trans woman, rose to fame with her famous "Days of Girlhood "posts, where she posted vlogs of each new day as a woman. Dylan is discovering for herself (and others) what it means to be a woman and how she expresses her femininity. Despite getting so much hate, especially after her Grammys attendance, and Bud Light collaboration, Dylan remains positive and often deals with hate with class, grace, and love. She responded to Grammy's hate by saying, "I started laughing because I then was looking at that same picture, and I saw a beautiful woman, who was me." Even as a woman who loves pink, Barbie, and classic movie actresses, she still broke stereotypes when recently partnering with Budweiser beer posting a picture of herself with a can of beer yet dressed as Audrey Hepburn. Dylan is redefining what womanhood is and can be, not just for herself, but continues to inspire people of all genders and sexualities across social media. People of all genders are experimenting with makeup and fashion and documenting it on social media. Beauty Clothing is not the only fashion element that can be gender-free. Beauty and makeup also play a significant role. "The definition of a beautiful face has never been constant. Political
and social climates have molded accepted beauty rituals, and cosmetics have evolved from ancient times to today." (Hernandez, 2019) The use of color on the face has been a ritual since ancient times when it was used as protection against evil spirits. In 3000 B.C.E., face paint became a beauty enhancer and skin protectant for both men and women. In the Egyptian civilization, beauty and personal cleanliness were often due to their spirituality. It held a practical purpose as well as a skin adornment. Kohl eyeliner was used as eye makeup and protection against the sun by both men and women. The Greeks wore simple makeup but took great importance in using oils and perfumes. Both men and women kept their bodies hairless and styled their hair with oils. The Persians embraced cosmetic practices and influenced future generations. Men used kohl around their eyes and frequently used ointment and perfume. In ancient Rome, primarily women wore face cosmetics, and men and women took grooming and bathing very seriously.
The Middle Ages is when there began to be a gender divide in clothing and makeup. With the rise of Christianity and illness, beauty regimens were kept simple, as vanity was considered evil. Men's and women's grooming fell out of popularity, and most women had their hair covered. While Norse, Teutons, and Saxon men wore tattoos and heavy jewelry, the beauty regimen became a female domain. As soldiers introduced new fashions and cosmetics from the East, Arabian fashion and beauty soon influenced European trends. As opposed to one of today's current beauty standards of tan skin, women in the Middle Ages would bleach their skin using bleaches and lye to get rid of their freckles and powdered their faces with flour, a symbol of purity and virginity. During the Renaissance, Queen Elizabeth painted her skin with white lead to maintain her image of the "virgin Queen." As Queen Elizabeth advocated sumptuary laws (laws dictating what one could wear depending on gender and class), men were not avid wearers of
cosmetics. However, the Puritans had a different view of makeup. They viewed it as a way for women to lure men, and cosmetics were associated with witchcraft. The eighteenth century, the age of beauty and materialism, began an elaborate era in the usage of cosmetics for both men and women in the European aristocracy. Powders, paints, perfumes, and rouge were popular in the royal courts.
"Rouge was the main focal point for both men and women. Men used Spanish wool tinted with carmine to color cheeks." (Hernandez, 2019) As a result of the revolutions across Europe and the Americas, excessive finery and cosmetics were looked down upon. Queen Victoria in England represented the image of youth and purity.
In contrast to the centuries prior, the Victorians believed in cleanliness, and washing became a daily ritual. Modesty brought with her the popularity of fine powders and dedicated toilette waters. However, as Britain took control of India, imported scents became widely used. Heavy makeup was seen as taboo and became heavily associated with prostitutes. This was also when makeup became associated with femininity. While many books were dedicated to a woman's beauty routine and recommended that women spend two hours a day on their appearance, the regimen for men only consisted of cologne, hair pomade, and shaving cream.
At the turn of the 20th century, cosmetics were still not mainstream and were worn mainly by prostitutes and actresses. In ballets in France and Russia, black eyeliner in kohl was used to darken the eyes. With the influence of Russian dancers, Helen Rubenstein and Elizabeth
Arden created bolder makeup shops for upscale customers. The 1920s brought a new age of makeup for women. Women in silence played a significant role in the use of cosmetics. While flapper culture was considered taboo, women cut their hair, wore red lipstick and dresses that made them look flat-chested, and hid their figures to mimic men. They saw this as a form of liberation; men could do as they wanted, why not women? They wanted to show their sexuality and put themselves out there as men did. There also began an emphasis on skincare but not how it is used today. Elizabeth Arden would sell skin-tightening and freckle-removing creams to eliminate flaws rather than embrace them. Brands such as Revlon and Maybelline emerged with a new acceptance of makeup usage.
Greta Garbo would darken her eyes with ash and soot. This was also when foundation and powder were used as a base to match the skin. During the Great Depression, even as makeup was scarce, it was considered essential for women searching for work outside the home. Painting nails in a half-moon shape called the moon manicure became popular. Makeup was also used as a political tool. During WWII, it was said that Hitler hated red lipstick on women, so the U.S. government paired with Revlon to create the victory red color that women in the army were required to wear. Given the strict gender divide between men and women in the 1950s, women were expected to be homemakers and do all the housework while still looking perfect; makeup for women was subtle, with thin eyebrows, a thin black winged liner, pink cheeks, and pink or red lips. The "movie star looks" of Audrey Hepburn, Grace Kelly, and Ingrid Bergmann was perfect. James Dean inspired men's looks in Rebel Without Cause, with slicked-back hair with hair gel as the norm.
The 1960s is when gender became more fluid in fashion and makeup. Late in the decade, New York's West Village art scene, with artists like Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein, became
more eclectic. Fashion and beauty became more eccentric with bright colors and clumpy mascara inspired by Twiggy. As previously noted, in East London's punk scene, rock musicians such as Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, and David Bowie changed the dynamic by wearing outlandish makeup and clothes on and off the stage. The message was to be androgynous and exotic and make a statement. The 1970s were heavily influenced by New York's Studio 54 party scene and the feminist movement. Women were freer with nudity, especially in film, and stopped shaving their body hair. However, during this time, makeup was not mainstream for men but reserved for rock and roll stars. The 1980s emerged as a time of bold and dramatic looks. This time also saw the rise of ballroom culture. This was a way for members of the LGBTQ+ community, especially Transgender individuals, to express themselves through makeup and fashion and dress in roles they would never be allowed to be in, in mainstream society. While the preppy look was in for most, the punk scene continued to thrive and blur the line between gender, fashion, and beauty.
The new grunge movement also led to dark eye makeup worn by both men and women. With Diane Keaton's clean face and short hair, the film Annie Hall inspired an androgynous look for women.
While the 1980s were maximalist, the 1990s were minimalist. Isaac Mizrahi then stated, "The Eighties were over the top. It is about how we can express ourselves and maintain dignity." In the early 2000s, makeup for men was still reserved for musicians and actors. The concept of "guyliner" hit the mainstream in the early 2000s. Pete Wentz, lead singer of the rock group Fall Out Boy, and countless other men lined their eyes in black to achieve a smoldering, bad boy look. The trend was most popular with rock bands and their followers. Beauty brands began to launch "metrosexual" products specifically targeted to the man who wanted to look sophisticated, well-groomed, and polished. Yves Saint Laurent, for example, released the male version of its
best-selling Touche Eclat concealer in 2008. As the grunge movement of the 1990s transferred to the early 2000s, permanent body art, such as tattoos and piercings, was popular with young teenagers and adults, both male and female. This decade also gave rise to the "metrosexual male' where celebrities like David Beckham made it acceptable to take care of oneself with products associated with females. Today, like genderless clothing, makeup for men has become more mainstream. The social media surge has allowed people of all genders to experiment and document their makeup experiences. Some of the top beauty influencers today, such as Manny Gutierrez (@mannymua733), Patrick Starr (@patrickstarr), Patrick Ta (@patrickta), who has his genderless brand at Sephora, and Jonathan Van Ness (from Queer Eye), are men who identify as non-binary. Many started on YouTube and have transitioned to Tik Tok and Instagram. @ _Arvin Room is another influencer who breaks gender binaries and stereotypes by documenting his experience as a straight man that wears makeup. Many men of all sexualities are experimenting with makeup. Covergirl and Maybelline broke the mold by introducing star influencers James Charles and Manny Gutierrez, respectively, as spokespeople for their mass-color cosmetic brands. This mainstreaming of cosmetic-wearing male influencers has helped to dismantle gender-specific beauty stereotypes. (Men and Makeup 2021) A British makeup competition show called "Glow Up" allows competitors to do makeup on males, females, and nonbinary models. Male celebrities such as John Stamos and B.T.S. (whose members are skincare enthusiasts) have posted themselves in face masks and using
skincare. Harry Styles has even created his own gender-free makeup and skincare line. While skincare has been widely popularized for women, it has become less taboo for men to take care of themselves. Retailers like Sephora and others have used men in their beauty campaigns, and many brands have pledged that beauty is for everyone. The shift to gender-fluid fashion has been driven by "a greater acceptance and understanding of sexual orientations and gender identities, with younger generations today often viewing gender identity as a spectrum, rather than binary." (B of F Team, McKinsey & Company, 2022). Consumer demand for genderless fashion has risen, and the Gen Z population has been the catalyst for the growth in purchases of genderless fashion. Globally, the interest in genderless fashion has surged, as shown in the chart below.
An article in Retail Dive describes the impact of gender-neutral fashion in the retail world. It states, “Around 1.2 million LGBTQ people in the U.S. identify as non-binary, according to June 2021 data from UCLA’s Williams Institute.” (Retail Dive, Sept. 2022) A
significant portion of the Gen Z population would like retailers to acknowledge that clothing should be gender-neutral. This shift in attitude is in direct relation to a shift towards inclusivity.
A survey of 4,000+ Gen Z students in the U.S., U.K., and Australia “found that 45% want brands to market gender-neutral clothing more explicitly.” If retailers are not answering the call to make gender-neutral clothing more available, they are missing out on a growth opportunity for their brands. To further explore the current attitude toward gender-neutral clothing, it was essential to conduct a small series of interviews with twelve individuals of different gender identities to reinforce this thesis' premise that fashion does not correlate with gender. The consensus among the participants was that fashion is a form of expression that is dynamic, genderless, and a way of being seen. The image is about what the wearer wants to become. During his interview, drag king performer Julian Butler affirmed, "Everyone should be able to wear whatever they want and move forward with genderless fashion."
The interviewees held strong convictions that they do not conform to society's idea of how they should dress or act, and all agreed that being able to express themselves through clothing is essential and meaningful. Matthew Donovan, aka Madonovan, stated, "Expressing yourself is self-healing, and wearing clothes however you want is self-healing and can be very powerful." Self-expression should reach everyone, not just a specific group, and should not be about 'seeking approval.' Everyone has a right to dress according to their personality, not their anatomy.
Many of them use drag to express a different side of themselves, and what they wear is the catalyst that drives their goal to be seen as who they are or want to be now. So, while society still separates or categorizes many aspects of life into feminine or masculine, the interviewees expressed that they do not adhere to the social construct of gender separation in fashion and felt that, in the words of Roxy Stones, performer, society should "mind their own business!"
Conclusion
I have argued throughout this work that fashion has no gender, as evidenced by the long history of genderless fashion and its present rise in popularity as presented herein. This thesis has explored and challenged the conventional ideas of fashion and beauty through historical research, present-day growth in the retail world, the influence of social media, and one on one interviews. While this topic has been addressed by many, I wanted to delve into its history to understand the trajectory of genderless fashion and what influenced its surge in popularity through the centuries. The historical roots of gender/identity date back to 5th century Greece and the concept of androgyny. As I moved further in the research, from 18th century society to 1930s and 40s Hollywood, the rock stars of the 60s and 70s to present day, there has always been people from all walks of life who have embraced wearing clothing outside of their gender.
I demonstrated that genderless fashion (clothing and beauty) has become more mainstream in retail. The shift in attitude and the influence of pop culture are clear. It has helped boost the demand for genderless fashion, and retailers have noticed it! They are embracing this market as social and cultural attitudes towards genderless fashion have changed (as evidenced in the interviews and research), particularly amongst Gen Z. "Gender neutral is not a trend; it is a reality," said Jonathan Anderson, creative director of Loewe and founder of JW Anderson, in 2021. (B of F Team, McKinsey & Company, 2020)
The research led me to conclude that the roots of fashion outside of one’s gender are deep and the demand for gender neutral clothing is global. Models and everyday people may not care who or what they are wearing but would always prefer to show who they are and reflect their personalities through their style. When you expand your mind as a stylist and think out of the box, style is not about a man in a dress, a woman in a suit, or men and women dressing in the opposite gender or even gender itself, but about the person wearing the clothes. Fashion should be about representing oneself as a person. Everyone should feel comfortable in their skin. One cannot fully express oneself if societal norms are restraining. Fashion and style are not about the garments themselves or the gender of the person wearing them but rather a form of selfexpression.
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