A CONTEMPTUOUS SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY (THE
19th CENTURY)
A blossoming of the Romanticised depictions of Stonehenge and the Druids occurred during the first half of the 1800s. However, as the century progressed the zeitgeist slowly switched, cumulating in Lieutenant General Augustus Pitt Rivers’ 1889 presidential address to the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society: “[Stukeley’s name] has been handed down to us chiefly as an example of what to avoid in archaeology.”100 This denouncement from the president of the Archaeological Society shows how far Stukeley’s Druidic ideas had fell out of favour. Ultimately it was bigger then archaeology, and “by the end of the nineteenth century, support for the druids among the scientific establishment had been replaced with contempt…suggestions that the Celtic priests might have been connected with Stonehenge was dismissed out of hand.”101
The ball for this had supposedly began to start rolling by the turn of the century when the archaeologist Sir John Lubbock, was able to accurately attribute the site to the Bronze age.102 This well documented find didn’t hamper artists though, with seminal figures like John Constable and J. M. W. Turner producing paintings of the stones arranged for romantic effect, helping to further the megalithic myths into popular imagination. The British philosopher Edmund Burke explained it well when he proposed the idea of the ‘sublime’ sense as being evoked by ‘feelings of danger and terror, obscurity and power’.103 This already was a feature for the artworks of the period and it bestowed the theoretical foundation for the increasing admiration of barren landscapes and prehistoric ruins. Burke himself wrote “Stonehenge, neither for disposition nor ornament, has anything admirable; but those huge rude masses of stone, set end on end, and piled high on each other, turn the mind on the immense force necessary for such a work.”104
One person who’s mind was particularly enamoured by the stones was William Blake’s. A seminal figure in poetry, he became greatly inspired by the Druidic writings of Stukeley. Haycock describes him as the “most famous propagator of Stukelian ideas in the early nineteenth century.”105 Particularly after reading Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion (1820) by Blake, you get the sense of the many observations and images that he clearly drew upon and developed into his own interpretation of Stonehenge and it’s culture. It’s interesting to see the similarities drawn upon by Blake, however equally salient are the divergences.106 Whilst Stukeley saw the Druids as primarily a force of positivity and was very admiring in his comments, Blake was highly critical and saw them as symbols of Deism. Deistical religion in his view meant inhuman sacrifice, vengeance for sins and everything that was opposed to his interpretation of Christianity.107 This interestingly exhibits the general zeitgeist shift towards depictions of Stonehenge from when Stukeley published his book in 1740 and when Blake did 80 years later. This growing anti-pagan approach108 is also seen in the works of William Overend Geller, with his painting The Druid’s Sacrifice (1832), as well as the work of Thomas Hardy in his novel Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891).
100 Haycock
101 Time-Life
102 Lubbock, John. 2015. Pre-Historic Times, as Illustrated by Ancient Remains and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages - Scholar’s Choice Edition (London, ON, Canada: Scholar’s Choice)
103 Burke, Edmund. 2015. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful, 2nd edn, ed. by Paul Guyer (London, England: Oxford University Press)
104 Ibid
105 Haycock
106 Blake, William. 1997. The Illuminated Books of William Blake, Volume 1: Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion, ed. by Morton D. Paley and David Bindman (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press)
107 Ibid
108 Strmiska, Michael F. (ed.). 2005. Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO)
Fig 34. A depiction of Stonehenge and Avebury by William Blake for Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion (1820)
Fig 35. A drawing of a Druid’s sacrifice at Stonehenge by William Overend Geller.
Fig 36. A depiction of a Druid’s sacrifice by William Blake for Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion (1820)
The archaeologist Mike Parker Pearson states “Stonehenge was created during a time of profound social change…unlike previous thought, it’s construction probably involved all the people of Britain.”109 Parallels can be drawn then between its construction during the Neolithic Revolution, a period marked by the lifestyle change from hunter-gathers to agricultural, and the only other comparable moment in terms of material advancement; the Industrial Revolution.110 Beginning in 1760 Britain, the Industrial Revolution marked a rapid period of mass production, scientific discovery and use of electric, steam and water power. It was a major turning point in world history and swept the world in waves, eventually influencing almost every aspect of daily life until its culmination in 1914. Countless practical factors explain why it started in Britain, but many historians also consider British society’s greater receptiveness to change, compared to continental Europe, as an important aspect too.111
This acceptance to change generally wasn’t held in intellectual and artistic circles though. Hostility was obviously held most greatly by the Romantics, who’s movement in part started as a reaction against industrialisation.112 During their peak between 1800 and 1850, works such as Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) and Blake’s And did those feet in ancient time (1808) reflected concerns of scientific progress on working classes and stressed the importance of nature. However, their view soon became challenged from the mid-century onwards. Realism emerged in 1840s France and, although it shared a general distrust of industrialisation, it heavily rejected Romantic and historical idealisation and instead focused on depicting real and contemporary people and landscapes with truth and accuracy.113
It’s no surprise then when Henry James, one of the key figures of 19th century literary Realism, travelled to Whiltshire in the 1870s he remarked “Stonehenge is rather a hackneyed shrine of pilgrimage.”114 From now on, as the concept of prehistory enlarged and clarified, Stonehenge seemed to pull less at the imaginative writer. This disparaging view is endorsed by the local area turning into a ‘racecourse’ in the Victorian era and the monuments use as a “handy spot for race-goers to dispose…rubbish.”115 There also was a huge problem with vandalism and people taking chunks of the monument, leading to many letters being published in the London Times in 1860 and 1871 decrying the “foolish, vulgar and ruthless practice of the majority of visitors.”116 In her book The Discovery of Britain: The English Tourists, 1540–1840, the historian Esther Moir wrote that “all” Victorian English upper-class tourists “recounted the triumphs they enjoyed in securing trophies on their travels, whether they came by them by honest means, by craft, or by outright theft.”117 This problem was exasperated by the construction of railroads in the mid-19th century that made travel far more accessible for the middle and working classes. In the book, Stranded in the Present, the historian Peter Fritzsche argues that at the wake of increasing industrialisation, Europeans began to stop seeing the past as a reliable guide to the future. He believes that as the world became more and more unrecognisable, “the past was conceived more and more as something bygone and lost.”118 For British tourists then, it seems travelling to Stonehenge and chipping pieces off as keepsakes provided a tangible link to their ever disappearing past.
109 Edwards, Mary, Alex Heuer, and Don Marsh. 2013. “Archaeologist Mike Parker Pearson Unravels the Mysteries of Stonehenge,” STLPR <https://news. stlpublicradio.org/show/st-louis-on-the-air/2013-03-27/archaeologist-mike-parker-pearson-unravels-the-mysteries-of-stonehenge> [accessed 18 January 2023]
110 North, Douglass C., and Robert Paul Thomas. 1977. “The First Economic Revolution,” The Economic History Review, 30.2: 229 <https://doi. org/10.2307/2595144>
111 Allen, Robin Wagner Rowan. World History. United Kingdom, ED-Tech Press, 2018.
112 Mhaske, Sanghapal Uttam, Mandakini Sharma, Richa Thapliyal, Théodore Gericault, Eugene Delacroix, and others. 2021. “Romanticism and Art: An Overview,” Webology <https://doi.org/10.29121/web/v18i3/25>
113 Malpas, James. 1997. Movements in Modern Art: Realism (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press)
114 James, Henry. 2012. Complete Works of Henry James, 6th edn (Hastings, England: Delphi Classics)
115 Pearson, Stonehenge: Exploring the Greatest Stone Age Mystery
116 Barber, Martyn. 2014. “restoring” Stonehenge 1881-1939: Stonehenge World Heritage Site Landscape Project (Swindon, England: Historic England)
117 Moir, Esther. 2012. The Discovery of Britain: The English Tourists 1540-1840 (London, England: Routledge)
118 Fritzsche, Peter. 2010. Stranded in the Present: Modern Time and the Melancholy of History (London, England: Harvard University Press)
Fig 37. A drawing of a course meeting at Stonehenge published in 1865.
Fig 38. Paintings by John William Inchbold in the late 1860s and early 70s. The paintings show much more of a realist perspective then previously and his work was influenced by the Pre-Raphaelites.
With this increasingly avant-garde climate, Victorian architecture evidently became to embody the ‘new’; New materials, new techniques and new structures. In spite of this, architects tended to look at past styles like Renaissance, Gothic and Medieval for aesthetic inspiration. This period became known as Revivalism and architects often happily moved between styles, not being ideologically committed to any in particular. Furthermore, the new technology of iron and steel frame construction exerted a high influence over the forms of buildings as well.119 The Revivalists varied considerably in their faithfulness to the principles of construction and ornamental style of their originals; Buildings with a wholly 19th century plan using contemporary materials and construction methods, would sometimes just have pointed window frames and touches of Gothic decoration.120
A shallow exploration into past forms to bolster national character and a societal focus on the future meant Stonehenge didn’t seem to explicitly influence any major projects during the Victorian period. It can only be seen subtly through Burke’s idea of the British ‘sublime’ and Pearson’s theory about a time of social unity during profound social change. Stonehenge is the most architecturally sophisticated and only existing lintelled stone circle in the world, using precisely interlocking joints unseen in any other prehistoric monument.121 Although there is a lack of influence of Stonehenge on Architecture during this time parrells can be seen through the use of innovative materials and construction methods but none most prominent then The Crystal Palace, built for the 1851 Great Exhibition122 to grandstand the UK’s industrial prowess to the world.
Described by Norman Foster as the “birth of modern architecture,”123 the Palace was designed, not by an architect, but a botanist and greenhouse builder: Joseph Paxton. In spite of this, like Stonehenge, it became a fundamental building in world history, both for its monumental scale and technical innovations. Although the facade was inspired by the Classical arch, colonnade and plan of Roman basilicas, the form was largely derived from the new prefabricated glass and iron structural techniques pioneered by Paxton.124 The largest building in the world at its time, it inspired sublime awe for its feats of innovation, whilst also inspiring fear for what it signified. Augustus Pugin labelled it a “glass-monster”125 and John Ruskin worried about it’s consequences for ‘the building arts’.126 Foster states “since Stonehenge, architects have always been at the cutting edge of technology,”127 solidifying the monument and Crystal Palace’s seat as one of many symbols of British ingenuity.
119 Dixon, Roger. 1978. Victorian Architecture, 2nd edn (London, England: Thames & Hudson)
120 Matthew A. McIntosh “An Old Style in the Modern World: Gothic Revival Architecture,” Brewminate: A Bold Blend of News and Ideas <https://brewminate.com/an-old-style-in-the-modern-world-gothic-revival-architecture/> [accessed 18 January 2023]
121 “Why Is Stonehenge Important?” [n.d.]. English Heritage <https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/history-and-stories/history/ significance/> [accessed 18 January 2023]
122 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. 2022. “Crystal Palace,” Encyclopedia Britannica
123 Ravenscroft, Tom. 2019. “Crystal Palace Was ‘Birth of Modern Architecture’ Says Norman Foster,” Dezeen <https://www.dezeen.com/2019/11/28/norman-foster-crystal-palace-modern-architecture/> [accessed 18 January 2023]
124 Schoenefeldt, Henrik. 2011. “Adapting Glasshouses for Human Use: Environmental Experimentation in Paxton’s Designs for the 1851 Great Exhibition Building and the Crystal Palace,” Sydenham.” Architectural History, 54: 233–73 <https://doi.org/10.1017/S0066622X00004068>
125 Richards, Brent. 2006. New Glass Architecture (London, England: Laurence King Publishing)
126 Ruskin, John. 2019. The Opening of the Crystal Palace the Opening of the Crystal Palace: Considered in Some of Its Relations to the Prospects of Art (Classic Reprint) (London, England: Forgotten Books)
127 Bennetts, Helen, Antony Radford, and Terry Williamson. 2004. Understanding Sustainable Architecture (London, England: Taylor & Francis)
Fig 39. Drawing of the inside of The Crystal Palace in 1854.
REJUVENATION OF THE MYSTIC (THE 20th CENTURY)
In 1917 the sociologist Max Weber wrote that the rationalization of Western society has brought about the “disenchantment of the world”.128 He believed that following the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution, the power of the church had been questioned and religious ways of thinking had been replaced with scientific methods. He saw a decline in magic, mystery and faith - thus illustrating why there’d been no new theories for Stonehenge, except an objective dating of its construction in the bronze age, throughout the 19th century; Greatly contrasting with the dawn of the 20th century.
Towards the end of the 19th and early 20th century, the Arts and Crafts movement flourished. Developed in Britain and then exported internationally, the style stood for traditional craftsmanship and often used medieval, romantic or folk styles for decoration. It was strongly anti-industrial, evolving as a reaction to the impoverished and ‘servile’ conditions the decorative arts were made in and advocated for economic and social reform. This era of art continued until the First World War ended in 1918, superseding to thriving Modernist art movements such as Surrealism, Cubism and Expressionism. Surrealism emerged from an objection against the ‘rationalist’ mindset, blaming it on events like WW1 and believing it repressed imaginative thoughts. Cubism attempted to move away from traditional methods and perspectives and Expressionism, like Surrealism, emerged as a response to a conflicted world with a loss of spirituality.129
128 Bramble, John. 2015. Modernism and the Occult, 1st edn (Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan)
129 Compton, Susan (ed.). 1988. British Art in the Twentieth Century: The Modern Movement (Munich, Germany: Prestel)
Fig 40. An abstract rendering of Stonehenge called the Circle Of The Monoliths (1937-8) by Paul Nash.
Fig 41. Henry Moore photographed with The Arch at an exhibition of his work in Florence in 1972. He had a particular facinastion with Stonehenge, having travelled there as a young man and creating a series of lithographs when he was older. To him the power and itensity of it set against the land and sky provoked career-long
Fig 42. A photograph of a modern day Druid ceremony at Stonehenge.
At the turn of the century, in 1905, the first Druid ceremony at Stonehenge was held by the AOD to initiate new members in.130 The year later a new theory was presented that attempted to bridge the gap between the scientists and Druidic Romantics. It was proposed by Sir J. Norman Lockyer, a giant in the field of astronomy and who’s credited for determining the orientation of the pyramids correspond with periodic positions of the sun and several important stars.131 In his book, Stonehenge and Other British Monuments Astronomically Considered, he made the controversial claim that prehistoric “astronomer-priests” had been the architects of Stonehenge and were the astronomical equals to the Egyptians. He believed that they’d planned an astronomical calendar, with stones arranged to mark crucial points in cyclical movements of the sun, moon and the stars.132 Although Lockyer was too much a giant in the field of Astronomy to be ignored, the majority of archeologists attacked his conclusions for being too anachronic and for its touches of Druidism. It would be decades later before his work gained more recognition and respect for its merits.133
This process began with the work of astronomer Gerald Hawkins and his 1965 book Stonehenge Decoded. Hawkins drew on the ideas of Lockyer and saw the site as a Neolithic computer for predicting astronomical events. He used a computer to check the movements of heavenly bodies against the positions of the stones and found a ‘total’ correlation with lunar eclipses and planetary alignments.134 The book generated much public discussion with many people siding for or against it and although it may have shocked more orthodox scholars, an even greater shock was to come. Alexander Thom, a Scottish engineer and professor at Oxford University, after studying other British megaliths surveyed Stonehenge and published his findings in the Journal for the History of Astronomy (1975). In it he argued that the early builders were knowledgeable about geometry as well as astronomy. The main thrust of his argument was that megalithic builders throughout Western Europe had constructed their monuments according to certain common standards, the chief being 2.72 foot: the “megalithic yard.”135 Thom’s ideas and previous work were still met with resistance in the archeological community, being gladly welcomed instead by elements of the 1960s counter-culture. However, certain prominent figures in the field, such as the previously biting Atkinson and Dr Euan Mackie, would recant and accept Hawkins and Thom’s findings after looking at the compiled data. “It’s important that non-archaeologists should understand how disturbing to archeologists are the implications of Thom’s work”, Atkinson wrote, “because [his opinions] do not fit the conceptual model of the prehistory of Europe.”136
Archeoastronomy had thus arrived and its partial acceptance by the scientific establishment lent aid and comfort to many nonscientists who would develop their own ideas about Stonehenge and other megaliths.137 One early businessman who would develop an early was Alfred Watkins in The Old Straight Track (1925). His ley line theory reached a new peak in the late sixties with The View over Atlantis written by the counter-culture icon, John Michell who muddled it with ‘Earth energy’ and thought Stonehenge was built to represent a UFO.138 Because of it’s centricity in counter-culture conversations, the monument became an important spot for New Age hippies in the early 70s, who began to join the Neo-Druids for summer solstice there.139
130 Piggott, “The Druids and Stonehenge”
131 Mann
132 Lockyer
133 Time-Life
134 Hawkins
135 Heath
136 Time-Life
137 Ibid
138 Michell, John. 1974. Flying Saucer Vision (London, England: Sphere)
139 “Here Comes the Sun! Stonehenge and the Summer Solstice.” [n.d.]. The British Museum <https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/here-comes-sun-stonehenge-and-summer-solstice> [accessed 18 January 2023]
Fig 43. A photograph of New Age hippes at a summer solstice festival.
In the architect Sir James Stirling’s 1957 influential essay on Modern Architecture, he states “Today Stonehenge is more significant than the architecture of Sir Christopher Wren.”140 His motive for such a statement was to highlight that there’d been a return to a “indigenous and usually anonymous” design with Modernism in postwar Britain and worldwide. The Modernist movement first emerged in 1920s Europe as a reaction against the world before the First World War and it was particularly against historical architectural styles. It saw a return to a “direct and primitive” school of thought, preaching function over form, a rejection of ornament and an embrace of minimalism. The advent of reinforced concrete, which could be moulded into any shape and create huge spaces, replaced stone and brick as the dominant material used by modernist architects: particularly in the nativist Brutalist movement.141
Brutalism emerged in the 1950s in the UK and was characterised by exposed, unpainted concrete, angular geometric shapes and an absence of any decorative elements.142 It can indeed be seen that Stonehenge (and other megalithic monuments) share many characteristics with Brutalist buildings; they are both monuments to strength, precisely functional and at their core is a simplicity one gets after the grandeur and awe. They’re both sublime in the way prescribed by Burke too: whilst possessing qualities of beauty, they also strikingly terrify. Furthermore, the repetitive uniformed sarsens are much the same as the dramatic repeated modular elements so favoured by Brutalists. Stonehenge is also ‘transparent’ with its interior workings visible from the exterior143 and, much like the Smithson’s core belief of Brutalism, expresses an adoration for honestly expressed materials.144 Notably as well, Brutalist buildings were mostly built for public institutions, were people work, gather, learn and eat - leaning to the writer, Christopher Beanland, to refer to them as “civic megaliths.”145
Brutalism’s use of concrete is one that is both physically and cerebrally connected to Stonehenge. The cerebral seems to have been understood by the many people who have attempted to recreate it using concrete around the world during the 20th and 21st century, such as Maryhill’s Stonehenge in the US, Stonehenge Aotearoa in New Zealand and Achill-henge in Ireland. Concrete has taken stones place, being used in almost every modernist building,147 as well as being able to mimic the austere and blocky nature of Stonehenge. However, similar to Pearson’s theory where stone is used to represent death, Brutalism also owes some of its founding, according to the writer Jonathan Meades, to the purveyors of death. The Nazi concrete bunkers and gun emplacements of the 30s and 40s were inspired by Bronze Age burial mounds and, to Meades, were the precursor to the Brutalist modernism of the 60s.148 Known as ‘Hitler’s Architect’, Albert Speer’s doctrine of ‘ruin value’ was a concept of designing in such a way that in thousands of years time the ruins of the buildings would still be as impressive and reflect favourably of the time.149 Therefore, the massive concrete bunkers and flak-towers designed by the likes of Friedrich Tamms (who Meades calls “arguably, the first brutalist”)150 were built in part with consideration on how it’d look as a ruin. Although himself and Hitler mostly drew it from Roman Imperial architecture, the archeologist Cornelious Holtorf has suggested the importance prehistoric megaliths had in it aswell.151 For instance, Tamms would also later write about the impressive form of German megaliths and how they wished to connect to that ancient culture.152
140 Stirling, James. 1957. “Regionalism and Modern Architecture,” Architects’ Year Book, 7: 62–68
141 Tietz, Jurgen. 1999. The Story of Architecture of the 20th Century (Potsdam, Germany: Ullmann Publishing)
142 Jurgen
143 Corbusier, Le. 1985. Towards a New Architecture (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications)
144 Smithson, Peter, and Hans-Ulrich Obrist. 2005. Smithson Time: Peter Smithson. A Dialogue with /Ein Gespräch Mit Hans Ulrich Obrist. Engl. /Dt, ed. by Hans U. Obrist (Köln, Germany: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther Konig)
145 Beanland, Christopher. 2014. “Concrete Buildings: Brutalist Beauty,” Independent (The Independent) <https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/ art/features/concrete-buildings-brutalist-beauty-9057223.html> [accessed 18 January 2023]
146 Time-Life
147 Curtis, William J. R. 1996. Modern Architecture Since 1900, 3rd edn (London, England: Phaidon Press)
148 Meades, Jonathan. 2014. Bunkers, Brutalism, Bloodymindedness: Concrete Poetry (England: BBC Four) <https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03w7b7x>
149 Petropoulos, Jonathan. 2015. Artists under Hitler: Collaboration and Survival in Nazi Germany (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press)
150 ———. 2014b. “The Incredible Hulks: Jonathan Meades’ A-Z of Brutalism,” The Guardian (The Guardian) <https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/feb/13/jonathan-meades-brutalism-a-z> [accessed 18 January 2023]
151 Holtorf, Cornelious. 2004. “A Theory of Ruin-Value,” Archive-it.org <http://wayback.archive-it.org/6473/20160819144823/https://tspace.library.utoronto. ca/citd/holtorf/7.4.html> [accessed 18 January 2023]
152 Tamms, Friedrich. 1974. Von Menschen, Städten Und Brücken (Berlin, Germany: Econ)
Fig 44. ‘Standing Stones’ by Denis Barnes built in 1978 in Livingston, Scotland. Though firstly being left unadorned in grey, it subsequently got graffitied on so had to be painted over. Intrestingly, it looks quite familer to Paul Nash’s Circle Of The Monoliths I mentioned previously, using the same colour scheme
Fig 45. A flak-towers left to ruin in Vienna.
This wasn’t the only country that felt influence across the pond though. Perhaps a sign of an increasingly connected world post-industrial; Modernism and it’s British brutalist form also touched upon France. The idea that Modernists where intent on restoring a sense of higher purpose and ‘enchanting’ the world again came in many more forms then Nazi doctrine; there was the wave of occultism around the turn of the century, communist and socialist revolution and a catholic revival in the 1890s.153 In the world of architecture, Le Corbusier tirelessly promoted his image of the future with slogans, books, conferences and the founding of the hugely influencing CIAM organisation.154 Despite the work of J. K. Birksted in Le Corbusier and the Occult consisting mostly of a cat and mouse game to initiate him into the Freemasons (unsuccessfully), it does reveal his interest in the occult as many artists had during this period.155 With links establishing his works to alchemy, astrology and morphism: it’s no surprise he believed his buildings would bring about a spiritual rebirth and explains his influential 1923 manifesto Towards a New Architecture.
Deborah Gans, in the Le Corbusier Guide, mentions that he was directly influenced by Stonehenge for his design of the Firminy Church.156 Presumably this led to it’s ‘pseudo-ruined state’ using unadorned concrete and an influence on it’s orientation allowing the morning sun to project the constellation of Orion onto the walls. Towards the later part of his life, Corbusier considered it his goal to restore the sacred to every day life and it was in his other church design at Ronchamp that, according to Rykwert, he was inspired by the megalithic standing stones of France.157 His work here, in the refinement of the béton brut concrete style, would greatly influence the Brutalist work of Britain.158 Another of his porto-brutalist buildings and one that’d showcase his interest in heliotherapy, was Firminy Church. His structural elements ranged from tiny stellar openings to large ‘light cannons’, with even the small ones generating remarkable light patterns.159
Le Corbusier expressed his awareness of the cosmic power of light in his 1955 The Poem of the Right Angle, beginning with the remarkable pre-historic maxim “The sun master of our lives”.160
153 Bramble
154 Choay, Françoise. 2022. “Le Corbusier,” Encyclopedia Britannica
155 Birksted, Jan K. 2009. Le Corbusier and the Occult (London, England: MIT Press)
156 Gans, Deborah. 2006. The Le Corbusier Guide, 3rd edn (New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press)
157 Rykwert, Joseph. 1982. The Necessity of Artifice (New York : Rizzoli)
158 Banham, Reyner. 1966. The New Brutalism (Oxford, England: Architectural Press)
159 Gans
160 Le Corbusier: Le Poème de l’angle Droit. 2012. (Ostfildern, Germany: Hatje Cantz)
PART 3
CONCLUSION
In Hobsbawm and Ranger’s The Invention of Tradition (1983), they write that for innovators tradition becomes an obstacle, as people tend to reject cultural change. Therefore, often they’ll give the impression that something new is actually traditional, making it seem acceptable and safe.161 This theory runs deep among those who have theorised about Stonehenge; Jones tried to tie it to the greatest empire in history, Stukeley attempted to embellish a tentative heritage and more recent efforts have linked it with the oldest science, Astronomy. Much like the ‘reinvention’ of the British Monarchy over the last 200 years, Stonehenge has ostensibly been used as a blank megalithic canvas, exhibiting each century’s version of British cultural memory. A key part of this seemed to be a confirmation of British genius; This can be seen most notably in the inherent belief through most theories that it’s builders must have known the principles of classical architecture and geometry, even though all that’s observed is in an incredibly impressive, but imprecise arrangement of ‘rough-hewn stones.’162
In some cases the stones themselves and their arrangement influenced architects and artists, however more often it was the meanings prescribed to them; Palladianism, a new Druidic British style, and Brutalism to varying degree. In the case of the 19th century it seemed most weren’t interested after Romanticism had fizzled out and been replaced with the growing anti-pagan sentiment. This was perhaps due to a belief that the monument was rooted in the mystical past and since the time was of great industrial progression, most had no desire to engage with it. This argument can only get you so far as it doesn’t explain how suddenly the AOD had enough momentum to stage the first Stonehenge ceremonies at the turn of the next century and the co-concurrent rise of the Arts and Crafts and other spiritual movements though; Perhaps these had in fact only taken a short back seat.
I believe the influence Stonehenge has had requires looking at within a much wider view of each century’s landscape. Although most times it has been used as a unique and arcane vehicle for operative criticism; Thanks to the scant evidence left by whoever built it, the reason is not because it’s some architectural marvel. Yes it’s the most architecturally sophisticated prehistoric stone circle in the world, but still a stone circle nevertheless. Compared to the Great Pyramids of Egypt or Peru and Ancient cities like Troy which were built at the same time, it’s marvel admittedly falls short. I think to properly understand Stonehenge you have to understand the country of Great Britian, a country which during the 17th to the 20th century began finally to find itself in a incredibly prosperous and unique position. I believe it’s people started to see that and then look to the past to find an inhate reason as to why they were there. With further exploration I would love to explore this idea, tying in the works of Mike Pitts in Stonehenge and the British Empire: an overlooked debt and compare it different megalithic sites around the world, looking at how (if any) Stonehenge has influenced 21st century architecture too.
161 Hobsbawm, E. J., and T. O. (eds.). 1984. Past and Present Publications: The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press) 162 Jones
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1. Photo by Patrick Ward/Popperfoto via Getty Images. Available at: https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/druids-celebration-of-midsummer-watched-by-spectators-at-news-photo/1231103587 [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 2. Painting by Lucas De Heere. Available at: https://www.bl.uk/picturing-places/articles/topography-and-prehistoric-britain [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 3. Illustration by English Heritage. Available at: https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/siteassets/home/learn/teaching-resources/teachers-kits/stonehenge_teachers_kit_ks1-4.pdf [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 4. A 14th-century Illustration. Available at: https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/history-and-stories/history/[accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 5. Photo by Wessex Archaeology. Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/wessexarchaeology/4130085795 [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 6. Illustration by Peter Dunn. Available at: https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/ eprint/1419105/1/252-1529-1-PB.pdf [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 7. Illustration by Peter Dunn. Available at: https://marlborough.news/features/features-arts-entertainment/pewsey-art-gallery-s-timely-exhibition-of-local-artist-s-reconstructionsof-stonehenge-era/ [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 8. Illustration by Mike Seaforth. Available at: https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/woodhenge-c25th-century-bc-aerial-view-reconstruction-news-photo/639163572?phrase=prehistoric%20architecture%20and%20art&adppopup=true
Fig 9. Illustration by Peter Dunn. Available at: https://marlborough.news/features/features-arts-entertainment/pewsey-art-gallery-s-timely-exhibition-of-local-artist-s-reconstructionsof-stonehenge-era/ [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 10. Illustration by Inigo Jones. Available at: https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/stonehengerestored-by-inigo-jones [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 11. Illustration by Charles Hamilton Smith. Available at: https://www.royalacademy.org.uk/ art-artists/work-of-art/grand-conventional-festival-of-the-britons [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 12. Illustration by William Stukeley. Available at: https://universityofglasgowlibrary.wordpress.com/2015/11/07/william-stukeleys-stonehenge/[accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 13. Illustration by Paul Devereux. Available at: https://www.cantab.net/users/michael.behrend/repubs/ns_dev_forr/pages/main.html [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 14. Photo by Edwin Smith. Available at: https://www.architecture.com/knowledge-and-resources/knowledge-landing-page/palladianism
Fig 15. Illustration by Inigo Jones. Available at: https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/stonehengerestored-by-inigo-jones [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 16. Illustration by Inigo Jones. Available at: https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/stonehengerestored-by-inigo-jones [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 17. Illustration by Smith, G. L. Available at: https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/ items/510d47e3-074d-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99 [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 18. Illustration by Andrea Palladio. Available at: https://www.ribapix.com/Plan-of-a-Vitruvian-theatre_RIBA38281 [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 19. Painting by Anon. Available at: https://www.alamy.com/east-elevationof-the-church-of-st-paul-covent-garden-london-c1830-image60148604.html?imageid=8E4D99D2-6658-4942-BBA8-3D06F6B96A09&p=854985&pn=1&searchId=6d378a183fc620c790c958c6200f81cd&searchtype=0 [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 20. Illustrations by William Benham. Available at: https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/ epub/16531/pg16531-images.html [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 21. Model by Christopher Wren. Available at: https://www.stpauls.co.uk/designs-for-greatmodel
Fig 22. Illustration by Christopher Wren. Available at: https://www.stpauls.co.uk/designs-forgreat-model
Fig 23. Illustration by Anon. Available at: https://artsandculture.google.com/story/awWhLhwn3qVaIQ [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 24. Illustration by Christopher Wren. Available at: https://library.asc.ox.ac.uk/wren/warrant_ design.html [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 25. Painting by John O’Connor. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:John_O’Connor_-_Ludgate,_Evening_-_1887.jpg [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 26. Painting by Thomas Jones. Available at: https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/thebard-116865 [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 27. Illustration by William Stukeley. Available at: https://universityofglasgowlibrary.wordpress.com/2015/11/07/william-stukeleys-stonehenge/[accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 28. Photo by Michael Maggs. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Decorative_emblems_The_Circus_Bath.jpg [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 29. Photo by BBC. Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/204632376799264127/ [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 30. Illustration by J. R. Cozens. Available at: https://bathintime.co.uk/image-library/image-overview/poster/10213/posterid/10213.html [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 31. Photo by D. Noble. Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/7430965@ N05/49932718083 [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 32. Painting by John Constable. Available at: https://arthistoryproject.com/artists/john-constable/stonehenge/ [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 33. Painting by J. M. W. Turner. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stonehenge_Turner.JPG [accessed 17 January 2023]
Fig 34. Painting by WIlliam Blake. Available at: https://eclecticlight.co/2016/12/20/tygers-eyethe-paintings-of-william-blake-14-fragments-of-mythology/ [accessed 17 January 2023]
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Fig 26. The Bard (1774) by Thomas Jones. In the background is an imagined megalithic monument.
Fig 27. Drawings by Stukeley of embellished scenes at Stonehenge from Stonehenge: A Temple Restor’d to the British Druids (1740)
Fig 31. A photograph of The Circus in the 1980s.
Fig 32. A painting of Stonehenge by John Constable in 1835.
Fig 33. A painting of Stonehenge by J. M. W. Turner in 1827-28.
