Hoover Volume 8 Part 1 Proof

The handbook of Greek CoinaGe SerieS, Volume 8

Coins of Western and southern anatolia

Part 1: Mysia and troas

sixth to first Centuries BC

By Oliver D. Hoover

With a Series Preface by D.Scott VanHorn and Bradley R. Nelson

The handbook of Greek CoinaGe SerieS, Volume 8

Handbook of Coins of Western and soutHern anatolia

ParT 1: mySia and TroaS

Sixth to First Centuries BC

By Oliver D. Hoover

With a Series Preface by D. Scott VanHorn and Bradley R. Nelson

Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. Lancaster/London/The Hague

Copyright © 2025 Oliver D. Hoover

All rights reserved. Written permission must be secured from the publisher to use or reproduce any part of this book, except for brief quotations in critical reviews or articles.

Published by Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., Lancaster, Pennsylvania, London, England, and The Hague, Netherlands.

Library of Congress Control Number 2023922098

ISBN 978-1-7355697-7-2

Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE TO The Handbook of Greek Coinage Series

D. Scott VanHorn and Bradley R. Nelson (all coins illustrated in this section are courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.)

More than three decades have passed since David Sear published Greek Coins & Their Values, his revision of Gilbert Askew’s A Catalogue of Greek Coins published by B. A. Seaby in 1951. Since then, the field of ancient numismatics and the hobby of collecting ancient coins have changed so much that now Greek Coins & Their Values would require a complete revision to include all of the most current numismatic information available, list the many new types and varieties unknown to Sear, and determine an approximate sense of rarity for all of these issues. In order to encompass this new material and create a viable reference for the beginning and specialized collector, such a handbook would have to be more than the two volumes which Sear found necessary. As a result, Classical Numismatic Group is publishing The Handbook of Greek Coinage Series, written by Oliver D. Hoover, in a series of 13 volumes, each covering a specified area of Greek coinage, with the first being The Handbook of Syrian Coins: Royal and Civic Issues, Fourth to First Centuries BC (Volume 9 in the series). This series is designed to aid the user in the quick, accurate, and relatively painless identification of Greek coins, while providing a cross-reference for each entry to a major work, which will allow the inquirer to pursue more in-depth research on the subject. The subject-matter of each volume is arranged chronologically for royal issues, and regionally for the civic issues; within each region, cities are listed directionally, depending on the region. For those rulers or cities that issued coins concurrently in all three metals, these issues will be arranged in the catalog with gold first, followed by silver, and then bronze; each metal is arranged by denomination, largest to smallest. Known mints for the royal coinage are listed below the appropriate type, making an easy search for a specific mint. Each entry will include a rarity rating based on the frequency with which they appear in publications, public and private collections, the market, and/or are estimated to exist in public or private hands. No valuations are listed, since such values are generally out of date by the time of publication. An online valuation guide at www.greekcoinvalues.com will allow interested individuals the opportunity to gauge the market and reduce the need for repeated updates of this series. Whether one purchases the entire set for their reference library, or the individual volume pertaining to one’s area of specialization, The Handbook of Greek Coinage Series should provide a useful staging-point from which collectors and interested scholars can pursue their research and interests.

COLLECTING GREEK COINS

There is a distinction to be drawn between true collectors and accumulators. Collectors are discriminating; accumulators act at random.

Russell Lynes, Life in the Slow Lane

Traditionally, the collecting of ancient coins and, in particular, ancient Greek coins, has been viewed by some as a pursuit only of the nobility, or the very wealthy, because all ancient coins must be very rare and expensive to acquire. While this is somewhat true – with specimens of great rarity or superb quality of preservation commanding record prices – it is still possible for the dedicated and

knowledgeable (that is the key!) collector of more modest means to assemble a collection that will not only provide the collector with enjoyment, but also help to expand the field of numismatic knowledge. Some collectors of Greek coins do so primarily for the aesthetic value and rarity these coins offer – works of ancient art in miniature, such as the signed dekadrachms of Syracuse, or the gold oktadrachms of Arsinoë II, the wife of Ptolemy II. Others collect for the historical and social associations these coins might provide – such as the coinage of the Archaic period, a stater of the famed Boiotian commander, Epaminondas, or the smaller silver denominations and bronze coins used by the man and woman on the street. Many collectors, however, are attracted by both aspects, and fall somewhere in-between.

The discovery of many hoards of ancient coins over the past thirty years has contributed a great deal to collecting by making many more coins accessible to collectors of all interests and financial means. The reason for these hoards is clear: prior to the development of savings banks, individuals buried their savings in secret, very often in the surrounding countryside, as a precaution against theft by robbers or invading armies, hoping to return to them once things had quieted down. This was especially true of the armies themselves as they fought with one another back and forth across the Greco-Roman world. These hoards have brought to light a number of heretofore unknown types and varieties, which have greatly expanded the field of numismatic knowledge. At the same time, the discovery of these hoards has created a number of difficulties for collecting ancient coins. In some instances, these hoards have been dispersed before their contents could be recorded. The laws in some “source” countries, which often claim ownership of all archaeological objects and penalize finders and collectors, have discouraged the reporting of finds and have stifled the traditional cooperation among academics, dealers, and collectors. Sometimes the search for these hoards has resulted in the damage of archaeological sites, and today some members of the archaeological community actively try to impose severe restrictions on the trade of ancient coins, with their ultimate goal being the total elimination of private ownership of ancient coins. Perhaps more troubling, the desire for ancient coins has fueled a thriving market for the production and distribution of forgeries. While many of these forgeries are simple casts or complete fabrications that are easily detectable, modern techniques, such as high pressure casting or the use of transfer dies on ancient flans, have proven more deceptive, even deceiving numismatic experts.

With the presence of forgeries in the market, the phrase caveat emptor has become more important than ever. Collectors can protect themselves by seeking out knowledgeable and reliable dealers, who will insure the authenticity of the coins they sell, and accept the return of purchases expertly determined to be forgeries. Collectors should also add to their own knowledge by building up a personal numismatic reference library, or joining one of the international numismatic societies connected with their area of interest. Not only will doing so add to one’s enjoyment of collecting, but it will also help protect one’s investment by assisting in the detection of forgeries and the determination of the coin’s provenance. Coins that heve been offered in past auctions, or are from important public or private collections, typically possess a secure pedigree, establishing a long-lived existence for the coin in the marketplace. A pedigree also helps in determining authenticity, especially of coins formerly in public collections, like the British Museum or the Hermitage, that have been offered in the past for sale. At the same time, verifying such a pedigree can reveal whether a coin may actually be a forgery of one still

in the collection, or stolen from it. Finally, a pedigree connects the current owner to his predecessor, or predecessors, thereby linking them in the great chain of caretakers helping to preserve our cultural heritage for future generations of numismatists and collectors.

Inevitably, the collector of ancient coins must deal with the subject of grading. Unlike US numismatics, where consistency has allowed for a standardized 70 point system, the grading of ancient coins is somewhat more complicated, owing to the methods of ancient coin production. The basic grades commonly used for ancient coins are, in order from best to worst:

Table 1. Table of Recognized Standard Coin Grades (non-US coins)

Grade English German French Italian

FDC Mint State

EF Extremely Fine

VF Very Fine

Stempelglanz Fleur de Coin Fior di Conio

Vorzüglich

Sehr Schön

Superbe Splendido

Très Beau Bellissimo

F Fine Schön Beau Molto Bello

G Good Sehr Gut Erhalten Très Bien Conservé Bello

The grades listed in this table represent the ideal for that grade. Dealers, however, will include qualifiers to describe a coin that lies outside that ideal. The two most common qualifiers are “near,” as in “Near EF,” and “good”, as in “Good VF.” Two others that appear are “choice” and “superb,” both of which are subjective terms, expressing the exemplary state of a coin compared to others like it in similar grade. Thus, a coin graded Choice EF or Superb EF indicates its quality is better than other similar coins graded EF. Below are examples of a common Athenian Tetradrachm at each of the basic grade levels:

Two factors influence the grading of ancient coins: the general effects of wear, and the effects of manufacture. The effects of wear are due to circulation, find conditions, and conservation. These effects include a loss of sharpness, corrosion, areas of accretion, and scratches. The degree to which a coin is affected by wear is the primary factor in determining a coin’s grade. The effects of manufacture – issues of centering, quality of strike, as well as multiple strikings – do affect a

coin’s overall aesthetics, and thereby its value, but typically do not affect the grade. Consequently, a coin’s grade is typically supplemented with information noting such detrimental factors resulting from the coin’s manufacture. For example, a coin that is in exceptional condition, but has been struck a bit off-center may be graded as “EF, slightly off-center strike.” Another factor to be considered is the state of the dies used in the production of the coin. The dies of some series of ancient and medieval coins exhibit a refined execution, exemplified by highly artistic specimens. The dies of other series may appear somewhat less refined, in which case, such a coin may appear to be in a lower grade than it actually is. When this occurs, the grade is accompanied by the phrase “for issue.” Finally, the flan itself is another factor that must be considered. As with the dies, flans are prepared by hand and are susceptible to flaws during manufacture. Common flaws are irregularities in the shape of the flan, impurities in the surface, and preparatory marks (such as file marks).

Toning on gold or silver coins, or patina on bronze coins, result from a chemical reaction between the coin’s surface and the surrounding air or soil in which it was deposited. They do not effect a coin’s grade, but may influence the aesthetic value of the coin to a particular collector. For example, an attractively toned silver coin in VF condition may be more appealing to an individual over untoned examples in EF. Similarly, a bronze coin in VF condition with an attractive even apple green patina may be more appealing than an EF example with a mottled patina of various colors.

While the collector can readily distinguish a dealer’s criteria for determining a coin’s grade, it ultimately falls to individual collectors themselves to develop their own sense of aesthetics – of what is most pleasing to them – when determining what coins to add to their collection.

Specialized References

For specialized books and articles, the collector is encouraged to explore both the online bibliography and book list of Classical Numismatic Group, at www. cngcoins.com, or the library and collections databases of the American Numismatic Society, at www.numismatics.org.

Below are some useful general links for the collector:

The American Numismatic Association (www.money.org)

The American Numismatic Society (www.numismatics.org)

Ancient Greek Coins of Miletus (rjohara.net/coins/)

Asia Minor Coins (www.asiaminorcoins.com)

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Collections Search (www.mfa.org/collections/ search_art.asp)

CoinArchives (www.coinarchives.com)

Digital Library Numis (members.ziggo.nl/tverspag/NUMIS/)

Fitzwilliam Museum Coins and Medals Homepage (www-cm.fitzmuseum.cam. ac.uk/coins/)

IAPN-AINP (www.iapn-coins.org)

Magna Graecia Coins (www.magnagraecia.nl/coins/index.html)

The Silver Facing Head Coins of Larissa (www.lightfigures.com/numismat/ larissa/index.php)

Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Münzkabinett (www.smb.museum/ikmk/)

Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum (www.sylloge-nummorum-graecorum.org) WildWinds (www.wildwinds.com)

THE TECHNOLOGY OF ANCIENT COIN PRODUCTION

Unlike modern coins, every ancient coin is an individual product, by virtue of its manufacture. Every part of the process was done by hand and could be affected by a number of variables, from the execution of the dies, to the metal quality of the flan, and the actual striking of the coin. As a result, examples of the same issue, or even the same die pair, can exhibit a number of differences. The striking process comprised placing a flan of a specific weight and metal between two dies, usually set within an anvil and punch, and applying sufficient pressure to fill the voids of the die with the metal and thus stamping the flan with the intended design. The anvil die typically formed the obverse (front) of the coin, and the punch die the reverse (back); these are more conventionally refered to as the obverse die and reverse die, respectively. From this process, a coin of a specific value was produced to facilitate a number of economic transactions.

The Flan

The flan is the metal blank upon which the design of the die is imprinted to produce a coin. Precious metal coins (electrum, gold, and silver) are said to be struck al pezzo (It. “to the weight”). Other coins, such as some later bronze issues, fall within a range of acceptable weights. These coins are struck al marco (It. “to the mark”), and function as fiat currency. While the actual production of flans varied, they were made generally by pouring molten metal into a mold; many ancient coins

Archaic Ionia hemistater

Classical Selinos tetradrachm

Hellenistic tetradrachm of Pyrrhos, King of Epeiros

extant today still show traces of this casting process. Sometimes flans were cast in strips of round blanks connected by a narrow bridge, or sprue. These strips would be heated, each blank on the strip would be struck, and then the coins would be separated by removing the sprues. This production technique is particularly visible on certain issues of Magna Graecia, Sicily, Judaea, and Egypt under the Romans. Flans were also cast in particular shapes. Some bronze coins have beveled or serrated edges, and various hammering, grinding, and polishing techniques were also used to prepare the flan. The grinding and polishing marks, visible on these finished coins, are known as adjustment marks. Previously circulating coins could be reused as ready made flans for a subsequent issue, which is called an overstrike; the previous issue is called an undertype. Often, as in the case of the silver zuzim of Bar Kochba, which were overstruck on circulating Roman denarii and drachs, traces of the undertype remain, providing valuable evidence for patterns of coin circulation as well as for establishing relative chronology, especially for undated issues.

The Die and the Aesthetics of Coin Design

The earliest coins of Asia Minor may have consisted of a flan marked with a single square incuse on the reverse. Formed by a reverse die of rough and irregular pattern, this incuse was possibly meant to confirm that the flan was composed of solid precious metal, rather than a fourrée, a flan comprising a precious metal veneer alloyed to a base metal core. While some of these coins are simply blank on the obverse, many have regular or irregular patterns of lines, which may have been scratched into the obverse die in order to keep the flan from moving during striking. Soon, complex designs and images, carved in intaglio, or in reverse to the way the image was supposed to appear, were incorporated into the obverse die, which, upon striking, would produce a raised design on the surface of the flan. Such designs are known as types, and were possibly the first means of identifying the issuing authority. While some states, like Persia, continued to employ traditional rough, irregular quadrate punches for some time, others incorporated designs to the reverse die to produce images on the reverse of their coins. These reverse designs were usually also engraved in intaglio, as on the obverse die, but some cities, such as those in Magna Graecia, engraved them in relief, in order to produce a design that would be in incuse on the reverse of the flan. Dies were sometimes made of iron, but bronze, which is much softer and easier to engrave, became the material regularly used in the production of dies.

Late classical tetradrachm of Pixodaros, satrap of Karia

A die’s design has much to do with its success in producing a beautiful coin, but one must also take into consideration the technical aspects of coin production to appreciate a coin’s aesthetic value. The transfer of an image from the die to a flan not only requires a great deal of force, but the proper and even distribution of

that force is also important to the image as well as the life of the die. If the force is uneven, metal will not flow properly into the detail areas of the die, and the resulting stress will hasten the die’s fragmentation and eventual disintegration. This process can be seen sometimes on a coin’s surface where lines or deposits of extraneous metal fill voids in a disintegrating die.

As the obverse die of a Greek coin was often in very high relief, a large amount of metal was required to fill its center. This was particularly so on the larger denominations which allowed master engravers free range to express classical aesthetic ideals. It is for this reason that the obverse die was placed on the anvil. By design, the highest point of relief was at the center of the obverse, where the maximum amount of metal would flow when the flan was struck by the punch, while the lowest relief was at the center of the reverse. To enhance the flow of the metal during striking, dies eventually evolved from having simple flat surfaces to slightly curved surfaces, with the obverse die becoming concave and the reverse die convex.

Die Axis

For some mints, the alignment of obverse and reverse dies seemed to be of minimal importance. In the ancient world, however, maintaining a regular die axis, or the axial relationship between the obverse and reverse dies, seemed to be one way of maintaining a level of mint control; modern numismatists use the study of die axes to aid in determining the attribution and authenticity of a coin. Dies were initially aligned by hand, a difficult procedure when thousands of coins had to be struck at a time. Eventually, hinged dies were created, which kept the obverse and reverse dies in perfect alignment for every strike.

Die Wear, Rusty Dies, Recut Dies, and Die-Links

Obviously, the process of striking coins put an enormous amount of stress on the dies, which would deteriorate throughout the process. Over time, a die could develop flaws, such as die breaks, that would be visible on the coins that were subsequently struck. The rate at which such flaws developed was completely random, with some dies failing at almost the first strike, while others lasted intact for a long time. Other than die breaks, the most common flaw from regular use was a loss of detail, or sharpness, of the die. Although some of these flaws required a replacement of the damaged die, some mints would contine to employ a die until it broke, or the design was completely indistinguishable. Another common flaw seen in ancient coinage is die rust. As coinage in the ancient world was generally struck

Classical Athenian dekadrachm

on an ad hoc basis, dies would be put aside in storage once the required amount of coins had been struck. As storage conditions were not climate controlled, the dies would often develop rust. Consequently, coins struck with these dies display areas of crystalline roughness, usually in the fine details. A common method a mint would use to lengthen the life of a die with flaws was to re-cut part or all of the die, either to hide a die break, or clarify details that had become overly worn.

The positive result of die flaws is that it makes it very easy to identify the same die used on different coins. The identification of dies is a very important aspect of numismatic research. Throughout the period of striking a particular issue, a mint would often produce new dies to replace old ones, or increase productivity. New dies would be used with older dies, creating an identifiable sequence of dies used in the production of an issue, known as die-links. By studying these dielinks, numismatists can determine much about a mint, its coin production, and the chronology of various issues. Die links are also important in establishing the authenticity of coins.

Striking the Coin: Clashed Dies, Die Shifts, Double Strikes, and Brockages

As in coin production today, sometimes errors occur during the striking process. The most common error involved incorrect centering, and many ancient coins show this fault. Another error occured when the dies were struck together without a flan present, which would cause one of the dies to imprint part, or all, of its image in the other die. Subsequent coin strikings would produce a shallow incuse of the die’s image on the opposite side of the coin. Dies affected in this way are known as clashed dies.

Occasionally, a die would move slightly during striking, or the mint worker’s strike would apply slightly lateral, as well as downward, pressure, causing a slight smearing of the image on the flan, known as a die shift. A similar error occurs when a mint worker strikes a flan twice. In such cases, the flan may move between the strikes, causing the image to be imprinted multiple times on one or both sides of the coin. This is known as a double strike. Depending on the movement of the flan, a double striking may be slightly noticeable, or quite apparent, and can be confused with a die shift (or vice-versa). Although less common, some coins are struck more than two times, and are called by the appropriate name, triple-, quadruple-, etc., strike. A rare variety of these errors is the flip-over double (or more) strike, where the flan flips over before it is struck again. In such a case, each side of the coin will have both obverse and reverse images present.

Sometimes a struck flan remained lodged in either the obverse or reverse die, and was not removed before another flan was placed for striking. When this happened, the lodged flan acted as a surrogate die, and when the hammer fell again, the new flan would have the image of the unobstructed die on one side, and the incuse of the same image (caused by the stuck flan) on the opposite side. This effect is known as a brockage.

Brockage of a Tarentine nomos

Life after Striking: Countermarks, Banker’s Marks, Graffiti, and Cut Coins

Countermarked Elis stater

Periodically, mints would need to re-tariff existing coins, or accept foreign currency as official or emergency issues. This was accomplished through the application of countermarks. Countermarks could be either letters, combinations of letters, monograms, or images of various sorts, punched into the obverse or reverse. Other marks found on coins are banker’s marks. Banker’s marks first appear on some of the earliest electrum coins. They are usually tiny incuse punch marks of varying type, usually a simple symbol such as a crescent, serving as assayer’s marks. It is sometimes difficult, or impossible, to discern whether a particular mark is a countermark or banker’s mark.

Probably the most rudimentary type of marking found on coins is the graffito. Graffito is the scratching of letters on a coin for some religious or secular purpose. Most often a graffito takes the form of a single letter, but can also be found as a partial or whole word. If there is only one occurrence of this on a particular coin, it is known as a graffito. Multiple occurrences of graffito on a single coin are known as graffiti.

During the shortage of specific fractional denominations, large denomination coins would be cut into smaller segments (usually a half or quarter) in order to make small change. One notable example of such a cut coin is a half of an extremely rare Athenian dekadrachm, most likely done in commerce as a matter of necessity.

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK COINAGE

Before the introduction of a regular system of coinage, early societies relied on a system of barter for material goods and a system of mutual obligation for military service. While such an arrangement may have sufficed for smaller societies, it soon became evident that such a system was inefficient for more complex transactions between states, and it became necessary to employ some other medium of exchange. Where supplies of naturally-occurring and easily-obtainable sources of precious metals, such as copper, silver, gold, and electrum, were readily available,

Cut Athenian dekadrachm fragment

these soon became the recognized medium of exchange, and, over time, replaced the barter-system for large-scale, international transactions. The advantages of using precious metals were multi-fold: they possessed a broadly accepted intrinsic value, they could be stored for long periods with no detrimental physical effect (unlike bartered vegetable matter), they were generally easier to transport over long distances and at short notice, and they were simpler to use in transactions. Initially, this currency was in the form of bullion – jewelry, plate, or ingots and wire –which was transacted by weight. When necessary, these items could be transferred whole or, more often, broken up into smaller pieces as the need required. Modern scholars collectively call this broken-up bullion-currency hacksilber and consider it as perhaps the earliest form of coinage. Such currency transacted by weight was used in the Levant and Egypt until well after the introduction of coinage; Egypt, in particular, did not strike any coinage at least until the reign of the pharaoh Nektanebo II (360–343 BC).

Since transactions (including those of the pre-monetary arrangement) were valued according to a fixed ratio based on standardized units of weight, it was natural consequence that once bullion-currency became the accepted method of payment, that these valuations adopt the then-current weight system. An example of this is the shekel, one of the oldest known weight/currency units. Originally representing a measurement of grain, calculated at 180 grains of barley (approximately 11.34 g), the shekel became a standard unit of weight, and later, stood for a value of currency, since shekel payments were transacted by weight. Over time, however, as the intrinsic value of the metal fluctuated, the weight of the shekel as a unit of currency increased or decreased until eventually an accepable standard weight was reached. Likewise, the mina and the talent, which were standard units of weight and calculated as multiples of the shekel, also became values of currency. In western Asia Minor, the situation of was complicated further, because the gold/ silver ratio in electrum used for transactions there varied from place to place. The innovation of a bimetallic system, however, which replaced electrum coinage with a gold and silver stater (Gk. ἡ στατήρ = lit. “weight”), each of a specific weight and ratio between the two metals, solved the problem, creating a more stable currency system with multiple fractions, and one which other Greek poleis adopted, with local modifications.

Where and when coinage was first introduced will remain an object of scholarly debate, but all the evidence points to western Anatolia in the seventh century BC. During the preceding four-and-a-half centuries following the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, a period which scholars have called the “Greek Dark Ages,” the eastern Mediterranean underwent a broad economic, political, and social upheaval. During this period, both the Phoenicians and the Greeks expanded their influence throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea: the Phoenicians by establishing trading outposts, particularly in Spain, Sicily, and at their newly-founded city of Kart Hadasht (Carthage); the Greeks by establishing

The Archaic Period (Seventh century BC – 479 BC)

Striated Ionia electrum hemistater

colonies wherever they could. At the same time, a number of smaller states, taking advantage of the power vacuum created by the diminished power of the Hittite and Egyptian Empires, and finding an ever-increasing supply of mercenaries at their disposal, used the opportunity to establish their own empires. Increasing international trade and the expansionist polices of the Anatolian successor states, particularly the kingdom of Lydia, would demand a more suitable and efficient form of coinage.

Although current research demonstrates that the blank/striated electrum coinage of Ionia may have been struck concurrently, the origin of coinage has traditionally been ascribed by later classical authors to Lydia, a kingdom which, to the Greeks, became a synonym for great wealth. If true, the reasons for the introduction of coinage in Lydia would have been two-fold. Beginning in the early seventh century BC, Lydia embarked on a program of territorial expansion in western and central Anatolia making it the nearest major power to the Greeks. Secondly, Lydia’s expansion was funded by sources of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver, located around the capital at Sardis. Initially, this naturally-occuring electrum may have been transacted in raw form, but since the the gold to silver ratio in naturallyoccurring electrum is variable, the Lydian kings purposely controlled its metal content to guarantee it would have a consistent intrinsic value (A. Ramage and P. Craddock, King Croesus’ Gold: Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining [London, 2000]). In addition, the first actual coins began to be produced by applying designs to the metal. Like the Ionian electrum pieces, the Lydian coins had a plain incuse punch on the reverse. Surprisingly, however, the Lydian coins had a raised type on the obverse, the head of a roaring lion. According to Aristotle (Politics 1.9.1275a), the purpose of a type was as a sign that the piece was of full value and reduced the need for weighing each piece, thus facilitating the transaction and acceptance of the coins. Furthermore, the issuing authority would accept such coins tendered in future payments. This addition of markings (type) was the next major step in the creation of coinage. These early electrum issues were based on a stater weight of a little over 14 g. The high intrinsic value of the metal precluded the use of these coins in daily transactions and probably represented sizeable pay for a soldier.

The second major step came with the introduction in the sixth century BC of a bimetallic system of coinage. Although the Lydians controlled the metal content of their electrum issues, some of the Ionian Greek cities issued early electrum coins of a highly variable gold content. While this was not readily detectable because copper was routinely added to maintain consistency of color, it nevertheless did affect the value of such coinage in economic transactions (K. Konuk, “The electrum coinage of Samos in the light of a recent hoard,” in Neue Forschungen zu Ionien [Bonn 2005]). To solve the problem, a system composed of issues in both gold and silver of a consistent purity and weight, and based on denominations of a specific ratio between the two metals, was created. Initially, based on a gold stater of over

Lydian electrum hekte; Heavy gold stater of Kroisos, King of Lydia; Silver double siglos of Kroisos, King of Lydia

10 g (the so-called “heavy” series), this standard was soon reduced to a gold stater of a little over 8 g (the so-called “light” series). Gold fractions of the stater were also issued, from the half stater (or hemistater) denomination, down to the onetwenty-fourth stater. Similarly-sized silver denominations were also introduced: a stater of over 10 g, a half stater (or siglos) of over 5 g, and smaller fractions, also down to the one-twenty-fourth stater. This new bimetallic, multidenominational system demonstrates the broad range of values now available and reveals a system created to accommodate a more monetized economy. The main disadvantage of this system was the inconvenient size of the smaller fractions, some of which seemed little larger than a grain of coarse sand; the handling of them in everyday transactions proved difficult as these smaller denominations could be lost quite easily (cf. Luke 15:8-9). The problem of smaller denominations was not solved conclusively until the fourth century BC introduction of token bronze coinage to replace the smallest silver coins. Who instituted this new system has been the subject of much research and scholarly debate. The Greek historian Herodotos (I.94.1) assigned this innovation to the Lydians, saying that “[they]…were the first men of whom we know to make use of the gold and silver currency they minted (my translation dsv)”, and by implication that it was Kroisos, the last of the Lydian kings, who did so. Others, however, have argued that it was the Persians who were more likely the ones who instituted this system, using those issues depicting a confronted lion and bull, until the time of Dareios I, when a new type, featuring the Great King, was introduced (Georges LeRider, La naissance de la monnaie. Pratiques monétaires de l’Orient ancien [Paris, 2001]). In 2005, however, the publication of two gold and one silver fractional staters, found in 2002 in the ruins of the Lydian fortifications at Sardis within a context that predates the destruction of the city by the Persians in the 540s, has reopened the debate (N. Cahill and J.H. Kroll, “New Archaic Coin Finds at Sardis,” AJA 109 [2005]).

Archaic Aegina stater; Archaic Phaselis stater

Elsewhere in the Mediterranean between the seventh and the middle of the sixth centuries BC, a number of important Greek cities began to strike coinage. Some areas, like Mysia, Ionia, and the island of Lesbos, continued to rely on electrum or gold. Others, such as Phaselis in Lycia, which did not have access to ready supplies of these metals, used silver for their early coinage. One of the first western Greek poleis to strike silver coins was Aigina, strategically located on an island between Attica and the eastern Peloponnese and an important commercial center. Soon after, other regional cities began striking their own coinages. Most prominent among these were the large cities of Athens and Corinth, but also smaller centers, such as Chalkis in Eretria and Karystos in Euboia, began striking at this early time. By the end of the sixth century BC, some cities in Magna Graecia and Sicily, as well as the Thraco-Macedonian tribes, were also striking coins on their own weight standards. As a result, a number of different weight standards existed simultaneously throughout the Greek world.

The earliest of the prevailing weight standards in mainland Greece at the time was the Aiginetic standard, based on a silver stater of 12.1 g. The standard received its name from Aigina, the most prolific issuer of coins at this weight. The Aiginetic stater was widely adopted in the Peloponnese, Central Greece, and the southern Aegean region (the Cyclades, Crete, and southwest Asia Minor). Although Athens eclipsed Aigina politically and economically in the mid-5th century BC, the Aiginetic weight standard remained in use in many places. The second was the Corinthian standard, based on a stater of 8.6 g. Although this standard was closely linked to the Attic, since the Corinthian stater was the same weight as the Attic didrachm, the Corinthian stater was divided into three drachms of 2.9 g. Coins on this standard were produced over a long period at Corinth, with smaller and mostly late issues coming from her numerous colonies in northwest Greece, Italy and Sicily. The third, and the one that eventually superseded the other two, was the Attic standard, first based on a didrachm of about 8.6 grams, but later a tetradrachm of 17.2 grams. This standard was to become the principal standard following Athens’ domination of the Aegean world in the latter part of the fifth century BC. Other important early mainland weight standards were the Achaian, with a nomos of 8 g, used by the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and the Euboic, with a stater of 17.2 g, used by Euboia and its colonies in the northern Aegean and Sicily.

In the East, many of the mints of Asia Minor under Achaemenid domination, including those of Cyprus, continued to strike coins on the Persian standard, derived from the bimetallic coinage of Kroisos. Unlike the Lydians, the Greek poleis continued to use electrum for the majority of their coins, issuing staters and fractions down to ninety-sixth-staters. Silver was introduced in the closing decades of the 6th century, though it seems to have played only a subsidiary role to the more important electrum issues. Quite a large number of mints seem to have been at work – Ephesos, Phokaia, Miletos, and others – though it is difficult for us now to attribute many types to their cities of origin. The picture is further complicated by the existence of several different weight-standards for the electrum coinage, and we find staters weighing 17.2 g (‘Euboic’ standard), 16.1 g (Phokaic), and 14.1 g (Milesian). Of these, the Phocaic standard was ultimately adopted for the extensive electrum coinages which the Asiatic Greeks produced in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, down to the time of Alexander. Three mints were-principally involved in the production of this fascinating and beautiful coinage. Kyzikos, a Milesian colony on the sea of Marmara, issued a series of electrum staters (weight 16.1 g) of which more than two hundred different types are known. The Ionian mint of Phokaia, and Mytilene, the chief city of Lesbos, produced long series of electrum hektai (sixth-staters, 2.6 g), possibly striking in alternate years. The products of the two mints are easily distinguished by their reverse type – those of Phokaia have a simple incuse square, while those of Mytilene have a reverse design, sometimes in incuse. After circa 400 BC, the Chian, or Rhodian weight standard, based on a tetradrachm of 15.6 g, achieved considerable popularity in Asia Minor, and was also adopted at Ainos in Thrace. It was based on a tetradrachm of 15.6 g.

Archaic Ionia electrum trite of Phanes

In the Levant, the Phoenician weight standard, based on a silver shekel of about 14 g, was used by Sidon, Tyre, and Byblos. A similar standard existed in parts of northern Greece, though there can hardly have been any connection between the two. In fact, the whole question of weight standards in northern Greece is fraught with difficulties. Different standards appear to have been in use contemporaneously, sometimes at the same mint, and there were certainly three series of weights with no simple interrelationship. The whole group is termed the “Thraco-Macedonian” standard.

In the West, the closing decades of the sixth century also saw much activity in coin production at the colonies in Magna Graecia and Sicily. A unique type of coin production was used at some of the Italian mints, in which the obverse type was ‘mirrored’ on-the reverse, though incuse instead of relief. This peculiar technique was abandoned in the early part of the fifth century.

Archaic Sybaris nomos

Within each weight standard there was normally a wide range of denominations, serving the requirements of any variety of transaction, major to minor. Some denominations, such as the tetradrachm at Athens, the stater at Corinth, and the stater at Aigina, were struck more regularly than others. Some areas used only small denominations: most Peloponnesian mints, for example, seldom issued anything larger than a triobol (hemidrachm) during the fifth century BC. Other areas knew only larger coins: the Thraco-Macedonian tribes of the north regularly produced silver oktadrachms (29.5 g) and dodekadrachms (44.25 g).

In Sicily, the weight standard was based on the local bronze litra. The litra was at first represented by a small silver coin weighing 0.86 g. This silver denomination, however, proved troublesome, since it was often confused with an obol, and was replaced with a bronze version, possibly as early as the mid-fifth century BC. The convenience of this bronze coin was immediately apparent and became widely used in the area. One of the earliest cities to strike the bronze litra was Himera, a city on Sicily’s north. Although the original bronze litrai were cumbersome to use, their weight was soon reduced to a more acceptable level for everyday

Archaic Athens tetradrachm

circulation. These coins were accepted as a token currency, since their intrinsic value was considerably below their authorized circulating value. By the end of the fifth century BC, many of the Greek cities in Sicily had adopted this basemetal currency for small daily transactions. This was an important step in the development of a monetized economy and the use of fiat currency. The bronze litra was divided into twelve onkiai, from which the Roman uncia would derive its name. Unlike the cities to the east, those of Magna Graecia, and especially Sicily, often engraved a denominational mark on their bronze fractions, composed of pellets relative to the size of the fraction. The hemilitron, or 6 onkiai, with a mark of value composed of six pellets, was also struck, as well as the pentonkion (5 onkiai; five pellets), the tetras (4 onkiai; four pellets), the trias (3 onkiai; three pellets), the hexas (2 onkiai; two pellets), and the onkia itself (one pellet). This system of denominational marking by pellets is also found on some of the cities’ silver fractions. Over time, the concept of base-metal token coinage spread throughout the rest of the Greek world. Between approximately 400 and 350 BC, most Greek mints struck their first bronze issues, although some city-states continued to hesitate. A notable example was Athens, which continued to strike large quantities of small silver fractions well into the later fourth century BC when it, too, began striking bronze coins.

The main problem of Greek bronze coins is recognizing the denominational value in relation to the silver issues. Unlike the Sicilian mints, which clearly indicated the denominations of their bronze coins with marks of value, or Metapontion, which struck a remarkable late fourth century BC bronze inscribed “obol,” most Greek bronzes are without any mark to indicate their denominations. It is known that at Athens the obol was divided into eight chalkoi; the smallest Athenian bronze coin must then be the chalkous, a generic term meaning “bronze coin.” Larger denominations then would be multiples, such as the dichalkon (two chalkoi), tetrachalkon (four chalkoi = one hemiobol). Later, in the imperial period, the assarion replaced the chalkous. In Ptolemaic Egypt, bronze coins supplied the fractional denominations of the silver tetradrachm. The largest of these bronze issues, weighing over 40 g was the drachm; smaller denominations included the hemidrachm and obol. Otherwise, most Greek bronze coins are noted according their diameter in millimeters, a convenient, although most unsatisfactory, method of description. In this handbook series, the bronze coins are described by denominational size/weight modules following the system used in Seleucid Coins. Weight and diameter are given in parentheses.

Table 2. Table of Denominations Based on the Tetradrachm

AR

Metal

Pentakaidekadrachm 4 1/6

Double Oktodrachm 4

Dodekadrachm 3

Dekadrachm 2 1/2

Oktodrachm 2

Tetradrachm (base weight)

Didrachm 1/2

Tridrachm 1/3

Drachm 1/4

Tetrobol 1/6

Hemidrachm (Triobol) 1/8

Diobol 1/12

Trihemiobol 1/16

Obol (Tetratartemorion) 1/24

Tritartemorion 1/32

Hemiobol 1/48

Trihemitartemorion 1/64

Tartemorion 1/96

Hemitartemorion 1/192

Tetrachalkon 4

Dichalkon 2

Chalkous (base weight)

Hemichalkon 1/2

Table 3. Table of Denominations Based on the Stater

Denomination

EL/AV Stater (base weight)

Hemistater 1/2

Third Stater (Trite) 1/3 Quarter Stater 1/4

Sixth Stater (Hekte) 1/6

Twelfth Stater (Hemihekte) 1/12

Twenty-fourth Stater 1/24

Forty-eighth Stater 1/48

Ninety-sixth Stater 1/96

Hemistater 1/2

AR Stater (base weight)

Third Stater (Trite) 1/3 Quarter Stater 1/4

Sixth Stater (Hekte) 1/6

Eighth Stater 1/8

Twelfth Stater (Hemihekte) 1/12

Twenty-fourth Stater 1/24

Forty-eighth Stater 1/48

Ninety-sixth Stater 1/96

Table 4. Table of Denominations Based on the Shekel

Table 5. Table of Denominations Based on the Litra

During the Archaic period, human representations follow a style similar to that in contemporary sculpture: the eye is often represented full face, even when in profile, and the mouth is always formed into what is called the “Archaic smile.” Full-length figures are represented in a manner similar to that of ancient Egyptian wall illustration, with the head and legs correctly in profile, but the torso viewed from the front. Movement follows a similar archaic convention: a running figure is depicted as if it were in a kneeling stance. For birds in flight, the body is rendered in profile while the wings are seen as if viewed from below.

In Greece and the East, coins of this period had rather thick, almost globular, flans, and no reverse types; instead, they had an incuse of some form. These could be composed of single rough punches, various patterned punches, or, more often, punches divided into segments. In some cases, we know that the form or quantity of the punches present denoted the denomination. For instance, at Lydia, staters had two incuse squares divided by an incuse line, third-staters (trites), had two incuse squares, and sixth-staters (hektes) had a single incuse square. Over time, the incuses became more formalized, and sometimes had rudimentary designs. Also, their flans became more thin and broad. In the West, the coinage of Magna Graecia also began with incuse reverses, but these were struck from dies that had types similar to the obverse. The effect was that their coins had an obverse with a type in relief and a reverse with the same type in incuse. Sometimes subsidiary markings or the city ethnic would appear on these reverses in relief. The flans of these coins also differed from mints to the east in that they are first very thin and broad, and over time become more thick and compact. Finally, in the closing years of the sixth century BC, reverse types began to appear thoughout the Mediterranean. Some mints, such as Aigina, however, never abandoned the use of the incuse square reverse.

Persian gold daric

In 499 BC, the Ionian cities of Asia Minor revolted against Persian domination. Despite the assistance of Athens, the rebellion collapsed five years later. In revenge, Dareios I sent a naval expedition against Athens. After some initial success, the Persians were decisively beaten at Marathon (490 BC), celebrated afterwards as a pivotal battle of Greek independence against Persian domination. Xerxes, Dareios’s son and successor, planned a full-scale invasion of Greece to avenge the humiliation. In 480 BC, an immense Persian army crossed the Hellespont. It advanced through Thrace and Macedon into Greece with the support of a large fleet. At Thermopylai, a smaller Greek force, led by the Spartans under their king Leonidas, checked Xerxes, while the Athenian general, Themistokles, oversaw the construction of an Athenian fleet that then destroyed the Persian fleet at Salamis. Athens, however, was besieged, and its Akroplois, fortified with blocks of marble from its public buildings and fill composed of Archaic statuary, was sacked and burned. Soon thereafter, Greek forces under Sparta defeated the invading Persian army at Plataiai in 479 BC, bringing the war to an end. Henceforth, Persia never again intervened directly in the affairs of mainland Greece.

The Classical Period (479 – 336 BC)

A classical masterpiece - Akragas tetradrachm; Classical Athenian tetradrachm; Classical Kyzikos tetradrachm

The Classical period of Greek coinage stretched from the conclusion of the Persian Wars in 479 BC to the death of Philip II of Macedon in 336 BC. This period oversaw a transition from the style prevalent in Archaic coinage to a more natural style, also occurring in Greek sculpture and gem cutting, as well as the application of a type to the reverse as well. The most notable exception was Athens, which retained an archaic style Athena and owl on its coinage until the early fourth century BC. Athens’ leadership among the Greeks following the Persians Wars became a source of contention, especially its role in the establishment of the Delian League, a confederation of Greek city-states whose purpose was to free the Ionian cities of Asia Minor from Persian control. Initially, each member made annual contributions, either in ships, or in cash payments deposited to the treasury on the island of Delos. Athens soon turned the League into its own maritime empire by transporting the League’s treasury from Delos to Athens, and requiring that subsequent member-state annual contributions be paid to Athens. In 449 BC, the Coinage Decree expanded Athenian imperialism by curtailing the production of many of the member-states’ coinages; instead, bullion was transported to Athens where is was minted into Athenian “owls.” City-states that were late in making their contribution were fined; those that tried to rebel against Athens, like Naxos, were enslaved. Athens also enjoyed plentiful supplies of silver in its own right, as the mines in Laurion produced large quantities of silver from which prodigious quantities of tetradrachms were struck. At the same time, the Athenian mint struck special issues of dekadrachms and didrachms. As a result, Athens became the richest and most powerful city-state in mainland Greece, and its coinage became the standard international currency. Consequently, a number of city-states outside of Greece adopted the Attic weight standard, or began striking imitative Athenian types as their own currencies. Nevertheless, unilateral Athenian actions precipitated the animosity of her fellow city-states. Sparta, which was equally involved in turning back Persia as Athens, and which had formed a similar antiPersian league, the Peloponnesian League, was particularly incensed at Athenian high-handedness. War eventually broke out between Athens and Sparta and their allies. Known as the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), it ruined Athens politically and financially, made Sparta (with Persian assistance) a dabbler in the internal affairs of Greece, and paved the way for the subsequent supremacy of Macedon.

Although the Greek poleis of Magna Graecia and Sicily remained relatively unaffected by events in mainland Greece, including the disastrous Athenian Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BC), they were frequently at war with Carthage. Descended from Phoenician traders who had established the north African trading outpost called Kart Hadasht (New Town), the Carthaginians had developed a strong economic presence in the western Mediterranean and frequently came into conflict with the Greek city-states there. During the fifth century BC, Sicily became an area of conflict between Carthage and the city of Syracuse. In 480 BC, the Syracusan tyrant Gelon decisively defeated the Carthaginians at Himera. Now the pre-eminent Greek city-state, Syracuse remained a tyranny under the members of Gelon’s family until 465 BC when the last member was overthrown and a democracy established. It lasted until 405 BC when Dionysios, a successful Syracusan commander, set up his own tyranny. After encircling Syracuse with a protective defensive wall, he pursued an aggressive, though inconclusive campaign against Carthage (397–392 BC); the result was a division of the island between the two powers. At the same time, Dionysios also pursued an aggressive policy against Rhegion and its allies in Magna Graecia, eventually conquering the city and selling its inhabitants into slavery. Dionysios also attacked the Etrucsan port of Pyrgi and sacked of the Temple of Leukothea at Caere, bringing him briefly into contact with Rome, an ally of that Etruscan city.

Dekadrachm of Syracuse

Greek coinage of Sicily reached heights of artistic brilliance during this period, particularly in the late fifth century BC, through the exceptionally skilled die engravers who signed their masterful dies, which served as an inspiration to dieengravers elsewhere and set a new standard for numismatic art. Notable among the beautiful issues of this period were the Syracusan dekadrachms with dies designed by Euainetos and Kimon, each of whom signed their masterpieces. Kimon is also regarded for his superb rendering of the facing head of Arethusa on a contemporary Syracusan tetradrachm, which became the model for similar facing-head types around the Mediterranean, at Larissa, Elis, and Lycia. The first half of the fourth century BC was perhaps one of the most prolific of the Classical period in terms of artistic ability. Of particular note are the Apollo facing head tetradrachms of Amphipolis, the lyre reverse tetradrachms of the Chalkidian League, the Zeus and Hera staters of Olympia, and the wide-ranging satrapal issues of Asia Minor, many of which feature the earliest human portraits on coinage.

Tetradrachm of Philip II of Macedon

By the early fourth century BC, the kingdom of Macedon was emerging as a major power in northern Greece. Under Philip II (359–336 BC), Macedonian power saw a great expansion, not only into her neighbors Illyria, Paeonia, and Thrace, but also southward into Greece. In 357 BC, Philip captured Amphipolis, an Athenian colony near the rich silver-mining area of Mt. Pangaion in eastern Macedon. During the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC), Philip extended Macedonian control over Thessaly and was appointed tagos (leader) of the Thessalian League. In 348 BC, he razed Olynthos, the capital city of the Greek colonies that formed the Chalkidian League. Over the next several years, Philip was involved in consolidating his territories and fighting intermittently with Athens. At Chaironea in 338 BC, he and his son, Alexander, defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes, led by the Sacred Band. With this defeat, Athens sued for peace and the supremacy of Philip was acknowledged. A new league, the Corinthian League was formed as part of Philip’s larger strategy to invade Persia and liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Unfortunately in the midst of this preparation, a member of Philip’s bodyguard, Pausanias of Orestis, assassinated the king.

Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Period (336 – 31 BC)

When Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC, preparations were already made for an invasion of Persia. That endeavor now fell to his son and successor, Alexander III (336–323 BC). A young man of remarkable abilities and the pupil of the philosopher Aristotle, Alexander defeated the Persian king Dareios III in three major battles: Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela. Between 331 and 324 BC, he marched his Macedonian army to the Indus River, absorbing former Persian territories into his growing empire and building cities along the way. When he returned to Susa in 324 BC, he oversaw a mass wedding of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen. These actions were designed to unite Greek and non-Greek elements in a synthesis which later scholars have called Hellenism. Although Alexander’s plans for this unification began to disintegrate politically upon his death at Babylon on 11 June 323 BC, culturally, the ideals of Hellenism remained intact, particularly in the eastern kingdoms, long after Greek control over those areas was ceded to local authorities.

Memphis mint tetradrachm of Alexander III

Lampsakos mint tetradrachm of Lysimachos from Thrace; Alexandria mint tetradrachm of Ptolemy I from Egypt

On Alexander’s death, his empire quickly broke apart. Although his halfbrother, Philip III Arrhidaios, and infant son, Alexander IV, were recognized by the Macedonian troops as joint kings, neither was in a position to assert their rule (Philip, though an adult, was mentally deficient). As a result, Alexander III’s associates, Perdikkas, Antigonos Monophthalmos and his son, Demetrios Poliorketes, Ptolemy, Seleukos, Kassander, and Lysimachos, seized the opportunity to carve out their own kingdoms. Known as the Diadochoi (Sucessors), their wars against each other lasted over the next forty years, each attempting to assert their supremacy over Alexander’s dominion. The legitimate kings, Alexander IV and Philip III, died by violent means early in this period of upheaval that encompassed the whole of Greece, Asia Minor, and the East. By 281 BC, all pretensions to a unified Macedonian Empire were largely abandoned, and Alexander’s vast territories were divided into separate kingdoms, most of which endured until they were conquered by the Romans in the second and first centuries BC. In addition to the kingdom of Macedon, the two major kingdoms to emerge were Egypt, ruled by Ptolemy I Soter and his descendants, and the empire of Seleukos I Nikator, comprising Asia Minor, Syria, and the territories stretching east to the Indus River. By the middle of the third century, however, parts of the large Seleukid empire broke away into other new Hellenistic kingdoms, the largest of which were western Asia Minor under the Attalid kings of Pergamon, Parthia under the Arsakids, and Baktria under the Diodotids and their successors (see below).

During the time of Alexander the Great and the Diodoch Wars, a new power was awakened in the West that would eventually bring an end to the Hellenistic Period. Rome began to expand her influence in Italy following the successful conclusion of the Latin War (340–338 BC), which quickly brought her into conflict with many of the older Greek poleis that had previously held power in Magna Graecia. The defining conflict was the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC). Pyrrhos was the king of Epeiros, husband of Ptolemy I’s stepdaughter, Antigone, and a veteran of the Diodoch wars in the east, where he served under his brother-in-law Demetrios Poliorketes. Since he was unable to expand his power in the east, Pyrrhos looked west, and eagerly came to the aid of Taras (Tarentum), which was facing Roman conquest. With the arrival of Pyrrhos’s massive army, many of the Greek cities rallied to him against Rome, but the Romans and their allies were ultimately victorious. Pyrrhos was forced to return to Greece, where he briefly conquered Macedon before being killed at Argos in 272 BC. In the aftermath of the Pyrrhic War, most of Magna Graecia fell under Roman control, and much of the local civic coinage was reduced to small issues of bronze. Roman influence in Sicily grew as well, eventually leading Rome into a series of wars against the only other great

power left in the west, Carthage. The three Punic Wars, lasting from 264–146 BC, were the defining event for the Greek cities in the west, as they were invariably forced to submit to Roman or Carthaginian control. With the Roman destruction of the city of Carthage in 146 BC, the domination of Rome over all the western Greeks was complete. As in Magna Graecia following the Pyrrhic War, with the exception of limited issues of bronze, civic coinage ceased, and was replaced with coins of the Roman Republic.

From the time of the Second Punic War, Rome was also becoming entangled in the politics of the Hellenistic kingdoms to the east. During the First Macedonian War (215–205 BC), Rome fought against the energetic king of Macedon, Philip V (221–179 BC), and his Greek allies; while this war was in effect a draw, it nevertheless provided Rome a foothold in Greece. For the next five years, Philip tried to recover his losses and expand his regional power. Hostilities with Rome soon flared up again, sparking the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC). In 197 BC at the battle of Kynoskephalai, Philip was defeated. Until his death in 179 BC, he ruled a much-reduced kingdom and was engaged in a series of border skirmishes. Philip’s son, Perseus, made one final attempt to reignite Macedonian power in Greece during the Third Macedonian War (172–168/7 BC). At Pydna in 168 BC, however, Macedonian royal power was finally extirpated, and the country became a Roman protectorate. Nonetheless, in 148 BC the pretender Andriskos sparked the Fourth Macedonian War (149–148 BC). This brief, and futile, attempt to reassert Macedonian independence sparked a conflict between the Achaian League and Rome that brought about the end of Greek independence on the mainland.

Shortly after the Macedonian defeat at Kynoskephalai, Antiochos III, “the Great” (222–187 BC), invaded Greece at the invitation of the Aitolian League in 192 BC. Defeated by the Romans at Thermopylai, Antiochos fled back to Asia Minor. In relentless pursuit, the Romans attacked him in 190 BC at Magnesia in Lydia. Antiochos was defeated and Seleukid power began its final decline. Much of Seleukid territory in Asia Minor passed now to Eumenes of Pergamon, who had been Rome’s ally during the campaign. Seleukid authority, now restricted to Syria and its environs, maintained a precarious existence for more than a century until Pompey the Great deposed its last king, Antiochos XIII Asiatikos, in 64 BC, and made Syria a Roman province.

In the years following Rome’s defeat of Antiochos III at Magnesia, most of southwestern Asia Minor was under the control of the Attalids of Pergamon, while another ally of the Romans, the kingdom of Bithynia, held the northwest. To the east lie the vestiges of Seleukid authority around Cilicia, while the rugged lands in the central region fell under the kings of Cappadocia. To the northwest was the kingdom of Pontos, whose expansionist policies under its king Mithridates VI (c. 119–63 BC) caused a series of three wars that culminated in the Roman annexation of Asia Minor in 63 BC.

While Egypt remained a sovereign state, the Roman presence in the east required its kings to maintain friendly relations with the Senate. Rome did not intervene directly in Egyptian affairs until 48 BC when Julius Caesar, pursuing Pompey after Pharsalus, arrived in Alexandria and became embroiled in a dynastic struggle between Cleopatra VII and her brother, Ptolemy XIII. Within the next seventeen

years, Ptolemaic Egypt became the last power to succumb to Roman domination, and with its end, the Roman Republic became a one-man state under the rule Caesar’s nephew, Octavian.

The political changes resulting from the rise of the Hellenistic kingdoms directly impacted the coinage of the Hellenistic period. As noted above, during the first half of the fourth century BC, many Greek city-states, experiencing their final period of autonomy, produced some of the artistic masterpieces of Greek coinage. The early issues of Philip II of Macedon, too, display a high quality of classical artistry. Possibly to counteract Greek claims of Macedonian “barbarism,” the dies of Philip’s coinage were engraved by imported Greek engravers. As the Macedonian Empire expanded under Alexander, other mints outside of Macedon were incorporated to meet the ever-increasing need for coinage, most likely for military purposes. By the time Alexander had reached the Indus in 324 BC, his coinage was being produced not only at Macedon, but also at mints throughout the eastern Mediterranean: western and southern Asia Minor, the Levant, Egypt, and the East. His coinage supplanted the civic issues of many of these mint cities for some time, and the Alexander-type tetradrachm became the new international coin for the next century, replacing the Athenian tetradrachm that had held that position in the Classical period.

Alexander and his successors struck an immense amount of coinage to pay their large armies and support their imperial objectives. Early on, these coins continued to follow the types of Alexander with the head of Herakles on the obverse and Zeus enthroned on the reverse. Eventually, as these successor kingdoms began to assert their independence from the Macedonian empire, their rulers began to strike coins that were intrinsically their own. First, most replaced the name of Alexander with their own while retaining the types of the Alexandrine coinage. Soon thereafter, each replaced Alexander’s types with deities and symbols that were directly relevant to their own ruling house. Ultimately, mostly in the second generation of these kingdoms, the portrait of the ruling king replaced the deity on the obverse. These moves transformed the coins from a propaganda tool promoting Alexander’s Macedonian empire to one promoting the new kingdoms as separate, independent entities.

During the time of the Hellenistic kingdoms, many cities still struck their own civic coins, such as Athens; even some, such as Miletos, which were under the direct authority of the kingdoms, did so in limited quantities. In the West, however, where the kingdoms had relatively little influence, the coinage of Magna Graecia and Sicily continued much as it had before in the Classical period. Nevertheless, new coinage conventions to the East made an impression among some of the greater powers in the West. For example, in recognition of the popularity of the Alexander-type tetradrachms, the Carthaginian began to use the head of Herakles as the obverse type on their coins. At the same time, some local kings, such as Agathokles of Syracuse, began to issue coins that mimicked the types struck under the Diodochs, in an attempt to assert their equality to these great powers. In any event, changes in the west were not so much influenced by events in the east, but by the rise of Roman influence in their own sphere (see below).

Athenian “New Style” tetradrachm; Stephanophoric tetradrachm of Kyme; Stephanophoric tetradrachm of Smyrna

While the trends in coinage were shaped by the new kingdoms in the early part of the Hellenistic era, the change in the mid to late parts were influenced by reinvigorated civic coin production and the emergence of new leagues that brought together many poleis for a common cause. Circa 165 BC, the still-important city of Athens began to issue a new coinage that would influence the production of coinage throughout Greece and Asia Minor. This ‘New Style’ coinage was characterized by broad, thin flans that expanded the canvas upon which die engravers could create their images. At the same time, a trend developed in the typology of the reverse, in which the entire reverse type was enclosed within a wreath border. These wreath types were called stephanophoroi. Soon after Athens introduced its new coinage, these kinds of coins gained popularity around the Aegean, and was soon being struck in the kingdoms of Macedon, Bithynia, Pergamon, and Pontos, as well as by a wide range of cities, such as Athens in Greece; Apollonia, Odessos, and the isle of Thasos in Thrace; Kyme and Myrina in Aeolis; Ilion in Troas; and Herakleia, Magnesia, and Smyrna in Ionia.

In mainland Greece, a number of cities banded together to form leagues similar to those that had existed before the advent of Macedonian overlordship. Thessaly, Aitolia, and Arkadia each had their own league; each city within these leagues would take turns striking its issues. Arguably, the most important of these leagues was the Achaian League. Refounded in the early third century BC, it eventually became the major league in Greece and even the once-great Sparta was compelled to become a member. The Achaian League struck an immense coinage; consisting of silver hemidrachms and bronze tetrachalkoi and dichalkoi, more than twenty mints were involved in the production of these coins. In 148 BC, Sparta attempted to throw off its ties to the league, which responded by attacking the Lakedaimonians. Sparta, however, had called on Rome for help, and the resulting war between the Achaian League and Rome was quick and final. After making a last stand against the Romans at Corinth in 146 BC, the Achaian League’s army was scattered and

Corinth was sacked. In the aftermath, the league was abolished by Rome. With the consolidation of Roman power in mainland Greece, most cities either ceased producing coinage, or struck limited issues of token bronze.

Shekel of Tyre

In the Levant, the constant warfare between the Seleukid and Ptolemaic kingdoms prevented many civic issues from being struck –save for limited token bronze–since most of the mints were employed for striking royal issues. These royal issues continued to be struck on traditionally short, thick flans down to the very end of the empire.The lone exception is the Seleukid domains in western Asia Minor which did strike the new broad-flan coinage, but the loss of that territory by the mid-second century prevented any impact of this style of coinage on the eastern Seleukid mints. Nevertheless, the mints of Arados and Tyre in Phoenicia did produce significant precious metal coinages in the later Hellenistic period, as they were important international trading centers, which naturally would be impacted by major trends in coinage in the Aegean area. As a conduit between the East and the Aegean, their civic issues appear to be a hybrid between the new thin, broad flan coins and the old thick, short flan coins that were still popular with the Seleukids and Ptolemies.

By the mid-first century BC, the expansion of Roman power over the formerly independent Greek kingdoms and city-states was nearly complete. Most of Magna Graecia, Sicily, North Africa, Greece, Asia Minor, and Syria were now provinces of the Roman Republic, or tributary kingdoms. This paradigm shift in politics was inevitably paralleled by a shift in coinage. Some civic issues, mostly bronze, were sporadically struck, but these were only allowed at the behest of Rome, and, as such, are generally considered pseudo-autonomous issues. Such coinage is also considered to be among the earliest Roman Provincial Coinage, and is largely beyond the scope of this work.

Dated Greek Coins

Some of the earliest dated Greek coins were Phoenician issues which began carrying regnal years dates beginning in the early fourth century BC; this process

Tetradrachm of Macedon under Roman rule

continued on their Alexander-type issues. By the third century BC, Ptolemaic silver coins were also carrying regnal year dates and, after the Seleukids had conquered Koile Syria and Phoenicia, they too adopted the practice. The Seleukid era began in 312 BC, when Seleukos I regained possession of Babylon, and all subsequent dates on Seleukid issues are relative to this era. The Ptolemies, however, indicated only the regnal year of the current monarch, which is problematic for numismatic research. The types used on most Ptolemaic coins stayed constant from one ruler to another, and very few used their epithets, so the dates, being regnal, are only marginally helpful in establishing a chronology for the rulers. Similarly, the dating used on civic issues is also problematic, as it is not always clear what era is being used as a basis, and some cities had more than one era that could be used. As a result, even if dates are present, numismatists may still need to resort to more subjective criteria, such as style and fabric, as well as hoard evidence, to establish the approximate period of issue for coins of this period.

The table below shows the alpha-numeric system used by the Greeks in dating their late Hellenistic and imperial issues:

Table 6. Greek Alpha-Numeric Table

The Eastern Kingdoms (mid-third century BC – mid-third century AD)

In the aftermath of the Diodoch Wars, the Macedonian empire forged by Alexander the Great was divided into a number of kingdoms. The largest of these was the Seleukid kingdom, which, by the beginning of the third century BC, controlled nearly all of Asia Minor, the Levant, and the eastern lands, stretching to the Indus River. Such a large territory was little more cohesive than the huge Macedonian empire it was carved from, with a wide variety of cultures that were as alien to each other as they were to their Macedonian overlords. Initially, the Seleukid system of governance was a continuation of that set up under Alexander, where much of the local institutions and leaders were retained from the Persian Empire. This was a relatively successful method of control, but as the Diodoch Wars continued the institutions and resources became strained. The wars moved the focus of the kingdom to its western territories, which allowed local leaders to exercise greater authority and independence. As a result, by the middle and late third century, a variety of revolts occurred in the East, some of which were successful in establishing new kingdoms that were largely based on ethnic identity.

Persis tetradrachm of Bagadat; Parthian tetradrachm of Orodes I; Baktrian tetradrachm of Euthydemos I

The earliest of these kingdoms was Persis, in southwest Iran, and was probably already independent in the reign of Antiochos I as indicated by Persid overstrikes on Seleucid host coins; Parthia, in northern Iran, around the southeast corner of the Caspian Sea; and Baktria, in Afghanistan. The revolts that led to their creation were precipitated by the Second Syrian War, in which the Seleukid king Antiochos II Theos, led a large army to the western coast of Asia Minor. This was but the latest conflict in the long wars that had been ongoing for nearly fifty years, which left the East open to revolt. Both revolts in Persis and Parthia were ethnically based, instigated by their indigenous leaders. The secession of Baktria is complicated by contradictory evidence, as well as a conflicting chronology. In effect, sometime in the mid-third century BC (250 BC or 246 BC), the Baktrian satrap Diodotos I revolted, claiming independence and taking the title of king. The Seleukids, who were in no position to militarily challenge the revolts at the time, attempted to find ways to settle the situation, but finally were forced to come to terms with these kingdoms.

Seleukid authority continued to decline over the following century, both through continued wars in the west, and by the expansion of the Parthian kingdom in the east. Around which saw its territory expand greatly under Mithradates I. By the mid-second century, Mithradates had begun a vigorous expansion to the west, eventually capturing Mesopotamia and Babylonia from the Seleukids. This weakening of Seleukid control in the region led to the creation of two more kingdoms, Charakene, around the northern end of the Persian Gulf, and Elymaïs, centered on Susiana and Zagros mountains. Neither of these two kingdoms, nor Persis, however, retained their independence for long, as all three soon became tributaries of the Parthians, whose own kingdom remained ascendant well into the first century BC. By the mid to late first century, Parthia had grown to control nearly all of the lands east of the Tigris that were once held by the Seleukids, and even

threatened Syria on occasion. Unfortunately, as with the Seleukid kingdom, such a large territory also proved unwieldy for the Parthians, and internal dissention coupled with internecine disputes served to weaken their governmental control over the various ethnic groups they ruled. During this period, several independent kingdoms arose, including Commagene, Sophene, and Armenia Minor in the north, and Hatra and Nabataea in the south. Internally, these states often had two factions among their respective elite who would, for a time and depending upon which power was most influential there, vied with one another for local political control. Externally, these kingdoms became buffers between the various competing powers at the time and served as important staging areas for imperial expansion.

Baktria, too, became caught for a time in Parthia’s expansion. Fearing the potential isolation caused by a rising Parthian state, Diodotos I appears to have allied himself with Seleukos II when the latter sought to regain Parthia, going so far as to drive the Parthians from Baktrian territory, for which he adopted the epithet Soter. Diodotos’ son and successor, Diodotos II, however, allied himself with Arsakes I when Seleukos II tried to recover all of the lost eastern satrapies. This alliance was short-lived, for Diodotos II was overthrown by Euthydemos I. Around 208 BC, shortly after the Parthian kingdom had been recaptured and made a Seleukid vassal, Euthydemos was attacked by Antiochos III. After three years of war, a peace was negotiated, recognizing Euthydemos I as legitimate ruler. Under his immediate successor, Demetrios I, Baktria expanded its control across the Hindu Kush Mountains into northwest India, establishing a foothold in the northern parts of modern day Pakistan. Soon, however, the Hindu Kush proved more than a geographic boundary; the ethnic divisions on either side coupled with growing internecine dynastic struggles, resulted in the Baktrian kingdom splitting into two portions along the mountains, with the northern part traditionally called the GrecoBaktrian Kingdom, and the southern, the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

The most significant events to affect the east were the migratory “invasions” of the nomadic Skythians and Yuezhi. Certainly in process by the late third to early second century BC, these movements, lasting for at least a century, impacted the Parthian and Baktrian kingdoms, and established new ruling bodies throughout the region. The Skythians, whose movement was prompted by the southwestern migration of the Yuezhi confederation from its home in the Tarim Basin, migrated south, generally following the western edge of the Himalayan Mountains, and cut a swath between the Parthian and Baktrian kingdoms. The Yuezhi followed behind, establishing small localized dynasties in Sogdiana, Areia, and Margiana, and forming the foundation of what would become the Kushan Empire. Gradually over the course of the second and first centuries BC, the Greco-Baktrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms were absorbed. The Greco-Baktrian kingdom disappeared as an autonomous entity in the late second century BC, and the Indo-Greek kingdom disappeared by the second decade of the first century AD. At its greatest extent, Indo-Skythian territory encompassed much of Gandhara, Arachosia, the Paropamisadai (the Hindu Kush region of eastern modern Afghanistan), the Punjab, and stretched as far east as the headwaters of the Ganges.

The coinages of these eastern kingdoms are quite varied, but mainly consist of silver tetradrachms and drachms, as well as a fiduciary bronze. Most of these kingdoms’ coins were similar to that found on the western Greek kingdoms, with the head of the ruler on the obverse and a reverse type relative to the particular

dynasty; the Indo-Skythians were different, since their coinage almost never carries a portrait head on the obverse. In the third and second centuries, their style was rendered in typical Hellenistic fashion, with high quality portraits. In the first century, particularly in the Parthian kingdom and her tributaries, the style began to evolve into a more schematized form that has traditionally been thought to be influenced by indigenous aesthetics. This evolution in style is paralleled in the coin legends. At first, all of the kingdoms used Greek letters, typically citing the king’s name and epithets, as on Greek coins. Over time the letter forms became blundered, eventually rendering the legends illegible. Coins of the kingdom of Persis regularly carry Aramaic inscriptions, while Indo-Greek coins were generally bilingual, with Greek on the obverse and Kharoshthi on the reverse. The content of the legends, the name and epithet of the ruler, is the same on both sides. These bilingual legends were continued under the Indo-Skythians and Kushans.

The Celts (late fourth century BC – first century AD)

Danubian area Celtic tetradrachm

The coinage of the Celtic tribes in Europe likely developed out of necessity, as the Greek societies with whom they traded became more monetized. The earliest Celtic coins are from the tribes along the Danube River, and it is thought that their coinage was a direct result of the normalizing of their relations with the Macedonian kingdom following the successful campaigns of Alexander the Great in the region circa 335 BC. As such, these early coins were simply imitations of Alexander and Philip type tetradrachms. Over time, the number of tribes that used money increased, with various issues being found today throughout the length of the Danube River. Unfortunately, the attribution of most of these coins to specific tribes is not possible today. At the same time, the diversity of copied Greek types grew, but their style also became degraded often to the point where they are nearly incomprehensible. Eventually, the intervention of Rome in Greece brought Roman coinage into the mix, and, as expected, the Celts made numerous copies of Roman coins as well.

By the second century BC, the tribes along the upper Danube, central Europe, and Gaul were striking coinage. Although some of these tribes copied Greek and Roman types, others, such as the Boii, began to strike types that were clearly novel.

PREVALENT GREEK COIN TYPES AND EPIGRAPHY

Ancient Greek coins are varied in their designs, and the issues of a single mint can show a wide variety of types over a long period of time. Regardless of what specific imagery was chosen, the coin types clearly referred to the issuing authority of a particular coin. Most often, the types took the form of a religious symbol, usually a representation of the patron deity of the issuer. This representation could be either an iconographic portrait/figure of the god or a symbol that is directly associated with the deity. For example, the coins of Ephesos feature a stag and/or a bee, both of which are sacred to Artemis, the patron god of the city. Not all types, however, were specifically religious in nature. A popular trend in Greek coinage was to choose a type that was a pun on the city’s name. For instance, even from its earliest archaic coinage, Phokaia in Ionia used a seal as its standard type (although reduced to a subsidiary symbol on its later electrum coinage), as the Greek word for seal is phokē. Other popular types related to the foundation myth of a particular city, such as at Tarentum, where the enduring type on almost all of its silver coinage is a male figure, Phalanthos (or Taras), riding a dolphin. A final typical civic coin type illustrates a local product for which the city was reknowned. Metapontion was known for its bountiful supply of grain, and many of its coins, from the Archaic to Hellentistic periods, prominently feature a grain ear (which also serves a dual purpose as it refers also to Demeter, the patron god of the city). At the same time, Boiotia was known for its famous shields that her warriors took into combat, so many of her cities prominently feature this shield on their obverse.

Epigraphy begins to appear shortly after the advent of types in the mid-seventh century coinage of both Lydia and Ionia. At Sardis, some hektes with the head of lion type feature the legend walwet, which is thought to be a form of the name of the Lydian king Alyattes or a magistrate. Similarly, early staters of Ephesos depicting a stag standing also feature the legend eimi to sema phaneos (I am the seal of Phanes). Although scholars have generally interpreted Phanes as the name of a magistrate, it is also possible that the name may be a local epithet for the goddess Artemis Ephesia. Although such inscriptions are not so common in the Archaic period, by the advent of the Classical era it was fairly standard practice for cities to put their abbreviated or full names on the coins. It was also common for magistrates, die engravers, or other mint officials to place their names on the coins. In the Classical period, this usually took the form of a single letter or just the first few letters of the name, but by the Hellenistic period, it was not uncommon to find whole names. Another way these officials signed their coins was to place all or part of their names in monogram form. Unfortunately, this practice was almost never standardized at any mint, so it is often impossible to interpret many of them as an actual name.

Regarding Greek royal coinage, in the Archaic and Classical periods there are many similarities between civic and royal issues. These early royal coins typically used types that referred to the mythical foundations of their respective dynasty or some important aspect of that dynasty’s power. Both of these kinds of types are seen in the coinage of the early Macedonian kings, with some issues featuring a horse (the Macedonians were known for their cavalry), while others feature a head of Herakles (from whom the dynasty could trace its mythical lineage). Other accoutrements relating to the mythical origins of a particular dynasty also appear as subsidiary symbols. Epigraphically, these royal coins nearly always feature the

king’s name, whether it was only one letter or his entire name. The coins of the Persian satrapies in Asia Minor, which flourished in the fifth and fourth centuries, had similar types and epigraphy, but also began a major innovation in typology in that they are the first coins to feature the portraits of living rulers. Of particular note are the portraits of Pharnabazos on certain issues of Kyzikos, and the dynast Perikles on his tetradrachms from Lykia.

The prominent featuring of the ruler’s portrait on the obverse became standard practice in the Hellenistic period, as mentioned above. The style of these portraits is of particular significance, because unlike the idealized style that is found on the later Roman coinage, the portraits of the Greek kings were usually extraordinarily lifelike, and were often engraved by artists who were exceptionally skilled. Perhaps the best examples of this are the coinage of the early kings of Baktria and Persis, and the later kings of Macedon. Two significant exceptions are the kingdoms of Pergamon and Ptolemaic Egypt. With few exceptions, both of these kingdoms kept idealized portraits of their founding king on the coins of all of their subsequent rulers. Another important aspect of typology under the kingdoms is their bronze coinage, where ruler portraits were less common, and instead usually featured types relating to the dynastic mythology. Hellenistic royal coinage regularly gave the full name and title of the king as well as various cult epithets. Although less usual than at the civic mints, some mint officials also signed royal coins, such as Zoilos in Macedon, but this was usually in the form of a monogram. Monograms are extremely common on Hellenistic royal coins, but it is not always certain whether they are a control indicating a mint official, the local authority striking the coins for the king, or an indication of the mint of origin. As a kingdom would typically control more than one mint, it would seem important for economic control to mark the mint of origin, but this was not always clear on the coins, and often symbols were used that were just as ambiguous as monograms (and which also may have represented local officials).

Below is a list of the major deities appearing on Greek coinage:

Zeus-Ammon, 5th century BC; Deified Alexander with horn of Ammon, 4th-3rd century BC

Ammon – Originally an Egyptian god, Ammon arose to prominence in the early New Kingdom, and was later incorporated with the Greek god Zeus into the syncretic Zeus-Ammon. In ancient Egyptian iconography, Ammon was anthropomorphized with the head of a ram. On Greek coins, he is depicted as a bearded man with a ram’s horn. It was at his sanctuary at Siwah in the Libyan Desert that Alexander the Great was declared the son of a god; for this reason, the tetradrachms of Lysimachos show the portrait of the deified Alexander with a ram’s horn.

Aphrodite Melainis, 5th century BC; Aphrodite, 4th century BC

Aphrodite – The mythology surrounding the birth of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty is varied. Traditionally, she was born of the sea foam and near the island of Cyprus. One of the twelve great Olympians, Aphrodite was associated with the myrtle, rose, apple, poppy; doves, swans, and sparrows were animals sacred to her. She was the wife of Hephaistos, the lame craftsman-god. Her child attendant, Eros, often accompanied her. The apple she sometimes holds was the prize awarded to her by Paris in the contest with Hera and Athena on Mount Ida; the result of this judgment was the cause of the Trojan War.

Apollo, 5th century BC; Apollo, 4th century BC

Apollo – Apollo was the son of Zeus and Leto; his twin was Artemis. He was the god of prophecy, patron of the arts, and the bringer of plague. His slaying of the serpent Pytho at Delphi, made that place sacred to him and the site of his most important oracle, operated by its high priestess, the Pythia. The head of Apollo and his attribute, the lyre, are frequent types on ancient Greek coinage.

Ares, 6th-5th century BC; Ares, 4th century BC

Ares – Ares was the god of war and the son of Zeus and Hera. He was violent and impetuous, but he could be bested in battle, even by mortals. On coins his head appears wearing a helmet, and he is either beardless or bearded, and in full figure, his depiction varies between being helmeted but naked, or wearing a cuirass, and holding shield, spear or trophy. His amorous association with Aphrodite derives from Homer’s Odyssey; sometimes the two are depicted together on coins.

Artemis, 4th century BC; Artemis, 2nd century BC

Artemis – The twin sister of Apollo, Artemis was one of the three virgin goddesses (the others were Athena and Hebe). As an Olympian, she was the goddess of the hunt, goddess of the Moon in her association with Selene, and protectress of the young in connection with Elethyia. Her origins go back to Mycenaean times, where she was known as the potnia theron, or “mistress of the beasts.” In Ionia, she was associated with the Anatolian Great Mother. Her temple at Ephesos, known as the Artemision and whose foundations went back to the early Archaic Period, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The coin types showing Artemis vary: most often, she is seen as the huntress, holding a bow and arrow, and accompanied by a hound or stag. As Artemis Tauropolos, she is depicted on a running bull, holding her billowing veil over her head. As Artemis Ephesia, she is represented by her cult statue at Ephesos. And as Artemis Phosphoros, she is shown carrying torches.

Asklepios, 4th century BC; Asklepios, 3rd century BC

Asklepios – Asklepios was the son of Apollo and was the god of medicine and healing. He is always shown as a bearded man, leaning on a serpent-entwined staff; serpents, chthonic symbols of prudence and renovation, were sacred to Asklepios, because they were thought to possess the power of guarding wells from contagion and discovering healing herbs. Often, the figures of the hooded Telesphoros, the personification of recovery, and Hygieia, the personification of health, stand by Asklepios’s side. Asklepios’s sanctuary at Epidauros was a major religious site; the large theater there, still well preserved, hosted many famous ancient Greek plays.

Athena, late 6th century BC

Athena, 5th century BC; Athena, 2nd century BC

Athena – Also known as Pallas, Athena sprang fully formed and in armor from the head of her father, Zeus. She was a goddess of many attributes, all of which used the mind; she also remained a virgin (like Artemis and Hebe). Athena was a popular goddess and was the symbol of Athens and its empire. The goddess had many epithets, each of which referred to either a function, such as Athena Alkidemos, or one of her sacred locations, such as Athena Ilia. The image of Athena, whether her portrait, or full-length image, and her attributes, the owl, serpent, the cock, and the olive, are among the commonest types on ancient Greek coinage.

Ba’al, 4th century BC; Ba’al, 4th century BC

Ba’al – This Semitic word means lord; it is appended to a location or attribute, so that the god’s name would be Lord of …, rather than a specific name. The Greeks associated Ba’al with Zeus.

Bakchos – see Dionysos.

Demeter, 4th-3rd century BC; Demeter, 3rd-2nd century BC

Demeter – Demeter was the sister of Zeus; by him she had her daughter, Persephone, or Kore. The name Demeter derives from Ge Meter (Mother Earth), and as goddess of fertility, agriculture and marriage, she may be a later incarnation of the Great Mother. When Hades carried off Persephone to the underworld, Demeter, in her sorrow at the loss of her daughter, allowed the earth to become sterile until it was arranged that Persephone should spend half the year below ground with Hades and the other half above ground with her mother; thus, the seasons and their results were explained. On coins, the head of Demeter is depicted either veiled, or, like her daughter, wreathed with grain ears. She sometimes carries a grain ear, or holds a torch, symbolizing her search for Persephone. Sometimes, Demeter is represented in a chariot drawn by two winged and crested serpents.

Dione,

3rd century BC

Dione – Another consort of Zeus, little else is known about Dione. Her name is cognate with that of Zeus and may represent a very ancient female counterpart to the god. Dione was worshipped at Dodona along with Zeus and appears on coins of Epeiros together with him, wearing a laureate stephanos and veil; sometimes she appears alone, laureate and veiled.

Dionysos, 5th century BC; Dionysos, 2nd century BC

Dionysos – Also known as Bakchos, Dionysos was the son of Zeus and one of his many mortal loves, Semele, a princess of Thebes. According to his mythology, Dionysos was born, after having been gestated in his father’s thigh. A vegetation god with origins in the East, Dionysos became particularly associated with the cultivation of the vine and its effects. Women associated with him were known as mainads; their actions included wild orgiastic trances and the consumption of raw flesh. Dionysos was also attended by satyrs, ithyphallic goat-men, who constantly attempted to engage the mainads in sexual intercourse. Dionysos is often seen on coins as a young man, wreathed with ivy or grape vines, holding a grape bunch, kantharos (wine goblet), or thyrsos (pinecone-tipped staff), and associated with a panther.

Dioskouroi, 3rd century BC; Dioskouroi, 2nd century BC

Dioskouroi – Kastor and Polydeukes, were the sons of Zeus and Leda and brothers of Helen and Klyemnestra. They were the tutelary guides of sailors, and assisted

those in distress. They were worshipped at Sparta; their worship soon spread to the rest of Greece, as well as Magna Graecia and Sicily. On coins the two brothers are shown on horseback or standing by their horses, wearing their characteristic star-surmounted pileoi, or caps, and carrying lances; sometimes, only their pileoi are depicted. The Dioskouroi and the Kabeiroi are sometimes confused with one another.

Eros, 4th century BC; Eros, 3rd century BC

Eros – The god of erotic love, Eros is often shown in association with Aphrodite. Like her, he too has a varied mythology surrounding his origin. Eros is represented as either a boy, or a young man, naked, winged, and holding a bow and arrows or a wedding torch. On the coins of Karteia, he can be seen astride on a dolphin; elsewhere, he is depicted driving the chariot of Hades as he carries off Persephone.

Gorgon, 6th-5th century BC

Gorgo or Medusa –A monster with a round face, bulging eyes, snakes for hair, boar’s teeth, and huge wings, Gorgo was claimed to have eyes that could transform people into stone. Killed by the hero Perseus, she gave birth to Pegasos and Chrysaor in the moment of her death. Her head was used as an apotropaic device to ward off evil, and she frequently appears as a main type on coins.

Hades, 2nd century AD

Hades – Although he was not depicted on coins until the Roman period, Hades was the brother of Zeus and Poseidon. He was king of the Underworld, a territory he ruled with his consort Persephone, whom he gained by theft and deception.

Helios – The god of the sun, Helios daily crossed the sky from east to west in his chariot. Later identified with Apollo, he is depicted with a radiate head and holding a globe, or whip. On some coins he is shown driving his chariot.

Hera, 4th century BC; Hera, 4th century BC

Hera – The sister and consort of Zeus, Hera was the queen of the Olympians. Like several of the other Greek goddesses, Hera derived from the Great Mother of the pre-Hellenic period. As a goddess of home and the family, she is usually represented on coins as a mature woman, wearing an ornate polos as a symbol of her royal station. The peacock was the animal attributed to her.

Helios, 5th century BC; Helios 4th century BC; Helios, 4th century BC

Herakles, 6th century BC

Herakles, 5th century BC; Herakles, 5th-4th century BC

Herakles, 3rd century BC

Herakles – The son of Zeus and the mortal Alkmene, Herakles was the most famous ancient Greek hero. Renowned for his strength and numerous exploits, particularly his Twelve Labors, Herakles was a familiar subject of Greek literature. His portrait or full-length figure is among the commonest Greek coin types. He is frequently depicted as a young beardless man wearing the skin of the Nemean Lion, killed in completion of the first of his Twelve Labors. He is also shown in the style of the famous Farnese statue of him: a bearded, bull-necked nude man, holding his club, lion skin or bow. The combination of club, bow, and bow case are types symbolic of Herakles.

Hermes, 5th century BC; Hermes, 4th century BC

Hermes – The son of Zeus and Maia, Hermes served as the messenger of the gods, symbolized by his association with the kerykeion (latin caduceus), or herald’s staff. In his role as psychopompos, Hermes guided the souls of the dead to and, on rare occasions, from the Underworld. Besides the kerykeion, other attributes of Hermes are the petasos, or broad-brimmed travelling hat, winged sandals, and money bag, for Hermes was patron of both merchants and thieves. Known for his cleverness, even as an infant, he invented the lyre and plectrum, both of which were later associated with Apollo, as well as the syrinx, used by Pan. The winged kerykeion is occasionally used as a coin type.

Isis, 2nd century BC; Isis and Zeus, 2nd century BC

Isis – Isis (Auset) was an Egyptian goddess, the sister and wife of Osiris (Ausar), and the mother of Horus (Heru). In Egyptian mythology, Isis was instrumental in resurrecting her deceased husband. As a result, she became a goddess around whom a mystery cult formed that focused on salvation and the hope of an afterlife. During the Hellenistic period, her worship became popular throughout the Mediterranean, continuing until elements of it were absorbed by early Christianity.

Sometimes, her portrait on coins shows her wearing a characteristic Egyptian hairstyle with a grain ear wreath, symbolizing the agricultural wealth. Sometimes, only her distinctive crown is shown. The sistrum, an Egyptian musical instrument, was an attribute of hers.

Kabeiros, 4th century BC; Kabeiros, 3rd-2nd century BC

Kabeiroi – Often confused with the Dioskouroi, these possibly Phrygian deities, numbering between four and eight, were associated with fertility. Like the Dioskouroi, the Kabeiroi also protected sailors and wore pileoi. On coins of the Balearic Islands, the Kabeiroi are represented in association with a hammer and snake; elsewhere, they are depicted with a rhyton (a drinking horn ending in animal’s head).

Kore – see Persephone.

Medusa – see Gorgo

Melkart, 1st century BC

Melkart or Melqarth (Ba’al-Tsur [Lord of Tyre]) – Melkart was a Phoenician god, whose center of worship was at Tyre. Originally a marine deity, since on earlier coins he is represented astride a sea-horse, the Greeks identified him with Herakles. On Hellenistic coins he is often depicted as a young, beardless man with a lion skin tied at his neck and a club nearby.

Mên, 1st century BC

Mên – Mên was a Phrygian god with Mesopotamian roots whose worship spread to other parts of western Anatolia. Depicted with a crescent like open horns on his shoulders and wearing a Phrygian cap, and often associated with a bull and lion, he was the presiding god of the months. His iconography is similar to that of Mithras. Mên has also been identified with the Phrygian god Attis and the Thracian god Sabazios; he may share a common origin with the Zoroastrian lunar divinity Mah, as well as the Kushan deity Miiro.

Nike, 4th century BC

Nike – The Greek goddess of victory. Nike was often depicted holding a wreath of laurel and a palm frond; occasionally, she holds a clarion. Nike is winged, although rarely, as on the coins of Terina, she is wingless.

Protesting Nymph, 5th century BC

Nymph – Nymphs were female spirits associated with a particular location; depending on the area, this included mountains, groves, springs, rivers, woods, valleys, and grottoes. Often these nymphs were involved with the gods, and they are frequently served as companions to Artemis, Apollo, Dionysos, and the rustic Pan and Hermes. The symbolic marriage of an eponymous founder with a local nymph is repeatedly found in Greek origin myths.

Pan, 4th century BC

Pan – Pan was the god of shepherds and flocks. As a rustic divinity he is most often depicted as an anthropomorphized goat, who dwelt in caves and grottoes. His voice was said to terrify those who heard it; hence, those who did were thrown into a “panic”. Pan was fond of music and is sometimes given the invention of the syrinx in place of Hermes. These pipes, as well as Pan himself, holding his lagobolon, or shepherd’s crook, are represented on coins of the Arkadian League in the Peloponnesos.

Head of Kore-Persephone, 5th-4th century BC

Persephone or Kore – Daughter of Demeter and wife of Hades, Persephone is associated with her mother. Her portrait on coins shows her wearing a grain ear wreath. For more, see Demeter.

Poseidon, 4th-3rd century BC; Poseidon, 3rd century BC

Poseidon – The brother of Zeus and Hades, Poseidon was the god of earthquakes and ruler of the sea. He is usually represented on coins resting his foot on rocks or the prow of a galley, and holding a dolphin and a trident, or an aphlaston, the stern ornament of a galley. A trident, ornamented or entwined with dolphins, also appears on coins as a symbol of Poseidon.

Sandan, 2nd century BC

Sandan – Sandan was an Anatolian god of Hittite origin. Often depicted standing on the back of a horned lion, he appears most often on coins minted in the city of Tarsos in Cilicia.

Sarapis, 2nd-1st century BC; Sarapis-Pantheos, 2nd century AD

Sarapis – Sarapis was a purely Hellenistic god. The name derives from a combination of the Egyptian gods Ausar, or Osiris, the god of the Underworld, and Hapi, the deified sacred bull, whom the Greeks called Apis. His cult originated at Memphis under the first Ptolemaic kings. In the later Roman period, Sarapis had a large and popular temple complex in Alexandria; at Rome he was a similar shrine where he was worshipped along with Isis. Like Asklepios, Sarapis healed the sick, worked miracles, and, like Hades, ruled the Underworld. He was represented on coins as being bearded and wearing a modius.

Tanit, 4th century BC

Tanit – Tanit was a Carthaginian goddess who was often associated with Persephone. For more, see Demeter and Persephone.

Zeus, 4th century BC; Zeus, 3rd century BC

Zeus – The son of Kronos and Rhea, the brother of Poseidon and Hades, as well as Hera, Hestia, and Demeter, and the father of Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Hephaistos, and Hermes (among others), Zeus was the king of the Olympians, the final generation of Greek gods. Ruler of the heavens, Zeus was called “the father of gods and men,” because many of the Greek divinities and heroes could trace their paternity to him. In the Hellenistic period, he became associated with local supreme gods like Ba’al and Ammon. He had many epithets, all of which derived from his locality of worship, as well as his various functions and powers. His religious center at Olympia became the site for one of the Panhellenic games, the Olympics. The eagle, oak tree, and thunderbolt were sacred to him. His portrait or full-length figure is the commonest Greek coin type. He is usually represented enthroned, or standing and hurling a thunderbolt.

PREFACE

The Handbook of Coins of Western and Southern Anatolia, Part 1, is the twelfth volume to be published in a larger series of handbooks that will ultimately cover the coins produced throughout the world known to the Greeks. It treats all of civic and royal coinages struck in the ancient regions of Mysia and Troas. Part 2 will cover the coinages of Aiolis, Ionia, and Lydia, while Part 3 will catalogue those struck in Karia, Lykia, Pamphylia, and Kilikia.

The time period covered by the handbook series begins with the Lydian invention of electrum coinage in the late-seventh century BC and ends with the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, which signaled the end of the last Hellenistic kingdom and heralded the establishment of the Roman Empire of Augustus.

True to the concept of preceding Handbooks, the present volume is designed to aid the user in the quick, accurate, and relatively painless identification of the coins struck by cities and kingdoms of Mysia and Troas in western Anatolia. If one has some idea whether a coin-in-hand is likely to be from a particular region and can identify the metal, it is possible to search the catalogue sections by size and weight module in order to find the coin type, rather than wading through a list of types in chronological order, as in most catalogues. Even without knowing full details of weight, size, or metal, the handbook makes accurate identification possible by providing illustrations of almost all of the 1,188 coins listed in the catalogue. Every entry also provides references to major works so that interested parties can seek out fuller discussion. It is hoped that when placed in the hands of collectors and scholars—historically natural friends and allies in the advancement of the discipline of ancient numismatics—the Handbook of Coins of Western and Southern Anatolia, Part 1 will serve as a point of departure for deepening interest in the coins of the region.

A rarity guide developed by Arthur Houghton features a dual system for determining the rarity of precious and base metal coins.

In keeping with modern scholarly practice, Greek names are normally given throughout the catalogue in their Hellenized, rather than their Latin forms (e.g., Lampsakos rather than Lampsacus, Attalos rather than Attalus, etc.) except for non-Greek names or names that have long-established Latin forms in English (e.g., Macedon, Philippi, etc.). The latter retain their Latin forms here. For clarity, the term “Anatolia” has been used throughout to refer to the large peninsula that is now the modern Republic of Türkiye and “Asia” to refer only to the Roman province or (rarely) to the continent.

This handbook has benefitted from the assistance of many individuals and organizations. I am especially grateful to Lucia Carbone, Aneurin Ellis-Evans, Andrew Meadows, and Peter Van Alfen for discussing various aspects of the coinage of Mysia and Troas with me; to Constantine Marinescu for his advice on the chronology of the posthumous Lysimachi; to Ute Wartenberg for her comments on early electrum; to Elena Stolyarik and John Thomassen for providing images of coins in the collection of the American Numismatic Society (nos. 1–2 and 610); to Frédérique Duyrat and Julien Olivier for providing images of coins from the collection of the Bibliothèque nationale de France (nos. 70, 556–563, 573, 577, 584,589, 590, 595, 600, 602, 609, 616, 628, 630, 640, 649, 676, 681, 702–704, 762–764, 766); and to David Hill and Arnold Tescher for providing scans from the ANS Library.

Thanks are also due to Brad Nelson for providing additional information; to Mary N. Lannin for proofreading the manuscript; and to Travis A. Markel, of

Classical Numismatic Group, Inc., for overseeing production of this volume. Nevertheless, any errors that remain are the sole responsibility of the author. Lastly, but most importantly, I would like to thank my wife Alpina for her constant love and Job-like patience, without which this book and so much else would not have been possible.

Oliver D. Hoover

Burlington, Ontario January 2023

A Brief NumismAtic History of NortHwester N A NAtoliA

The first coins were struck in electrum (an alloy of gold and silver) in the midseventh century BC in the Lydian kingdom and among the Greek cities of Ionia close to the south of Mysia and Troas. By the early sixth century BC, the idea of coinage had reached Mysia and was embraced by the important city of Kyzikos on the coast of the Hellespont. It subsequently began production of a long series of electrum staters and fractions—usually including the city’s tunny badge—struck to the Phokaic standard (c. 16.1g to the stater). This coinage became an important currency for trade with cities and peoples on the coasts of the Euxine Sea and only came to an end in the late fourth century BC. Parion also may have produced an issue of hemistaters on the same standard at around the same time.

Phokaic-weight electrum stater of Kyzikos (c. 600–550 BC).

Later in the sixth century BC, Kyzikos introduced a parallel silver coinage struck to the Milesian standard (c. 14.1g to the stater) while further to south Lampsakos also began to strike its own silver coinage to a local standard, which has now been identified tentatively as a local ‘Troad’ standard (c. 7.6g to the stater). It is possible that this may represent an early version of the Chian standard. This ‘Troad’ standard became very influential in Mysia and Troas at the end of the sixth and the beginning of the fifth century BC.

‘Troad’-weight silver didrachm of Lampsakos (c. 510 BC) and ‘Troad’-weight drachm of Parion (c. 500 BC).

Apparently influenced by the earliest silver didrachms and fractions of Lampsakos struck around c. 510 BC, within a decade the ‘Troad’ standard seems to have spread to the cities of Kyzikos and Parion in Mysia and to Abydos, Dardanos, Gargara, Kebren and Lamponeia in Troas. Kyzikos had struck a silver coinage to the Milesian standard earlier in the sixth century BC, but for the other cities, fractional issues on the ‘Troad’ standard represented their first foray into coin production.

T he ‘Troad’ standard continued in use at these cities and spread to Assos and Gergis in Troas after the use of reverse punch designs were abandoned in favor of pictorial types around 480 BC. However, at the same time, or shortly thereafter, Kyzikos, Lampsakos, and Abydos also struck silver coins on the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos or stater). This development may perhaps be connected to an increased Persian military presence in the region due to the invasion of mainland Greece undertaken by Xerxes I in 480–479 BC. The Great King’s army crossed from Asia to Europe at Abydos. The use of almost identical types for both ‘Troad’and Persic-weight issues makes it difficult to distinguish the two series without the use of a scale.

‘Troad’-weight silver drachm of Assos (c. 480 BC) and Persic-weight silver siglos of Abydos (c. 480–450 BC).

Xerxes’ invasion of Greece was thwarted in 479 BC, when the Persian land forces were defeated at the Battle of Plataia and the fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Mykale. In the aftermath of these Greek victories, many cities banded together as members of the Delian League—an Athenian-led alliance intended to defend members against future Persian aggression and to exact revenge for the invasion of Greece. Almost all of the Greek cities of Mysia and Troas became members of the League, either in their own names or, as dependencies of Mytilene. The latter was the leading city on the island of Lesbos, but dominated many of the small cities of Troas as part of its peraia (mainland possessions).

Attic-weight silver tetradrachm of Athens (c. 454–404 BC).

Members of the Delian League initially contributed money or ships for the mutual defence and campaigns against the Persian empire. However, the League soonevolvedintothecore ofanAthenianempireandmemberswerecompelledto pay tribute to Athens in coin. Due to a flood of Athenian silver coinage produced from the rich mines at Laurion and the enactment of a decree ordering all members of the Delian League to use Athenian coinage, local silver coin production in Mysia and Troas virtually ceased. It did not revive until the late stage of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, when the latter developed a fleet and began to chip away at Athenian control of the cities on the Hellespont. The detachment of these cities from the Delian League would allow the Spartans to strangle the Athenian grain supply coming from the Euxine Sea and end the long war.

In 411 BC, the Spartans gained an important foothold on the Hellespont, when the city of Abydos opened its gates to the Spartan harmost (military governor), Derkylidas. Abydos subsequently became a base for expanding Spartan influence in the region at the expense of both the Athenians and Persian satraps. A few years later, in 405 BC, the Spartan general, Lysander, seized Lampsakos and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Athenian fleet at the Battle of Aigospotamoi. This Spartan victory guaranteed the final defeat of Athens and the conclusion of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC.

The collapse of Athenian influence over the cities of Mysia and Troas, the campaigns of Lysander, and the period of Spartan competition with Persian satraps for control of the region that followed all had a noticeable impact on the coinage of the region. At cities in which the Spartans did not gain immediate ascendancy, particularly in Troas, local dynasts like Zenis of Dardanos and his wife, Mania, took power and seem to have struck coins with their own representations.

Bronze denomination E of Kebren depicting Zenis and reduced Persic-weight silver siglos of Dardanos depicting Mania (c. 410–399 BC).

Bronze denomination E of Kebren depicting Zenis and reduced Persic-weight silver siglos of Dardanos depicting Mania (c. 410–399 BC).

At the sa me time, Spartan influence over other cities of Mysia and Troas sparked the production of new silver coinages based on the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm). This standard seems to have been brought to the region with the Spartan fleet—much of which had been originally constructed and based at Chios—in the late stage of the Peloponnesian war and continued to be used for coinages produced to finance the Spartan naval presence in the Hellespont.

At the sa me time, Spartan influence over other cities of Mysia and Troas sparked the production of new silver coinages based on the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm). This standard seems to have been brought to the region with the Spartan fleet—much of which had been originally constructed and based at Chios—in the late stage of the Peloponnesian war and continued to be used for coinages produced to finance the Spartan naval presence in the Hellespont.

Chian-weight silver tridrachm of Kyzikos (c. 405/4 BC) and Chian-weight tetrobol of Parion (fourth century BC).

Chian-weight silver tridrachm of Kyzikos (c. 405/4 BC) and Chian-weight tetrobol of Parion (fourth century BC).

The Chian standard proved to be very popular, and was adopted by many cities of western Anatolia and Thrace over the course of the fourth century BC. A particularly notable example of the use of the standard for purposes outside of Spartan military concerns is the Chian-weight tetrobol coinage of Parion. This coinage, like Kyzikene electrum staters which continued in production through the fourth century BC, became a preferred coinage in the Euxine Sea trade.

The Chian standard proved to be very popular, and was adopted by many cities of western Anatolia and Thrace over the course of the fourth century BC. A particularly notable example of the use of the standard for purposes outside of Spartan military concerns is the Chian-weight tetrobol coinage of Parion. This coinage, like Kyzikene electrum staters which continued in production through the fourth century BC, became a preferred coinage in the Euxine Sea trade.

Persic-weight gold daric of Abydos (c. 411 BC) and Chian-weight electrum stater of Lampsakos (c. 411 BC).

Persic-weight gold daric of Abydos (c. 411 BC) and Chian-weight electrum stater of Lampsakos (c. 411 BC).

The need to maintain and expand the Sparta n fleet under Derkylidas a nd Lysander appears to have provided the impetus for gold coin production at Lampsakos and Abydos. Electrum staters and hektai long believed to have been produced at Lampsakos in the late sixth centur y BC are also now thought to have been struck to the Chia n standard in suppor t of the city’s revolt against Athens and realignment with Sparta.

The need to maintain and expand the Sparta n fleet under Derkylidas a nd Lysander appears to have provided the impetus for gold coin production at Lampsakos and Abydos. Electrum staters and hektai long believed to have been produced at Lampsakos in the late sixth centur y BC are also now thought to have been struck to the Chia n standard in suppor t of the city’s revolt against Athens and realignment with Sparta.

Bronze denomination E of Thebe, Gergis and Larisa (late fifth–early fourth centuries BC).

Bronze denomination E of Thebe, Gergis and Larisa (late fifth–early fourth centuries BC).

Financing Spartan forces in the Hellespont also may have resulted in the introduction of bronze coinages at many cities of Mysia and Troas at the end of the fifth and the beginning of the fourth century BC. Such early bronze issues are almost universally of the small, denomination E module and were probably

Financing Spartan forces in the Hellespont also may have resulted in the introduction of bronze coinages at many cities of Mysia and Troas at the end of the fifth and the beginning of the fourth century BC. Such early bronze issues are almost universally of the small, denomination E module and were probably

intended to serve as fiduciary replacements for the silver obol, which was about the same size.

Persic-weight silver drachm of Gargara (fourth century BC) and reduced Chian-weight silver drachm of Ilion struck under Memnon of Rhodes as satrap of Troas (c. 350–340 BC).

Despite the deep impact that the Spartan presence had on the development of coinage in Mysia and Troas in the early fourth century BC, Persian influence gradually reasserted itself over the cities and was recognized by the Greeks under the terms of the King’s Peace (386 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–386 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth and Thebes. The restoration of Persian control also seems to have brought with it a return to the Persic weight standard for silver coinages at many cities. However, at others, the Chian standard, or a reduced version of it, often called the Rhodian standard (c. 13.6g to the tetradrachm) continued in use into the later fourth century BC. The renewal of Persian influence was also indicated on some coinages by the depiction of satraps or local dynasts or by symbols associated with them (i.e., the Helios types and rose symbol of Memnon of Rhodes).

Persic-weight silver drachm of Orontas as satrap of Mysia (Adramyttion, c. 357–352 BC).

Persian power in Mysia and Troas following the King’s Peace was marred by conflicts between satraps, revolt against the central authority of the Great King in c. 366–360 BC, the rise of powerful mercenary commanders and discontent among the Greek cities. This evident instability inspired Philip II, the dynamic king of Macedon, first to manipulate it to his own benefit by supporting opponents of Great King Artaxerxes III and then to marshal the resources of mainland Greece for an invasion of the Achaemenid Persian empire.

Persic-weight silver drachm of Ophryneion (c. 336–334 BC?) and Attic-weight gold stater of Pergamon (c. 334–332 BC).

In spring 336 BC, he dispatched across the Hellespont an advance force of 10,000 men, led by the general Parmenion, to prepare the way for the full-scale invasion. At first the Macedonians enjoyed great success, and many of the cities revolted against the Persians. However, that autumn, when it was discovered that Philip II had been assassinated and his son, Alexander the Great, had assumed the diadem, the cities and the advance force began to waver, thereby allowing Memnon of Rhodes to inflict a serious defeat on the Macedonians at Magnesia on the Meander in Ionia and begin rolling back their advance in the north.

Some coinages struck at Kyzikos, Dardanos and Ophryneion seem to carry types derived from the Macedonian coinage of Philip II and may reflect their support during the operations of Parmenion. However, it was Alexander’s fullscaleinvasion and conquest of theof thePersian empirebetween 334and331 BC that made the greatest impact on the coinage of Mysia and Troas. Impressive gold emissions produced at Pergamon and Lampsakos probably represent exactions made to finance the campaigns following Alexander’s victory over the western Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granikos River in 334 BC. Later, when Alexander began the process of converting Persian booty into coin with which to pay his veterans returning to Macedon, Lampsakos and Abydos became mints forhisimperialcoinage.ThisinvolvedboththeintroductionoftheAtticweight standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) and the standardized types featuring Athena and Nike for gold and Herakles and Zeus for silver denominations.

Attic-weight gold stater (Lampsakos) and Attic-weight silver tetradrachm (Abydos) in the name of Alexander the Great struck under Antigonos Monophthalmos (c. 310–301 BC).

Following the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC), Lampsakos and Abydos, with the addition of Parion, continued to strike Attic-weight precious metal coinage with his types under his former generals—most notably the powerful Antigonos Monophthalmos (“the One-Eyed”). His rule had important repercussions for the coinages struck by the small cities of Troas. In c. 311/10 BC, Antigonos founded a new city with the dynastic name Antigoneia (renamed Alexandreia Troas after 301 BC) by forcing the populations of Neandreia, Kebren, Kolonai, Skepsis, and possibly Hamaxitos together through synoecism (amalgamation). Although Kebren and Skepsis were later permitted to withdraw, the foundation of Antigoneia permanently ended the production of autonomous coinage at Neandreia and Kolonai. Around the same time, a religious koinon (association) was established by the cities of Troas, together with Lampsakos and Parion, in order to maintain the sanctuary of Athena Ilias at Ilion. This organization was later responsible for an important silver coinage in the second and early first centuries BC.

Attic-weight silver tetradrachm of Lysimachos (Lampsakos mint, c. 297/6–282 BC).

After Antigonos was killed at the Battle of Ipsos (301 BC) and his territories in Mysia and Troas were taken by his rival, King Lysimachos of Thrace, new silver types depicting the deified Alexander the Great and Athena Nikephoros

Attic-weight silver tetradrachm of Antiochos Hierax (Ilion, c. 242–227 BC).

were introduced for the silver coinages struck at Lampsakos, Parion and Abydos. The tradition of royal coin production at these three mints continued in the aftermath of Lysimachos’ death at the Battle of Koroupedion (281 BC), as Mysia and Troas passed under the control of Seleukos I Nikator and the Seleukid empire of his successors. As before, the Attic standard was also employed as before for the Seleukid issues, but new royal types involving the portrait of the king and Apollo, the divine patron of the dynasty, were introduced. Under the Seleukid kings, Antiochos II Theos (261–246 BC) and Antiochos Hierax (c. 242–227 BC), the system of cities in Mysia and Troas striking tetradrachms with royal types was expanded in Troas to include Alexandreia Troas, Ilion and Skepsis.

Reduced Persic-weight silver stater of Alexandreia Troas (c. 301–281 BC).

In the third century BC, silver coin production in Mysia and Troas was dominated by the imperial and royal typologies, and Attic weight standard of Alexander the Great, Lysimachos and the Seleukids, even after the power of these kings was broken. However, a few cities of the region also struck civic coinages on other standards in this period. Most notable are the reduced Persic-weight issues of Alexandreia TroasandSkepsis. With thesefewexceptions, most civic coinages of Mysia and Troas were struck in bronze in the third century BC. At most cities the bronze systems of the late fourth and third centuries BC had advanced beyond the early use of denomination E and involved multiple denominations ranging between denomination B and denomination E.

At the same time, a new power was rising at the Mysian city of Pergamon. Perceiving the increasing instability of Lysimachos, Philetairos, a garrison commander in charge of guarding the treasury of 10,000 silver talents at Pergamon, revolted against his master in 282 BC and invited Seleukos I to use his military strength against Lysimachos. Seleukos’ victory at Koroupedion (281 BC) brought Lysimachos’ former possessions in western Anatolia—including Pergamon—into the Seleukid empire. Philetairos initially served as an agent of the new Seleukid regime, but amid the turbulence following Seleukos’ assassination in late 281 BC and the depredations of Galatian (Celtic) invaders in the early 270s BC he became and increasingly independent local ruler, who at last founded the Attalid dynasty by adopting his nephew, Eumenes I, and struck an Attic-weight coinage with his

Attic-weight silver tetradrachm of Philetairos (Pergamon, c. 270–263 BC).

own portrait and name. The reverse typology owes an obvious debt to the popular coinage of Lysimachos that was still popular and still occasionally produced by cities of Mysia and Troas, while the diademed portrait made it clear that he considered himself a king in all but name.

Attic-weight silver tetradrachm in the name of Philetairos struck under Attalos I Soter (Pergamon, c. 241–235 BC).

Taking advantage of weaknesses in Seleukid control of western Anatolia, the successors of Philetairos gradually expanded their influence over the cities of Mysia and Troas. In 238 BC, Attalos I successfully defended the Attalid realm against marauding Galatians. Using the occasion to throw off any remaining pretense of being a Seleukid vassal, he proclaimed himself king and in 227 BC drove Antiochos Hierax out of western Anatolia. The young Attalid kingdom was suddenly a great power in Mysia, Troas, and elsewhere in western Anatolia, although, like his predecessors, Attalos I obscured this on his coinage by continuing to feature the portrait and name of Philetairos.

Attalos’ strong support for the Romans against King Philip V of Macedon during the First and Second Macedonian Wars (214–205 BC and 200–197 BC) earned him the friendship of the Senate, which added further to the regional influence of the Attalid kingdom. His successor, Eumenes II, continued the proRoman tradition of his father in aiding the Romans against the Seleukid king, Antiochos III, during the Aitolian War (192–189 BC). This policy was also in his best interest, since Seleukid power had returned to western Anatolia in 223 BC and rolled back the borders of the kingdom. Only a shaky agreement made between Attalos I and Antiochos III against the Seleukid usurper, Achaios, in 216 BC guaranteed the territorial integrity of an Attalid kingdom much reduced from what it had been at the end of 227 BC.

Under the terms of the Peace of Apameia (188 BC) imposed by the Romans on the defeated Antiochos III, the Seleukid empire was formally excluded from Anatolia north of the Taurus Mountains and much of the territory formerly claimed by the Seleukid king in this vast region was added to the Attalid kingdom of Eumenes II. This political shift was destined to have a major impact on the subsequent development of coinage in Mysia, Troas, and much of Anatolia for almost three centuries.

Silver cistophoric tetradrachm of Pergamon (c. 190/166–160 BC).

In order to create a closed economy for the Attalid kingdom and giving it the appearance of a state in which the cities actively cooperated with the king, a new silver coinage was introduced for circulation throughout the kingdom, probably in c.166 BC, although c. 190 BC has also been proposed. It featured no royal portrait on the obverse, but instead depicted a serpent emerging from a cista mystica—a wickerwork basket used in the celebration of the mystery cult of Dionysos. The reverse, likewise, carried nodynastic god and royalname,butinsteadrepresented the bow and bowcase of Herakles surrounded by serpents, and a monogram naming the issuing city. The tetradrachm denomination of this coinage, which came to be known as the cistophoros (“basket-bearer”) due to the obverse type, was struck to a standard of c. 12.75g, meaning that it had the intrinsic value of three Attic-weight drachms, but in the Attalid kingdom it circulated with the face value of four. This discrepancy between intrinsic and face value prevented the cistophoroi from circulating beyond the borders of the kingdom.

As the capital of the Attalid kingdom, Pergamon was the primary mint for the production of cistophoroi, but additional cistophoric mints were also opened at Adramyttion in western Mysia, Ephesos and Tralleis in Ionia, and Apameia on the Meander in Phrygia. Pergamon also produced cistophoroi for the Lydian city of Sardeis.

Reduced Attic-weight tetradrachm of Alexandreia Troas (163/2 BC).

At about the same time that the cistophoric coinage was being introduced, cities like Kyzikos, Parion and Alexandreia Troas began to strike spread-flan tetradrachms on an Attic or reduced Attic standard, often with accompanying fractions, featuring the patron deities of the issuing cities. The impetus for these coinages seems to have come from the promotion of and the costs involved with the festivals honoring Kore Soteira, Apollo Aktaios and Apollo Smintheus, respectively. A coinage struck by the koinon of Athena Ilias in the name of the goddess may have been begun production about a decade before the Kyzikene and Alexandreianissues.

In 133 BC, the Attalid kingdom came to an end when its last ruler, Attalos III Philometor, died and bequeathed the entirety of the kingdom to the Roman people.

Silver cistophoric tetradrachm of Eumenes III (Aristonikos) (Thyateira, 133/2 BC).

The situation was certainly cause for uneasiness in Anatolia, but only inspired violence after a certain Aristonikos, claiming to be an illegitimate son of Eumenes II and calling himself Eumenes III, assumed the diadem as a new Attalid king. He and his supporters were soon driven out of the major cities, but they were only crushed by the Roman consul, M. Perperna, in 129 BC. The bulk of the former Attalid kingdom was subsequently reorganized as the Roman province of Asia.

The upheaval of the Revolt of Aristonikos the creation of the province of Asia seems to have had a great impact on the coinage of Mysia and Troas, and Anatolia at large. The well-entrenched cistophoros was the preferred denomination for silver coins struck by both the Attalid pretender and for the new Roman provincial authorities in Asia. On the other hand, production of Attic-weight Apollo Smintheus tetradrachms was suspended at Alexandreia Troas in the context of the revolt. A gap may also have occurred in the tetradrachms of the koinon of Athena Ilias around this time, although this is uncertain. The Kyzikene Kore Soteira tetradrachms appear to have ceased entirely due to the Revolt of Aristonikos and provincialization, while the Apollo Aktaios coinage of Parion ended somewhat earlier. Thus, the cistophoros became thesolesilver coinage produced and circulating in Mysia and Troas.

This situation only changed temporarily at the end of the second century and the beginning of the first century BC. Increased Roman military presence at the close of the second century BC and especially the outbreak of the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC) between the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator, provided the catalyst for the resumption of Attic-weight tetradrachm production by Alexandreia Troas and the koinon of Athena Ilias as well as for the opening of new mints producing Attic- or reduced Attic-weight tetradrachms at Lampsakos, Abydos and Skepsis. These civic and festival silver coinages were put to use by both Pontic and Roman forces to pay foreign mercenaries, for whom the cistophoros was not acceptable. Most of these coinages remained in production until the end of the Third Mithradatic War (73–63 BC), during which they were entirely used in support of the Roman cause. However, the tetradrachms struck by the koinon of Athena Ilias may have continued for a decade longer.

Reduced Attic-weight tetradrachm of Abydos (c. 89–70 BC).

Silver cistophoric tetradrachm of C. Flavius Fimbria (Pergamon, 85 BC).

By the mid-first century BC, the cistophoros was again the sole silver coinage of Mysia and Troas, and of the province of Asia at large. However, it was beginning to take on a more Roman character. This process had already begun in 85 BC, when the rogue Roman legate, C. Flavius Fimbria, plundered Pergamon and ordered the production of cistophoroi naming himself in Latin and replacing the traditional bowcase and serpent reverse type with a depiction of legionary standards. In the 50s BC, cistophoroi struck at Pergamon and other mints also carried the names of Roman governors in Latin and occasionally modified reverse types. The Romanization of the cistophoros continued in the late first century BC, until the only cistophoric feature that remained to the coinage was its weight standard. Cistophoroi remained in production in the province of Asia into the reign of Hadrian (AD 117–138) after which they were completely replaced by the Roman denarius.

Silver cistophoric tetradrachm of Pergamon under proconsular governor

T. Ampius Balbus (58–57 BC).

While provincialization and the Mithradatic Wars had a profound effect on the development of silver coinage in Mysia and Troas, these events also had a noticeable impact on civic bronze coinages. Larger denominations were introduced at Kyzikos and Pergamon than had been previously produced in the third and early second centuries BC, which may reflect Roman or Pontic influence, as well as thedrainofsilver fromthecitiesthroughwarandtheoftenrapaciousprovincial administration.

Brass (Latin orichalcum) was employed for the first time for large denominations at Pergamon and Parion, as well as at other Asian mints outside of Mysia and Troas in the early first century BC. This innovation in Asia is now thought to reflect Pontic influence, as large denominations struck in the Pontic kingdom of Mithradates VI are also known to have been produced in this alloy. Some brass issues may have continued in production at Pergamon even after the withdrawal of the Pontic king at the conclusion of the First Mithradatic War.

The bronze coinages of the late second and early first centuries BC also exhibit a tendency towards the standardization of denominations and typology—a feature already evident in the civic/festival Attic-weight coinages of the early second century BC. Notable examples of this tendency include the wreathed-ethnic bronze

Brass denomination B/C of Pergamon (early first century BC).

issues of Adramyttion, Kyzikos, Lampsakos, Parion, Priapos and Alexandreia Troas; the facing-bust and kithara bronze series of Abydos and Alexandreia Troas; the shared eagle reverse types of Abydos and Parion; and issues of Pergamon and Adramyttion featuring the same unusual placement of the magistrate’s name below the neck of the deity represented on the obverse.

Bronze denomination B of Lampsakos as Colonia Gemella Iulia Lampsacus (c. 45 BC).

T he increasing Romanization of the cistophoric tetradrachm in the 50s BC also has a corollary in the bronze coinages struck at Lampsakos and Parion after they were refounded by Julius Caesar as colonies for Roman veterans in c. 45 BC. The new bronze series draw their iconography entirely from Roman custom and feature Latin legends. The largest denominations in these series even may even have been intended to replicate the Roman as.

Silver cistophoric tetradrachm of Pergamon in the name of Q. Metellus Pius Scipio (49 BC).

With the exception of the Caesarean colonial issues of Lampsakos and Parion, and a special emission of cistophoric tetradrachms struck at Pergamon to support the army of the Syrian governor, Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio, on its way to join Pompey the Great at the disastrous Battle of Pharsalos (48 BC), the Roman civil wars of the mid-first century BC have little reflection in the coinages of Mysia and Troas. This is no doubt largely due to the financial exhaustion of the cities after the catastrophic wars and rapacious provincial administration of the early first century BC.

CiViC and royal Coin TyPeS

Mythical and natural animal types were popular in Mysia and Troas, particularly in the Archaic and Classical periods. Notable examples include the Pegasos types of Lampsakos; the tunny (tuna) types of Kyzikos; the cock types of Dardanos; the ram and ram head types of Antandros and Kebren; and the owl types of Sigeion. Although their use was sporadic, portrait types developed early in Mysia and Troas. Beginning in the fifth century BC and continuing in the fourth century BC, local dynasts and Persian satraps (governors) seem to have been depicted on coins struck by cities under their control. Among the rulers who are thought to appear on coins are Gongylos, the dynast of Pergamon (c. 450 BC); Pharnabazos, the satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia (413–387 BC); Prokles, the dynast of Teuthrania (c. 400 BC); Tissaphernes, the satrap of Lydia and Ionia (400–395 BC); and Orontas, the satrap of Mysia (c. 362–344 BC). In the Hellenistic period, portrait types became standard for royal coinages struck by cities in Mysia and Troas for Lysimachos and the Seleukid and Attalid dynasties.

The most popular types of all, however, were religious and mythological in character. These feature a wide variety of gods, goddesses, and heroes drawn from the Greek pantheon. A brief overview of the deities and their associated symbols that appear on the coins follows:

Apollo. The son of Zeus and Leto and twin brother of Artemis, Apollo was the Greek god of prophecy, music, and the arts. He was a favored deity of the Ionian and Aiolian Greeks responsible for much of the colonization in Mysia and Troas. As such, his image, together with his kithara, and his mantic tripod occur with great frequency on coins struck in the region. Particularly notable are the late Hellenistic tetradrachms of Apollo Aktaios (“of the Beach”) and Apollo Smintheus (“Lord of Mice”) struck at Parion and Alexandreia Troas.

Artemis. The daughter of Zeus and Leto was the Greek goddess of the hunt. Despite the ubiquitous depiction of her twin brother, Apollo, depictions of Artemis are somewhat less common on coins struck in Mysia and Troas. She and her cult

Apollo Aktaios on a silver tetradrachm of Parion.

Bust of Artemis on a silver tetradrachm of Abydos.

statue appear regularly on coins of Astyra, Zeleia, and probably Antandros. She also enjoys some prominence on Hellenistic coins of Abydos and Parion. Artemis sometimes appears with the turreted crown of Tyche or Kybele on coins of Abydos and Gentinos. Her bee symbol is also the regular reverse type for coins of Gentinos.

Asklepios feeding one of his sacred serpents on a bronze coin of Attalid Pergamon.

Asklepios. The son of Apollo and Koronis, Asklepios was the Greek god of healing and medicine. He was once punished by Zeus for using his arts to raise the dead. He appears primarily on coins of Pergamon, which had an important sanctuary dedicated to Asklepios Soter (“the Savior”). It was famous in antiquity for the cures provided in dreams to the sick who slept in the precinct with the god’s sacred serpents.

Athena. Born fully formed and armed from the head of Zeus, Athena was the Greek goddess of warfare and industry. She make frequent appearances on the coinages of Mysia and Troas, in part due to her association with the Palladion, a cult image that fell from the sky and provided divine protection to Ilion (Troy). She is depicted variously as goddess or cult statue on coins of Abydos, Assos, Ilion, Pergamon, and the Koinon of Athena Ilias.

Demeter. The sister of Zeus was a goddess of agriculture and fertility best known for establishing the seasonal cycle of growth and decay when her daughter, Persephone was abducted by Hades for half of the year (winter). She does not appear on coins struck in Troas and only occasionally in Mysia on electrum and gold emissions of Kyzikos and Lampsakos and on bronze issues of Kisthene, Lampsakos, and Priapos.

Head of Athena and the cult statue of Athena Ilias on a silver tetradrachm of Assos.

Head of Demeter on an electrum stater of Kyzikos.

Head of Dionysos on a silver drachm of Lamponeia.

Dionysos. The son of Zeus and Semele, the wine god Dionysos, his attendants (Silenos and mainads), or his attributes (wine amphoras and oinochoes) make fairly regular appearances on coins struck in Mysia and Troas. The electrum and gold coinages of Kyzikos and Lampsakos devote several emissions to Dionysiac types and the god is particularly prominent on the coinages of Lamponeia, Ophryneion, and Prokonnesos. The cista mystica, a sacred basket containing serpents used in his mystery cult was the standard obverse type for the cistophoric tetradrachms of the Attalid kingdom and Roman province of Asia.

Head of Hektor on a silver drachm of Ophryneion.

Hektor. The son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy, Hektor was a great warrior who killed many Achaian heroes during their long war against his city. However, in the ninth year of the conflict he was slain in single combat by Achilles. Afterwards, the Achaian hero dishonored Hektor’s body by dragging it from the back of his chariot until Priam paid for its return to him for burial. Hektor is prominent on coins of Ophryneion, a city believed to possess the tomb in which the Trojan prince was buried.

Child Herakles strangling serpents on a silver tridrachm of Kyzikos.

Herakles. The son of Zeus and Alkmene was most famous for the twelve harrowing tasks that he undertook for King Eurystheus of Tiryns. The stories of his exploits were widely popular in the Greek world. The hero or his club is a regular feature of the coinage of Birytis and his bow and bowcase provide the reverse type for the cistophoric coinage of the Attalid kingdom and the Roman province of Asia. His head also serves as the standard obverse type for the imperial silver coinage of Alexander the Great struck at mints in Mysia and Troas. An especially remarkable type depicts Herakles as a child strangling the serpents sent by Hera to kill him in his crib. This type, which occurs primarily on coins of Kyzikos and Lampsakos, is closely linked with the activities of the Spartan general, Lysander, and the defeat of Athenian naval power in 405/4 BC.

Head of Hermes on a gold daric of Lampsakos.

Hermes. The son of Zeus and Maia served as the messenger of the Olympian gods and was a patron of commerce. He is not commonly depicted on coins struck in Mysia and Troas, but he does appear on issues of Gargara, Kyzikos, and Lampsakos.

Bust of Herophile on a bronze coin of Gergis.

Herophile. The daughter of Zeus and Lamia was a priestess in the temple of Apollo Smintheus gifted with the power of prophecy. She famously interpreted the dream of Queen Hecuba of Troy, warning that her newborn son, Paris, would be the doom of Ilion (Troy). After the Trojan war, she gained further fame foretelling the future as the Sibyl of Erythrai in Ionia. Herophile occurs as a regular type on the coinage of Gergis in Troas.

Bust of Hygieia on a bronze coin of Pergamon.

Hygieia. The daughter of Asklepios and Epione, Hygieia was the goddess of health and hygiene. Whereas her father had the power to cure illness, she was responsible for the prevention of disease. Hygieia appears on coins struck at Pergamon in connection with that city’s sanctuary of Asklepios Soter.

Head of a Kabeiros on a bronze coin of Birytis.

Kabeiroi. The twin sons of Hephaistos and Kabeiro had many of the same attributes as the Dioskouroi, Kastor and Polydeukes. The Kabeiroi protected sailors at sea, were skilled metalworkers, and had associations with the goddesses Demeter and Persephone. They appear on coins of Birytis and Pergamon as well as on some electrum and gold issues of Kyzikos and Lampsakos.

Gorgoneion on a silver tetrobol of Parion.

Medusa. The most terrifying of the Gorgons (three daughters of the monstrous marine deities Phorkys and Keto), Medusa had living serpents for hair and was so hideously ugly that anyone who looked upon her was turned to stone. She was ultimately killed by the hero, Perseus. Medusa, in the form of a facing gorgoneion, appears on a number of coinages of Mysia and Troas, most notably at Parion and Abydos. The interest in the type may stem from the tradition that the Gorgons lived near the plain of Kisthene in Mysia.

Persephone (Kore). The daughter of Demeter, who was often known simply as Kore (“the Maiden”), became queen of the Underworld after she was carried off by Hades. Her mother attempted to bring her back to the world of the living, but because Persephone had eaten six pomegranate seeds while in Hades’ abode she was compelled to stay with him for six months of every year. She is particularly prominent on the coinage of Kyzikos, a city known for its worship of Kore Soteira (“the Savior Maiden”). Many other coinages struck in Mysia and Troas featuring a female head wearing a sphendone seem to reflect the influence of Kore Soteira’s iconography at Kyzikos.

Head of Priapos on a silver tetradrachm of Lampsakos.

Priapos. Although he was originally a native Mysian vegetation and fertility deity, Greek tradition made Priapos the son of Dionysos and Aphrodite. While he was a protector of vineyards and flocks, he was most notable for his excessively large genitals. He appears primarily on coins of Lampsakos, an important center of his worship, and of Priapos, a city named in his honor.

Head of Kore Soteira on a silver tetradrachm of Kyzikos.

of Kyzikos.

Poseidon. Brother of Zeus and ruler of the sea, Poseidon was also recognized as the bringer of earthquakes and creator of the first horse. He only appears on a few electrum issues of Kyzikos. As an important Dorian Greek deity, he may have been of less interest for representation on the coinages of the largely Ionian and Aiolian Greek cities of Mysia and Troas.

Zeus. The greatest of all the Olympian gods was the father of mankind and the bringer of storms. He appears frequently on coins of Adramyttion, Iolla, and Poimanenon and is depicted on several electrum and gold emissions of Kyzikos and Lampsakos. His enthroned image provides the standard reverse type for the imperial silver coinage of Alexander the Great struck at cities in Mysia and Troas.

Poseidon on an electrum stater

Head of Zeus on a gold daric of Lampsakos.

WeIght StandardS and denomInatIonS

Electrum coinages struck in the regions of Mysia and Troas generally employ the Phokaic standard (c. 16.1g to the stater), as at Kyzikos, or the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the stater) as at Lampsakos. Electrum issues traditionally associated with Abydos and Dardanos in the period of the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) employ the Milesian standard (c. 14.1g to the stater) and recently have been shown to originate at another mint, probably Miletos.

T he gold darics of Lampsakos were struck to the Persic standard of c. 8.4g. However, following the conquest of the Persian empire by Alexander the Great, the daric was replaced by the slightly heavier gold stater of the Attic weight standard (c. 8.6g to the stater).

A lthough the earliest silver coinage of Kyzikos appears to have employed the Milesian standard in the late sixth century BC, by c. 500 BC, many cities of Mysia and Troas were beginning to strike silver fractions based on a ‘Troad’ standard of c. 7.6g to the didrachm stater. However, after c. 480 BC, this regional standard seems to have given way to the Persic standard, which was based on the silver siglos of c.5.6g.

At the end of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) is thought to have been introduced in Mysia and Troas through the agency of the victorious Spartans. Although it initially played a role in financing Spartan military operations, this standard was widely embraced by the cities of the region. The closeness of the Chian weight standard to the earlier ‘Troad’ standard has been noted. It remained in use through the mid-fourth century BC, when it was replaced by a resurgent Persic standard.

T he Attic weight standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) dominated silver coin production (almost exclusively Alexandrine, Lysimachus, Seleukid and Attalid types) after the Macedonian conquest in the late fourth century BC and continued through the third century BC, although some civic series were struck to the Rhodian standard (13.6g to the tetradrachm) at Kyzikos and Parion.

Beginning in the second century BC, civic silver coinages struck by the cities of Mysia and Troas primarily employed the Attic weight standard, although this was often reduced from full Attic weight. Around the same time, in c. 166 BC (or perhaps already in c. 190 BC), the new cistophoric standard of c. 12.6g to the tetradrachm was introduced by King Eumenes II of Pergamon. The new cistophoroi struck to this standard at Pergamon and at other important centers of the enlarged Attalid kingdom outside of Mysia and Troas served as a coinage for the entire kingdom, although Attic-weight silver was still produced by some cities.

Civic coins struck to the Attic standard appear to have largely ceased production following the bequest of the Attalid kingdom to the Roman people and its reorganization as the Roman province of Asia, although cistophoroi continued to be struck under the new Roman administration. Production of Atticweight coinages resumed for a final time in Mysia and Troas in the period of the Mithradatic Wars (c. 89–63 BC), after which they came to a permanent end, thus leaving the cistophoroi as the sole circulating coinage.

It is difficult to identify the denominational names of particular weights and modules of bronze coinage with accuracy, although it has been attempted. One suspects that the smallest denomination represents the chalkous at many cities, but there is no way to know how face value may have fluctuated over time, or whether weight, size, or type should be taken as the determining factor in identifying denominations. For the most part, it is unclear whether individual cities subscribed

to the Aiginetic bronze system, in which there were twelve chalkoi to the silver obol or to the Attic system, in which there were only eight chalkoi to the obol. It is similarly unknown how or if the use of brass for some denominations at Pergamon and Kyzikos may have affected face value. The introduction of large denominations at Kyzikos, Lampsakos and Parion in the first century BC, suggests attempts to adapt local coinages to the Roman aes system.

In order to avoid giving potentially erroneous denominational names to the various bronze series, the neutral alphabetic denomination system originally devised for Seleukid bronze coinage has been applied throughout the catalogue. In a number of cases the bronze coins may not represent small change for silver denominations. Indeed, bronze coinage appears to have begun at most cities with coins of very small module. This may indicate that the coins were intended to serve as a fiduciary replacement for the silver obol, which was of roughly the same size.

Relationship between Silver Denominations

r ariTy

by Arthur Houghton

Rarity indicators are given where we believe they accurately reflect the frequency with which specific coin denominations and types appear in publications (collection catalogs, excavation reports, die studies, etc.), unpublished contexts (public and private collections), market occurrence (sales catalogues, internet vendors), or are estimated to exist in public or private hands, but have not been recorded. The indicators, the approximate ranges of coins they cover, and the frequency of their appearance, are given in the following table:

Rarity

Gold and Silver

C Common. Many extant examples—from 200 upward to several thousand or more.

S Scarce. Within a bracket of approximately 60–200. Many are in collections.

Bronze and Lead Frequency

Common. Many extant examples, up to the thousands in some known instances.

R1 Rare. Within an approximate range of 25-60 examples.

Scarce. Within a bracket of approximately 30-100. Many are in collections.

Coins of this type are abundant, can be found in many collections and catalogues, and appear frequently on the market, even though a particular “C” may not be available at any specific time.

These appear in many collections and catalogues but are not common in the trade. A specific “S” is likely to appear once every few months.

Rare. Within a range of 10-30 examples.

R2 Very Rare. Within a range of more than 2; generally less than 25 extant examples.

R3 Extremely Rare. One or two examples only are believed to be extant.

Very Rare. Within a range of more than 2; generally less than 10 extant examples.

Extremely Rare. One or two examples only are believed to be extant.

R1 coins appear in a smaller number of collections and catalogs. R1 coins will be available on the market infrequently, perhaps several times a year.

R2 coins are very limited in number, and are generally not available. One or more may appear over the course of several years.

R3 coins are generally found in isolated examples in collections and excavations. A specific “R3” is not likely to appear for many years, if at all.

abbreViaTionS

The references given in the handbook catalogue use the following abbreviations:

AMNG IV H. von Fritze. Die antiken Münzen Nord-Griechenlands Vol. IV, Part 1: Die antiken Münzen Mysiens. Berlin, 1913.

Babelon E. Babelon. Traité des monnaies grecques et romaines. 5 vols. Paris, 1901–1933.

Baldwin 1914 The Electrum Coinage of Lampsakos. New York, 1914.

Baldwin 1924 A. Baldwin. “Lampsakos: The Gold Staters, Silver and Bronze Coinages.” AJN 53.3 (1924), 1–82.

Bellinger 1961 A. R. Bellinger. Troy. The Coins. Princeton, 1961.

BMC Mysia W. Wroth. A Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum, Mysia. London, 1892.

BMC Troas W. Wroth. A Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum, Troas, Aeolis and Lesbos. London, 1894.

Callataÿ 1996 F. de Callataÿ. “Abydos sur Aesillas.” In ΧΑΡΑΚΤΗΡ: Aφιέρωμα στην Μαντώ. Οικονομίδου, pp. 81–91. (Athens, 1996).

Callataÿ 2012 F. de Callataÿ. “Les statères de Pergame et les réquisitions d’Alexandre le Grand: l’apport d’un nouveau trésor (‘Statères de Pergame 2004’).” RN 169 (2012), 179–196.

Carbone 2020 Hidden Power: Late Cistophoric Production and the Organization of Provincia Asia (128–89 BC). New York, 2020.

Chameroy 2012 J. Chameroy. “Chronologie und Verbreitung der hellenistischen Bronzeprägungen von Pergamon: der Beitrag der Fundmünzen.” Chiron 42 (2012), 131–181.

CPE C. Lorber. Coins of the Ptolemaic Empire. Part 1: Ptolemy I through Ptolemy IV. 2 vols. New York, 2018.

ECC F. S. Kleiner and S. Noe. The Early Cistophoric Coinage. New York, 1977.

Ellis Evans A. Ellis-Evans. “The Koinon of Athena Ilias and its Coinage.” 2016 AJN 28 (2016), pp. 105–158.

Ellis-Evans A. Ellis-Evans. “The Coinage and History of Achaiion in the 2017 Troad.” REA 119 (2017), 25–47.

Ellis-Evans A. Ellis-Evans. “The Late Hellenistic Tetradrachms of Parion 2020 and Lampsakos.” AJN 32 (2020), 93–126.

Fritze 1912 H. von Fritze. “Die Elektronprägung von Kyzikos.” Nomisma VII (1912), 1–38.

Gulbenkian E. S. G. Robinson and C. Gulbenkian. A Catalogue of the Calouste Gulbenkian Collection of Greek Coins. 2 vols. Lisbon, 1971–1989.

Head 1904 B. V. Head. Historia Numorum. 2nd ed. London, 1904.

Hill 1928 G. F. Hill, “Greek Coins Acquired by the British Museum in 1927.” NC 29/30 (1928), 1–15.

Hurter and S. Hurter and H. J. Liewald. “Neue Nominale in der ElekLiewald 2004 tronprägung von Kyzikos.” SNR 83 (2004), 27–37.

Kagan 1984 J. Kagan, “Hellenistic Coinage at Scepsis after its Refoundation in the Third Century B.C.” ANS MN 29 (1984), 11–24.

Lazzarini 2016 L. Lazzarini, “La prima monetazione di Gergis, città della Troade interna.” In Suadente nummo vetere: studi in onore di Giovanni Gorini, edited by M. Asolati, B. Callegher and A. Saccocci, pp. 53–57. Padua, 2016.

Lazzarini 2017 L. Lazzarini, “Assus Troadis: The Beginning of Coinage and its Later Silver Emissions in the V and IV Century B.C.” West & East II (2017), pp. 31–41.

Lindgren III H. Lindgren. Lindgren III: Ancient Greek Bronze Coins from the Lindgren Collection. Quarryville, 1993.

Meadows 1998 A. R. Meadows. “Parion.” NC 158 (1998), 41–46.

Metcalf 2017 W. E. Metcalf. The Later Roman Republican Cistophori. New York, 2017.

Price M. Price. The Coinage in the Name of Alexander the Great and Philip Arrhidaeus: A British Museum Catalogue. Zurich/ London, 1991.

RPC I A. Burnett, M. Amandry, and P. Ripollès. Roman Provincial Coinage, Vol. 1. London, 1992.

Seyrig 1958 H. Seyrig. “Parion au 3e siècle avant notre ère,” in Centennial Publication of the American Numismatic Society, edited by H. Ingholt, 603–625. New York, 1958.

SNG Arikantürk Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Turkey 9: The Özkan Arikantürk Collection. Vol. 1: Troas. Istanbul, 2015.

SNG Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Great Britain V, Ashmolean Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Part III: Macedonia. London, 1976.

SNG Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, The Royal Collection of Coins Copenhagen and Medals, Danish National Museum. 43 vols. Copenhagen, 1942–1979.

SNG France Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, France, Bibliothéque Nationale, Cabinet des Médailles. Vol. 5: Mysia. (Paris, 2001).

SNG Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Great Britain. Volume IV, Fitzwilliam Museum: Leake and General Collections. 8 vols. London, 1940–1967.

SNG Kayhan Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Turkey 1: The Muharrem Kayhan Collection, Part 2. Istanbul, 2015.

SNG Lockett Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Great Britain. Volume III, Lockett Collection. 5 vols. London, 1938–1949.

SNG Tübingen Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Deutschland, Münzsammlung Universität Tübingen. Part 4: Mysien–Ionien. Berlin, 1989.

Stancomb 1998 W. M. Stancomb. “Agathopolis: A Mint on the Black Sea Coast,” in Studies in Greek Numsimatics in Memory of M. J. Price, edited by R. Ashton and S. Hurter, 335–338. London, 1998.

Stauber 1996 J. Stauber. Die Bucht von Adramytteion. Bonn, 1996.

Thompson 1965 M. Thompson. “The Coinage of Proconnesus.” RN 7 (1965), 30–35.

Wartenberg U. Wartenberg. “Was there an Ionian Revolt Coinage? Monetary 2020 Patterns in the Late Archaic Period,” in White Gold: Studies in Early Electrum Coinage, edited by P. Van Alfen and U. Wartenberg, 569–639. New York, 2020.

Westermark U. Westermark. Das Bildnis des Philetairos von Pergamon, 1961 Corpus der Münzprägung. Stockholm, 1961.

COINS OF MYSIA

FIFTH–FIRST CENTURIES BC

adramyTTion

History

Located on the Kaïkos River with access to the Hellespont through a bay, Adramyttion was said to have been founded by Lydians and named after Adramys, a brother of the famous Lydian king, Kroisos (c. 560–547 BC). Following conquest of Kroisos’ kingdom by Cyrus I in 547 BC, the city was incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian empire, and remained under Persian control through the fifth century BC.

In 422 BC, Pharnakes, the Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, permitted refuges from Delos to settle at Adramyttion after they had been expelled from their island home by the Athenians. Some of the refugees returned to Delos, but those who remained were massacred by a lieutenant of the scheming Persian general, Tissaphernes, in c. 421 or 411 BC.

Adramyttion became a dependency of Mytilene in the aftermath of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. The city remained in Mytilenean hands through the period of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes. However, the city returned to Persian control under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that formally ended the conflict.

The city was drawn into the Great Satraps’ Revolt (366–360 BC) against the Great King, Artaxerxes II, when Ariobarzanes, the acting satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, refused to turn over his satrapy to its rightful possessor and joined an ongoing revolt by Datames, the satrap of Kappadokia. Ariobarzanes was besieged in Adramyttion by the combined forces of Autophradates, the satrap of Lydia, and the Karian dynast, Mausolos. Thanks to the timely intervention of the Spartan king, Agesilaos II, the siege was lifted in 365 BC. Adramyttion ceased to be in revolt once Ariobarzanes was betrayed and crucified in 362 BC.

In 334 BC, Alexander the Great won a decisive victory over Persian satrapal forces at the Battle of the Granikos River, and Adramyttion was absorbed into the growing empire of the Macedonian king. After his death (323 BC), Adramyttion was included in the territories of the successive Macedonian strategoi (military governors) of Hellespontine Phrygia. However, in 319 BC, the city was seized by Antigonos Monophthalmos, the ambitious strategos of Asia. Adramyttion remained under his control until 302 BC, when it was taken by the forces of Lysimachos, the king of Thrace. After the death of Lysimachos in 281 BC, the city was absorbed into the empire of Seleukos I Nikator and his successors.

As part of the Seleukid empire, Adramyttion was governed by Philetairos, the dynast of nearby Pergamon who served as a nominal vassal of the Seleukid kings. When Philetairos died in 263 BC, his successor, Eumenes I, declared his independence, thereby detaching Adramyttion, Pergamon, and other cities from the Seleukid empire. Adramyttion subsequently became the port of Pergamon and faced frequent attack by the enemies of the Pergamene Attalid dynasty. In 201 BC, the territory of Adramyttion was devastated by the Macedonian king, Philip V, as part of his ongoing Cretan War (205–200 BC). It was plundered again in 190 BC by the Seleukid king, Antiochos III, as the Aitolian War (191–189 BC) was drawing to a close. The city was only spared a Seleukid siege by the timely arrival of the combined Roman and Attalid fleet.

In 133 BC, Attalos III, the last Attalid king, died and bequeathed the entirety of his kingdom, including Adramyttion to the Rome. The Romans reorganized

the kingdom as the province of Asia and Adramyttion became a regional administrative capital for Troas and western Mysia. As such, the city became a target for the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator, when he struck his initial blow against Roman power in western Anatolia. At the outbreak of the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC), Adramyttion was one of the cities that participated in the socalled Asiatic Vespers—a simultaneous uprising against all Italic residents. In a single day, the Adramytenes reportedly killed the entire Italic community in their city, driving its members into the sea.

Once Mithradates VI was defeated and the province of Asia returned to Roman control, the Adramytenes dispatched their best orator to Rome in an attempt to explain their actions and avoid punishment. Unsurprisingly, the Senate was in no mood to listen and stripped Adramyttion of its autonomous status and compelled its citizens to pay taxes to Rome.

Coinage

The earliest silver coinage attributed to Adramyttion consists of fractions of the Persian siglos (c. 5.4g) struck in the mid-fourth century BC. However, as these were produced only in the name of Orontas, the Persian satrap of Mysia, they are listed separately under Persian satrapal issues.

No further precious metal coinage was produced at the city until the introduction of the cistophoric standard (c. 12.6g to the tetradrachm) in the Attalid kingdom, probably around 166 BC. The extremely rare early cistophoric tetradrachm coinage of Adramyttion was produced as part of a larger coordinated coinage for the kingdom and employ the same types used at other mints: a serpent emerging from the cista mystica and the bowcase of Herakles surrounded by serpents. As part of the Roman province of Asia, cistophoric tetradrachm production continued at Adramyttion and apparently in greater volume into the early first century BC.

Supplemental drachms and hemidrachms were also struck, possibly in the context of the First Mithradatic War. The head of Zeus is paired with his eagle standing on a thunderbolt on the drachm while the head of Dionysos and a wreathed Greek legend appear on the hemidrachm. The eagle type also occurs as a symbol on cistophoric tetradrachms. The the depiction of Dionysos is similar to the image of the god on issues of Mithradatic mints at Amisos, Dia, Gorgippia, and Pantikapaion (see the Handbook of Coins of Northern and Central Anatolia, nos. 8, 98, 127, 251, and 452), which ultimately derives from Dionysos on the popular tetradrachms of Thasos (see the Handbook of Coins of the Islands, nos. 358–359).

A civic bronze coinage of two denominations (C and D/E) was introduced in the fourth century BC featuring the head of Zeus on the obverse and the forepart of Pegasos on the reverse. An additional series of denomination D pairs a threequarter facing head of Zeus with an eagle perched on an altar. The Zeus and Pegasos types probably reflect the influence of Lampsakos, perhaps through the agency of Orontas. Virtually identical types occur on contemporary issues of the satrap and the Mysian cities of Lampsakos and Iolla. The same Pegasos reverse type also appears on coins of Thebe and Agathokleia(?).

Denominations D and D/E, featuring a youthful male head wearing a tainia on the obverse and an owl (double-bodied on the larger denomination) on the reverse, probably belong to the late fourth or early third century BC and may have some relationship to similar owl types produced by Mysian cities like Iolla and Miletopolis and Sigeion in Troas in the same period.

From the second to the early first century BC, Adramyttion struck three denominations (B, C, and D). Most of these seem to date after 133 BC and probably belong to the period of the First Mithradatic War. However, two series of denomination C are potentially earlier. One pairs the head of Persephone with a kalathos and grain ear while the other features the head of Athena and her owl perched on an overturned amphora—a reverse type copied from the popular New Style coinage of Athens. Since the New Style coinage began production in c. 167 BC, the imitative Adramytene type cannot be earlier than this. On the other hand, types derived from the New Style coinage seem to have enjoyed some special popularity at the end of the second and the beginning of the first century BC.

Denomination B pairs the head of Apollo with a cornucopia flanked by the pilei of the Dioskouroi. A very similar reverse type was also employed by Mithradatic mints at Amaseia, Amisos, Sinope, and Pantikapaion (see the Handbook of Coins of Northern and Central Anatolia, nos. 225, 249, and 424) at the end of the second century BC. This typology makes the early first century BC and the period of the First Mithradatic War seem most plausible as the period of minting for denomination B. If this is correct, then denomination C, pairing the laureate head of Zeus with a horseman, and denomination D, featuring the head of Athena and her owl perched on a thunderbolt, should also be dated to the early first century BC since all three denominations are linked by the signature of the magistrate, Nikolochos. They are also linked to the last series of Adramytene cistophoric tetradrachms and drachms through shared monograms. The Athena and owl types reflect the influence of Pergamon.

An issue of bronze denomination B and C/D, pairing the diademed head of Zeus with a charging horseman, is commonly dated to the second century BC, but considerations of style—especially the use of circular legends composed of letters involving prominent serifs—make it seem much more likely that this coinage represents a so-called “pseudo-autonomous” issue of the second century AD. Nevertheless, it is listed here for the sake of completeness.

With the exception of the earliest and latest series of cistophoric tetradrachms, which employ monograms (£ and ), all civic coins of Adramyttion carry full or abbreviated Greek legends naming “the Adramytenes” as the issuing authority.

silver (CistopHoriC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 12.6g)

1. Obv. Serpent emerging from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. £. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. Struck c. 190/ 166–160 BC. Stauber 1996, no. 94. R3

2. Obv. Serpent emerging from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. ADRA or aDRa. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. UP or LU above. Monogram or DIo to r. Symbol(s) (Grain ear, owl, or SCePTer) to r. Struck c. 133–125/100 BC. Stauber 1996, nos. 95–99. R2

3. Obv. Serpent emerging from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. ∑. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. Magistrate name (DIoG, KAS, EN, or S) or monogram(s) above or to r. Symbol (amPhora, aThena head, CaduCeuS enTwined by SerPenT, CiCada, CornuCoPia enTwined by SerPenT, eaGle, Grain ear, GraPe bunCh, helioS head, iSiS headdreSS, kanTharoS, owl, roSe, SerPenT STaff, ThyrSoS, or TriPod) to r. Struck c. 125/100–90 BC. Carbone 2020, 180. R2

Drachm (c. 2.9g)

4. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus l. Rev. aDRaU/THNWN. Eagle with spread wings standing l. on thunderbolt. Monogram to l. (if any). Struck early first century BC. AMNG IV, nos. 6–9. R2

Hemidrachm (c. 1.59g)

5. Obv. Head of Dionysos r., wearing mitra and wreathed with ivy. Rev. aDRaUTHNWN within ivy wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. AMNG IV, no. 53. R2

Denomination B (20–21mm, 4.37–10.8g)

6. Obv. aDRaUTHNWN. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. NIKo/LoCoU Cornucopia. PileuS to l. and r. Monogram to r. Struck early first century BC. Stauber 1996, no. 65. R1

7. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Bow and quiver over shoulder. Rev. aDRaU/THNWN. Cornucopia. PileuS to l. and r. Monogram to l. (if any). Struck early first century BC. Stauber 1995, no, nos. 66–74. S

Denomination C (16–18mm, 3.65–5.4g)

8. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. ADRA. Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below. Struck c. 357–352 BC. AMNG IV, no. 1. S

9. Obv. Head of Persephone r., wreathed with grain. Rev. ADRAU/ THNWN. Kalathos with grain ear behind. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 189/133–90 BC. Stauber 1995, no. 75. R1

10. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ADRAU/THNWN Owl standing 3/4 r. on overturned amphora, head facing. All within wreath. Struck c. 167/133–90 BC. AMNG IV, no. 50. R1

11. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. ADRAUTHNWN. Horseman on horse prancing r., holding double-axe. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 133–85. CNG EA 64, 133. R3

12. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus l. NIKoLoCoU below (if any). Rev. ADRAU/ THNWN or aDRaU/THNWN. Horseman charging r., raising arm. Monogram(s) to l. or r. (if any). Struck c. 110–90 BC. AMNG IV, nos. 10–22. S

13. Obv. Diademed head of Zeus r. Rev. ADRAV/THNWN. Horseman charging r., raising arm. No symbols or monograms. Struck second century AD. AMNG IV, nos. 30–31 (second century BC). R1

Denomination C/D (14–17mm, 1.78–3.3g)

14. Obv. Diademed head of Zeus r. Rev. ADRAVTHNWN. Horseman charging r., raising arm. No symbols or monograms. Struck second century AD. AMNG IV, nos. 24–29 (second century BC). S

Denomination D (11–14mm, 1.33–2.7g)

15. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus facing 3/4 r. Rev. ADRA. Eagle standing l. on altar. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. AMNG IV, no. 4. S

16. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus facing 3/4 r. Rev. ADRA. Eagle standing l. on rock. Grain ear to l. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. AMNG IV, nos. 5–5a. S

17. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia. Rev. AD/RA. Double-bodied owl standing facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–third centuries BC. AMNG IV, no. 51. R2

18. Obv. Athena in Attic helmet l. or r. NIKoLoCoU below (if any). Rev. ADRAU/ THNWN. Owl with spread wings standing 3/4 r. or l. on thunderbolt, head facing. Monogram to r. (if any). Struck early first century BC. SNG France 25–27. S

Denomination D/E (9–12mm, 0.89–0.97g)

19. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. ADRA or AD–RA–U. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 357–352 BC. AMNG IV, nos. 2–3. S

20. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia Rev. ADRA. Owl standing 3/4 r., head facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–third centuries BC. AMNG IV, no. 52. R2

aPollonia on The rhyndakoS

History

The city of Apollonia was apparently founded by Ionian Greek colonists from Miletos on the shore of Lake Apolloniatis (modern Lake Uluabat), into which the Rhyndakos River flows. In the early second century BC, the Apolloniates successfully pressed a claim to Milesian ancestry before the city councillors of Miletos. According to the Apolloniates, their city was founded by the Milesians during their colonial expansion along the Propontis and the shores of the Euxine Sea in the eighth and seventh centuries BC. The foundation of the city, which was reportedly named in honor of Miletos’ patron deity, Apollo Didymeus, was placed in the context of an undescribed war against barbarian peoples. It is unclear how much of these claims should be taken as fact and how much represents the civic kinship diplomacy of the Hellenistic period.

Little is known of Apollonia’s appearance in antiquity as much of it remains buried under the modern town of Gölyazi. However, it is believed to have enjoyed some prosperity from fishing and its location on a northern trade route.

The history of the city is very obscure. In the second century BC, Apollonia on the Rhyndakos and the entirety of Mysia belonged to the Attalid kingdom of Pergamon. In 133 BC, the kingdom was bequeathed to the Roman people by its last king, Attalos III. Apollonia was subsequently incorporated into the new Roman province of Asia. It is unclear what involvement the city may have had in the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC) between the Romans and the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator. However, early in Third Mithradatic War (73–63 BC), a Roman army under the consul L. Licinius Lucullus, defeated a Pontic force along the Rhyndakos River. In the aftermath of the Roman victory, the women of Apollonia are said to have come out of their city in order to carry off baggage from the Pontic camp and to despoil the dead.

Coinage

Older catalogues frequently misattribute the silver anchor drachms of Apollonia Pontika to Apollonia on the Rhyndakos. The Mysian city did in fact only strike a bronze coinage in the late second or early first century BC. This consists of four denominations (A, B, C, and D). The head of Apollo is paired with his kithara on denominations A and B, while that of Zeus is paired with his thunderbolt on denominations B and C. A further emission of denomination C depicts the bust of Demeter Phosphoros (“Light-bearer”) on the obverse and her torches on the reverse. Denomination D variously features the head of Artemis and a race torch or the head of Hermes and his caduceus.

All of the coins carry full or abbreviated Greek legends naming “the Apolloniates” or “the Rhyndikan Apolloniates” as the issuing authority.

bronze

Denomination A (24mm, 11.86g)

21. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. APoLLW/NIATWN/RUN. Kithara. All within laurel wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. AMNG IV, no. 200. R2

Denomination B (17–20mm, 5.46–6.92g)

22. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. APoLLW/NIATWN/RU/ND. Kithara. All within laurel wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. AMNG IV, no. 201. R2

23. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. APoLLW/NIATWN. Thunderbolt. All within laurel wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. AMNG IV, nos. 202–203. R1

Denomination C (15–18mm, 2.22–5.29g)

24. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. APoLLW/NIATWN/RUN/DA. Thunderbolt. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. AMNG IV, nos. 204–205. R1

25. Obv. Veiled bust of Demeter r., wreathed with grain. Rev. APoLLW/NIATWN. Two torches. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. AMNG IV, nos. 202–203. R1

Denomination D (13–14mm, 1.59–2.65g)

26. Obv. Bust of Artemis r. Rev. APoLLW/NIATWN/RUN/DA. Torch. No symbols or monograms. Struck second–first centuries BC. AMNG IV, no. 206. R1

27. Obv. Head of Hermes r., wearing winged tainia Rev. APoLLW/NIATWN/ RUN/DA. Winged caduceus. No symbols or monograms. Struck second–first centuries BC. AMNG IV, no. 207. R2

aSTyra

History

Astyra was a small city situated in the Plain of Thebe on the border between Mysia and Troas. It possessed a temple dedicated to Artemis Astyrene, but this was actually administered by Antadros, a city in Troas to which Astyra was subject. The city had been part of the Lydian empire ruled by Kroisos (560–546 BC), but was absorbed into the Achaimenid Persian empire following his defeat by the Great King, Cyrus II. Astyra remained under Persian influence until 454/3 BC, when it became a tributary member of the Delian League. This Athenian-led alliance was formed to defend Greek cities against Persian aggression, but soon evolved into the core of an Athenian empire. Astyra ceases to appear in the Athenian tribute lists after 438/7 BC and was certainly back in Persian hands by the end of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. The city and fell under the jurisdiction of Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap (governor) of Lydia and Ionia (c. 400–395 BC).

Astyra and the rest of Mysia were absorbed into the expanding empire of Alexander the Great following his victory over Persian forces at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC). The city and region were successively ruled by Alexander’s former generals, Antigonos Monophthalmos and Lysimachos, before they were incorporated into the Seleukid empire in 281 BC. They were probably detached by Attalos I of Pergamon in c. 228 BC, but returned to Seleukid control after the reconquest of western Anatolia by Antiochos III, in 218–213 BC. However, his total defeat by the Romans in the Aitolian War (191–189 BC) resulted in the grant of Mysia and much of western Anatolia to the Attalid kingdom of Pergamon. In 133 BC, Attalos III, the last king of Pergamon, bequeathed the entirety of his kingdom to the Roman people. Astyra was subsequently incorporated into the new Roman province of Asia. The city was abandoned by the first century AD.

Coinage

The only civic coinage securely attributable to Astyra is an emission of bronze denomination D produced under Tissaphernes in the early fourth century BC. The obverse features a bearded head that is usually described as a portrait of the satrap although it lacks the kyrbasia, a distinctive form of Persian headdress usually worn by satraps. The cult statue of Artemis Astyrene appears on the reverse.

Abbreviated Greek legends appear on both obverse and reverse. The obverse legend seems to label the bearded head as a portrait of Tissaphernes while the that on the reverse names “the Astyrenes” as the issuing authority.

Other small bronze issues naming only Tissaphernes and pairing the head of Athena with that of Dionysos or the satrap on horseback are sometimes attributed to Astyra, but were probably struck elsewhere. They are listed separately under satrapal issues.

Silver and bronze coins of the Karian island city of Astypalaia are sometimes misattributed to Mysian Astyra, building on an early cataloguing error that made them emissions of a nonexistent Karian Astyra.

Denomination D (11–13mm, 1.44–1.9g)

28. Obv. TISSA. Bearded head of Tissaphernes r. Rev. ASTURH. Cult statue of Artemis Astyrene standing facing. Club to r. Struck under Tissaphernes (c. 400–395 BC). Stauber 1996, pp. 253–254, nos. 1–4. C

aTarneuS

History

Atarneus appears to have been an original Mysian settlement that was absorbed into the Lydian empire of Kroisos. However, after this defeat by Cyrus II, in 547/6 BC, the territories of the former Lydian empire were annexed to the growing Achaemenid Persian empire. Cyrus II granted Atarneus to the Chians as a reward for their surrender of Paktyes, an important Lydian governor who had attempted to oppose the new Persian regime.

Atarneus was duly occupied by the Chians and became a home for Chian exiles during the political upheavals caused by the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. When the Spartans installed an oligarchic government at Chios, the exiled democratic party used Atarneus as a base for naval raids against the island. However, in the fourth century BC, the city came to be ruled by local tyrants.

Around 360 BC, the city was ruled by Euboulos, a Bithynian banker, who received Atarneus and Assos as surety for a loan given to a Persian satrap (governor). During his rule, he groomed his freed slave, Hermias, to succeed him in the tyranny. Euboulos gave Hermias an education in Athens at Plato’s Academy, where he met and became close friends with Aristotle. Upon his return to Atarneus, Hermias began to rule alongside his former master. When Euboulos died in c. 355 BC, Hermias became sole tyrant in the city.

In 347 BC, Aristotle visited Hermias as an envoy from the Macedonian king, Philip II, who hoped to use Atarneus and Assos as a bridgehead for his projected campaign against the Persian empire. The tyrant welcomed his old friend and gladly accepted Philip’s proposal. During Aristotle’s stay, Hermias permitted him to establish a school of philosophy at Atarneus. This visit is said to have been a turning point in Hermias’ career. While his previous style of rule had been highly despotic, Aristotle advised a milder approach more in keeping with Platonic ideals of the Philosopher-King. This approach won Hermias much greater popular support and his influence expanded even beyond the territories of Atarneus and Assos.

Unfortunately, political and military developments in Macedon soon caused Philip II to abandon the alliance with Hermias and the tyrant was left to face the wrath of the Great King, Artaxerxes II. He was captured through trickery by the Greek mercenary commander, Mentor of Rhodes, and brought before Artaxerxes II in chains. The Great King ordered him to be tortured in order to learn Philip’s invasion plans, but Hermias divulged no information. He died at last in 341 BC, reportedly after asking his torturers to tell his friends that he had done nothing shameful or unworthy of philosophy. Upon hearing of this, Aristotle arranged to marry Pythias, the daughter of Hermias, and erected a monument to his loyal friend at Delphi.

With the removal of Hermias, Atarneus was briefly restored to Persian control before it was incorporated into the new Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great after 334 BC. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, the city fell under the influence of Alexander’s former generals, Antigonos Monophthalmos, Lysimachos, and Seleukos I Nikator. At last, in the third century BC, Atarneus was absorbed with the rest of Mysia into the Attalid kingdom of Pergamon. In 133 BC, the entirety of the kingdom was bequeathed by its last king, Attalos III, to the Roman people, and became the new Roman province of Asia. Atarneus seems to have declined under the Roman administration and was abandoned by the first century AD.

Coinage

A silver coinage was struck at Atarneus, probably at the end of the fifth or the beginning of the fourth century BC. It consisted of drachms and obols struck to the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos), both of which pair the head of Apollo with a coiled serpent. The serpent type has led to the suggestion that there was an important sanctuary of Asklepios associated with the city.

Bronze coinage was probably introduced around the same time as the silver. Initially this involved only an issue of denomination E featuring a female head (representing a local nymph?) and the serpent familiar from the silver. Around the middle of the fourth century BC, Atarneus began to produce two denominations (C and E), both of which carried the head of Apollo on the obverse and the forepart of a galloping horse on the reverse. After an hiatus of uncertain duration, a final civic bronze series of denomination D was struck in the third or second century BC. This continued to feature Apollo on the obverse, but depicted an entire horse on the reverse.

All civic issues of Atarneus carry abbreviated Greek legends naming the city or identifying “the Atarneans” as the issuing authority.

A remarkable and rare issue of denomination B features the traditional type of a coiled serpent and horse forepart paired with a caduceus, but does not carry a full legend naming the Atarneans. Instead, they are identified through a monogram on the obverse while a full Greek legend on the reverse names the issuing authority as “Gaius Atinius, the magistrate of the Romans.” As this emission was previously known from only a few specimens, all with very poorly preserved legends, earlier publications tended to identify the magistrate as either Cn. Marrucinus Asinius, the proconsular governor of Asia in 35/4 BC, or C. Asinius Gallus Saloninus, the proconsular governor of Asia in 6/5 BC. The recent reading of the nomen as Atinius rather than Asinius, however, makes it likely that the individual is actually the praetor C. Atinius Labeo, whose name also appears on silver cistophori and gold staters struck at Ephesus in 122/1 BC.

In addition to these issues, all of which are certainly associated with Atarneus, several emissions have been tentatively associated with the city on the basis of type or abbreviated legend.

Drachms, apparently struck to a reduced Chian standard (c. 3.2g to the drachm) pair the bearded head of Herakles with a coiled serpent similar to that found on the Persic-weight drachms of Atarneus. However, the reduced Chian-weight coins only carry a monogram (P) rather than an ethnic legend explicitly naming the Atarneans as the issuing authority.

An associated issue of bronze denomination E employs the same serpent-andmonogram reverse, but depicts a Corinthian helmet on the obverse.

CiviC Coinage

silver (persiC standard)

Drachm or Half Siglos (c. 2.8g)

29. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ATAR. Serpent coiled r. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, p. 271, no. 1. R2

Obol or 1/12 Siglos (0.49g)

30. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ATAR. Serpent coiled r. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, p. 271, no. 2. R2

bronze

Denomination C (16–18mm, 3.1–4.3g)

31. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ATAR or AT–AR. Horse forepart galloping r. Coiled SerPenT above. GraPe bunCh, monogram, Greek letter (D or H) to r. Struck c. 340–320 BC. Stauber 1996, pp. 272–274, nos. 5–23. C

Denomination D (14mm, 2.09–3.13g)

32. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ATAR. Horse prancing r. Coiled SerPenT above. Monogram to r. Struck third–second centuries BC. Stauber 1996, p. 276, nos. 34–36. R1

Denomination E (9–12mm, 0.67–1.53g)

33. Obv. Female head r. Rev. ATAR or AT–AR. Serpent coiled r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 400–340 BC. Stauber 1996, p. 271, nos. 3–4. R2

34. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ATAR or AT–AR. Horse forepart galloping r. Coiled SerPenT above. monogram or magistrate name (D or ZH) to r. Struck c. 340–320 BC. Stauber 1996, pp. 274–275, nos. 24–33. C

praetorial Coinage

bronze

Denomination B (17–19mm, 5.7–7.45g)

35. Obv. Horse forepart galloping r. Coiled SerPenT above monogram to l. Rev. GAIoV ATINIoV/ANQVPAToV RWAIWN. Caduceus. Struck under C. Atinius Labeo (122/1 BC). Stauber 1996, p. 276, no. 1; Eilers forthcoming. R2

unCertain issues

silver (reduCed CHian standard)

Drachm (c. 3.2g)

36. Obv. Bearded head of Herakles in lion skin headdress l. Rev. Serpent coiled r. P within coil. Struck early fourth century BC. Gorny & Mosch 125, lot 169. R2

bronze

Denomination E (9–11mm, 0.9–1.39g)

37. Obv. Corinthian helmet l. Rev. Serpent coiled l. or r. P within coil. Struck early fourth century BC. Roma Numismatics E-Sale 36, lot 135. R1

eleuTherion

History

Nothing is known about the political history or precise location of Eleutherion. It is first mentioned as a city of Mysia in the Ethnika written by Stephanos Byzantinos in the sixth century AD. The numismatic evidence suggests that the city existed already in the fourth century BC.

Coinage

The only coinage attributed to Eleutherion consists of an issue of bronze denomination E struck in the fourth century BC. The obverse features a threequarter facing head of Athena. A lion with a reverted head—perhaps suggesting Milesian influence—appears on the reverse along with an abbreviated Greek legend naming the city or identifying “the Eleutherians” as the issuing authority. Incomplete legends on some specimens led to the incorrect attribution of the coins to the Ionian city of Leukai in some early catalogues.

bronze

Denomination E (10–11mm, 0.98–1.21g)

38. Obv. Bust of Athena facing 3/4 r., wearing Attic helmet. Rev. ELEU. Lion standing r., head reverted. Struck fourth century BC. SNG Arikantürk 482–487. S

Gambreion

History

Gambreion was a native Mysian settlement that had been absorbed into the Lydian empire by the time of King Kroisos (560–546 BC). After his defeat by Cyrus II, in 547/6 BC, Gambreion was incorporated into the expanding Achaemenid Persian empire and included in the satrapy (province) of Lydia. In 477 BC, the city received a Greek master when it was granted to Gongylos of Eretria by the Great King, Xerxes I. Gongylos had been instrumental in facilitating communication between the Great King and Pausanias, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Byzantion, following Xerxes’ failed invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC). Gambreion became the personal fief of Gongylos and was passed on to his son, Gorgion.

In 399 BC, Gorgion joined the Athenian mercenary commander, Xenophon, and the Spartan general, Thibron, in campaigning against Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap (governor) of Lydia and Ionia. While Gorgion had involved Gambreion in Greek opposition to the Persian empire, the city was restored to Persian control under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC). This settlement ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Athens, Argos, Corinth, and Thebes. Its terms explicitly placed all cities of Anatolia under the authority of the Great King while insisting on the autonomy of all Greek cities beyond the borders of the Persian empire.

After the defeat of Persian forces at the battle of the Granikos River (334 BC), Gambreion and the rest of Mysia were absorbed into the growing Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great. In the period 331–321 BC, the city and region fell under the jurisdiction of Menander, the Macedonian satrap of Lydia. After the death of Alexander, they were absorbed into the territories of his former generals, Antigonos Monophthalmos and Lysimachos, before they were incorporated into the empire of Seleukos I and his successors. In the third century BC, Gambreion and other Mysian cities slipped away from the Seleukid empire and came to orbit around Pergamon and its increasingly powerful Attalid dynasty. Gambreion belonged to the Attalid kingdom founded by Attalos I in 238 BC and was bequeathed to the Roman people along with the rest of the kingdom when the last king, Attalos III, died in 133 BC. The city was subsequently incorporated into the Roman province of Asia.

Coinage

Probably in the early fourth century BC, Gambreion struck a fractional silver coinage on the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm). Drachms and hemidrachms pair the head of Apollo with the forepart of a charging bull. The latter was probably intended to represent the rushing water of the nearby Kaïkos River. Both denominations carry abbreviated Greek legends, but the hemidrachm names “the Gambreiotes” as the issuing authority whereas the drachm and a second issue of hemidrachm emission names the dynast, Gorgion. This coinage may have been struck in connection with the war against Tissaphernes.

A bronze coinage of denomination E was introduced alongside the silver. A civic issue pairs the head of Apollo with a facing gorgoneion. Although the abbreviated legend names “the Gambreiotes,” the reverse type almost certainly

refers to Gorgion. A further emission featuring Apollo and a charging bull names the dynast.

Over the course of the fourth century BC, Gambreion struck at least two series of bronze coins in two denominations (C and D) featuring identical types. An early series pairs the head of Apollo with a charging bull while a later series features the head of the same god and a 12-rayed star. This star had appeared as a subsidiary symbol on the preceding bull series. A third series pairs the head of Apollo with the god’s mantic tripod. This series is normally dated to the fourth century BC, but the close similarity of the type—especially the treatment of the tripod—to that of a vast series struck at Sardis under the Seleukid king, Antiochos II (262–246 BC), may perhaps raise the possibility of a date in the third century BC.

All three bi-denominational series carry an abbreviated Greek legend naming “the Gambreiotes” as the issuing authority.

CiviC Coinage

silver (CHian standard)

Hemidrachm (c. 1.7g)

39. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GA. Bull forepart charging r. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2507. R2 bronze

Denomination C (16–18mm, 2.83–4.59g)

40. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. GA. Bull charging l. STar above. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 906–907. S

41. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. G–A–. 12-rayed star. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 908–921. C

42. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GA. Tripod. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–third centuries BC. SNG France 929–933. S

Denomination E (8–11mm, 0.65–1.1g)

43. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. G–A–. Gorgoneion facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 400 BC. SNG France 938. R2

44. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GA. Bull charging l. STar above (if any). Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 896–904. C

45. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. G–A–. 12-rayed star. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 922–928. C

46. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GA. Tripod. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–third centuries BC. SNG France 934–937. S gongylid dynastiC Coinage

silver (CHian standard)

Drachm (3.24g)

47. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GoR/G–I. Bull forepart charging r. No symbols or monograms. Struck under Gorgion (early fourth century BC). SNG France 895. R2

Hemidrachm (1.58g)

48. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. Bull forepart charging r. Monogram on shoulder. CaduCeuS above. Struck under Gorgion (early fourth century BC). Babelon II, no. 48. R2

bronze

Denomination E (8mm, 0.77g)

49. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. GoR. Bull charging l. No symbols or monograms. Struck under Gorgion (early fourth century BC). Babelon II, no. 49. R3

harPaGion

History

The history and appearance of the Mysian city of Harpagion are very obscure, although it is clear that it possessed a territory between Kyzikos and Priapos known as the Harpageia. According to one Greek mythological tradition, the beautiful Trojan youth Ganymede was abducted to become the cup-bearer of Zeus from Harpagion.

Following the destruction of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC), Harpagion became a member of the Athenian-led Delian League, as did like many other cities of western Anatolia. This alliance was intended to defend against future aggression by the Persians, but gradually evolved into the core of an Athenian empire. By 448/7 BC, Harpagion was paying tribute to Athens in coin and continued to do so until 429/8 BC or 425/4 BC.

Harpagion seems to have had little role in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) fought between Athens and Sparta. However, in 411 BC, after a resounding Athenian victory at the Battle of Kynossema, eight Spartan ships making their way to Kyzikos from Byzantion were captured between Harpagion and Priapos. The total absence of Harpagion from the ancient sources except for this incident has led to the suggestion that the city was absorbed by Priapos or, perhaps more likely, by Kyzikos in the fourth century BC.

Coinage

The only coinage attributed to Harpagion consists of an emission of bronze denomination D struck in the late fifth or early fourth century BC. The obverse depicts the head of a local nymph wearing a wreath and sphendone while the reverse features a fish. Both types seem to reflect the influence of Kyzikos. The representation of the nymph seems to be drawn from Kyzikene numismatic depictions of Kore Soteira and the fish is reminiscent of the tunny badge of Kyzikos.

The full Greek legend on the coinage of Harpagion is unusual in that it appears either to name the territory, rather than the city itself, in the nominative case or to identify the coins as “[issues] of Harpagion” using an Aiolic Greek form of the genitive singular case. The failure to use a genitive plural ethnic naming the civic issuing authority may perhaps suggest that Harpagion was already a dependency (of Kyzikos?) at the time of production.

bronze

Denomination D (11–12mm, 1.09–1.6g)

50. Obv. Laureate female head r., wearing sphendone. Rev. ARpAGIA. Fish swimming r. Grain ear below. Struck c. 400–375 BC. AMNG IV, no. 597. R1

iolla

History

Nothing is known about the Mysian city of Iolla beyond that it struck a bronze coinage in the fourth century BC. It is assumed to have been located in the vicinity of Adramyttion. It may have been named after the river Ollius (Iollios?) noted by the Roman natural philosopher, Pliny the Elder.

Coinage

The only coinage attributed to Iolla consists of several series of bronze coins in the late fifth and fourth centuries BC. An initial emission of denomination E, probably struck in the late fifth century BC, pairs the head of Hermes with the forepart of Pegasos flying right. Two subsequent series are distinguished by their inscriptions and involving denominations C, D, and E replace the head of Hermes with that of Zeus. A further emission of denominations B and D features the head of Athena on the obverse and replaced the Pegasos type with an owl on denomination D. All of these probably belong to the fourth century BC.

The Pegasos forepart type was also employed at Adramyttion, Lampsakos, and Thebe in the same period. It was paired with the head of Zeus at Adramytion and Lampsakos as well. Likewise, the early Hermes/Pegasos forepart coinage seems to reflect Lampsakene models. All of this suggests the influence of Lampsakos over the coinage and perhaps over the cities involved in its production.

All coins of Iolla carry full Greek legends. These either name the city or identify “the Iolleans” as the issuing authority. It is unclear whether the legends naming the city in the nominative case should be understood to reflect a period in which Iolla had become a dependent city (of Adramyttion or Lampsakos?).

bronze

Denomination B (18–22mm, 6.68–8.83g)

51. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. IoLLEWN. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, nos. 17–20. S

Denomination C (16–18 mm, 3.1–4.98g)

52. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. IoLLEWN. Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below (if any). Struck fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, nos. 2–3, 7, and 9–10. S

53. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. IoLLA Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below (if any). Struck fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, nos. 12–13. S

Denomination D (10–12 mm, 1.55–2.55g)

54. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. IoLLEWN. Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below. Struck fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, nos. 4–6. R1

55. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. IoLLA Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below (if any). Struck fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, nos. 14–15. R1

56. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. IoLLEWN Owl standing l., head facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, no. 21. R1

Denomination E (7–9 mm, 0.73–0.99g)

57. Obv. Head of Hermes r., wearing pileus, caduceus over shoulder. Rev. IoLLA. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth century BC. Stauber 1996, no. 1. R2

58. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. IoLLEWN Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below. Struck fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, no. 11. R2

59. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. IoLLA. Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below (if any). Struck late fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, no. 16. R1

kiSThene

History

Very little is known about the city of Kisthene, including its precise location, which has led to speculation as to whether it is more correctly considered a city of southwestern Mysia or of northwestern Aiolis.

The city is only mentioned in passing by the Athenian orator, Isokrates, who indicates that the city was wrested from Persian control by Greek forces in 397 BC, after which, the Greeks received 100 talents. It is usually assumed that Kisthene was captured by King Agesilaus II of Sparta, who was convinced to attack the satrapy (province) of Hellespontine Phrygia after Tithraustes, the Persian satrap (governor) of Sardis offered to finance the campaign. Considering the apparent obscurity of Kisthene, it seems improbable that the 100 talents could have been taken by the Greeks as plunder from the city.

Kisthene and the other Greek cities of western Anatolia were recognized as possessions of the Achaemenid Persian Empire under the terms of the King’s Peace (397 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC), fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth and Thebes. Numismatic evidence shows that Kisthene belonged to the great Persian satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia governed Pharnabazos, between c. 413 and 378 BC, and to the district satrapy of Mysia controlled by the rebellious Orontas between 362/1 and 344 BC. The city was apparently involved in Orontas’ revolts against the Great Kings Artaxerxes II in 362/1 BC and Artaxerxes III in 357–352 BC. The subsequent history of Kisthene is entirely unknown.

Coinage

Although silver half sigloi are thought to have been struck at Kisthene in the name of Orontas alone (listed separately under that satrap), the only coins to explicitly refer to the city are bronze.

An emission of denomination E appears to have been struck first under Pharnabazos. This features the head of the satrap wearing the kyrbasia (satrapal headdress) on the obverse and the forepart of a winged boar on the reverse. The portrait is identified as Pharnabazos based on the Greek letter phi that sometimes accompanies it.

Denominations D and E were produced under Orontas and depicted the satrap on the obverse. His satrapal portraits are distinguished from those of Pharnabazos by the diadem binding his kyrbasia. Denomination E continues to use the winged boar forepart on the reverse while denomination D depicts a charging horseman. In the late fourth century BC or later, Kisthene also struck an issue of bronze denomination C pairing the veiled head of Demeter with a charging horseman. The bronze coinage of Kisthene regularly carries an abbreviated Greek legend intended to identify the city or name the issuing authority. The issue of denomination E struck under Orontas also carries a full Aiolic Greek legend indicating that they are “[coins] of Orontas.” The longer civic legend found on denomination D also employs an Aiolic form. However, the same abbreviated legend on some varieties of denomination C gives the city name or ethnic in an Attic-Ionic form, indicating a later date.

Denomination C (18–19mm, 3.53–4.1g)

60. Obv. Veiled head of Demeter r., wreathed with grain. Rev. KIS or KISQH. Horseman charging r., raising arm. bee or dolPhin below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Stauber 1996, 264, nos. 6–7. R1

Denomination D (13mm, 1.51g)

61. Obv. Bearded head of Orontas r., wearing kyrbasia with diadem. Rev. KISQA. Horseman charging r. Struck under Orontas (c. 362/1–344 BC). Stauber 1996, 263, no. 4. R3

Denomination E (9–10mm, 0.57–0.93g)

62. Obv. Bearded head of Pharnabazos r., wearing kyrbasia.  to l. (if any). Rev. KIS. Winged boar forepart flying r. Struck under Pharnabazos (c. 413–378 BC). Stauber 1996, 263, no. 5 (Orontas?). R2

63. Obv. K. Bearded head of Orontas r., wearing kyrbasia with diadem. Rev. oRoNTA. Winged boar forepart flying r. Struck under Orontas (c. 362/1–344 BC). Stauber 1996, 263, no. 3. R2

History

According to Greek mythological tradition, the city of Kyzikos was originally founded by Thessalian Pelasgians (a pre-Greek people) who had been driven from their homes by the arrival of the Aiolian Greeks. These Pelasgian refugees were led by their king, Kyzikos, a son of Apollo who gave his name to the city. He was later killed by the Minyan hero, Jason, during his quest for the Golden Fleece. Weakened by the loss of its king, Kyzikos was briefly captured by Tyrrhenians— apparently a pre-Greek people of Thrace rather than the Etruscans of northern Italy—before the interlopers were expelled by the Ionian Greeks of Miletos. Kyzikos was subsequently reckoned as a Milesian colony.

The historical city was situated on an island off the Propontic coast of Mysia known as the Arktonnesos (“Bear Island”) that was joined to the mainland through a series of dikes in the late fourth century BC. This gave Kyzikos direct access to its mainland agricultural territory in the Plain of Adrasteia. The city was defended by circuit walls and a fortified akropolis—the Arkton oros (“Bear Mountain”)— and possessed three ports. The Kyzikenes derived their wealth from involvement in the Euxine grain trade and a tunny (tuna) fishery, as well as from the export of a much-desired local perfume made from the iris flower.

Counted among the most prosperous Greek cities of western Anatolia, Kyzikos was adorned with numerous public buildings, including a theater, prytaneion (city hall), agora (marketplace), and several temples. One of these was notable for its grand scale while another had the seams of its marble filled with a golden thread.

The city was incorporated into the Lydian empire of Kroisos (560–546 BC) but fell under Persian influence after Kroisos was defeated by the Achaimenid Great King, Cyrus II. Kyzikos supported Miletos in the failed Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against Persian rule, but surrendered immediately after the Ionian city was captured. Kyzikos remained subject to Persian authority until the victory of the allied Greek forces at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC). The city subsequently became a member of the Athenian-led Delian League. Although this alliance was initially formed to defend against future Persian aggression, it soon became the core of an Athenian empire.

In 411 BC, during the late phase of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, Kyzikos seceded from the Delian League but was quickly recaptured by the Athenians. A second attempt to escape Athenian domination was made in the following year, but the Kyzikenes were again defeated despite support from the Spartan general, Mindaros, and Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia. After Athenian naval power was crushed at the Battle of Aigospotamoi (405 BC), the city was under Spartan hegemony and the influence of Pharnabazos. In 387 BC, the King’s Peace that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes formally recognized Kyzikos and the other Greek cities of western Anatolia as possessions of the Persian empire.

Persian control over the city finally came to an end in 334 BC, when Alexander the Great led his army to victory at the Granikos River and began the Macedonian conquest of the Achaemenid empire. After Alexander’s death (323 BC), Kyzikos fell under the influence of his former generals, Antigonos Monophthalmos and Lysimachos, before it was incorporated into the Seleukid empire. In 279/8 BC, a battle between the Seleukid king, Antiochos I, and an army of Galatian (Celtic) mercenaries commanded by the Bithynian king, Nikomedes I, may have taken place

in the territory of Kyzikos. Nevertheless, the city seems to have gradually drifted away from Seleukid influence and into the orbit of Pergamon with its increasingly powerful Attalid dynasty. In 275 BC, the city received gifts from Philetairos, the founder of the dynasty. The relationship between Kyzikos and Attalid Pergamon was further strengthened under Attalos I, who took Apollonis, a Kyzikene noblewoman, to be the first queen of his Attalid kingdom. The city was visited by her children, Attalos II and Eumenes II, in 182 BC and again in 159 BC, when they dedicated a temple in honor of their deified mother. In 133 BC, Attalos III, the last king of Pergamon, bequeathed the entirety the Attalid kingdom to the Roman people. It was reorganized as the Roman province of Asia in 129 BC and Kyzikos seems to have prospered under its new masters.

In the late second and early first centuries BC, the wealth of the city, combined with its coastal location and Roman protection, made Kyzikos a popular haven for the children of Hellenistic kings in times of crisis. In 129 BC, the Seleukid queen, Kleopatra Thea, sent the young Antiochos IX to Kyzikos in order to save him from his uncle, Demetrios II. Likewise, in 94 BC, the embattled Bithynian king, Nikomedes III, deposited his concubine and their son, Sokrates, at Kyzikos for protection.

There was little safety for Kyzikos, however, during the period of the Mithradatic Wars between the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator, and the Romans. The full details of the city’s involvement in the First Mithradatic War (88–85 BC) are sketchy, but it is certain that in 86 BC Kyzikos was occupied by the forces of the rogue Roman legate, C. Flavius Fimbria. He brought serious charges against two of the wealthiest men of the city before ordering their execution and confiscating their property. His actions so terrorized the Kyzikene elite that they immediately gave up their wealth in order to save their lives. It is unclear whether these events were considered to be a punishment of the city for previous support for Mithradates VI or whether they were merely the result of Fimbria’s greed.

At the outbreak of the Third Mithradatic War (73–63 BC), Kyzikos contributed ships to the Roman fleet, but the bulk of these were lost in the disastrous Battle of Kalchedon (73 BC). Mithradates VI subsequently sailed against Kyzikos and placed the city under siege. Despite the acute danger, the Kyzikenes remained staunchly loyal to the Romans and held out against the Pontic king until the consul, L. Licinius Lucullus, could come to their aid. He managed to cut the supplies to besiegers and force them to withdraw from Kyzikos in 72 BC.

The defeat of Mithradates VI before Kyzikos was portended by a black heifer that reportedly swam in from the sea so that it could be sacrificed to Persephone, the Kore Soteira (“Savior Maiden”), who served as the patron deity of the city. It arrived just in time to replace a paste model that the starving Kyzikenes were about to dedicate to the goddess in mimicry of the traditional sacrifice at the Soteria festival.

As a reward for its faithfulness, Kyzikos was granted the status of a civitas libera (free city), which permitted local self-government and the remission of taxes. The city also received additional territories in Mysia and Troas. Although the status of civitas libera was revoked in AD 25, Kyzikos flourished under the Roman and early Byzantine emperors.

Coinage

The earliest coinage of Kyzikos consists of electrum staters and fractions struck to the Phokaic standard (c. 16.1g to the stater) at the beginning of the sixth century BC. Although the Greek cities in general had largely abandoned the electrum alloy in favor of parted silver and gold by the mid-sixth century BC, Kyzikos continued to strike electrum staters down to the late fourth century BC as coinage for use in the Euxine grain trade. Finds and ancient textual evidence makes clear that the Kyzikene electrum stater was the standard of value along the northern Euxine coast of Thrace and Skythia, and that it was a staple of Athenian merchants with Euxine trade connections. The obverse types for Kyzikene electrum were changed at frequent intervals and universally lack legends, even in the late period, but the city is regularly identified by its tunny fish emblem, either as a subsidiary symbol or incorporated into the main type. In some cases the types seem to be copied from other contemporary silver coinages, such as those of Chios, Klazomenai, Phokaia, and even the Macedonian kingdom of Philip II.

The only gold coinage attributed to Kyzikos consists of staters struck to the Attic standard (8.6g to the stater) in the third and early second century BC. These copy the popular types of Lysimachos featuring the head of the deified Alexander the Great wearing the horn of Ammon and Athena enthroned and holding Nike. The staters were probably struck to meet the requirements of foreign mercenaries in time of war, or perhaps to pay protection money to marauding Galatians. Symbols, like the tunny and charging bull, or monogram links to other Kyzikene coinages with symbols identify the staters as issues of Kyzikos.

Gold quarter staters featuring the head of Kore Soteira in a style of the second century (see below) paired with the city ethnic within an oak wreath (SNG France 446–448) were previously included in the corpus of Kyzikene gold but are now believed to be modern forgeries. They are excluded from the present catalogue.

Not long after the beginning of electrum coin production, in the first quarter of the sixth century BC, Kyzikos also struck a silver coinage on the Milesian weight standard (c. 14.1g to the tetradrachm stater). This primarily involves staters and small fractions featuring as an obverse type the tunny badge of the city in various forms, as on the early Kyzikene electrum issues. The reverse is marked by an incuse square punch initially with a rough interior that develops into a quadripartite design.

By the end of the sixth century BC, the city moved away from both the Milesian standard and the traditional square punch design for the reverse on silver. Instead, Kyzikos adopted a new weight standard of roughly 7.6g to the silver didrachm stater, which has been tentatively described as a regional ‘Troad’ standard, and began to strike coins featuring figural types on both sides. On the new coinage, the reverse type regularly features the head of a lion, while the head of the Phrygian god Attis appears on tetrobols and the forepart of a charging boar is regularly depicted on diobols and obols. It is tempting to suggest that the boar here represents the animal that killed Attis, according to one Greek mythological tradition. Hemi bols pair the head of Attis with that of a bull or the head of Hermes with a tunny.

Issues on the so-called ‘Troad’ standard appear to have been contemporary with or were followed by staters and fractions struck to a reduced Persic standard (c. 4.8g to the siglos). These feature the same boar forepart/lion head types of the issues on the ‘Troad’ standard.

Probably in 404 BC, Kyzikos struck an emission of tridrachms on the Chian weight standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm). The coins feature an obverse type

depicting the child Herakles strangling the serpents sent by Hera to kill him in his crib and the lion head reverse typical of the city’s coinage in the fifth century BC. Other tridrachms with the same Herakles obverse paired with civic reverses of Byzantion, Ephesos, Iasos, Lampsakos, Knidos, Rhodes and Samos, and all carrying the abbreviated Greek legend SUN, have led to the suggestion that these cities, together with Kyzikos, formed an alliance (Greek synmachia) under the leadership of the Spartan general, Lysander, at the close of the Peloponnesian War.

In the fourth century BC, Kyzikos adopted the popular Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) for its silver coinage. Tetradrachms and fractions of the period feature the head of Kore Soteira on the obverse. The reverse type depicts the head of a lion and the traditional tunny badge of the city. Chian-weight tetradrachms were also struck on behalf of Pharnabazos (listed separately), probably in 398–396/5 BC, shortly before the outbreak of the Corinthian War.

In the third century BC, the Chian-weight coinage was followed in the third century BC by a series of tetradrachms on the Rhodian standard (c. 13.6g to the tetradrachm) and an emission of Persic-weight staters. Both coinages paired the head of Kore Soteira familiar from the Chian-weight series with a reverse featuring Apollo seated on the omphalos with his kithara and making sacrifice from a phiale.

Kyzikos also produced tetradrachms on the Attic standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) with the Herakles/Zeus types of Alexander the Great and the deified Alexander/Athena types of Lysimachos in the third and early second centuries BC. These coins are identified as issues of Kyzikos primarily through their use of symbols (amphora, bucranium, torch, tunny) that appear on bronze coins that explicitly name the Kyzikene issuing authority. As in the case of the gold staters, the use of the internationally accepted Attic standard and the widely recognized types of Alexander and Lysimachos suggests that the coins were probably produced to pay foreign mercenaries.

Around 179 BC, Kyzikos began to press for international recognition of its Soteria festival in honor of Kore Soteira as “holy.” This development may have informed the new silver coinages produced by the city in the second century BC. A brief emission of staters on an apparently reduced Persic standard pairs the head of Kore wearing a grain wreath with the tripod of Apollo. Like a variety of other cities of western Anatolia, in the second century BC, Kyzikos also produced a socalled “wreathed” tetradrachm coinage on the Attic standard. Silver tetradrachms and fractions feature a female head wreathed with oak on the obverse and a torch (tetradrachms and drachms), thunderbolt (didrachms) or tunny (diobols) within an oak wreath on the reverse. It is commonly believed that the female head is that of Kore Soteira and that the coinage was associated with the Kyzikene Soteria festival. However, it is strange that she is wreathed with oak and lacks her traditional attributes at Kyzikos—a sphendone and grain wreath.

This departure from the preceding iconography for Kore Soteira led some scholars to suggest that the head is that of Artemis, a goddess who had a special women’s cult association at Kyzikos, although this still fails to explain her oak wreath. Another, less plausible suggestion is that the female head is actually a portrait of the deified Queen Apollonis. The identification of the wreathed female head as Kore Soteira seems assured in light of psuedo-autonomous issues of the second century AD featuring this image alongside a Greek legend clearly identifying the goddess as Kore. The prominent use of oak wreaths on the head of the goddess and surrounding the reverse type seems to reflect the mythological tradition that Kore Soteira had received Kyzikos as a gift from Zeus. With the end

of the “wreathed” tetradrachms, Kyzikos struck no further precious metal coinage until AD 294, when the city became home to a Roman imperial mint.

A bronze coinage involving three denominations (C, D and E) was probably introduced in the late fourth century BC. Denomination C pairs the head of Apollo with his mantic tripod, perhaps alluding to the Milesian origin of Kyzikos. Miletos was famous for its oracular shrine dedicated to Apollo Didymaios. Denomination D features the head of Kore Soteira wearing a sphendone on the obverse and a tripod on the reverse while denomination E depicts the head of Apollo and an amphora.

A group consisting of bronze denominations B, C and D is linked together by the depiction of Athena wearing a Corinthian helmet on the obverse. The reverse of the large denomination features an eagle perched atop a bucranium, all within an oak wreath, while that of the middle denomination depicts a tripod. The small denomination is known with reverses depicting the head of a bull, a tripod or three dolphins swimming in a circle. On denomination B with bucranium reverse, and denomination D, with tripod reverse, the head of Athena is closely modeled on that of the goddess found on the gold stater type popularized by Alexander the Great. This stylistic affinity may perhaps suggest production in the third century BC. Denomination C with tripod reverse, and denomination D with bull head and dolphin reverses carry obverse heads of Athena in a different style and should probably be dated later, perhaps to the second or early first century BC.

The Athena bronze issues probably dateable to the third century BC were followed by a group of three denominations (A, C and D) distinguished by the use of monograms surrounded by wreath borders on their reverses. Denomination B features a prow on the obverse while the head of Kore Soteira appears on the obverse of denomination C and the head of a bull on denomination D. The hairstyle of Kore on denomination C is derived from the Kyzikene “wreathed” silver fractions of the second century BC, but on the bronze issue she wears a grain wreath rather than the oak wreath of the silver. Nevertheless, the clear relationship of the denomination C bronze to the silver shows that the wreathed monogram bronze group must have been struck in the second century BC or later. A series of bronze denomination D pairing a similar head of Kore Soteira with a tripod may also belong to this group although it lacks the oak-wreathed reverse of the other issues. If the inclusion of the large denomination A and its use of the prow type are considered to reflect Roman influence, then the entire group may belong to the late second century BC—after the formation of the province of Asia in 129 BC— or the early first century BC.

The prow/wreathed monogram issue of denomination A may have been preceded by emissions pairing the head of Kore Soteira with a charging bull that were extensively restruck with a prow on the obverse and a bucranium within an oak wreath on the reverse. Both the bull and the bucranium probably refer to the black heifer that was traditionally sacrificed to Kore Soteira. The image of the goddess on these emissions takes its iconographic cues from depictions of Kore on the Rhodian-weight silver of the third century BC. However, differences in style

Pseudo-autonomous bronze coin of Kyzikos. Struck second century AD.

indicate that the bronze issues were produced sometime later. Again, if the large denomination and the prow type are indicators of Roman influence then both the Kore/bull and prow/wreathed bucranium types probably belong to the late second or early first centuries BC. An issue of bronze denomination C pairing the head of Kore Soteira with a tripod may have been struck in conjunction with the emission of bronze denomination A featuring the same obverse type.

Two further emissions of denomination A seem to be connected to both the Kore/ bull and prow/wreathed bucranium issues, but their chronological relationship is unclear. One pairs the head of Kore Soteira wearing a sphendone and an apparent oak wreath with a bucranium within a grain wreath, and the other features the goddess wearing a sphendone, a grain wreath and an oak wreath on the obverse and a tripod on the reverse.

A final group of three denominations (A, A/B and B) is linked through their use of a heavy dotted border, full Greek legends, and the presence of central depressions. Denomination A features a head of Kore Soteira derived from the Attic-weight tetradrachms of the second century BC. However, the less skilled execution indicates that the two coinages were not contemporary and that denomination A was struck at a later date, probably in the first century BC. The use of brass rather than bronze for this issue of denomination A also points to a date in the early first century BC. Brass coinage is often considered a Pontic innovation that was adopted by some cities in western Anatolia in the period of the Mithradatic Wars. Denomination A/B pairs a charging bull with the torch of Kore while denomination B depicts an archaizing sphinx on the obverse and the staff of Asklepios on the reverse.

All the electrum coins produced by Kyzikos and the silver issues struck before the mid-fifth century BC are anepigraphic, leaving the tunny badge to serve as the sole indicator of the originating mint. Subsequent silver and bronze issues carry an abbreviated Greek legend naming “the Kyzikenes” as the issuing authority. This is written out in full only on the last group of bronze coins struck at the city before the Roman period.

eleCtrum (pHokaiC standard)

Staters (c. 16.1g)

64. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. Tunny above. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 1. R2

65. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r., garfish in mouth. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Triton XX, lot 187. R2

66. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny swimming l. above tunny swimming r. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 14. R2

67. Obv. Anepigraphic. Harpy standing r., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 22. R3

68. Obv. Anepigraphic. Harpy standing r., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 23. R3

69. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged male figure kneeling-running l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 26. R2

70. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged male figure standing l., holding tunny in each hand. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 27. R2

71. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged tunny flying l. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 33. R2

72. Obv. Anepigraphic. Boar head r. with tunny in mouth. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 34. R3

73. Obv. Anepigraphic. Hound standing l., biting Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 35. R3

74. Obv. Anepigraphic. Crab holding tunny head. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 36. R2

75. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion head r. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 38. R2

76. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion head l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 39. R2

77. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion forepart at bay l., head reverted Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 40. R2

78. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion forepart standing l., devouring prey. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 41. R2

79. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion standing l., devouring prey. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 42. R2

80. Obv. Anepigraphic. Panther head facing. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald, no. 43. R2

81. Obv. Anepigraphic. Sow standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 45. R2

82. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram forepart charging l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 46. R2

83. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram kneeling l., head reverted. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 47. R2

84. Obv. Anepigraphic. Goat head l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 48. R2

85. Obv. Anepigraphic. Goat standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Triton XXIV, lot 604. R3

86. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock with spread wing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 51. R2

87. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ketos swimming l. Tunny above. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 52. R2

88. Obv. Anepigraphic. Conjoined lion head l. and ram head r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 54. R2

89. Obv. Anepigraphic. Chimaira at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 55. R2

90. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion-griffin forepart at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 56. R2

91. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin seated l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 58. R2

92. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged bull forepart flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 60. R2

93. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged boar forepart flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 61. R2

94. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate male head l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 62. R2

95. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 63. R2

96. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 64. R2

97. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Perseus in winged helmet l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 65. R2

98. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded male head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 66. R2

99. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Poseidon l., wearing ketos headdress. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Roma XV, lot 236. R3

100. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 67. R2

101. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena facing, wearing Attic helmet. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 68. R3

102. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling r., holding club and bow. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 69. R2

103. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling l., holding tunny in each hand. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 70. R2

104. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged sphinx forepart at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 71. R2

105. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged sphinx at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 72. R1

106. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged sphinx seated l. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 73. R3

107. Obv. Anepigraphic. Siren standing l., holding tunny. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 74. R2

108. Obv. Anepigraphic. Half-length winged female figure l., holding tunny. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 75. R1

109. Obv. Anepigraphic. Janiform head composed of satyr l. and nymph r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Roma XIV, lot 202. R3

110. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Silenos facing. Tunny to l. and r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 77. R3

111. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dolphin-headed, winged male figure flying l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 79. R3

112. Obv. Anepigraphic. Prow l., ornamented with winged boar forepart. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 80. R2

113. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head in Corinthian helmet l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 81. R2

114. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion scalp. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 82. R1

115. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion standing l., devouring prey. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 83. R3

116. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 84. R1

117. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion seated l., raising forepaw. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 85. R2

118. Obv. Anepigraphic. Panther at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 86. R2

119. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bull head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 87. R3

120. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bull standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 88. R2

121. Obv. Anepigraphic. Recumbent bull l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 89. R2

122. Obv. Anepigraphic. Boar standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 90. R2

123. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 91. R2

124. Obv. Anepigraphic. Goat kneeling l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 92. R2

125. Obv. Anepigraphic. Hound at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 93. R1

126. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle with spread wings standing l., tearing at tunny below Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 94. R2

127. Obv. Anepigraphic. Two dolphins swimming l. Tunny between. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 95. R2

128. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged lion forepart at bay l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 96. R3

129. Obv. Anepigraphic. Chimaira at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 97. R2

130. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin forepart l. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 98. R3

131. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 99. R1

132. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin seated l., raising forepaw. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 100. R2

133. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin seated l., raising forepaw. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 101. R2

134. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged doe forepart flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 102. R2

135. Obv. Anepigraphic. Kerberos at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 103. R2

136. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged hound at bay l., head reverted. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 104. R1

137. Obv. Anepigraphic. Male head l. on raised disk. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 105. R2

138. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female head l., wearing spehendone. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 106. R2

139. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling r., brandishing club and holding bow. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 107. R1

140. Obv. Anepigraphic. Europa seated on bull charging l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 108. R2

141. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dolphin rider l., holding tunny. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 110. R2

142. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 112. R1

143. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling r., holding knife and tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 113. R1

144. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling l., holding Corinthian helmet and sheathed sword. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 114. R1

145. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior kneeling l., playing aulos and holding sheathed sword. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 115. R2

146. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior in Corinthian helmet kneeling l., testing arrow with bow slung on wrist. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 116. R1

147. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior in Corinthian helmet kneeling r., testing arrow with bow slung on wrist. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 117. R1

148. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior in Corinthian helmet standing r. extending arm and holding shield. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 119. R1

149. Obv. Anepigraphic. Harmodios and Aristogeiton advancing r., holding swords and with chlamydes draped over extended arms. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 120. R2

150. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike kneeling-running l., head reverted, holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 121. R2

151. Obv. Anepigraphic. Satyr kneeling-running l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 122. R1

152. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged lion-headed male figure, kneeling-running l., head reverted, holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 123. R2

153. Obv. Anepigraphic. Man-faced bull standing l., head facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 125. R2

154. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged double-bodied sphinx seated facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Triton XX, lot 224. R2

155. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gorgoneion facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 129. R1

156. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Zeus Ammon r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 130. R2

157. Obv. Anepigraphic. Veiled head of Demeter l., wreathed with grain. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 131. R2

158. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Apollo facing 3/4 r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 132. R2

159. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena facing 3/4 r., wearing Attic helmet. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 133. R2

160. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 134. R2

161. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Aphrodite l., wearing stephane. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 135. R2

162. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female head r., wearing sakkos. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 136. R2

163. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 137. R2

164. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded head of Dionysos r., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 138. R2

165. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Kabeiros l., wearing pileus. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 139. R2

166. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded head of Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 140. R2

167. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Aktaion l., with stag antler. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 141. R2

168. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Attis r., wearing Phrygian cap. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 142. R2

169. Obv. Anepigraphic. Male head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 143. R2

170. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gorgoneion facing 3/4 l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 144. R2

171. Obv. Anepigraphic. Zeus kneeling r., holding scepter and eagle. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 145. R2

172. Obv. Anepigraphic. Poseidon kneeling r., holding dolphin and trident. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 146. R2

173. Obv. Anepigraphic. Poseidon charging r. on hippocamp, brandishing trident. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 147. R2

174. Obv. Anepigraphic. Radiate Helios kneeling r., horses l. and r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 148. R2

175. Obv. Anepigraphic. Apollo kneeling r., holding bow and arrow. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 149. R2

176. Obv. Anepigraphic. Apollo seated on swan flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 150. R2

177. Obv. Anepigraphic. Apollo seated l. on lion-griffin flying r., holding wreath. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 151. R2

178. Obv. Anepigraphic. Half-length figure of Athena standing l., holding aphlaston. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 152. R2

179. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike kneeling l., holding aphlaston. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 154. R2

180. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dionysos seated l., holding kantharos Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 155. R2

181. Obv. Anepigraphic. Anepigraphic. Phrixos crouching l., sacrificing ram with sword. Medusa. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 156. R2

182. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gaia rising out of the earth, holding infant Erechthonios. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 157. R2

183. Obv. Anepigraphic. Kekrops l., holding olive branch. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 158. R2

184. Obv. Anepigraphic. Thetis riding dolphin swimming l., holding wreath and shield. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 159. R2

185. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling r., strangling lion. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 161. R2

186. Obv. Anepigraphic. Perseus kneeling r., head reverted, holding harpa and head of Medusa. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 162. R2

187. Obv. Anepigraphic. Triptolemos driving biga of winged serpents r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 163. R2

188. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling l., head reverted, wearing kalathos and raising arms. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 164. R2

189. Obv. Anepigraphic. Orestes seated l., holding sword and clutching omphalos Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 165. R2

190. Obv. Anepigraphic. Persian archer seated r., stringing bow. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 166. R2

191. Obv. Anepigraphic. Hero kneeling r., wearing pileus and holding club and animal skin. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 167. R2

192. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded horseman wearing kausia, riding horse galloping r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 168. R2

193. Obv. Anepigraphic. Child Herakles seated facing, head r., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 169. R2

194. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lapith holding sword and kneeling on back of fallen centaur, whom he strangles. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 170. R2

195. Obv. Anepigraphic. Silenos seated r., holding uncertain object. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 171. R2

196. Obv. Anepigraphic. Silenos kneeling r., pouring wine into kantharos. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 172. R2

197. Obv. Anepigraphic. Silenos kneeling l., drinking from amphora. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 173. R2

198. Obv. Anepigraphic. Man-faced bull charging r. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 174. R2

199. Obv. Anepigraphic. Skylla swimming l., holding tunny. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 175. R2

200. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos flying r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 176. R2

201. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion standing r., devouring prey. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 176. R2

202. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bull standing r., head lowered. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 178. R2

203. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ass standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 179. R2

204. Obv. Anepigraphic. Kithara. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 181. R2

205. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Zeus facing 3/4 r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 182. R2

206. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Zeus Ammon facing 3/4 l., with ram ear and horn. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 183. R2

207. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Zeus Ammon l., with ram ear and horn. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 184. R2

208. Obv. Anepigraphic. Diademed head of Poseidon l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 185. R2

209. Obv. Anepigraphic. Veiled head of Demeter facing 3/4 l., wreathed with grain. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 186. R2

210. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Persephone r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 187. R2

211. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 188. R2

212 213

212. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bust of Hermes l., wearing petasos, caduceus over shoulder. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 189. R2

213. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded head of Kabeiros l., wearing pileus. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 190. R2

214. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Silenos l., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 191. R2

215. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Pan r., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 192. R2

216. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of mainad l., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 193. R2

217. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 194. R2

218. Obv. Anepigraphic. Male head l., wearing tainia. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 195. R2

219. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Apollo r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 196. R2

220. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate, bearded and balding male head (Timotheos?) r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 197. R2

221. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded and balding male head (Timotheos?) l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 198. R2

222. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Silenos l., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Triton XV, lot 1316. R2

223. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate and bearded male head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 199. R2

224. Obv. Anepigraphic. Demeter Phosphoros standing r., holding torches. Poppy head to l. and Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 200. R2

225. Obv. Anepigraphic. Demeter (or Persephone?) seated l., holding grain ears and poppy head. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 201. R2

226. Obv. Anepigraphic. Apollo seated r. on omphalos, holding kithara. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 202. R2

227. Obv. Anepigraphic. Aphrodite standing facing 3/4 l., leaning on column before which Eros dances facing 3/4 r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 203. R2

228. Obv. Anepigraphic. Hermes kneeling r., reaching into amphora and holding caduceus. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 204. R2

229. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dionysos seated facing, holding kantharos and thyrsos. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 205. R2

230. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cybele seated l. on lion standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 206. R2

231. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gaia rising from earth l., holding vine branch and grain ears. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 207. R2

232. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling l., strangling serpents. Behind, Iphikles attacked by serpent. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 208. R2

233. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling l., club over shoulder and holding rhyton. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 209. R2

234. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles seated facing 3/4 l., head r., holding club. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 210. R2

235. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior kneeling r., extending arm and holding and shield, spear over shoulder Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 211 (nude warrior). R2

236. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior kneeling l., wearing pileus and holding spear and shield. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 212. R2

237. Obv. Anepigraphic. Horse prancing r., restrained by male figure standing r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 213. R2

238. Obv. Anepigraphic. Horse prancing l., crowned by rider. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 214. R2

239. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eleutheria seated l. on kippos inscribed ELEUQERI, holding wreath. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 215. R2

240. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female figure kneeling r., holding scepter or torch. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 216. R2

241. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling facing, head r., throwing knucklebones. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Boston Supplement 150. R2

242. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged sphinx at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 217. R2

243. Obv. Anepigraphic. Horse galloping l., trailing reins. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 218. R2

244. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cow standing l., head reverted, suckling calf standing r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 219. R2

245. Obv. Anepigraphic. Two eagles standing confronted on omphalos. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 220. R2

246. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle with spread wings standing facing, head r. Tunny below. All on raised disk. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 221. R2

247. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle standing r., head reverted. Tunny below. All on raised disk. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 222. R2

248. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle standing l. Tunny below. All within linear circle with crescent to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 223. R2

249. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 2. R2

250. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. headleSS Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, nos. 6, 12 and 28. R2

251. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r. headleSS Tunny below or above. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, nos. 7–8. R2

252. Obv. Anepigraphic. Two tunny heads l. headleSS Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 10. R2

253. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny swimming r. loTuS above and Tunny head below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 13. R2

254. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny swimming l. above tunny swimming r. PelleT between. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 15. R2

255. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram head l. Tunny above. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 19. R2

256. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock head r. Tunny head to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 20. R2

257. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bird standing r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 21. R2

258. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion-headed bird standing r. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 22. R2

259. Obv. Anepigraphic. Four-winged harpy flying l., holding tunny. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 23. R2

260. Obv. Anepigraphic. Four-winged harpy flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 24. R3

261. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged male figure standing l., holding tunny in each hand. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 27. R3

262. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of eagle-griffin l. with tunny head in mouth. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2002, no. 28a. R3

263. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged tunny flying l. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 33. R2

264. Obv. Anepigraphic. Boar head r. with tunny in mouth. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 34. R3

265. Obv. Anepigraphic. Crab holding tunny head. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 37. R2

266. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion head r. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 38. R2

267. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion head l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 39. R2

268. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle head l. above tunny head r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2002, no. 39a. R2

269. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion forepart at bay l., head reverted Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 40. R2

270. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion forepart standing l., devouring prey. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 42. R2

271. Obv. Anepigraphic. Panther head facing. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 43. R2

272. Obv. Anepigraphic. Wolf head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 44. R2

273. Obv. Anepigraphic. Sow standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 45. R2

274. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram forepart charging l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 46. R2

275. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram kneeling l., head reverted. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 47. R2

276. Obv. Anepigraphic. Goat head l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 48. R2

277. Obv. Anepigraphic. Hound forepart running l., head reverted. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 50. R2

278. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ketos swimming l. Tunny above. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 52. R2

279. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dolphin leaping l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 53. R2

280. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock forepart with spread wing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 51. R2

281. Obv. Anepigraphic. Conjoined lion head l. and ram head r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004 no. 54. R2

282. Obv. Anepigraphic. Chimaira at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 55. R2

283. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin forepart at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. CNG E-Auction 322, lot 204. R2

284. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin head l. Tunny to l. and r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 57. R2

285. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin seated l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 58. R2

286. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 59. R2

287. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged boar forepart flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 61. R2

288. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 64. R2

289. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Perseus in winged helmet l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 65. R2

290. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded male head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 66. R2

291. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Poseidon l., wearing ketos headdress. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. SNG von Aulock 7291. R2

292. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 67. R2

293. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling r., holding club and bow. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 69. R2

294. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling l., holding tunny in each hand. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 70. R2

295. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged sphinx forepart at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 71. R2

296. Obv. Anepigraphic. Sphinx at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 72. R1

297. Obv. Anepigraphic. Siren standing l., holding tunny. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 74. R2

298. Obv. Anepigraphic. Half-length winged female figure l., holding tunny. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 75. R1

299. Obv. Anepigraphic. Janiform head composed of nymph l. and satyr r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 76. R2

300. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Silenos facing. Tunny to l. and r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 77. R2

301. Obv. Anepigraphic. Triton swimming l. Tunny to l. and r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 78. R2

302. Obv. Anepigraphic. Prow left, ornamented with winged boar forepart. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 80. R

303. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion scalp facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 82. R1

304. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion standing l., devouring prey. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 83. R3

305. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 84. R1

306. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion seated l., raising forepaw. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 85. R2

307. Obv. Anepigraphic. Panther at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 86. R2

308. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bull standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 88. R3

309. Obv. Anepigraphic. Recumbent bull l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 89. R2

310. Obv. Anepigraphic. Boar standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 90. R2

311. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 91. R2

312. Obv. Anepigraphic. Goat kneeling l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 92. R2

313. Obv. Anepigraphic. Hound at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 93. R1

314. Obv. Anepigraphic. Two dolphins swimming l. Tunny between. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 95. R2

315. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged lion forepart at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 96. R3

316. Obv. Anepigraphic. Recumbent Chimaira l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 97. R2

317. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 99. R1

318. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 100. R2

319. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged doe forepart flying l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 102. R2

320. Obv. Anepigraphic. Kerberos at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 103. R2

321. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged hound seated l., head reverted. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 104. R1

322. Obv. Anepigraphic. Male head l. on raised disk. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 105. R2

323. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female head l., wearing sphendone. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 106. R2

324. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling r., brandishing club and holding bow. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 107. R1

325. Obv. Anepigraphic. Europa seated on bull charging l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 108. R2

326. Obv. Anepigraphic. Peleus standing r. with arms around waist of Thetis standing r., raising arm. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 109. R2

327. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dolphin rider l., holding tunny. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 110. R2

328. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling r., holding knife and tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, nos. 111 and 113. R1 329

329. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 112. R1

330. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling l., holding Corinthian helmet and sheathed sword. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 114. R1

331. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior kneeling l., playing aulos and holding sheathed sword. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 115. R2

332. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior in Corinthian helmet kneeling l., testing arrow with bow slung on wrist. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 116. R1

333. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior in Corinthian helmet kneeling r., testing arrow with bow slung on wrist. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, nos. 117–118. R1

334. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior in Corinthian helmet standing r. extending arm and holding shield. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 119. R1

335. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike kneeling-running l., head reverted, holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 121. R2

336. Obv. Anepigraphic. Satyr kneeling-running l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 122. R1

337. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged, lion-headed male figure, kneeling-running l., head reverted, holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 123. R1

338. Obv. Anepigraphic. Centaur advancing l., head reverted, holding branch. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 124. R2

339. Obv. Anepigraphic. Man-faced bull standing l., head facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 125. R2

340. Obv. Anepigraphic. Triton swimming l., raising arm. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 126. R2

341. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged sphinx standing l., raising forepaw. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 127. R2

342. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged double-bodied sphinx seated facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 128. R2

343. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gorgoneion facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 129. R1

344. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Zeus Ammon r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald, no. 130. R2

345. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Apollo facing 3/4 r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 132. R2

346. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female head r., wearing sakkos Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 136. R2

347. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Kabeiros l., wearing laureate pileus. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Roma XI, lot 419. R3

348. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Aktaion with stag antler l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 141. R2

349. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Attis r., wearing Phrygian cap. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 142. R1

350. Obv. Anepigraphic. Male head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 143. R2

351. Obv. Anepigraphic. Zeus kneeling r., holding scepter and eagle. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 145. R2

352. Obv. Anepigraphic. Poseidon kneeling r., holding dolphin and trident. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 146. R2

353. Obv. Anepigraphic. Radiate Helios kneeling r., horses l. and r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 148. R2

354. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike flying r., holding wreath. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 153. R2

355. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike kneeling l., holding aphlaston. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 154. R2

356. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dionysos seated l., holding kantharos. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 155. R2

357. Obv. Anepigraphic. Phrixos crouching l., sacrificing ram with sword. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 156. R2

358. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eros crouching l., sacrificing bull with sword. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. SNG von Aulock 1212. R2

359. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gaia rising out of the earth r., holding infant Erechthonios. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Roma E-Sale 27, lot 224. R3

360. Obv. Anepigraphic. Kekrops l., holding olive branch. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 158. R2

361. Obv. Anepigraphic. Child Herakles crouching r., strangling serpents. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 160. R2

362. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling r., strangling lion. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 161. R2

363. Obv. Anepigraphic. Perseus kneeling r., head reverted, holding harpa and head of Medusa. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 162. R2

364. Obv. Anepigraphic. Orestes seated l., holding sword and clutching omphalos. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 165. R2

365. Obv. Anepigraphic. Child Herakles seated facing, head r., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 169. R2

366. Obv. Anepigraphic. Silenos kneeling r., pouring wine into kantharos. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 172. R2

367. Obv. Anepigraphic. Man-faced bull forepart charging r. Tunny to l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 174. R2

368. Obv. Anepigraphic. Skylla swimming l., holding tunny. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 175. R3

369. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion standing r., devouring prey. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 177. R2

370. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bull standing r., head lowered. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 178. R2

371. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ass standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 179. R3

372. Obv. Anepigraphic. Owl standing 3/4 r., head facing. STar to l. and r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 180. R2

373. Obv. Anepigraphic. Kithara. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 181. R2

374. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Zeus facing 3/4 r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Gemini VII, lot 465. R3

375. Obv. Anepigraphic. Diademed head of Poseidon l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Babelon II, no. 2605. R2

376. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Silenos l., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. CNG 103, lot 214. R3

377. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Pan r., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Numismatik Naumann 62, lot 184. R3

378. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling l., strangling serpents. Behind, Iphikles attacked by serpent. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 208. R2

379. Obv. Anepigraphic. Two confronted eagles standing on omphalos. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2006, no. 220. R2

Hemihekta or 1/12

(c. 1.34g)

380. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. headleSS Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 6. R2

381. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, nos. 7 and 9. R2

382. Obv. Anepigraphic. Two tunny heads l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 10. R2

383. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head to l. and r. Tunny between. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 11. R2

384. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny swimming r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 16. R2

385. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l., garfish in mouth. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 18. R2

386. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram head l. Tunny above. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 19. R2

387. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock head r. Tunny head to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 20. R2

388. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bird standing r. Tunny above and below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 21. R2

389. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion-headed bird standing r. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 22. R2

390. Obv. Anepigraphic. Harpy flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 25. R2

391. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged male figure standing l., holding tunny in each hand. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 27. R2

392. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged tunny flying l. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 33. R2

393. Obv. Anepigraphic. Boar head r. with tunny in mouth. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 34. R 3

394. Obv. Anepigraphic. Hound standing l., biting Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 35. R3

395. Obv. Anepigraphic. Crab holding tunny head. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 37. R2

396. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion forepart standing l., devouring prey. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 41. R2

397. Obv. Anepigraphic. Panther head facing. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald, no. 43. R2

398. Obv. Anepigraphic. Sow standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 45. R2

399. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ibex head l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 49. R2

400. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dolphin leaping l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 53 R2

401. Obv. Anepigraphic. Chimaira at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 55. R2

402. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin head l. Tunny to l. and r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 57. R3

403. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged bull forepart flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 60. R2

404. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged boar forepart flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 61. R2

405. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate male head l. Tunny to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 62. R2

406. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded male head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 66. R3

407. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 67. R2

408. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged sphinx forepart at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 71. R3

409. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged sphinx at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 72. R3

410. Obv. Anepigraphic. Siren standing l., holding tunny. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 74. R2

411. Obv. Anepigraphic. Half-length winged female figure l., holding tunny. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 75. R1

412. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Silenos facing. Tunny to l. and r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 77. R3

413. Obv. Anepigraphic. Triton swimming l., holding tunny head. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 78. R2

414. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dolphin-headed, winged male figure flying l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 79. R3

415. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion scalp. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 82. R1

416. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion standing l., devouring prey. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 83. R3

417. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion seated l., raising forepaw. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 85. R2

418. Obv. Anepigraphic. Panther at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 86. R2

419. Obv. Anepigraphic. Recumbent bull l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 89. R2

420. Obv. Anepigraphic. Boar standing l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 90. R2

421. Obv. Anepigraphic. Hound at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 93. R1

422. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle-griffin seated l., raising forepaw. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 101. R2

423. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged doe forepart flying l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 102. R2

424. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged hound seated l., head reverted. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 104. R1

425. Obv. Anepigraphic. Male head l. on raised disk. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 105. R2

426. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female head l., wearing sphendone. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 106. R2

427. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 112. R1

428. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike kneeling-running l., head reverted, holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 121. R2

429. Obv. Anepigraphic. Satyr kneeling-running l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 122. R1

430. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged, lion-headed male figure, kneeling-running l., head reverted, holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 123. R2

431. Obv. Anepigraphic. Man-faced bull standing l., head facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 125. R2

432. Obv. Anepigraphic. Triton swimming l., holding wreath. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 126. R2

433. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Zeus Ammon r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 130. R2

434. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Attis r., wearing Phrygian cap. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 142. R2

435. Obv. Anepigraphic. Male head l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 143. R2

436. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike kneeling l., holding aphlaston. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 154. R2

437. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dionysos reclining l. on panther skin, holding kantharos. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 155. R3

438. Obv. Anepigraphic. Phrixos crouching l., sacrificing ram with sword. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 156. R3

439. Obv. Anepigraphic. Herakles kneeling r., strangling lion. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 161. R3

440. Obv. Anepigraphic. Perseus kneeling r., head l., holding harpa and head of Medusa. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 162. R2

441. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion standing r., devouring prey. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 177.

442. Obv. Anepigraphic. Kithara. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 181. R2

443. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Silenos l., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 191. R2

444. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eleutheria seated l. on kippos inscribed ELEUQERI, holding wreath. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 215. R3

1/24 Staters (c. 0.67g)

445. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 3. R2

446. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. H. D. Rauch, Summer 2013, lot 204. R2

447. Obv. Anepigraphic. Chimaira at bay l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 97. R2

448. Obv. Anepigraphic. Youth kneeling l., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 112. R2

449. Obv. Anepigraphic. Warrior kneeling l., playing aulos and holding sheathed sword. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 115. R3

450. Obv. Anepigraphic. Man-faced bull standing l., head facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 125. R2

451. Obv. Anepigraphic. Winged double-bodied sphinx seated facing. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 128. R2

452. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Zeus r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2002, no. 1b. R3

453. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Zeus Ammon r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 130. R2

454. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–450 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 134. R2

455. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded head of Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 140. R2

456. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Attis r., wearing Phrygian cap. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 142. R2

457. Obv. Anepigraphic. Zeus kneeling r., holding scepter and eagle. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 145. R2

458. Anepigraphic. Apollo kneeling r., holding bow and arrow. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Roma XIX, lot 512. R3

459. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike kneeling l., holding aphlaston. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 154. R2

460. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dionysos reclining l. on panther skin, holding kantharos Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 155. R2

461. Obv. Anepigraphic. Phrixos crouching l., sacrificing ram with sword. Medusa. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Roma XIX, lot 514. R3

462. Anepigraphic. Child Herakles seated facing, head r., holding tunny. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. CNG EA 516, lot 223. R3

463. Obv. Anepigraphic. Perseus kneeling r., head l., holding harpa and head of Medusa. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 162. R2

464. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion standing r., devouring prey. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 177. R2

465. Obv. Anepigraphic. Kithara. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 450–330 BC. Hurter and Liewald 2004, no. 181. R2

466. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Silenos l., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Triton XV, lot 1316. R2

467. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Pan r., wreathed with ivy. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. CNG EA 484, lot 277. R3

468. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eleutheria seated l. on kippos inscribed ELEUQERI, holding wreath. Tunny below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 400–330 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 215. R2

1/48 Staters (c. 0.67g)

469. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 4. R2

470. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. with open mouth. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 5. R2

gold (attiC standard)

Staters (c. 8.6g)

471. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIMACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike, resting arm on shield, spear behind. Monogram to l. Struck c. 280–250 BC. Dewing 1356. R3

472. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIMACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike, resting arm on shield, spear behind. Monogram to l. Tunny in exergue. Struck c. 250–190 BC. Triton VI, lot 233. R3

473. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIMACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike, resting arm on shield, spear behind.  to l. bull in exergue. Struck c. 250–190 BC. Seyrig 1968, no. 25. R3

silver (milesian standard)

Stater (c. 14.1g)

474. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. Headless tunny r. above. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. SNG France 355. R2

Diobols (c. 1.17g)

475. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. Rev. Rough incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 5. R2

476. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r. Tunny swimming r. above. Rev. Rough incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Rosen 514. R2

477. Obv. Anepigraphic. Crab holding tunny in claws. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Rough incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Numismatik Naumann 73, lot 128. R2

478. Obv. Anepigraphic. Lion head r. with tunny in mouth. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Rough incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Numismatik Naumann 73, lot 128. R2

479. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Rosen 517. R2

480. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dolphin above tunny swimming l. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Nomos obolos 15, lot 295. R2

Obols (c. 0.66g)

481. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. Rev. Rough incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 3. R2

482. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 2. R2

483. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny swimming l. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 5. R2

484. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny swimming r. with lotus in mouth. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Rosen 237 (Koresia). R2

485. Obv. Anepigraphic. Two tunnies swimming r. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Leu Numismatik WA 15, lot 290. R2

486. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dolphin above tunny swimming r. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Nomos obolos 17, lot 236. R2

Hemiobols (c. 0.42g)

487. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head l. with fish in mouth Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 600–550 BC. Leu Numismatik WA 19, lot 1009. R2

488. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r. above tunny swimming r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Fritze 1912, no. 2. R2

489. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r. above tunny head l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Leu Numismatik WA 19, lot 1007. R2

490. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny head r. with lotus in mouth. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Leu Numismatik WA 15, lot 288. R2

491. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny swimming l. Lotus below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Rosen 520. R2

492. Obv. Anepigraphic. Tunny swimming r. Lotus below. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–480 BC. Leu Numismatik WA 15, lot 294. R2

493. Obv. Anepigraphic. Dolphin above tunny swimming l. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Leu Numismatik WA 15, lot 289. R2

494. Obv. Anepigraphic. Stag head facing. Tunny to l. and r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 550–500 BC. Klein 263. R2

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Tetrobol (c. 2.3g)

495. Obv. Head of Attis l., wearing Phrygian cap. Tunny below. Rev. . Lion head l. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 393. R2

Diobols (c. 1.3g)

496. Obv. Boar forepart charging l. H on shoulder (if any). Tunny to r. Rev. Lion head l. within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 393. S

Obols (c. 0.6g)

497. Obv. Boar forepart charging l. Rev. Tunny swimming l. above tunny swimming r. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Fritze 1913, no. 17. R2

498. Obv. Boar forepart charging l. Tunny to r. Rev.  (if any). Lion head l. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 379. C

493 494

499. Obv. Boar forepart charging r. Tunny to l. Rev. . Lion head l. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 392. R1

500. Obv. Boar forepart charging l.  on shoulder. Tunny to r. Rev. Lion head l. PanTher head above. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 379. S

501. Obv. Boar forepart charging l. Tunny to r. Rev. Lion head l. STar above. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 379. C

502. Obv. Boar forepart charging l. Tunny to r. Rev. Lion head r. STar above. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Leu Numismatic WA 16, lot 771. R2

Hemiobols (c. 0.3g)

503. Obv. Head of Hermes r., wearing winged petasos. Rev. KU/Iz. Tunny swimming r. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Fritze 1913, no. 21. R1

504. Obv. Head of Attis l., wearing Phrygian cap. Tunny below. Rev. . Bull head r. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 393. R2

silver (reduCed persiC standard)

Didrachm or Double Siglos (c. 10.10)

505. Obv. Head of Kore r., wreathed with grain. Rev. KUzI/KHNWN. Tripod. Monogram to r. Struck second century BC. Gulbenkian 963. R3

Stater or Siglos (c. 4.85g)

506. Obv. Boar forepart charging l. Tunny to r. Rev. . Lion head l. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 379. R2

Obols or Sixth Sigloi (c. 0.8g)

507. Obv. Boar forepart charging l.  on shoulder (if any). Tunny to r. Rev. Lion head l. within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 393. C

508. Obv. Boar forepart charging l. Tunny to r. Rev. . Lion head l. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 380–384. C

silver (CHian standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 15.6g)

509. Obv. SWTEIRA. Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KUzIKHNWN. Lion head l. Symbol (bee, CorinThian helmeT, kantharos, roSe, or owl) to r. Tunny below. Struck c. 390–341/0 BC. Fritze 1914, no. 24. R1

510. Obv. SWTEIRA. Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KU–zI. Lion head l. Symbol (amPhora, aSTraGaloS, barleyCorn, bee, bucranium, bull head, CaduCeuS, Club, Grain ear, GraPe bunCh, hydria, kantharos, pileus, or STar) to r. Tunny below. Struck c. 390–341/0 BC. Fritze 1913, no. 23. R1

Tridrachm (11.4g)

511. Obv. SUN. Child Herakles crouching r., strangling serpents. Rev. KU–zI. Lion head l. Tunny below. Struck c. 405/4 BC. Hill 1928, no. 30. R3

Drachms (c. 3.9g)

512. Obv. SWTEIRA. Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KU–zI. Lion head l. Monogram to r. or l. Symbol (bee, bucranium, bull head, STar, or wreaTh) to r. (if any). Tunny below. Struck c. 394–330 BC. SNG Copenhagen Mysia, no. 54. R1 509 510

Diobol (c. 1.3g)

513. Obv. SWTEI. Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KU–zI. Lion head l. Tunny below. Struck c. 394–330 BC. SNG von Aulock 7348. R2

silver (rHodian standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 13.6g)

514. Obv. SWTEIRA. Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KU–zI. Apollo seated l. on omphalos, holding phiale and kithara. wreaTh to l. or monogram to l. and r. Tunny below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 414. R2

515. Obv. SWTEIRA. Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Tunny below. Rev. KU–zI. Apollo seated l. on omphalos, holding plektron and kithara. bucranium to l. Monogram to r. Tunny in exergue. Struck third century BC. SNG France 413. R2

516. Obv. SWTEIRA. Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KU–zI. Apollo seated r. on omphalos, holding phiale and kithara. monogram to l. and r. Tunny below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 412. R2

517. Obv. SWTEIRA (if any). Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Tunny below (if any). Rev. KU–zI. Apollo seated l. on omphalos, holding phiale and resting elbow on kithara. Symbol (bow, eaGle, GraPe bunCh horSe foreParT, Prow, STar, or ThyrSoS) to l. (if any). Monogram to r. and/ or l. Tunny below (if any). Struck third century BC. SNG France 415–418. R1 515 516

silver (persiC standard)

Didrachm or Siglos (5.6g)

518. Obv. SWTEIRA. Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KU–zI. Apollo seated l. on omphalos, holding phiale and resting elbow on kithara. Monogram to l. Struck third century BC. SNG France 419. R2

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

519. Obv. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. TorCh to l. Monogram to l. and/or beneath throne. Struck c. 280–275 BC. Price 1339–1341. S

520. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIMACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike, resting arm on shield, spear behind. Monogram to l. Tunny in exergue (if any). Struck c. 280–250 BC. SNG France 2520–2525. R1

521. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIMACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike,

resting arm on shield, spear behind. Monogram to l. (if any). bucranium or ThunderbolT to l. Tunny in exergue. Struck c. 250–190 BC. SNG France 2518–2519. R1

522. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIMACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike, resting arm on shield, spear behind. amPhora to l. (if any). bucranium in exergue. Struck c. 250–190 BC. SNG France 2526. R1

523. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIMACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike, resting arm on shield, spear behind. Monogram(s) to l. wreaTh to l. (if any). TorCh in exergue. Struck c. 250–190 BC. SNG France 2527–2529. R1

524. Obv. Diademed head of Kore Soteira r., wreathed with oak. Rev. KUzI/ KHNWN. Torch. Monogram above and below. All within oak wreath. Struck c. 166–130 BC. Fritze 1914, no. 33. R1

Didrachms (c. 7.12g)

525. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wreathed with oak. Rev. KU/zI. Thunderbolt. All within oak wreath. Monogram above and below. Struck c. 166–130 BC. Fritze 1914, no. 34. R2

Drachms (c. 3.5g)

526. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wreathed with oak. Rev. KU/zI. Torch. All within oak wreath. Monogram above and below. Struck c. 166–130 BC. SNG von Aulock 1234. R2

Diobol (c. 1.6g)

527. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wreathed with oak. Rev. KU/zI. Tunny swimming l. All within oak wreath. Monogram above and below. Struck c. 166–130 BC. Fritze 1914, no. 35. R2

brass

Denomination A (26–31mm, 9.56–13.71)

528. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wreathed with oak. Rev. KUzI/KHNWN. Tripod. wreaTh above and TorCh below. Monogram to l. and/or r. Struck first century BC. Fritze 1914, nos. 38–40. C

bronze

Denomination A (25–31mm, 12.23–17.16)

529. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KUzI. Bull charging l. Monogram below. Struck second–first centuries BC. Fritze 1917, no. 10. R2

530. Obv. Prow of galley r. Rev. K–U/z–I. Bucranium. All within oak wreath. Monogram above. Struck second–first centuries BC. Fritze 1917, no. 11. S

531. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with oak. Rev. K–U/z–I. Bucranium. Monogram above. All within grain wreath. Struck second–first centuries BC. Fritze 1917, no. 13. R1

532. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with oak and grain. Rev. K–U/z–I. Tripod. Tunny below. Monogram to l. and/or r. aphlaston, Grain ear or GraPe bunCh to l. or r. (if any). Struck second–first centuries BC. Fritze 1917, no. 21. C

533. Obv. Prow r. Rev. KU/zI. Monogram. All within oak wreath. Struck late second–first centuries BC. Fritze 1914, no. 12. R2

Denomination A/B (23–26mm, 5.38–8.4g)

534. Obv. Bull charging r. Grain ear below. Rev. KUzI/KHNWN. Torch. Struck first century BC. Fritze 1914, nos. 38–40. S

Denomination B (20–22mm, 6.91–7.04g)

535. Obv. KUzI. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. Eagle standing r. on bucranium. All within oak wreath. Monogram above. Struck third century BC. Fritze 1914, nos. 15–16. R1

Denomination C (16–19mm, 4.73–6.12g)

536. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. KU/zI. Tripod. Tunny below. Monogram to r. Tunny below. Struck late fourth–early third century BC. Fritze 1914, nos. 3 and 5. R1

537. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KU/zI. Tripod. Tunny below. Monogram to l. or r. (if any). TridenT to r. (if any). Struck third century BC. Fritze 1917, nos. 6–7. S

538. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. K–U/z–I. Tripod. Tunny below. Monogram to r. Struck third century BC or later. SNG von Aulock 1229. R2

539. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wreathed with grain. Rev. KU/zI. Monogram within oak wreath. Struck c. 166–130 BC. Fritze 1917, no. 24. S

536

537

538

539

Denomination D (10–15mm, 1.16–2.59g)

540. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. KU/zI. Tripod. Tunny below. Monogram or symbol to r. Struck third century BC. Fritze 1917, nos. 1 and 4. R1

541. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. K–U/z–I. Tripod. Tunny below. Struck third century BC. Fritze 1914, nos. 15–16. R1

542. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Rev. KU/zI. Tripod. Monogram to r. Tunny below. Struck third century BC. Aquila 3, lot 436. R2

543. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. KUzI. Bull head l. Symbol (CaduCeuS, ThunderbolT, or TridenT) to r. Struck late third–early second centuries BC. Fritze 1914, no. 19. R1

544. Obv. Bull head r. Rev. KU/zI. Monogram. All within oak wreath. Struck c. 166–130 BC. Fritze 1914, nos. 25–27. R1

545. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. Monogram. All within oak wreath. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. Fritze 1914, no. 8. R3

546. Obv. Head of Kore Soteira r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. K–U. Thyrsos. All within oak wreath. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. Fritze 1914, no. 9. R2

547. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. KU. Monogram. All surrounded by three dolphins swimming clockwise. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. Fritze 1914, no. 20. R2

Denomination E (8–11mm, 0.55–1.1g)

548. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. KU–zI. Amphora. Tunny below. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Fritze 1914, nos. 25–27. C

lamPSakoS

History

In 654/3 BC, a native Mysian coastal settlement named Bebrykia was obtained by Aiolian Greek Phokaians in the aftermath of a conflict with the surrounding Bebrykians. Bebrykia subsequently received colonists from Phokaia and was refounded as the Greek city of Lampsakos.

The city was defended by an akropolis and later by fortification walls. It possessed an agricultural hinterland that was known in antiquity for the quality of the wine it produced. It also controlled several dependent cities including Abranos, Kolonai, Iolkos, and Myrmissos. Lampsakos grew wealthy from maritime trade through its harbor on the Hellespont and from local gold mines. The city boasted a temple of the wine god, Dionysos, and a sanctuary dedicated to his ithyphallic son, Priapos. The latter was actually an indigenous Mysian fertility deity introduced to the wider Greek world through his cult center at Lampsakos.

Like much of western Anatolia, Lampsakos was absorbed into the kingdom of the Lydian king, Croesus (c. 560–546 BC). While subject to Croesus, the city suffered attack by Miltiades, the Athenian tyrant of the Thracian Chersonesos (c. 556–525 BC). The Lampsakenes not only defeated the invading Chersonesan forces but managed to capture Miltiades alive. Unfortunately, the tyrant turned out to be a friend of Croesus and the Lampsakenes were forced to release him.

After Croesus was defeated by the Great King Cyrus II, in 564 BC, Lampsakos was incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian empire and placed under the authority of the satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia. Under the Persian administration, Lampsakos was ruled by local tyrants who supported Miletos in the disastrous Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC). Lampsakene involvement in this rebellion against the Great King Darius I, was crushed in 498/7 BC and the city was restored to the Persian empire. In c. 464 BC, the Great King, Artaxerxes I, granted the revenues of Lampsakos to the exiled Athenian statesman, Themistokles, after he took up Persian service.

After the allied Greek destruction of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC), the city slipped from Persian control and joined the Athenian-led Delian League. This alliance was initially formed to defend the Greek cities against Persian aggression but evolved into the basis for an Athenian empire. As a tributary member of the League, Lampsakos initially supported the Athenian cause in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. However, like neighboring Abydos, in 411 BC Lampsakos revolted, only to be recaptured by the Athenian admiral, Strombichides, before the year was out. He ordered the erection of new fortification walls in an effort to hold the city, but they were not strong enough to the prevent the fall of the city to the Spartan admiral, Lysander, in 405 BC.

Once in the hands of Lysander, Lampsakos became the primary base of operations for the Spartan fleet against the Athenians in the Hellespont. From here, he inflicted the crushing defeat at the Battle of Aigospotamoi (405 BC) that ended Athenian naval power and took control of Byzantion and Chalkedon. After the total defeat of Athens in the following year, Lampsakos remained under Spartan hegemony until the early phase of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes. In 394 BC, a Persian fleet commanded by the Athenian general, Konon, destroyed the Spartan fleet at the Battle of Knidos. This disaster for the Spartans permitted the reabsorption of Lampsakos into the Persian empire, a fact recognized by the

Greek belligerents under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War.

Under the restored Persian administration, Lampsakos continued to be an important naval base and a center of power for Orontas, the satrap of Mysia (357–352 BC), Memnon and Mentor of Rhodes serving as satraps of Troas (363/2–353/2 BC and 342–334 BC), and Spithridates, the satrap of Lydia and Ionia who commanded the Hyrcanian cavalry against Alexander the Great at the Battle of the Granikos River in 334 BC.

Alexander’s defeat of the combined forces of the western Persian satraps at the Granikos permitted the conquest of Mysia and threw open the gates of the wider Persian empire. Reportedly, after the battle the Macedonian king continued to nurse a grudge against the Lampsakenes for their role in supporting the Persians and swore that he would do the opposite of any request made by the rhetorician Anaximenes, who had been sent to intercede on their behalf. Knowing Alexander’s frame of mind, Anaximenes proceeded to beg him to enslave the women and children of Lampsakos, burn its temples and raze its walls. This left the king with little other choice but to pardon the Lampsakenes and their city was spared.

After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Lampsakos fell under the influence of his former generals, first Antigonos Monophthalmos and then Lysimachos, as they struggled to establish their own kingdoms. In 281 BC, Lysimachos was killed and Lampsakos was absorbed, along with the rest of western Anatolia, into the empire of Seleukos I. The city, which may have retained a high degree of autonomy, remained part of the Seleukid empire probably until the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC) fought between Seleukos II Kallinikos and the Ptolemaic king, Ptolemy III Euergetes. During this period, Lampsakos is thought to have fallen under Ptolemaic influence although it appears to have returned to nominal Seleukid control not long after the end of the conflict. As the third century progressed, however, Seleukid influence in Mysia disintegrated and was replaced by that of the rising power of Attalid Pergamon. This led to problems in 196 BC, when Antiochos III attempted to reassert Seleukid authority.

In response to Lampsakene refusal to recognize his suzerainty, the Seleukid king besieged the city with forces stationed in nearby Abydos. Fearing for their safety, the Lampsakenes sought protection from the Romans who had just successfully completed the Second Macedonian War (201–197 BC) and were proclaiming the freedom of mainland Greece from the domination of Philip V and the Macedonian kingdom. The Romans recognized Lampsakos as a free allied city (civitas foederata) and provided Hegesias, the Lampsakene ambassador, with letters stating their position as a warning to Antiochos III and any other king who might infringe on the city’s freedom. The Seleukid monarch’s failure to respect this warning contributed to the breakdown of the diplomatic relationship between Rome and the Seleukid empire and the outbreak of the Aitolian War (192–189 BC). This conflict saw Antiochos III invade mainland Greece in support of the disgruntled Aitolian League against the Romans. Only after the king was defeated at Thermopylai (191 BC) and a Roman force had crossed into western Anatolia did the king offer to restore Lampsakos to its autonomy, but by then it was too late. The Seleukid army was crushed at the Battle of Magnesia (189 BC) and, under the terms of the Peace of Apamea (188 BC) that ended the war, the king was forced to give up not only Lampsakos but the entirety of the Seleukid empire in Anatolia north of the Tauros Mountains.

The status of Lampsakos as a free and allied city was reconfirmed by the Romans at the beginning of the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC), but this

may have been lost in the context of the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC) between the Romans and the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator. In 80 BC, when the city hosted the notoriously corrupt C. Verres while traveling as a legate to King Nikomedes IV of Bithynia, Lampsakos is noted to have been heavily indebted to Roman creditors. This suggests that it may have suffered the severe financial penalties imposed by the proconsul L. Cornelius Sulla on cities that had supported Mithradates VI during the conflict. The apparent problems of Lampsakos were made worse by Verres’stopover, during which he attempted to abduct the daughter of a leading citizen named Philodemos. The opposition of Philodemos and his son to the Roman legate sparked a riot in which Verres’ lictor was killed. In the show trial that followed, both Lampsakenes were condemned to death for the murder of a Roman citizen.

Early in the Third Mithradatic War (73–63 BC), Mithradates VI besieged the city of Kyzikos, but was forced to abandon the project after the timely arrival of the proconsul, L. Licinius Lucullus. In an attempt to save themselves from destruction at the hands of the Romans, the Pontic land forces made for the port of Lampsakos in order to be picked up by the withdrawing fleet. Presumably the Lampsakenes assisted these troops under compulsion since only three years later the Roman orator, M. Tullius Cicero, could describe the Lampsakenes as “especially kind to all Roman citizens.”

Probably around 45 BC, Julius Caesar installed a colony of Roman military veterans at Lampsakos with the title Colonia Gemella Iulia Lampsacus (“Twin Julian Colony Lampsacus”). The colony was called a “Twin” because it was established at the same time as colony at nearby Parion. These colonies and the rest of the province of Asia briefly fell into the hands of Caesar’s assassins between 44 and 42 BC, but following their defeat and the division of the Roman Empire by the victorious triumvirs they became part of the eastern territories allotted to the triumvir Mark Antony.

In 35 BC, Sextus Pompeius, the piratical son of the dead Pompey the Great and opponent of the triumvirs, captured Lampsakos through trickery and convinced the veterans of the Roman colony to join him in making war on Antony by offering them large bounties. Unfortunately, the campaign that followed quickly came to naught and ended with the capture and execution of Sextus Pompeius. A few years later, in 31 BC, Antony was defeated at the battle of Actium and Lampsakos became part of the new unified Roman empire of Octavian.

Coinage

The earliest coinage of Lampsakos was long believed to be an electrum coinage of staters and hektai struck in the late sixth century BC. However, hoard evidence has shown that these issues must belong to the fifth century BC and recent scholarship has associated them with the Lampsakene revolt against the Athenians in 411 BC. The weight standard of the coinage (c. 15.4g to the stater) has often been described as a reduced Phokaian standard, but it is most likely the Chian standard, which seems to have been introduced into Mysia through the operations of the Spartan fleet. Both denominations feature the forepart of Pegasos on the obverse and a quadripartite punch design on the reverse. The hektai are often extremely pale compared to the staters, indicating that they have a far lower gold content.

Although the city’s electrum coinage probably ceased production by the end of the sixth century BC, Lampsakos began to strike an extensive series of gold staters at the end of the fifth century BC that continued through the fourth century

BC. These were struck to the weight of the widely recognized gold daric (8.41g) of the Persic weight system. The initial impetus for the coinage seems to have come from Lysander’s need to outfit a powerful fleet for the closing act of the Peloponnesian war, but it continued in production to meet the needs of subsequent Spartan commanders and Persian satraps. Like the contemporary electrum staters of Kyzikos, the obverse types used for Lampsakene gold staters were variable, although the Pegasos forepart badge of the city consistently appeared on the reverse. Types shared with Kyzikos (Aktaion, Gaia, Kabeiros) suggest some degree of coordination between the mints. The type depicting the child Herakles strangling the serpents sent by Hera to kill him in his crib is thought to be an allegory of the Spartan struggle against the Athenian empire in 405 BC and should be connected to the silver alliance coinages of Byzantion, Ephesos, Iasos, Kyzikos and Samos probably struck at the same time. Likewise the head of Helios on one issue of Lampsakene staters seems to point to production under Memnon of Rhodes, while the portrait of a Persian satrap on another has been thought to represent Orontas.

After the Macedonian conquest, Lampsakos remained a center of gold coin production in the late fourth and early third centuries BC, but the old variable types were replaced with the widely recognized Athena head and Nike types of Alexander the Great’s imperial coinage and the Persic standard was abandoned in favor of the Attic (c. 8.6g to the stater). Gold staters struck during the lifetimes of Alexander the Great, Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV, as well as staters struck during the reign of Lysimachos featuring the types of Alexander the Great with horn of Ammon and Athena Nikephoros are listed separately under those kings (see the Handbook of Coins of Macedonia and Its Neighbors, Part 1, nos. 893c, 934c, 968a, and Part 2, no. 1750b).

Silver coinage seems to have developed at Lampsakos at the end of the sixth century BC, beginning with didrachms, tetrobols and diobols featuring the forepart of Pegasos on the obverse and a quadripartite punch design on the reverse. These coins were struck to the same so-called ‘Troad’ standard (c. 7.6g to the stater) employed at Kyzikos in the same period.

The ‘Troad’-weight Pegasos series was closely followed in the early fifth century BC by a new coinage featuring a janiform female head on the obverse and the head of Athena within an incuse square on the reverse. This retained the ‘Troad’ standard for drachms and diobols but employed the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos) for sigloi and obols. A Persic-weight siglos also seems to have been struck for the preceding Pegasos coinage. Presumably the issues on the ‘Troad’ standard were produced for regional circulation while those of Persic weight were intended for wider use.

In the fourth century BC, Lampsakos introduced a fractional coinage consisting of tetrobols and diobols struck to the Chian standard (15.6g to the tetradrachm). This continued to employ the janiform head and Athena head types of the preceding ‘Troad’- and Persic-weight coinage, but updated them to a high Classical style and abandoned the incuse punch around the reverse design. In the same period, Lampsakos also struck silver coins in the names of the satraps Orontas, Memnon of Rhodes and Spithridates, all of which are listed separately.

Under Alexander the Great and his successors, Lampsakos struck silver coins— especially drachms—to the Attic standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) featuring the imperial types of the Macedonian conqueror: the head of Herakles on the obverse and the enthroned figure of Zeus on the reverse. Issues produced during the reigns of Alexander the Great, Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV are listed separately under those kings. The city also produced Attic-weight tetradrachms

under Lysimachos with his standard types of Alexander and Athena Nikephoros. Both series are listed separately under the relevant kings (see the Handbook of Coins of Macedonia and Its Neighbors, Part 1, nos. 910b, 944a, 974b and Part 2, no. 1750b) The Lysimachos types were resurrected for several tetradrachm issues at Lampsakos, perhaps in the contexts of Galatian (Celtic) marauding in the early third century BC and the Third Macedonian War in 171–168 BC.

In the second century BC, Lampsakos served as a mint for the Seleukid kings Antiochos II Theos (261–242 BC) and Antiochos Hierax (242–227 BC) (see the Handbook of Syrian Coins, nos. 236b, 238b, 339c, 400c, 401 and 403c). Under these rulers the city struck Attic-weight tetradrachms featuring royal portraits on the obverse and the Seleukid dynastic type of seated Apollo on the reverse. All of these coins are listed separately under the respective kings.

Perhaps following the Seleukid issues of the third century BC, Lampsakos struck a new fractional silver coinage featuring the forepart of Pegasos on the reverse of all denominations and the head of Athena on tetrobols, that of Apollo on diobols and the facing head of Apollo on hemiobols. The weight standard is slightly lower than the Chian standard previously used for civic issues and gives the impression of a reversion to the old ‘Troad’ weight standard of the fifth century BC.

No further silver coinage appears to have been produced by the city until the second century BC, when an unexpected emission of diobols was struck to a reduced Attic standard (c. 16.5g to the tetradrachm). This features the head of Apollo on the obverse and the forepart of Pegasos on the reverse.

The diobols were followed in the first decades of the first century BC by an impressive issue of tetradrachms and rare fractions on the reduced Attic standard. Tetradrachms pair the head of Priapos with the standing figure of Apollo and the head of Apollo with the standing figure of Priapos. A drachm is also known with the latter type. The introduction of Priapos types is thought to reflect an epiphany of the god during a period of military and economic crisis in the late second century BC while the immediate impetus for the reduced Attic-weight coinage may have come from the Mithradatic Wars and Roman exactions.

Bronze coinage probably began at Lampsakos with several emissions of denomination E in the late fifth century BC. These issues pair the head of Athena with an amphora or the forepart of Pegasos with the head of Hermes or his caduceus. The treatment of Hermes is very similar to the depiction of the god on a fifth-century issue of silver trihemitetartemoria at Kyzikos.

In the fourth century BC and probably continuing into the third, the city’s bronze coinage developed to include three denominations (B, C and D). An issue of denomination C, which featured the same janiform female head and Athena head types of the fifth-century silver coinage is likely to have preceded emissions of denominations B and D depicting an uncertain female head on the obverse and the forepart of Pegasos on the reverse, and of B and C pairing the head of Athena with the same reverse. The treatment of Athena on some of these issues suggests the influence of Alexander the Great’s gold stater type. Additional emissions of denomination D featuring a Pegasos forepart reverse depict a Corinthian helmet or a caduceus within a wreath on the obverse.

A further issue of denomination D pairing the head of Zeus with the forepart of Pegasos may also belong to the late fourth century BC. It shares the same system of symbolic controls found on the other issues of this period, although the use of broken-bar alpha (a) on some issues seem to point to a later date. Similar types were employed by the cities of Adramyttion and Iolla in the fourth century BC.

Several further bronze emissions appear to have been produced in the second

century BC. One series consisting of denominations B, C and D pairs the head of Apollo with his kithara (B), the head of Priapos with his kantharos (C) and Demeter with a thunderbolt (D). These coins are linked by their shared use of a Pegasos forepart as an adjunct symbol. Another series, probably belonging to the late second century BC, involves two emissions of bronze denomination B pairing the head of Apollo with the standing figure of Athena Nikephoros or the head of Athena with the figure of Apollo, apparently prefiguring the relationship between Apollo and Priapos on the reduced Attic-weight silver coinages of the early first century BC. The treatment of the head of Apollo on the bronze issue associates it with the reduced Attic-weight silver diobol.

In the first decades of the first century BC, the bronze system seems to have expanded to include four denominations (A/B, B, D and E). The largest of these is clearly connected to the reduced Attic-weight silver through its use of the same Priapos head type, which is paired on the bronze coinage with the forepart of Pegasos on the reverse. Denomination B features the head of Dionysos and his thyrsos within an ivy wreath while denomination D carries the head of Priapos and an ivy wreath. The latter types were also employed for denomination E. An emission of this smallest denomination also features the head of the panther of Dionysos on the obverse and the god’s thyrsos on the reverse.

In addition to Greek civic coins, as a Roman colony Lampsakos also struck bronze coins of denomination B bearing the portrait of Julius Caesar on the obverse and depicting the Roman foundation ritual in which a priest plowed the sulcus primigenius (first furrow) to delineate the area of the settlement.

Until about the mid-fifth century BC, all coins struck at Lampsakos were anepigraphic, as were the gold coins produced before the Battle of the Granikos. However, from the late fifth to the late second century BC, silver and bronze coins regularly carried an abbreviated Greek legend (usually reduced to the first 3–5 letters) naming “the Lampsakenes” as the issuing authority. This ethnic inscription always appears on the reverse of silver coins, but it is not infrequently broken up between the obverse and reverse on bronze issues of the late fourth and third centuries BC. In the late second and early first centuries BC, full Greek legends appear on Lampsakene silver and on bronze denominations A/B and B. These same issues are also characterized by the use of monograms and magistrate names.

As is typical for coinage struck by Roman colonies, that produced by Lampsakos as Colonia Gemella Iulia Lampsacus in the mid-first century BC features legends entirely in Latin. These give the initials of the colony’s name and identify the duovirs (chief magistrates) and the legate responsible for the coinage.

eleCtrum (‘troad’ standard)

Staters (c. 15.4g)

549. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying l. amPhora above. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 411 BC. Baldwin 1914, Period I, no. 1. R3

550. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying l. All within grape vine wreath. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 411 BC. Baldwin 1914, Period I, no. 1. R3

551. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying l. amPhora above (if any). Monogram in neck (if any). All within grape vine wreath. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square with alternately raised and sunk compartments. Monogram in compartment (if any). Struck c. 411 BC. Baldwin 1914, Period I, nos. 3–13. R1

552. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying l.  below. All within grape vine wreath. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square with alternately raised and sunk compartments. Struck c. 411 BC. Baldwin 1914, Period II, no. 1. R1

Pale Hektai or 1/6 Staters (c. 2.6g)

553. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 411 BC. CNG EA 387, lot 153. R3

554. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 411 BC. SNG Kayhan 1102. R3

555. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying r. All within grape vine wreath. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 411 BC. Leu Numismatik Web Auction 19, lot 1024. R3

gold (persiC standard)

Staters or Darics (c. 8.41g)

556. Obv. Anepigraphic. Child Herakles crouching r., strangling serpents. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying l. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 405/4 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 1. R2

557. Obv. Anepigraphic. Helle riding ram charging l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying l. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 2. R2

558. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Perseus in winged helmet l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394– BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 3. R2

559. Obv. Anepigraphic. Orpheus seated r. on rock, holding kithara. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 4. R2

560. Obv. Anepigraphic. Thetis seated l. on dolphin swimming r., holding shield and greaves. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 5. R2

561. Obv. Anepigraphic. Archer kneeling r., holding bow and arrow. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 6. R2

562. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike kneeling l., sacrificing ram with knife. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–336 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 7. R2

563. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of satyr facing 3/4 l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 8. R2

564. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Persephone r., wreathed with grain. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 9. R2

565. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded head of Dionysos l., wreathed with ivy. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, nos. 10, 22 and 35. R2

566. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of mainad l., wreathed with ivy. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 11. R2

567. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Pan l., wreathed with ivy. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 12. R2

568. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Hermes l., wearing petasos. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 13. R1

569. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–336 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 14. R1

570. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded head of Herakles in lion skin headdress l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–336 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 15. R2

571. Obv. Anepigraphic. Veiled head of Demeter l., wreathed with grain. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 16. R2

572. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of mainad l., wearing mitra and wreathed with ivy. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 17. R1

573. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 18. R2

574. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of mainad l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with ivy. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–336 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 19. R2

575. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Attic helmet facing 3/4 r. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 20. R2

576. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded head of Orontas l., wearing kyrbasia with diadem. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck under Orontas or Artabazos, c. 357–352 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 21. R2

577. Obv. Anepigraphic. Radiate head of Helios l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck under Memnon of Rhodes, c. 356–354 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 23. R2

578. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Zeus l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 24. R3

579. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gaia rising from ground l., holding grain ears and grapes. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 25. R2

580. Obv. Anepigraphic. Nike kneeling r., nailing helmet to trophy. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 26. R2

581. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female head (Lampsake?) l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 27. R2

582. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Hera l., wearing stephane. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 28. R2

583. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Zeus l., thunderbolt over shoulder. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 29. R2

584. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate and winged bust of Nike l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 30. R2 583

585. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bearded head of Herakles as Omphale l., wearing stephane, club over shoulder. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 31. R2

581 582

586. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of female satyr l., wreathed with ivy. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 32. R3

587. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Aktaion l., with stag antler. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 33. R2

588. Obv. Anepigraphic. Laureate head of Hekate l., torch over shoulder. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 34. R2

589. Obv. Anepigraphic. Male head l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. Struck c. 394–336 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 36. R3

590. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Zeus Ammon facing 3/4 l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 37. R3

591. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Dionysos l., wreathed with ivy. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 38. R3

592. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of bearded Kabeiros l., wearing pileus. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 39. R2

593. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 353–340 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 40. R3

588

589

592

593

594. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Aphrodite l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with lotus. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–336 BC. Baldwin 1924, no. 41. R2

595. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. SNG France 1158. R2 594 595

596 597

596. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying l. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. The New York Sale XXVII, lot 467. R3

597. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of Pan r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 394–350 BC. Numismatik Lanz München 123, lot 223. R3

gold (attiC standard)

Staters (c. 8.6g)

598. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Nike standing l., holding wreath and stylis. PeGaSoS foreParT to l. (if any). Monogram to r. and/ or l. Struck under Antigonos Monophthalmos, c. 310–301 BC. Price 1381, 1384, 1386, 1388, 1392–1392A, 1393A, 1396, 1402, 1406A–1407, 1415, 1420, 1430–1431. S

599. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Nike standing l., holding wreath and stylis. Monogram and TorCh and/or PeGaSoS foreParT to l. Struck, c. 280–275 BC. Price 1445, 1447, 1450, 1454. R2

600. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Nike standing l., holding wreath. PeGaSoS foreParT and TorCh to l. Monogram to r. Struck c. 230 BC. Price 1457. R3

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Didrachm (c. 6.9g)

601. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Babelon I, no. 631. R2

Drachms (c. 3.8g)

602. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying r. Rev. Bearded male head (Priapos?) r., wearing tainia. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. SNG France 1132. R2

603. Obv. Anepigraphic. Janiform female head. Rev. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. R2

Tetrobols (c. 2.3g)

604. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 1115–1116. R2

605. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 1117. R2

Diobols (c. 1.3g)

606. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 1119. R2

607. Obv. Anepigraphic. Janiform female head. Rev. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. SNG France 1126. S

silver (persiC standard)

Sigloi (c. 5.6g)

608. Obv. Anepigraphic. Pegasos forepart flying r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Munzen und Medaillen 19, lot 74. R2

609. Obv. Janiform female head. Rev. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Monogram or symbol (amPhora, buCkle, CaduCeuS or oliVe SPray) to r., to l. or on helmet. All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. SNG France 1121–1123 and 1125. S

610. Obv. Janiform female head. Rev. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Monogram to l. All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. ANS 1977. 158.275. R2

Obols (c. 0.95g)

611. Obv. Janiform female head. Rev. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Monogram to r. or wheel on helmet (if any). All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. SNG France 1126–1131. R1

silver (CHian standard)

Tetrobols (c. 2.6g)

612. Obv. Janiform female head. Rev. LA. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Symbol (dolPhin, Grain ear, iVy leaf, PeGaSoS foreParT, PenTalPha or SerPenT) to l., to r., or on helmet (if any). Struck late fourth century BC. SNG France 1175–1181. R1

Diobols (c. 1.3g)

613. Obv. Janiform female head. Monogram or magistrate name (QEo, IDo or KRI) on neck (if any). Symbol (dolPhin or Grain ear) below (if any). Rev. LA, LA or LAA. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Symbol (bee, CreSCenT, dolPhin, kantharos or oliVe SPray) to l. or on helmet (if any). Struck late fourth century BC. SNG France 1182–1196. C

silver (reduCed CHian or ‘troad’ standard)

Tetrobols (c. 2.3g)

614. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. LA. Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1211–1214. R1

Diobols (c. 1.13g)

615. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. LA. Pegasos forepart flying r. Symbol (dolPhin, Grain ear, GraPe bunCh, helmeT, mouSe, or STar) below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1216–1218. R1

Hemiobol (0.34g)

616. Obv. Head of Apollo facing. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck third–early second centuries BC. SNG France 1228. R3

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

617. Obv. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Monogram and symbol(s) (PeGaSoS foreParT and ThyrSoS or TorCh) to l. Monogram or TorCh under throne. Struck c. 280–275 BC. Price 1444–1444A, 1446, 1448–1449, 1451, 1455–1456. R1

618. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike and grounded shield, spear behind. PeGaSoS foreParT flanked by monograms in exergue. Struck c. 280–275 BC. SNG France 2558. R2

619. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike and grounded shield, spear behind. Monogram to l. PeGaSoS foreParT flanked by LA–A in exergue. Struck c. 180–160 BC. SNG France 2559. R2

Drachms (c. 4.3g)

620. Obv. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Monogram, magistrate name (KI) or symbol(s) (amPhora, bird on branCh, herm, iVy leaf, jerboa, mouSe, or PeGaSoS foreParT) to l. Monogram, magistrate name (AL, A, H, z, Q, K, or ), or arTemiS PhoSPhoroS under throne. Struck under Antigonos Monophthalmos, c. 310–301 BC. Price 1382–1383, 1385, 1387, 1389–1391, 1393, 1394–1395, 1398, 1401, 1404, 1406, 1408–1414, 1416–1419, 1421–1429, 1433–1437. C

silver (reduCed attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 16.5g)

621. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. Laa/KHNWN. Priapos standing r., holding kantharos and carrying filleted thyrsos over shoulder. Monogram to l. Isis headdress to r. ARTEIDoRoU ToU KALLISTRAToU in exergue. Struck c. 100–70 BC. Leu Numismatik 10, lot 2134. R3

622. Obv. Head of Priapos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. Laa/KHNWN. Apollo standing r., holding kithara. Monogram to l. Symbol (bow and arrow, hekaTe, iSiS headdreSS, Palm branCh, STaff enTwined by SerPenT, or TriPod) to r. Magistrate name (ANDRoACoU ToU HNoFILoU, DHHTRIoU ToU DHHTRIoU ToU IKaLoU, EFESIoU ToU EoDWRoU, PRoHIoU ToU LAPoU, HRWDoU ToU DWRooU, or SWKRaToU ToU oFANoU) in exergue. Struck c. 100–70 BC. Ellis-Evans 2020, pp. 100–103. R2

Drachm (3.73g)

623. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. Laa/KHNWN. Priapos standing r., holding kantharos and carrying filleted thyrsos over shoulder. Monogram to r. Struck c. 100–70 BC. CNG EA 47, lot 130. R3 Hemidrachm (c. 1.9g)

624. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. LA or LA. Pegasos forepart flying r. Monogram below. Struck second century BC. SNG France 1215. R2

bronze

Denomination A/B (21–24mm, 7.2–11.73g)

625. Obv. Head of Priapos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. LAA/KHNWN. Pegasos forepart flying r. Struck c. 100–70 BC. SNG France 1245–1248. S

Denomination B (19–22mm, 5.19–8.78g)

626. Obv. LA. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. A. Pegasos forepart flying r. Symbol (Grain ear, ThunderbolT, or ThyrSoS) below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1207–1209. S

627. Obv. LA. Laureate female head r. Rev. A. Pegasos forepart flying r. Symbol (GraPe bunCh, helioS head, or mouSe below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1220–1221. S

628. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. LA. Kithara. PeGaSoS foreParT to l. Struck second century BC. SNG France 1232–1235. R2

626 627

629. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. LAAKH/NWN. Athena standing l., holding Nike and grounded shield, spear behind. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second century BC. SNG France 1236–1238. S

630. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. LAAKH/NWN. Apollo standing l., resting elbow on column and holding bow above tripod. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second century BC. SNG France 1244. R2

631. Obv. Head of Dionysos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. La/a. Thyrsos. No symbols or monograms. All within ivy wreath. Struck c. 100–70 BC. SNG France 1242. R2

Denomination C (16–18mm, 3.81–6.89g)

632. Obv. Janiform female head. Rev. LA. Pegasos forepart flying r.  or symbol (dolPhin, mouSe, or TorCh) below. Struck late fourth–third centuries BC. SNG France 1202–1206. S

633. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. LA. Pegasos forepart flying r. Symbol (Grain ear, ThunderbolT, TorCh, or ThyrSoS) below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1207–1209. S

634. Obv. LA. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Rev. A. Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below. Struck third century BC. Nomos, obolos 25, lot 244. R2

635. Obv. Head of Priapos r. Rev. LA. Kantharos. Monogram to l. PeGaSoS foreParT to r. Struck second century BC. SNG France 1249–1252. S

Denomination D (10–15mm, 1.09–3.26g)

636. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. LA or La. Pegasos forepart flying r. dolPhin or TridenT below. Struck late fourth century BC or later. SNG France 1239–1241. S

637. Obv. LA. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Rev. Pegasos forepart flying r. Grain ear below. Struck third century BC. Savoca 6, lot 299. R2

638. Obv. LA. Laureate female head r. Rev. A. Pegasos forepart flying r. Symbol (CaduCeuS, Grain ear or GraPe bunCh) below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1223–1226. S

639. Obv. LA. Corinthian helmet r. Rev. A. Pegasos forepart flying r. dolPhin below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1227. R1

640. Obv. LA. Caduceus. All within laurel wreath Rev. A. Pegasos forepart flying r. Club below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1257–1258. R1

641. Obv. LA. Caduceus within laurel wreath Rev. A. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck third–second centuries BC. SNG France 1257–1258. R1

642. Obv. Veiled head of Demeter r., wreathed with grain. Rev. LA. Thunderbolt. PeGaSoS foreParT to l. Struck second century BC. SNG France 1243. R1

643. Obv. Janiform female head. Rev. La. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. No symbols or monograms. Struck third century BC or later. SNG France 1184. S

644. Obv. Head of Priapos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. LAA within ivy wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 100–70 BC. SNG France 1253. R1

Denomination E (8–10mm, 0.57–1.22g)

645. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Q to r. Rev. LA/. Amphora. Struck late fifth century BC. BMC Mysia, no. 61. S

646. Obv. Pegasos forepart flying l. Rev. LA––. Head of Hermes r., wearing winged pileus. Caduceus to r. Struck late fifth century BC. Gabler 1924, no. 11. R2

647. Obv. Pegasos forepart flying l. Rev. LA–. Caduceus. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth century BC. SNG Copenhagen 211–212. R1

648. Obv. Pegasos forepart flying r. Rev. LA–. Caduceus. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. SNG Tübingen 2306. R1

649. Obv. Head of Priapos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. LA within ivy wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 100–70 BC. SNG France 1254–1256. R1

650. Obv. Panther head r. Rev. LA–/–A. Thyrsos. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 100–70 BC. SNG France 1259. R2

Colonial issue

Denomination B (c. 15.4g)

651. Obv. ·G–I·. Laureate head of Julius Caesar r. Rev. Q·VETIo/·RoNTIo/ IIVI/ ·TVRIo·EG. Priest plowing r. with yoked bull and cow. Struck c. 45 BC. RPC I, no. 2268. R2

mileToPoliS (aGaThokleia?)

History

According to Greek mythological tradition, Miletopolis (“City of Miletos”) was founded by the eponymous hero, Miletos. He had been a member of the royal house of Lydia through marriage, but found himself forced into exile. He traveled first to Daskyleion and then to Prokonnesos before reaching the site of Miletopolis where he founded his own city.

Historical Miletopolis was founded at the confluence of the Rhyndakos and Makestos rivers by Ionian Greeks from Miletos sometime in the late seventh or early sixth century BC. The city had access to fishing in nearby Lake Miletopolitis and its inhabitants are known to have worshipped such deities as Aphrodite, Apollo Karneios, Herakles Alexikakos (“Averter of Evil”), Hermes, and Zeus in his roles as Polieus (“of the City”) and Agoraios (“of the Agora”).

With the rest of Mysia, Miletopolis had been part of the Lydian empire of Kroisos (c. 560–546 BC) before his defeat by the Persian Great King Cyrus II in 546 BC. It was subsequently absorbed into the Achaemenid Persian empire. In 410 BC, part of the city’s territory appears to have been seized by Athenian forces as part of the ongoing Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. The Athenians consolidated their position by establishing a fortified settlement called Miletoteichos (“Wall of Miletos”) north of Lake Apolloniatis. After the fall of Athens, Miletotieichos became a dependent city of Miletopolis. In 395 BC, the Spartan king, Agesilaos II, attacked Miletoteichos (and therefore the territory of Miletopolis) while campaigning against Pharnabazus, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia. However, he was unable to capture the fortified settlement and moved on.

Miletopolis and its territory were incorporated into the expanding Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great after his victory at the Granikos River in 334 BC. Following the death of Alexander (323 BC), the city largely fell under the influence of his former general, Antigonos Monophthalmos. In 301 BC, the latter was killed by a coalition of Alexander’s former commanders who had since proclaimed themselves kings: Kassander in Macedon, Lysimachos in Thrace, and Seleukos I in Babylonia. Mysia and other parts of northwestern Anatolia were obtained by Lysimachos as the spoils of victory. It has been suggested on the basis of numismatic evidence that Lysimachos refounded Miletopolis as Agathokleia in honor of his eldest son, Agathokles, around 300 BC.

Miletopolis-Agathokleia was incorporated into the Seleukid empire after the death of Lysimachos in 281 BC and may have been refounded as Antioch in Mysia by Antiochos I (281-261 BC). If it had not already fallen under the influence of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon earlier, the terms of the Peace of Apamea (188 BC) that ended Seleukid authority in western Anatolia certainly placed it within the sphere of Attalid power. It has been suggested that one of the Attalid kings ordered the destruction of Miletopolis and the removal of its inhabitants to Gargara in Troas, but the identity of the kings responsible is far from certain and the Hellenistic coinage attributed to the city may extend later than the end of the Attalid kingdom in 133 BC.

Coinage

No gold coinage has been attributed to Miletopolis, but the city may have struck silver fractions in the fourth century BC. An extremely rare coin, perhaps representing a trihemiobol on the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm), features the head of Athena on the obverse and a double-bodied owl—a type often found on the city’s bronze coinage in the fourth century BC—has been given to Miletopolis although the lack of any inscription makes the attribution uncertain.

A bronze coinage of two denominations (B and D) was introduced in the fourth century BC. What may be an earlier series of denomination B pairs the facing head of Athena with her owl, apparently following the typological model of contemporary issues of Sigeion in Troas. The obverse of a presumably later series features the profile head of Athena wearing a Corinthian helmet, probably influenced by the image of Athena on the gold staters of Alexander the Great. The head of the goddess is paired with a double-bodied owl—a reverse type also known from Sigeion as well as from Adramytion in the fourth century BC.

Denomination D is also known in two series in the fourth century BC, both of which feature a bull on the reverse and a youthful male head wearing a tainia on the obverse. It is unclear whether this head was intended to represent the eponymous hero Miletos. The tunny symbol beneath the neck truncation strongly suggests the influence of Kyzikos. One series featuring a small owl below the bull may perhaps link it to the facing Athena/owl emission of denomination B while the other, lacking the owl, may have been struck alongside the profile Athena/ double-bodied owl issue.

Following an apparent gap in production for much of the third and second centuries BC, Miletopolis appears to have resumed striking bronze coins probably in the late second or early first century BC. The new coinage may have involved two denominations (B and C). Denomination B pairs the profile head of Athena with a facing owl (often misdescribed as a double-bodied owl) while denomination C variously depicts a Corinthian helmet and a bull (sometimes misdescribed as a horse) or a facing gorgoneion and an owl.

Miletopolitan bronze coins of the fourth century BC are distinguished from the later issues not only by their types, but also by their use of abbreviated Greek legends naming “the Miletopolitans” as the issuing authority. The later issues regularly carry the full city ethnic. Prominent serifs on the letters of the full inscriptions of later denomination B as well as other stylistic features may possibly suggest production in the Roman rather than the late Hellenistic period.

Several emissions of denominations C, D, and E featuring an abbreviated Greek legend that may name “the Agathokleians” as the issuing authority have also been attributed to Miletopolis under the dynastic name of Agathokleia. This attribution is based primarily on the shared use of the double-bodied owl reverse type with the fourth-century BC issues in the name of the Miletopolitans and an assumed refoundation of Miletopolis under Lysimachos. Alternatively, the coins here given to Miletopolis-Agathokleia have also been attributed to an obscure Agathopolis in the Thracian Chersonesos or on the Euxine coast of Thrace. However, it has been noted that the coins in question are not normally found in Bulgaria, but do have some western Turkish collection provenances, which might seem to support the somewhat speculative case for Miletopolis as Agathokleia.

All denominations attributed to Miletopolis as Agathokleia feature a young male head wearing a tainia that seems to reflect the influence of lifetime and posthumous fractional silver and bronze issues of Philip II of Macedon, some

of which were struck for Lysimachos, and by the deified portrait of Alexander the Great used for the royal silver and gold royal coinages of Lysimachos after 297/6 BC.

An apparently earlier emission of denomination C features an owl standing on a spearhead on the reverse while what appears to be a later issue carries a two- or three-letter abbreviated city ethnic within a laurel wreath. Denomination D depicts a double-bodied owl on the reverse and seems to be linked to the owl on spearhead issue of denomination C through the use of a five-letter abbreviated ethnic.

Two series of denomination E were produced. One issue, associated with the owl on spearhead and double-bodied owl emissions of denomination C and D, respectively, through its style and longer inscription, depicts the forepart of Pegasos on the reverse. This type suggests the influence of Lampsakos. An apparently later emission of denomination E depicting a caduceus on the reverse is connected by its two-letter inscription to the wreathed legend issue of denomination C.

In addition to the controversial issues apparently naming Agathokleia, a rare bronze coinage of denomination D has been attributed to Miletopolis as an assumed Seleukid refoundation under the name of Antioch, although a case has also been made for attributing this coinage to Sigeion in Troas—a city known to have been refounded under the dynastic name of Antioch in the third century BC. Again, the primary argument for associating the issue with Miletopolis is typological: the obverse depicts a male head wearing a tainia (sometimes misdescribed as the diademed head of a Seleukid king) and the reverse a double-bodied owl. An abbreviated Greek legend names “the Antiochenes” as the issuing authority without any additional qualification.

Coinage in tHe name of miletopolis

silver (CHian standard)

Trihemiobol (0.96g)

652. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Double-bodied owl standing facing. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck early fourth century BC. Attribution uncertain. Münzen & Medaillen Deutschland 30, lot 350. R3

bronze

Denomination B (19–21mm, 4.27–6.55g)

653. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet facing. Rev. IL–HTo Owl standing 3/4 l., head facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 350–330 BC. Münzen & Medaillen Deutschland 15, lot 519. R2

654. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. IL–HTo. Doublebodied owl standing facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 330–300 BC. SNG France 1298–1300. S

655. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ILHToPoLITWN. Owl standing facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck second–first centuries BC or later. SNG France 1303–1304. S

Denomination C (13–16mm, 2.66–3.63g)

656. Obv. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. ILHToPoLITWN. Owl standing 3/4 r., head facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck second–first centuries BC. SNG France 1306. S

Denomination D (10–15mm, 1.48–2.18g)

657. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia. Tunny below. Rev. I/H–L. Bull advancing l. Struck c. 350–330 BC. SNG France 1301. S

658. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia. Tunny below. Rev. IL–HTo. Bull advancing l. owl below. Struck c. 330–300 BC. SNG von Aulock 7412. S

659. Obv. Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ILHToP... Bull advancing r. Struck second–first centuries BC. SNG France 1305. R3

Coinage in tHe name of agatHokleia (?)

Denomination C (16–20mm, 2.29–4.26g)

660. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia. Rev. AGQo. Owl standing 3/4 r., head facing. SPearhead below. Struck third century BC. Attribution uncertain. SNG Copenhagen (Thrace), no. 855 (Agathopolis). R1

661. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia. Rev. AG or AGA within olive wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck third century BC. Attribution uncertain. Stancomb 1998, no. 1 (Agathopolis). S

Denomination D (11–13mm, 1.35–1.99g)

662. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia. Rev. AGA–Qo. Double-bodied owl standing facing. SPearhead below. Struck third century BC. Attribution uncertain. Stancomb 1998, no. 4 (Agathopolis). R2

Denomination E (8–11mm, 0.81–1.11g)

663. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia. Rev. AGAQ. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck third century BC. Attribution uncertain. Stancomb 1998, no. 4 (Agathopolis). R2

664. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia Rev. A–G Caduceus. No symbols or monograms. Struck third century BC. Attribution uncertain. Head 1904, p. 258 (Agathopolis). R2

Coinage in tHe name of antioCH

Denomination D (11mm, 2.12–2.42g)

665. Obv. Male head r., wearing tainia. Rev. AN–TIoC. Double-bodied owl standing facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck third century BC. Lindgren III, no. 1029a (Sigeion). R2

Parion

History

Several Greek mythological traditions are reported regarding the foundation of the port city of Parion. According to one it was founded by the eponymous hero, Parios of Erythrai, a son of Perseus. Another tradition considered it to be a city of the Parilarians, a mythical non-Greek people from whom Paros is said to have derived its name. A third tradition claimed that it was named after Paris of Troy— the abductor of Helen and the ultimate cause of the Trojan War.

The historical city was founded in c. 709 BC by Ionian Greek colonists from Paros (the true source of Parion’s name) together with additional contingents from Erythrai, Miletos, and possibly Thasos. Parion enjoyed a strategic location on the Hellespont which permitted the city to grow wealthy through fisheries and involvement in the Euxine grain trade. The city made use of its own harbor and was defended by walls and a fortified akropolis. Unfortunately, little is known of Parion’s appearance in antiquity although the city is known to have possessed the oracular sanctuary of Apollo Aktaios (“of the Beach”) and Artemis at nearby Adrasteia. This sanctuary appears to have been destroyed in the fourth century BC and its marble reused to build a colossal new altar of Apollo Aktaios at Parion. This altar was designed by the renowned architect, Hermokreon, and was famous for its beauty. The city was also notable in the first century BC as the home of the Ophiogenes, a Parian family reputed to have the power to cure snake bites with a touch.

Like much of Mysia, Parion had been part of the Lydian empire of King Kroisos (c. 560–547/6 BC) but fell under Persian domination after his defeat by the Great King Cyrus II in 547/6 BC. By the last decades of the sixth century BC Parion was ruled by local tyrants like Herophantos, who is known to have held power in c. 514/13 BC.

The city participated in the disastrous Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) of Greek cities against the Great King Darius I but somehow managed to avoid paying the consequences for this action. Parion remained unconquered during the punitive campaign of Daurises, the son-in-law of Darius I, in 497 BC. Later, in the aftermath of the failed Persian invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC) and the Greek victory at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC), Parion joined the Athenian-led Delian League. This alliance was formed to defend the member cities against future Persian aggression, but gradually evolved into the basis for an Athenian empire. Parion was a tributary member of the League between 454/3 BC and 418/17 BC and was usually required to pay one talent of silver.

Although many cities came to find Athenian domination onerous and attempted to revolt when the opportunity arose, Parion remained a steadfast ally throughout the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. Indeed, even after the final defeat of Athens and the establishment of Spartan hegemony, Parion still seems to have supported the Athenian cause. In the final year of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC), fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes, a Parian citizen discovered the plans of the Spartan fleet and revealed them to the Athenians. However, under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the conflict, Parion and the other Greek cities of western Anatolia were restored to Persian domination. Little else is heard of Parion in the fourth century BC although it appears to have been besieged and captured by Iphiades, the tyrant of Abydos, around 360 BC.

The city was incorporated into the expanding Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great following his victory over Persian forces at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC). When the Macedonian conqueror died in 323 BC, Parion and the rest of Mysia was held by Alexander’s former general-turned-king, Antigonos Monophthalmos. He retained control of the city until 303 BC, when it submitted to Lysimachos, his royal rival in Thrace. In the following year, Parion was retaken by Antigonos’ son, Demetrios Poliorketes, who retained it until he was evicted by Lysimachos in 295/4 BC. The Parians had previously welcomed Lysimachos, who had permitted their city to retain its autonomy. Parion remained part of Lysimachos’ expanded kingdom for some fifteen years before it was finally absorbed into the Seleukid empire of Seleukos I in 281 BC.

Although control of the city may have been challenged by Demetrios’ son, Antigonos II Gonatas, in c. 280–279 BC, and by the Ptolemaic king of Egypt, Ptolemy III Euergetes, during the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC), Parion continued as a Seleukid possession until c. 229/8 BC. In this year, Attalos I, the dynast of Pergamon, drove the Seleukid usurper, Antiochos Hierax, out of Mysia. Following the expulsion of Hierax, Parion was increasingly drawn into the political orbit of Pergamon and its Attalid dynasty. Indeed, the city enjoyed the patronage of the Attalid kings and through them received much of the territory formerly belonging to the neighboring city of Priapos.

In 133 BC, Attalos III, the last king of Pergamon, died and bequeathed his vast kingdom to the Romans. This was reorganized as the Roman province of Asia in 129 BC. Very little is heard of Parion under the early Roman administration of the province, nor is it known how the city may have fared during the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC) between the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator, and the Romans. At the outbreak of the Third Mithradatic War (73–63 BC) the city appears to have been captured by Pontic forces, which made use of its harbor. When plague, hunger, and the Roman advance forced Mithradates VI to abandon his siege of Kyzikos in 73 BC, the Pontic king escaped with his fleet to Parion before withdrawing to Nikomedeia.

Later, Julius Caesar refounded Parion as a Roman colony in the aftermath of his civil war against Pompey the Great (49–45 BC). The new colony was called Colonia Gemella Iulia Pariana (“Twin Julian Parian Colony”) because it was established at the same time as another colony at nearby Lampsakos. Both colonies enjoyed the ius Italicum (“Italian rights”), a legal fiction that made the territory of the city part of Italy. Its inhabitants were therefore subject to Roman law and free from certain taxes, while children born there received full Roman citizenship.

Coinage

The earliest coinage of Parion is thought to have been an emission of electrum hemistaters struck to the Phokaic standard (c. 16.1g to the stater) in the late sixth century BC. These coins feature a facing gorgoneion on the obverse and an incuse punch design on the reverse. However, the attribution to Parion primarily hinges on the later use of the gorgoneion and a cruciform reverse punch on subsequent silver issues of the city. The inconclusive nature of the evidence leaves open the possibility that the electrum hemistaters may have been struck elsewhere,

Around the beginning of the fifth century BC, Parion produced silver drachms featuring a gorgoneion and an incuse punch design on the reverse. These were struck to what has been proposed as a regional ‘Troad’ standard based on a didrachm stater of c. 7.6g.

As at most cities where the ‘Troad’ standard saw use, the Parian ‘Troad’-weight drachms were accompanied, or immediately followed by an issue of obols on the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos). These Persic-weight obols feature the same types as the drachms struck to the ‘Troad’ standard.

Also following the pattern of other cities of Mysia and Troas, by end of the fifth century BC, Parion had abandoned the ‘Troad’ and Persic standards in favor of the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm). The new Chian-weight coinage primarily involved tetrobols featuring a bull with reverted head on the obverse and the city’s traditional gorgoneion badge on the reverse.

The popularity of the ‘Troad’- and Chian-weight issues of Parion is illustrated by finds from eastern Thrace and by the existence of numerous imitative issues copying the city’s types. The imitative issues are distinguished by the crudeness of their types and low-weight—often about half the expected weight of official issues. The Thracian findspots of many official and imitative Parian issues points to the extensive use of the coins in the Euxine grain trade.

Although the Chian-weight silver coinage of Parion probably ceased production by the end of the fourth century BC, the city produced sporadic silver tetradrachms on the Attic standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) with the types of Lysimachos and Alexander the Great in the third century BC, as well as Seleukid royal tetradrachms for Antiochos Hierax. Issues struck during the lifetime of Lysimachos and those of Hierax with royal types are listed separately under the respective kings (see the Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors, Part 2, no. 1750n, and the Handbook of Syrian Coins, nos. 398, 399a, 400a, and 403a).

After the death of Lysimachos, Parion appears to have continued production of the king’s popular types featuring the deified head of Alexander the Great with the horn of Ammon and Athena enthroned on the reverse. These were immediately followed by a series of tetradrachms bearing Alexander the Great’s widelyrecognized types of the head of Herakles on the obverse and Zeus enthroned on the reverse. Both coinages may be related to the turmoil that overtook western Anatolia in the aftermath of the death of Lysimachos in 281 BC, the assassination of Seleukos I in 280 BC, and invasion by the Galatians (Celts) in 278/7 BC.

A second series of posthumous Alexander tetradrachms was probably struck shortly after the expulsion of Antiochos Hierax from Mysia. This is distinguishable from the earlier series by its use of spread flans and symbols (altar and comic mask) also employed on the coinage of Hierax at Parion.

A remarkable emission of tetradrachms, now known from a single specimen, also seems to have been struck in the third century BC, based on its rather compact flan and the apparent use of the Rhodian weight standard (c. 13.6g to the tetradrachm). The obverse features a gorgoneion type revived from the Chian-weight coinage of the fourth century BC while the reverse depicts Nike carrying a wreath. The use of Nike suggests that this coinage was produced in the context of some victory, but it is not clear what this may have been. The coinage may perhaps be related to the brief and largely bloodless war that broke out in 220 BC between Byzantion and Rhodes, representing a variety of cities and states with trading interests in the Hellespont and along the coasts of the Euxine Sea.

Around the mid-second century BC, Parion produced new series of Attic-weight tetradrachms featuring the head of Apollo Aktaios on the obverse and the standing figure of the god on the reverse. This coinage may have been struck in relation to a civic religious festival in his honor.

A second tetradrachm series followed at the end of the second or the early first century BC. This involved a reduced Attic standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm)

Parion 119 and replaced the obverse image of Apollo with the veiled head of Demeter. The impetus for this second series may have come from the military and financial crises of the Mithradatic Wars. No further precious metal coinage was produced at Parion after the Apollo Aktaios issues.

Bronze coinage was probably introduced at Parion in the late fourth century BC and seems to have included four denominations (B, C, D, and E), all of which regularly feature a charging bull or the head of a bull (denomination E) on the obverse. The reverse of denomination B depicts Parion’s great altar of Apollo Aktaios while denomination C carries the abbreviated Greek city ethnic within a laurel wreath. Following on the wreathed theme of denomination C, emissions of denomination D depict a torch within a grain wreath and a club within a laurel wreath on the reverse. The reverse of denomination E features the Parian altar. A further issue of denomination D, probably belonging to the fourth century, pairs a grape bunch with a torch.

New issues of denomination B and D pair a wreathed male head with a charging bull or the altar of Parion. The style of the head seems to reflect the influence of the Alexander the Great portrait that first appeared on the coinage of Lysimachos in 297/6 BC and therefore these emissions of denomination B probably date to the early third century BC, or later. The head is frequently described as that of Apollo or Triptolemos, but the wreath it wears is ambiguous and cannot be clearly distinguished as being composed of laurel appropriate to Apollo or grain appropriate to Triptolemos.

The issues of denomination B featuring the wreathed male head were subsequently overstruck with new types, probably in the late third or early second century BC. The male head/bull issue was overstruck with types depicting the Parian altar on the obverse and the kithara of Apollo on the reverse while the male head/altar issue was overstruck with a gorgoneion paired with an advancing bull. The gorgoneion type may suggest an association with the gorgoneion/Nike tetradrachm of late third century BC.

It is unclear whether an emission of denomination C depicting the head of Zeus on the obverse and the standing figure of Artemis on the reverse belongs to the second century BC or was struck at some later date.

An issue of bronze denomination B featuring the bust of Artemis on the obverse and an eagle on the reverse is closely modeled on silver tetradrachms of Abydos struck in the context of the Mithradatic Wars and is therefore dateable to the early first century BC. It appears to have been followed by further emissions of denomination B featuring a similar eagle reverse, but with the bust of Artemis derived from the Abydene model replaced by the gorgoneion badge of Parion. Here the gorgoneion has evolved from Archaic and Classical representations of the hideous Medusa into the so-called “beautiful Medusa” of the Hellenistic period.

The gorgoneion/eagle issues of denomination B also seem to have been supplemented by emissions of denominations C and D featuring a similarly “beautiful” gorgoneion on the obverse. On denomination C a bull stands before an altar, or an altar appears alone on the reverse. Denomination D depicts an owl standing on a palm branch on the reverse. This type suggests a potential relationship with the flying owl carrying a palm branch type found on Pergamene issues of bronze denomination D struck in the name of Athena Nikephoros in the early first century BC.

Two emissions of bronze denomination B/C pairing the busts of Demeter and Hermes with a grain ear flanked by poppy heads and a kithara, respectively, probably also belong to the early first century BC. A relatively close chronological

relationship to the gorgonieon series is indicated by the involvement of these issues together with denomination B gorgoneion/eagle issues in the same countermarking episode.

Denomination B/C may have been struck in connection with issues of denomination D pairing the bust of Artemis with a stag, the bust or head of Athena with a thunderbolt or bull, the head of Dionysos with a kantharos, the head of Zeus with a thunderbolt. Issues featuring the head of Isis or an uncertain female deity on the obverse and an Isiac sistrum or lighted altar on the reverse usually dated before the reign of Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) may actually belong to the Roman Imperial period. The female head seems to copy that of Venus on the colonial issues of Parion (see below) and therefore this emission, which lacks the colonial titles, probably belongs to the Roman Imperial period. The Isis issue, which shares a similar fabric with the female head issue may be late as well.

As Roman colony, Parion struck a bronze coinage of denominations B/C, C/D and D/E that may have served as local equivalents of the Roman as, semis and quadrans denominations, respectively. Denomination B/C and some issues of denomination C/D feature a female head wearing a stephane on the obverse and a praefericulum (a one-handled vase used in Roman sacrificial rites) on the reverse. Most catalogues fail to identify the head, but its features and hairstyle are almost certainly modeled on the image of Venus that appeared on the denarii of Julius Caesar in 48–47 BC. Other issues of denomination C/D and D/E depict a plow and agrain ear on the obverse and a Latin legend on the reverse.

With the exceptions of the early electrum and silver series, which are anepigraphic, and the posthumous Lysimachoi and Alexander tetradrachms of the third century BC, which falsely identify “King Lysimachos” and “Alexander” as the issuing authorities, all civic coins of Parion carry full or abbreviated Greek legends naming “the Parians” as the issuing authority. The Attic- and reduced Attic-weight tetradrachms of the mid-second century are notable in that they carry full inscriptions attributing the coins to “Apollo Aktaios of the Parians.”

The colonial bronze issues of the mid-first century BC feature Latin legends in keeping with the new Roman character granted to Parion. All denominations carry the abbreviation of the colonial name ( G I R) on the obverse. The reverse legends name the aediles (municipal magistrates) C. Matuinus and T. Ancius or two of the quattuorviri iure dicundo (chief judicial magistrates), Pic[...] and Muc[...]. The office of the latter is indicated by the abbreviation IIII I . Some issues also carry the abbreviation   to indicate that they were struck decreto decurionum (“by decree of the decurions”). Decurions were members of the municipal senate and as such were the most important political figures in the Roman colony at Parion.

Roman Republican silver denarius of Julius Caesar (North African military mint, 48–47 BC).

CiviC Coinage

eleCtrum (pHokaiC standard)

Hemistater (c. 8.05g)

666. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. Incuse cruciform design. Attribution uncertain. Struck c. 520 BC. Babelon I.2, nos. 200–201. R2

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Drachms (c. 3.8g)

667. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. Incuse square with irregular or cruciform design. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 1342–1345, 1347–1349, and 1352. C

Hemidrachms (c. 1.9g)

668. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. Incuse square with linear cruciform design. No symbols or monograms. Euxine imitation. Struck early fifth century BC. SNG France 1346. R1

silver (persiC standard)

Obol (0.88g)

669. Obv. Anepigraphic. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. Incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG France 1353. R3

silver (CHian standard)

Tetrobols (c. 2.6g)

670. Obv. pA/RI. Bull standing l., head reverted. Monogram or symbol(s) (aThena, CaduCeuS, Club, CreSCenT, dolPhin, fly, Grain ear, GraPe bunCh, oliVe SPray, phiale, Pine branCh, Shell, SiCkle, STar, TorCh, or wreaTh) below (if any). Rev. Gorgoneion facing. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 1356–1392. C

671. Obv. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. Bull standing l., head reverted. Corrupt legend involving Q between legs or above. Euxine imitation. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 1385–1387. R1

Obol (c. 0.61g)

672. Obv. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. pA/RI. Grape bunch. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 1355. R3

silver (rHodian standard)

Tetradrachm (13.6g)

673. Obv. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. pARIANWN. Nike standing l., holding wreath and palm branch. CornuCoPia and monogram to l. Grain ear to r. Struck mid-third century BC. Hunter, p. 274, no. 6. R3

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

674. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike and grounded shield, spear behind. Monogram to inner l. or in exergue. Symbol (Grain ear, GraPe bunCh, or ThyrSoS) to outer l. or r. Struck c. 280–275 BC. Seyrig 1958, nos. 9–15. R2

675. Obv. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Monogram(s) beneath throne and/or to left (sometimes wreathed). bull, bull head, or kiThara to l. Struck c. 280–275 BC. Seyrig 1958, nos. 9–15. R2

676. Obv. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Monogram(s) beneath throne and/ or to left (sometimes wreathed). Monogram to l. alTar to l. and ComiC maSk in exergue. Struck under Antiochos Hierax, c. 242–227 BC. HGC 9, no. 398. R2

677. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. APoLLWNoS/AKTAIoU/PARIANWN. Apollo Aktaios standing l., holding palm branch and resting hand on grounded bow. Monogram(s) to l. alTar to l. (if any). Struck c. 165–143 BC. Meadows 1998, Group 1. R2

silver (reduCed attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 15.6g)

678. Obv. Veiled bust of Demeter r., wreathed with grain. Rev. aPoLLWNoS/ aKTaIoU/PaRIANWN Apollo Aktaios standing l., sacrificing with phiale over lighted altar and resting hand on kithara on omphalos. ANDRoDIKoS or PoLUKLHS in exergue. Struck c. 165–143 BC. Meadows 1998, Group 2. R2

bronze

Denomination B (19–23mm, 4.69–9.65g)

679. Obv. Bull charging r. Symbol (GraPe bunCh, iVy leaf, or wreaTh) above or below (if any). Rev. p–A/R–I Amphora before lighted altar. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 1395. S

680. Obv. Wreathed male head r. Rev. pARI. Bull charging l. Monogram and symbol (CaduCeuS, STar, or Grain ear) below. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1392–1393. S

681. Obv. Wreathed male head l. Rev. p–A/R–I Lighted altar. No symbols or monograms. Struck third century BC. SNG France 1394. R1

682. Obv. Lighted altar. Rev. P–A/R–I Kithara. No symbols or monograms. Struck late third–early second centuries BC. Overstruck on no. 680. Agora Auctions 85, lot 23. R3

683. Obv. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. pARI. Bull advancing l. No symbols or monograms. Frequently overstruck on no. 681. Struck late third–early second centuries BC. SNG France 1402. S

684. Obv. Lighted altar. Rev. PA/RI within laurel wreath. Struck late third–early second centuries BC. SNG France 1396. S

685. Obv. Bust of Artemis r., wearing stephane, bow and quiver over shoulder. Rev. Pa–RI/aNWN. Eagle with spread wings standing r. HTRo/DWRoS in exergue. All within laurel wreath. Struck early first century BC. BMC Mysia, p. 101, no. 72. R2

686. Obv. Gorgoneion facing 3/4 r. Rev. PA–RI/ANWN. Eagle with spread wings standing r. Monogram to r. All within laurel wreath. Struck early first century BC. SNG France 1404–1405. C

687. Obv. Gorgoneion facing. Rev. P–A/R–I. Eagle with spread wings standing r. on thunderbolt. All within laurel wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. SNG France 1406. R1

Denomination B/C (17–21mm, 3.67–5.47g)

688. Obv. Veiled bust of Demeter r., wreathed with grain. Rev. P–A/R–I Grain ear between poppy heads. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. SNG France 1408. R1

689. Obv. Bust of Hermes r., wearing petasos, caduceus over shoulder. Rev. P–A/R–I. Kithara. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. BMC Mysia, p. 101, no. 71. R1

Denomination C (15–17mm, 3.1–4.52g)

690. Obv. Bull charging l. Rev. PA/RI within laurel wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 1397. R1

691. Obv. Diademed head of Zeus(?) r., scepter over shoulder. Rev. P–A/R–I. Artemis advancing r., holding bow and spear. No symbols or monograms. Struck second–early first centuries BC. BMC Mysia, p. 100, no. 62. R2

692. Obv. Gorgoneion facing 3/4 l. Rev. PA/RI. Bull standing r., before altar. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. R1

693. Obv. Gorgoneion facing 3/4 r. Rev. Pa/R–I Altar. All within laurel wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. Numismatik Naumann 53, lot 167. R2

Denomination D (11–15mm, 1.0–2.73g)

694. Obv. Grape bunch. Rev. P–A/R–I. Torch. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG Arikantürk 677. R1

688

689

692

693

690

691

695. Obv. Bull charging l. Rev. P–A/R–I Torch. All within grain wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen Mysia, no. 269. R1

696. Obv. Bull charging r. Rev. P–A/R–I. Club. All within laurel wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Roma Numismatics E-Sale 55, lot 364. R2

697. Obv. Wreathed male head r. Rev. PA/RI. Altar. No symbols or monograms. Struck early third century BC. Numismatik Naumann 65, lot 124. R1

698. Obv. Gorgoneion facing 3/4 r. Rev. PA/RI. Owl standing 3/4 r. on palm branch, head facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. SNG France 1409. R1

699. Obv. Bust of Dionysos facing, wreathed with ivy. Rev. P–A/R–I. Grape bunch. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. Gitbud & Naumann 14, lot 224. R2

700. Obv. Bust of Artemis r., bow and quiver over shoulder. Rev. P–A/R–I Stag standing r. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. BMC Mysia, p. 101, no. 73. R1

701. Obv. Bust of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. P–A/R–I Winged thunderbolt. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. BMC Mysia, p. 100, no. 64. R2

702. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. P–A/R–I. Winged thunderbolt. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. SNG France 1410. R2

703. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. PARI Bull standing r. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. SNG France 1413. R2

704. Obv. Head of Dionysos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. P–A/R–I. Kantharos. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. SNG France 1414. R2

705. Obv. Head of Isis r., wearing Isis headdress. Rev. P–A/R–I. Sistrum. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC or later. BMC Mysia, p. 101, no. 76. R2

706. Obv. Female head (Venus?) r., wearing stephane. Rev. P–A/R–I. Lighted altar. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC or later. BMC Mysia, p. 101, no. 75. R2

Denomination E (8mm, 0.61g)

707. Obv. Bull head facing. Rev. P–A/R–I. Altar. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Numismatik Naumann 107, lot 171. R2

Colonial Coinage bronze

Denomination B/C (16–18mm, 3.87–7.51g)

708 709

708. Obv. –G/I–R. Head of Venus r., wearing stephane. Rev. T·ANIIV/ ·ATVINV/AE. Praefericulum. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 45 BC. RPC I, no. 2255. R2

709. Obv. –G/I–R. Head of Venus r., wearing stephane. Rev. ·ATVINo/ T·ANIIo/AE Praefericulum. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 45 BC. RPC I, no. 2256. R2

Denomination C/D (14–16mm, 2.5–5.4g)

710. Obv. –G/I–R. Head of Venus r., wearing stephane. Rev. V·RI/IIII

. Praefericulum. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 45 BC. RPC I, no. 2253. R2

711. Obv. –G/I–R. Head of Venus r., wearing stephane. Rev. RI·V/IIII·I·

. Praefericulum. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 45 BC. RPC I, no. 2254. R2

712. Obv. G/R–I. Plow l. above grain ear r. Rev. T·ANIIo/·ATVINo/AE. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 45 BC. RPC I, no. 2257. R2

713. Obv. G/R–I. Plow l. above grain ear r. Rev. ·ATVIN/T·ANII/AE. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 45 BC. RPC I, no. 2258. R2

714. Obv. –G/I–R. Head of Venus r. Rev. –. Praefericulum. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. RPC I, no. 2259. R2

Denomination D/E (8–10mm, 1.04–1.21g)

715. Obv. G/R–I. Plow l. above grain ear r. Rev. V/RI·IIII·I/···. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 45 BC. RPC I, no. 2254A. R3

PerGamon

History

The settlement of Pergamon was established on a naturally fortified hill near the point where the Selinos and Ketios rivers flowed into the Kaïkos in the region of Teuthrania. Greek mythological traditions differ regarding the ultimate origin of Pergamon. According to one, Pergamon was originally founded by Telephos, a son of Herakles who came to Mysia leading a band of colonists from Arkadia. Another claimed that it was settled by the eponymous hero, Pergamos (a son of Pyrrhos, the progenitor of the Molossians of Epeiros). He had gained possession of the site of Pergamon and the entirety of Teuthrania by slaying its despotic king, Areios, in combat. A third tradition made Pergamon a foundation of the healing god, Asklepios, who led colonists from Epidauros.

Historical Pergamon seems to have been established primarily as a fortress, possibly belonging to the territory of Gryneion, around the eighth century BC. It retained this status until the later fourth century BC, when a city began to develop at its foot. The original fortress subsequently served as the akropolis for the city. In the fourth century BC, the city possessed an agora (marketplace) and temples dedicated to Athena Nikephoros (“Victory-bearer”), Demeter, Apollo, and Asklepios Soter (“Savior”).

Pergamon flourished under the Attalid dynasty (281–133 BC), which was responsible for much of its further adornment. The Attalid building program, aimed at making Pergamon into the opulent capital of a Hellenistic kingdom, provided an amphiteater, an additional agora, a gymnasium, temples dedicated to Dionysos Kathegemon (“the Leader”) and Hera Basileia (“the Queen”), a monumental altar dedicated to Zeus, as well as the and enlargement and adornment of the preexisting sanctuaries. Under the Attalids, Pergamon also boasted a library that came to hold 200,000 volumes and competed with the collection of literary works held in the Mouseion of Egyptian Alexandreia. In connection with its library, Pergamon dominated the production and international trade in parchment (vellum), the name of which is derived from a corruption of the city’s name.

The fortress of Pergamon was absorbed into the Achaemenid Persian empire after the Great King, Cyrus I, defeated King Croesus of Lydia in 547/6 BC. In 490 BC, Xerxes I is thought to have granted it along with the Aiolian cities of Gryneion and Myrina to Gongylos of Eretria as a reward for his assistance during the Great King’s disastrous invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC). In 400 BC, Hellas, the widow of Gongylos, welcomed Xenophon and the Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries on their return from service under the Achaemenid usurper, Cyrus the Younger. She made use of the mercenaries to plunder the territory of a neigboring Persian landowner before they continued on their way.

In 399 BC, Pergamon surrendered to the forces of Thibron, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos, and supported his campaign against Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap (governor) of Lydia and Ionia. The city returned to Persian control under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that brought an end to the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes.

From 362 BC through the 350s BC, Pergamon fell under the jurisdiction of Orontas, the Persian satrap of Mysia, who may have used it as a base for revolt (354-353 BC) against the Great King, Artaxerxes III. Under his administration, the

apparently mixed native Mysian and Greek population of Pergamon was joined by new Greek settlers. The defeat of the combined satrapal forces of western Anatolia at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC) spelled the end of all Persian authority in Mysia, and Pergamon was incorporated into the growing Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great.

After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Pergamon became the home of Herakles, an illegitimate son of the Macedonian conqueror and Barsine, the sister of the important mercenary commanders, Memnon and Mentor of Rhodes, who was captured by Alexander in 333 BC. An ineffectual case was briefly made for naming this Herakles as Alexander’s successor in 323 BC, after which he became a virtual prisoner within the akropolis of Pergamon because his bloodline made him too dangerous as a free man. In 309/8 BC, he was released by Antigonos Monophthalmos, the strategos (general) of Asia, to his ally, Polyperchon, the deposed Macedonian regent, in the hopes of creating opposition to Kassander, their mutual enemy in Macedon. Unfortunately, when Kassander offered an alliance to Polyperchon, Herakles was murdered to seal their pact. He had been much better off at Pergamon.

After the defeat and death of Antigonos at the Battle of Ipsos (301 BC), Mysia became part of the expanded Thracian kingdom of his victorious rival, Lysimachos. In order to safeguard the city’s rich treasury, Lysimachos installed a garrison in Pergamon under the command of Philetairos, a minor officer who had previously served Antigonos. Thanks to the wealth afforded by the treasury and the heavily fortified position of the city, Philetairos founded his own dynasty—the Attalids— at Pergamon. Through conquest and alliances with the Romans, the Attalid rulers, who had assumed the royal title in 238 BC, expanded their territory from the environs of the city to encompass the bulk of western Anatolia by 188 BC. Under these circumstances, Pergamon became an opulent royal capital and an important center of learning and culture. However, when Attalos III died in 133 BC, his will granted autonomy to Pergamon and several other major cities and bequeathed the rest of the Attalid kingdom to the Roman people. From c. 283/2 to 133 BC, the political history of Pergamon is largely that of the Attalid dynasty, recounted under the listings for Philetairos, Eumenes I, Attalos I, Eumenes II, and Attalos III, but the events of 133 BC placed the city on the beginning of a new and difficult age.

The will of Attalos III was immediately contested by Aristonikos, a pretender to the Attalid throne, who assumed the dynastic name of Eumenes III and began an armed revolt against the Romans. Enamored of the autonomy bequeathed to the city by Attalos III and distrustful of Aristonikos’ more revolutionary policies, the Pergamenes quickly forced the pretender and his followers out of the city. Pergamon became the primary base for Roman commanders dispatched to repress the Revolt of Aristonikos (133–129 BC) and to reorganize the territory of the defunct Attalid kingdom as the new Roman province of Asia. The Roman proconsul, M. Perperna, who was responsible for the final defeat of Aristonikos, suddenly died in the territory of Pergamon as he began his return to Rome.

Despite the fact that the early Roman governors of Asia were assigned the task of consolidating and administering the new province, their personal ambition was frequently to plunder the remaining wealth of the Attalid dynasty—especially at Pergamon—and amass personal fortunes from their offices. By the first century BC, the Roman administration had become extremely onerous to Pergamon and many other cities of Asia. Thus, when the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator, invaded the province at the outset of the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC), he was largely welcomed as a savior from Roman rapacity.

Pergamon became a new capital of the expanding Pontic empire and participated in the bloody uprising commonly known as the Asiatic Vespers, which saw the murder of some 80,000 Romans and Italians in the province on a single day in spring 88 BC. Even when the Italians resident in Pergamon sought sanctuary by clinging to the sacred statues in the precinct of the temple of Asklepios, the Pergamenes impiously killed them with arrows.

Command of the war against Mithradates VI was given to the consul, L. Cornelius Sulla, who inflicted a major defeat on Pontic forces at the Battle of Chaironea (86 BC). This reversal shocked Asia and led several cities to attempt defection to the Romans. In Pergamon, 80 citizens were tortured and executed after they were discovered plotting to hand the city over to Sulla.

Around the same time, political developments in Rome made Sulla an outlaw and caused a rival Roman army under the command of the consul L. Valerius Flaccus and his legate C. Flavius Fimbria was dispatched to make war on the Pontic king in Asia. After murdering Flaccus and defeating a Pontic force in Mysia, Fimbria besieged Mithradates VI in Pergamon in 85 BC. The city fell, but the Pontic king managed to escape. After a peace settlement was made between Sulla and Mithradates VI that returned Asia to the Romans but preserved the original kingdom of Pontos, Fimbria’s troops deserted him. Rather than surrender to the victorious Sulla, Fimbria fell on his own sword in the sanctuary of Asklepios at Pergamon.

Sulla severely punished the cities of Asia that had openly supported Mithradates VI by stripping them of their autonomy and imposing a crushing indemnity equivalent to five years of taxes plus the cost of the war. Pergamon suffered doubly since it had already been plundered by the Fimbria and his legions. However, Pergamon’s relationship with Rome and the condition of the city gradually improved, thanks to the activities of wealthy citizens who were still held in some regard by the Romans.

After years of recovering from Sulla’s exactions, Pergamon faced new Roman financial burdens after the outbreak of the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great (49–45 BC). In 49 BC, Pompey called on his father-in-law, Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio, to lead an army from the province of Syria to aid him. Scipio and his forces wintered in the environs of Pergamon, where the cost of their provisioning was borne by the provincials. Following Pompey’s defeat at the Battle of Pharsalos (48 BC), the victorious Caesar passed through Pergamon as he pursued his enemy. When the mysterious sound of drums could be heard in the temple of Athena Nikephoros on this occasion, it was said to be in celebration of his victory. At the same time, Caesar also arranged with one of the leading citizens of the city, Mithradates of Pergamon (an illegitimate, adopted, or pretended son of Mithradates VI) for the raising of an army in Cilicia and Syria. Mithradates and his forces arrived in Egypt just in time to save Caesar and the Ptolemaic queen, Cleopatra VII, from a siege.

Following the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BC and the defeat of his assassins at the Battle of Philippi two years later, Pergamon and the province of Asia were included in the eastern territories allotted to the triumvir Mark Antony. The city was compelled to shoulder the usual Roman financial burdens under Antony but suffered further indignities due to his relationship with Cleopatra VII. In 38 BC, Antony ordered the entire holdings of the library of Pergamon to be transferred to the library of Alexandreia as a favor to the Ptolemaic queen. Some of the books are said to have been returned by Octavian following his defeat of Antony at the Battle of Actium (31 BC) and his assumption of power as Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, in 27 BC.

Despite the great upheavals of the first century BC, Pergamon survived as an important provincial conventus (assize-district) center and occasional residence of the Roman governor in Asia. Under Augustus, the city’s star began to rise again with the award of the first temple in Asia dedicated to the new imperial cult and the coveted status of neokoros (“temple warden”). In AD 113/14, the city received a second temple of the imperial cult from Trajan and was given the rank of metropolis by Hadrian.

Coinage

The only electrum coinage known to have been produced at Pergamon consists of an emission of hektai struck to the Phokaic standard (c. 16.1g to the stater) in the late fifth century BC. The head of Athena wearing an Attic helmet appears on the obverse while a bearded male head wearing the kyrbasia headdress typical of satraps in the Persian empire is depicted on the reverse within an incuse square. This male head may be a portrait of Gongylos, although it is sometimes identified as Eurysthenes, a dynast of Teuthrania and Halisarna, based on a misreading of Xenophon’s Anabasis.

Gold staters and fractions were struck to the Attic standard (c. 8.6g to the stater) at Pergamon probably in the aftermath of Alexander the Great’s victory at the Granikos. Staters feature a head of Herakles on the obverse that seems stylistically similar to the image of the hero found on Alexander’s ubiquitous silver tetradrachms after 333 BC and a depiction of the Palladion on the reverse. An associated emission of third staters also carries an image of the Palladion on the reverse, but pairs it with the head of Athena wearing an Attic helmet on the obverse.

According to Greek mythological tradition, the Palladion was an archaic cult image of Athena that fell from heaven in response to the prayer of Ilos, the founder of Troy. While Troy possessed the statue, the city was protected by divine power and could not be captured, but after it was stolen by the Achaean heroes Odysseus and Diomedes during the Trojan War, the doom of Troy was sealed. Such a type was very appropriate to the early campaigns of Alexander against the Persian empire, which he cast in terms of the of the Trojan War.

With the exception of gold staters struck with the royal types of Mithradates VI during the First Mithradatic War (listed separately under that king), no other gold coinage has been attributed to Pergamon.

The earliest silver coinage produced at Pergamon may have been a series of obols that appears to have been struck to the so-called ‘Troad’ standard (c. 3.8g to the drachm) in the late fifth century BC. These depict the laureate head of Apollo on the obverse and the head of a calf within an incuse square on the reverse.

The obols seem to have been closely followed by a more extensive silver coinage struck to the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos) in the late fifth century BC. The same head of Apollo of the ‘Troad’-weight obols appears on the obverses of new Persic-weight diobols (third sigloi), obols (sixth sigloi), and hemiobols (1/12 sigloi) while their reverses reprise the bearded head wearing a kyrbasia found of the electrum issue.

Pergamon seems to have produced no silver coinage in the fourth century BC, except for an emission of diobols struck to the Attic standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm), probably in the 330s. These feature the same Herakles and Palladion types of the contemporary gold staters and, like the gold, should probably be connected to the early campaigns of Alexander the Great.

From the end of the fourth to the early second century BC, the mint of Pergamon struck a variety of Attic-weight tetradrachms with the types of Alexander the Great, Lysimachos, Seleukos I, and Attalid kings for Philetairos and his successors (listed separately under the respective rulers).

During the reign of Eumenes II, in c. 190 or 166 BC—the precise date remains a subject of dispute—a new silver coinage was introduced as a means of closing the previously open monetary economy of the Attalid kingdom and to coopt the cities in coin production. The new tetradrachm weighed only c. 12.6g (equivalent to three drachms on the reduced Attic standard) and eschewed overtly royal types and inscriptions. Instead, a Dionysiac cista mystica appears on the obverse and the bow and bowcase of Herakles surrounded by serpents on the reverse—both allusions to the mythological descent of the Attalids from Dionysos and Telephos, the son of Herakles. Abbreviated Greek legends and monograms name only the city of issue rather than the king. These coins, which came to be known as cistophoroi (“basket-bearers”) from their obverse type, served as a royal coinage in the Attalid kingdom, but their continued production after the dissolution of the kingdom in 133 BC and the creation of the province of Asia in 129 BC illustrates the civic aspect of the cistophoric coinage as well.

On rare occasions in the second century BC, Pergamon supplemented its production of cistophoric tetradrachms with didrachms and drachms. Both fractional denominations continued the iconographic program of the full cistophoroi by featuring Herakles’ club and lion skin within a Dionysiac ivy wreath on the obverse and the grapes of the wine god on the reverse.

As the original capital of the Attalid kingdom, it is not surprising that Pergamon was a major producer of cistophoroi under both the kings and the Roman provincial administration. From the beginning of production under Eumenes II until the early first century BC, the cistophoroi of Pergamon never deviated from the original cista mystica and bowcase types, but occasional innovations were introduced by the Romans during the turbulent first century BC. One issue, believed to have been struck as plunder taken by Fimbria in 85 BC, replaces the traditional bowcase reverse with a legionary standard and a winged caduceus type. Less extreme is the replacement of the bowcase between the traditional serpents with a tripod on cistophoroi struck under the proconsular governor of Asia, T. Ampius Balbus (58–57 BC). It has been suggested that the tripod may have been a personal symbol of Balbus. The bowcase is similarly replaced by a legionary eagle on cistophoroi struck at Pergamon in 49–48 BC. These were produced to support the rapacious Roman forces brought to the aid of Pompey by the governor of Roman Syria, Q. Metellus Pius Scipio, on the eve of the Battle of Pharsalos.

Cistophoric silver tetradrachm of Augustus sometimes attributed to Pergamon (27–26 BC).

After the issue struck for Scipio, production of cistophoroi appears to have ceased at Pergamon. It is unclear whether the Pergamene silver mint may have reopened briefly under Augustus to strike new cistophoroi with Roman imperial types or if another Asian mint was responsible.

Civic bronze coinage was probably introduced at Pergamon at the end of the fifth or the beginning of the fourth century BC. Initially, it involved only denomination E featuring types derived from the earlier silver obols of the so-called ‘Troad’ standard. The head of Apollo appears on the obverse and one or two confronted bull’s heads on the reverse of denomination E. Subsequent emissions of this small denomination in the fourth century also pair the head of Apollo with an apparent head of a boar.

Issues of bronze denomination E depicting the head of Herakles and that of Athena are probably to be associated with the gold and silver issues featuring Herakles struck in the late fourth century BC. Emissions of the same denomination featuring the head of Athena and two stars, emblematic of the Kabeiroi, are thought to belong to the early third century BC. The Athena/star issue of denomination E was probably struck alongside a new emissions of denomination C, which depict the head of Athena on the obverse and one or two bulls’ heads on the reverse. The treatment of Athena on the issues of denomination C with only one bull’s head is clearly derived from the image of the goddess popularized by the gold staters of Alexander the Great.

No other civic bronze issues can be easily attributed to the third and second centuries BC, probably because in this period the city struck royal bronze coinages for the Attalid kings in the name of the dynastic founder, Philetairos (listed separately). However, when civic coinage resumed production at Pergamon in the first century BC it was struck entirely in brass, rather than bronze. It has been suggested that this innovation may reflect Pontic influence since this alloy was also used for civic coinages of the Pontic kingdom. Pergamene brass denomination B features the bust of Athena on the obverse and the standing figure of Asklepios on the reverse, while denomination B/C was struck in bronze and pairs the head of Athena with the figure of Nike or the head of Asklepios with an eagle standing on a thunderbolt.

Except for the anepigraphic electrum emission of the fifth century BC, all civic coinage of Pergamon regularly carries full or abbreviated Greek legends naming “the Pergamenes” as the issuing authority. On the silver cistophoric coinages of the second and first century BC, this city ethnic is commonly reduced to monogrammatic form (E).

After 129 BC, the ethnic is also frequently joined by the Greek signatures of magistrates on both cistophoroi and base metal civic issues. Although these signatures regularly appear on the reverses of cistophoroi, they occur on the obverses of brass coins. Some of the signers of the early first century BC are thought to have been prytaneis (presidents of the city council) based on the association of their abbreviated names with the monogram . Signatures on the brass coinage are always written in full.

It has been suggested that the Mithradates who signed the brass issue of denomination B might have been Mithradates VI, himself, which would date the emission to the period of the First Mithradatic War. However, the absence of the royal title—present when the king signed coins at Athens—leaves this identification open to question. Mithradates of Pergamon may be a better possibility as the signer, although this would potentially push the date of the brass issue and the related bronze coinage later in the first century BC.

In the mid-first century BC, cistophoroi also carried prominent Latin legends naming the incumbent Roman governor of Asia alongside the signatures of Greek magistrates. The Latin legends name “T. Ampius, son of Titus, Proconsul,” “C. Fabius, son of Marcus, Proconsul,” “C. Septumius, son of Titus, Proconsul,” and “C. Pulcher, Proconsul.”

Two special emissions of cistophoroi, evidently struck as plunder taken from Pergamon by Roman generals carry no Greek signatures but only name “Fimbria Imperator” and “Q. Metellus Pius Scipio Imperator.” It was a Roman custom for the troops to hail a victorious general as Imperator (“Commander”).

The coinage of Pergamon is notable in the second and first centuries BC for its inclusion of a variety of issues struck in the names of local gods, apparently in connection with the celebration of festivals in their honor.

An emission of tetradrachms on a reduced Attic standard (c. 16.7g to the tetradrachm), now known from only three specimens, features the aegis sporting a beautiful head of Medusa on the obverse and depicts the Pergamene cult statue of Athena Nikephoros on the reverse. A full Greek legend names the goddess as the issuing authority. Hoard evidence, combined with known celebrations of the Nikephoria festival at Pergamon in 181 BC and 177 or 173 BC, and a victory of Eumenes II over the Galatians in the mid-160s BC has suggested production in the period c. 181–165 BC.

Tetradrachms struck to a reduced Attic standard (c. 15.94g to the tetradrachm) in the mid-second century and traditionally attributed to the island of Syros (Handbook of Coins of the Islands, no. 709) are now believed to have been struck at Pergamon or at a mint under Pergamene influence. These feature the head of Demeter on the obverse and the Kabeiroi on the reverse and carry a full Greek legend naming “the Divine Syrian Kabeiroi” as the issuing authority. The representation of the Kabeiroi on these tetradrachms closely follows that of the same gods found on the Attalid portrait tetradrachm of Eumenes II (no. 807, below).

An emission of hemidrachms apparently struck to the cistophoric weight standard names Athena Nikephoros as the issuing authority. The head of the goddess wearing an Attic helmet is depicted on the obverse while an owl with spread wings stands on a palm branch on the reverse. The same types were employed for brass issues of denomination C/D in the name of Athena Nikephoros, probably in the early first century BC (see below). However, the involvement of the magistrate NI has led to the suggestion that the hemidrachms may be related to the issue of regular cistophoroi dated to c. 104 BC.

Bronze issues of denomination B and C naming Asklepios Soter (B and C) and Athena Nikephoros (B) appear to have begun production in the second century. Coins naming Asklepios Soter regularly pair the head of the god with one of his healing serpents coiled around the omphalos (B) or his staff (C). A rare second series of denomination C naming Asklepios Soter features the head of Apollo— the father of he healing god—on the obverse and his tripod on the reverse. Athena Nikephoros denomination B, which shares some monograms with Asklepios Soter denomination C, features the head of the goddess wearing a Corinthian helmet on the obverse and a trophy of Galatian arms on the reverse.

Although these coins are usually dated to the late second century BC, following the death of Attalos III in 133 BC, it seems probable that they were struck over a longer period. The occasional use of the monograms E and T on issues of Athena Nikephoros denomination B raises the possibility that these were struck already in the 150s BC. The T monogram appears on early cistophoroi struck at Pergamon for the use of Sardeis in this period. Similarly, some issues of Asklepios Soter denomination C carry the signatures of magistrates on the obverse—a feature that would suggest that the production of this type continued into the early first century BC. Indeed, the same signers were also responsible for Pergamene brass civic issues of denomination B/C depicting Athena and Nike.

Brass issues of denomination C/D in the name of Athena Nikephoros feature the head of the goddess wearing an Attic helmet ornamented with a star on the obverse and her owl alighting on a palm branch or perched on a thunderbolt on the reverse. The use of brass has been taken as evidence for production in the early first century BC, but the use of  rather than Q in the legend of the owl-on-palm type suggests some relationship to the Athena Nikephoros bronze denomination B, which also prefers this form of theta. Perhaps production of the brass issue closely followed that of the bronze.

The owl-on-palm type was also used for the reverse of an anomalous brass issue of denomination B. This depicts the facing head of a bull surmounted by a star on the obverse, but the carries no legend on the reverse except for an apparent magistrate’s name.

A bronze emission of denomination D in the name of Athena Nikephoros is linked to the brass coins naming the goddess through an obverse type depicting Athena wearing the same Attic helmet adorned with a star. The reverse type features an owl within an olive wreath border. A second issue of this denomination replaces the obverse type with a bust of Athena wearing a Corinthian helmet that seems to be derived from the depiction of the goddess on Pergamene civic brass denomination B. The dotted obverse border also suggests some affinity with the anomalous bull head/owl on palm issue of brass denomination B.

The use of borders on denomination C naming Athena Areia may perhaps connect it to the issues of Athena Nikephoros, although here, the obverse depicts a different bust of Athena wearing a Corinthian helmet surrounded by a wreath and the reverse features the standing owl within a fillet border. The legend on this issue employs Q as on the owl-on-thunderbolt type of Athena Nikephoros brass denomination C.

Bronze denomination C/D names Asklepios and his wife Hygieia, the goddess of good health. The laureate bust of Hygieia appears on the obverse while a serpent coiled around the omphalos is depicted on the reverse. The signature of a magistrate below the bust suggests production in the early first century BC and connection to both the late issues of Asklepios Soter bronze denomination C and the Pergamene brass civic issues.

Considering the clear interrelationship between issues of Asklepios Soter bronze denomination C bearing the signatures of magistrates and Pergamene civic brass denominations B and, especially, B/C, it is tempting to suggest that the signed Asklepios Soter issues and Hygieia bronze denomination C/D, which also carries a magistrate’s signature, together provided the lower denominations in a system that employed brass civic issues for the higher denominations.

CiviC Coinage

eleCtrum (pHokaiC standard)

Hekte or Sixth Stater (2.43g)

716. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Bearded male head (Gongylos?) r., wearing kyrbasia. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 450–400 BC. SNG Paris 1545. R3

gold (attiC standard)

Staters (c. 8.6g)

717. Obv. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Cult statue of Athena standing facing, wearing polos and brandishing spear and shield. CorinThian helmeT to l. Monogram or symbol (CoCk or roSe) to r. (if any). Struck c. 334–332 BC. Callataÿ 2012, D1/R1– D5/R7. R2

Third Stater (2.85g)

718. Obv. Head of Athena r., wearing Attic helmet. Rev. Anepigraphic. Cult statue of Athena standing facing, wearing polos and brandishing spear and shield. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 334–332 BC. BMC Mysia, 110, no. 4. R3

silver (persiC standard)

Diobols or Third Sigloi (c. 1.7g)

719. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. STar to l. (if any). Rev. PERG or PERGA. Bearded male head (Gongylos?) r., wearing kyrbasia. barleyCorn or CreSCenT to l. or r. (if any). All within incuse square. Struck c. 450–400 BC. SNG France 1546–1548. R1

Obol or Sixth Siglos (0.72g)

720. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PERG. Bearded male head (Gongylos?) r., wearing kyrbasia. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 450–400 BC. Savoca SA 79, lot 117. R3

Hemiobol or 1/12 Siglos (0.38g)

721. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PERG. Bearded male head (Gongylos?) r., wearing kyrbasia. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 450–400 BC. Savoca SA 79, lot 117. R3

silver (CHian standard)

Obol (c. 0.6g)

722. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PERG. Calf head r. barleyCorn below (if any). All within incuse square. Struck c. 450–400 BC. SNG France 1555–1556. R1

silver (attiC standard)

Diobol (c. 1.25g)

723. Obv. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. PERGA or PERGAH. Cult statue of Athena standing facing, wearing polos and brandishing spear and shield. owl to l. or ThunderbolT to r. (if any). Struck c. 310–282 BC. SNG France 1558–1566. R1

silver (CistopHoriC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 12.6g)

724. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. Symbol (amPhora, CaduCeuS, Club, dolPhin, eaGle, or ThyrSuS) to r. (if any). Struck c. 166–160 BC. ECC Series 1–8. R1

725. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. Monogram to r. (if any). Symbol (aThena head, bee and flower, Grain ear, GraPe bunCh, nike, owl, SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS, STaG, STar, STyliS or TorCh) to r. Struck c. 160–150 BC. ECC Series 9–19. R1

726. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. Monogram or magistrate name (D, DA or A) to l. (if any). Symbol(s) (CornuCoPia, dolPhin, iVy leaf, Prow, ThyrSoS, or wreaTh) to l. and/or r. Struck c. 150–140 BC. ECC Series 20–24. S

727. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. NI or symbol (maCedonian helmeT or CreSTed helmeT r.) to r. Struck c. 139–136 BC. ECC Series 25–26. R2

728. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. Magistrate name (AS, ER, E, or H) above. Symbol (Club and lion Skin, GorGoneion, GraPeS wiTh iVy leaf, SerPenT-enTwined Club, or ThunderbolT) to r. Struck c. 135–128 BC. ECC Series 27–31. R2

729. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. UA or U–L in coils (if any). Monogram or DH above. Symbol (CaduCeuS-Club, female head, Griffin helmeT, SerPenT-enTwined Grain ear, SerPenT-enTwined Palm or winGed CaduCeuS) to r. Struck c. 128–123 BC. ECC Series 32–37. R2

730. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Monogram or magistrate name (A or AS) above. Struck c. 123–104 BC. Kleiner 1978, pp. 79–80, nos. 1–2 and 5–8. S

731. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Monogram or E above. Struck c. 104 BC. Kleiner 1978, pp. 79–80, nos. 18–20. R1

732. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Monogram or magistrate or above. name (AR, DH, DI, EU, KA, H or NI) above. Struck c. 104–98 BC. Kleiner 1978, pp. 79–81, nos. 4, 9, 11–13, 15, and 21–23. S

733. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. LU above. Struck c. 98–95 BC. Kleiner 1978, p. 80, no. 16. S

734. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Bo or A above. Struck c. 95–92 BC. Kleiner 1978, pp. 79–80, nos. 3, 10 and 17. S

735. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Magistrate or prytanis name (A/, AS/, or A) above. Struck c. 92–90 BC. Kleiner 1978, pp. 79–80, nos. 3 and 28–29. S

736. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Prytanis name (DH/, or EU/) above. Struck c. 90–88 BC. Kleiner 1978, p. 80, nos. 31 and 33. S

737. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Prytanis name (AR/ or BA/) above. Struck c. 88–85 BC. Kleiner 1978, p. 80, nos. 27 and 30. R1

738. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. IBIA/IREAT. Legionary standard and winged caduceus. No symbols or monograms. Struck under C. Flavius Fimbria, legate (85 BC). Metcalf 2017, nos. 705–707. R2

739. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Prytanis name (DI/, IE/, KA/, KR/, KRI/, KT/, H/, or TEU/) above. Struck c. 85–76 BC. Kleiner 1978, pp. 80–81, nos. 32, 35–38, 41 and 48. C

740. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Prytanis name (AP/) above. STar or wreaTh above (if any). Struck c. 76 BC. Kleiner 1978, p. 80, nos. 24–26. S

741. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Monogram or prytanis name (E/, E/A, H/No, oS/, PA/, PE/, TH/, or I/) above. wreaTh above (if any). Struck c. 76–67 BC. Kleiner 1978, p. 81, nos. 39–42, 46–47 and 49–51. C

742. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. Q to l. ATRA above. SerPenTenTwined ThyrSoS to r. Struck under uncertain quaestor, c. 68/7–58/7 BC. Attribution to Pergamon is uncertain. Metcalf 2017, nos. 601–660 (40s BC). R1

743. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. T·ARI·T·/Ro·o. Two entwined serpents coiling around tripod. E to l. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Magistrate names (APoLLNIDHS NIKIPPo, AKLHPIDH ARCLAoS, ATTALo ILoTRATo, or PoIDNIo HNoGEN) below. Struck under T. Ampius Balbus, proconsular governor of Asia (58–57 BC). Metcalf 2017, nos. 101–104. R2

744. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. ·ABI··/Ro·o. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. E to l. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Magistrate name (DHA, DHHTRIo or HNoILo) below. Struck under C. Fabius, proconsular governor of Asia (57–56 BC). Metcalf 2017, nos. 105–120. R2

745. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. ·ERTVI·T·/Ro·o. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. E to l. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Magistrate name (KRITN, HNoGNH, or PoIDNIo) below. Struck under C. Septumius, proconsular governor of Asia (56–55 BC). Metcalf 2017, nos. 121–134. R2

746. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. ·RVHE/Ro·o. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. E to l. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Magistrate name(s) (BIN, UANHS

, KAUILo, ACWN, HNoDRo, or HNoANTo) below. Struck under C. Claudius Pulcher, proconsular governor of Asia (55–53 BC). Metcalf 2017, nos. 135–187. R2

747. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. Q·ETEV·RIV·/IRIo IRE. Two entwined serpents coiling around legionary eagle. E to l. Struck under Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio, proconsular governor of Syria (49 BC). Metcalf 2017, nos. 188–245. R2

Didrachms (c. 6.3g)

748. Obv. Lion skin draped over club. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Grape bunch on leaf. CaduCeuS to l. Struck c. 166–160 BC. ECC Series 7. R2

749. Obv. Lion skin draped over club. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Grape bunch on leaf. Symbol (STaG, owl or STyliS) to l. or above. Struck c. 160–150 BC. ECC Series 9–10 and 15. R2

Drachm (3.07g)

750. Obv. Lion skin draped over club. All within ivy wreath. Rev. E. Grape bunch on leaf. LU above. SerPenT-enTwined ThyrSoS to r. Struck c. 98–95 BC. Numismatik Naumann 47, lot 129. R3

brass

Denomination B (21–24mm, 9.14–10.52g)

751. Obv. Bust of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. IQRADAToU below (if any). Rev. PERGAHNWN. Asklepios, standing facing, holding staff entwined by serpent. Struck early first century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 42. R1

Denomination B/C (16–22mm, 4.74–10.39g)

752 753

752. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. STar on bowl. Magistrate name (DHHTRIoU, DIoDWRoU, EPI PERGAoU, PERGAHN or CoREIoU) below (if any). Rev. PERGA, PERGAHN or PERGAHNWN. Nike standing r., holding wreath and palm branch. Struck early first century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 39. C

753. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. CoREIoU below. Rev. PERGAHNWN. Nike standing r., holding wreath and palm branch. Struck early first century BC. SNG France 1800–1801. R1

754. Obv. Laureate head of Asklepios r. SELEUKoU below (if any). Rev. P–ER/G–A/HNWN. Eagle with spread wings, standing l. on thunderbolt, head r. Struck early first century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 41. S bronze

Denomination C (16–18mm, 3.13–4.58g)

755. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. pERG. Two confronted bull heads. Symbol (bee, iVy leaf, SPearhead, ThunderbolT, or TorCh) above or below (if any). Struck c. 300–275 BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 5. S

756. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. pERGA. Bull head r. Monogram or symbol(s) (bee, iVy leaf, owl or ThunderbolT) below, to l. and/or above. Struck c. 300–275 BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 9a. S

757. Obv. Head of Corinthian helmet l. or r. Rev. pERGA. Bull head l. Monogram to r. (if any). owl to r. (if any). Struck c. 300–275 BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 9b. R1

Denomination E (8–10mm, 0.54–1.23g)

758. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. pERG. Calf head r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 400–350 BC. SNG France 1590–1592. R1

759. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. pERGA. Boar head l. Uncertain object below. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 400–350 BC. SNG France 1589. R2

760. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. pERG or pERGA. Two confronted calf heads. CaduCeuS or barleyCorn between (if any). Struck c. 400–350 BC. SNG France 1551–1554. R1

761. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. pER. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 334–332 BC. SNG France 1595–1596. R1

762. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. pER. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 334–332 BC. SNG France 1597. R3

763. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. pERGA. Two confronted bull heads. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 1549. R1

764. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. pERG. Two confronted bull heads. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 300–275 BC. SNG France 1550. R1

765. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. pERGA. Two stars. Q above. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 1587–1588. R1

festival Coinage

silver (reduCed attiC standard)

Tetradrachm (c. 16.75g)

766. Obv. Gorgoneion facing 3/4 l. on aegis. Rev. AQHNAS/NIKEoRoU. Cult statue of Athena Nikephoros standing facing, holding Nike and palm branch, grounded shield at feet. ThunderbolT to l. Struck c. 181–165 BC. SNG France 1698. R2

silver (reduCed attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 15.94g)

767. Obv. Head of Demeter r., wreathed with grain. Rev. QEWN/KABEIRWN/ SURIWN. Kabeiroi, heads surmounted by stars, standing facing, holding spears. Monogram to r. All within wreath. Struck c. 145–140 BC. HGC 6, no. 709 (Syros). R1

silver (CistopHoriC standard)

Hemidrachm (c. 1.57g)

768. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. AHNAS/NIKEoRoU. Owl with spread wings standing 3/4 r. on palm branch, head facing. Magistrate name(s) (NI–Ko or NI–PE) across fields. Struck early first century BC. BMC Mysia, p. 132, no. 189. R2

brass

Denomination B (18–mm, 5.64–8.7g)

769. Obv. Facing bull head. STar above. Rev. Owl with spread wings standing 3/4 r. on palm branch, head facing. Monogram to l. SoATIS (?) above. Struck early first century BC. SNG Tübingen 2442. R2

Denomination C/D (14–18mm, 1.47–4.54g)

770. Obv. Head of Athena r., wearing Attic helmet with star on bowl. Rev. AHNAS/NIKHoRoU. Owl with spread wings standing 3/4 r. on palm branch, head facing. Monogram or Greek letter(s) (A, AG, AR, B, GK, D, DI, I, K, L, o, P, S, or SAS) to l. and/or r. (if any). Club to l. (if any). Struck early first century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 37. C

771. Obv. Head of Athena r., wearing Attic helmet with star on bowl. Rev. AQHNAS/ NIKHoRoU. Owl standing 3/4 r. on thunderbolt, head facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 36. S bronze

Denomination B (19–22mm, 4.85–8.99g)

772. Obv. Laureate head of Asklepios r. Rev. ASKLHPIoU/SWTHRoS. Serpent coiled r. around omphalos. owl or monogram to l. (if any). Struck second century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 30. C

773. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. AHNAS/NIKEoRoU Trophy of Galatian arms. Monogram to l. or r. (if any). Struck second–early first centuries BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 33. C

Denomination C (14–19mm, 2.54–5.40g)

774. Obv. Laureate head of Asklepios r. Magistrate name (DHHTRIoU, DIoDWRoU, EPI PERGA below neck (if any). Rev. ASKLHPIoU/SWTHRoS. Serpent coiled r. around staff. Monogram to l. (if any). Struck second–early first centuries BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 29. C

775. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ASKLHPIoU/SWTHRoS. Tripod. No symbols or monograms. Struck second–early first centuries BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 31. R1

776. Obv. Bust of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. All within wreath. Rev. AQHNAS/ AREIAS. Owl standing 3/4 r., head facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 38. S

Denomination C/D (12–14mm, 3.12–4.97g)

777. Obv. Laureate bust of Hygieia r. ASKLHPIADA below. Rev. ASKLHPIoU/ KAI UGIEIAS. Serpent coiled r. around omphalos. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 32. R1

Denomination D (12–15mm, 1.81–2.63g)

778. Obv. Head of Athena r., wearing Attic helmet with star on bowl. Rev. AQHNAS/NIKHoRoU. Owl standing 3/4 r., head facing. All within laurel wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 35. R2

779. Obv. Head of Athena r., wearing Corinthian helmet. Rev. AQHNAS/ NIKHoRoU. Owl standing 3/4 r., head facing. E below. All within laurel wreath. Struck early first century BC. Chameroy 2012, no. 34. S

History

Philetairos was born in Tieion to a Paphlagonian mother named Boa and a Greek father named Attalos. Unfortunately, as a child he was caught in the press of a crowd and sustained such severe injuries that he was rendered a eunuch. Little else is known of his early life, but during the wars of Alexander the Great in the East (334–323 BC) he appears as a minor officer under Antigonos Monophthalmos, Alexander’s satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia.

Philetairos continued to serve Antigonos even after the death of Alexander (323 BC), but seems to have abandoned him for his rival, Lysimachos, another of Alexander’s former generals who was ruling in Thrace, shortly before the Battle of Ipsos in 301 BC. This battle brought together a coalition composed of Lysimachos, the Macedonian king, Kassander, and Seleukos I, the architect of a new eastern empire centered on Babylonia, to defeat and kill Antigonos. In the aftermath of the coalition’s victory, Antigonos’ former territories in western Anatolia fell to Lysimachos. As a reward for his defection, Lysimachos appointed Philetairos to command the city of Pergamon and closely guard its treasury housing some 9,000 talents of silver (= 12,500,000 tetradrachms).

For almost two decades Philetairos remained loyal to Lysimachos, but increasing intradynastic intrigue and the execution of the king’s popular son, Agathokles, led the master of Pergamon to support the cause of Agathokles’ wife, Lysandra. In 283/2 BC, he assisted Lysandra in fleeing to the court of Seleukos I and offered his support for a Seleukid bid to overthrow Lysimachos. In 281 BC, Seleukos I defeated and killed Lysimachos at the Battle of Koroupedion. Later in the same year, he himself was murdered by Ptolemy Keraunos, a dispossessed scion of the Ptolemaic dynasty, as he marched to take control of Lysimachos’ possessions in Thrace. In the aftermath of the murder, Philetairos paid Keraunos for the return of Seleukos’ body and arranged for its transfer to Seleukeia in Pieria, where it was interred by the dead king’s son and successor, Antiochos I. Despite the loyalty and respect he had shown to Seleukos I, Philetairos seems to have largely disregarded Antiochos I amid the political chaos that descended upon western Anatolia in the 270s BC, but did not openly revolt.

Although his childhood injury prevented him from producing any heirs of his own, Philetairos ensured the continuation of his dynasty by adopting his nephew, Eumenes (I), as his son and designated successor. Philetairos also established a positive reputation for the new Attalid dynasty by aiding Kyzikos and possibly also Kyme against the depredations of the Galatians (Celts) who had entered western Anatolia in 278 BC. His victories over the Galatians were later celebrated in a monument dedicated in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delos and earned him and his heirs the rights of proxenia (hosting at public expense), promanteia (first consultation of the oracle), and other privileges at Delphi. Philetairos also expanded the fortifications of Pergamon and beautified the city with a palace and a new temple dedicated to Demeter.

Coinage

While holding Pergamon on behalf of Lysimachos, Philetairos used part of the silver in the city’s treasury to strike tetradrachms on the Attic standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm). These feature the new types introduced for the precious metal coinages of Lysimachos: the deified head of Alexander the Great wearing the horn of Zeus Ammon on the obverse and an enthroned figure of Athena holding Nike on the reverse. Although the coins name of “King Lysimachos” as the issuing authority, the mint of Pergamon is often indicated by a crescent symbol and the archaic wooden cult statue (xoanon in Greek) of Athena in the field. These coins are also listed under no. 1750j in the Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors, part 2.

Following his defection to Seleukos I in 282–281 BC, Philetairos struck a new series of silver tetradrachms on the Attic standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) to commemorate the victory of Seleukos I over Lysimachos. These feature the horned head of a horse (the personal badge of Seleukos) on the obverse, an elephant (an emblem of Seleukid military power) with a full Greek legend naming “King Seleukos” on the reverse. These coins are also listed under no. 23 in the Handbook of Syrian Coins.

Philetairos also produced Attic-weight tetradrachms depicting the head of Herakles on the obverse and the enthroned figure of Zeus on the reverse. These types, which were first introduced by Alexander the Great, enjoyed wide popularity with foreign mercenaries. Their full Greek legends name “Alexander,” “King Alexander,” or “King Seleukos” as the issuing authority, but the mint of Pergamon is often indicated by the presence of the head of Athena in the left field. These tetradrachms are also listed under nos. 123–125a in the Handbook of Syrian Coins Although the Alexandrine series has long been attributed to the 270s BC, more recent study of the hoard evidence makes it seem more likely that it too belongs to the period leading up to and immediately following the Battle of Koroupedion.

The Alexandrine coinage was followed by a remarkable new tetradrachm series depicting the diademed head of Seleukos I on the obverse and an enthroned figure of Athena holding a shield before her on the reverse. Both of the new types advertise the legitimacy of Philetairos’ position as dynast of Pergamon. The reverse type is obviously influenced by the reverse type employed for the still-popular coinages of Lysimachos, the king who first established Philetairos in authority at Pergamon. It also refers to the important cults of Athena in the city. The portrait of Seleukos I serves to present Philetairos as a loyal servant of the father of Antiochos I, perhaps at a time when Antiochos I might have preferred to see a more pliable individual in charge of Pergamon and its treasury. However, the new coinage also marks a clear separation from the troubled Seleukid empire in that it carries a full Greek legend openly naming “Philetairos” as the issuing authority. This series has been dated to c. 275/4 BC in the past, but it may better belong to the period c. 280–271 BC.

At last, probably in the period c. 270–263 BC, Philetairos produced a tetradrachm coinage that made his secession from the Seleucid empire unequivocal. The previous Athena reverse type was retained, but the portrait of Seleukos I was replaced with the image of Philetairos wearing the diadem. Interestingly, while the obverse portrait casts the dynast of Pergamon as a king, he never formally claimed the royal title, even in the legend on the reverse, which still identifies only “Philetairos” as the issuing authority. This series established the basic model for subsequent Attalid royal coinage down to the reign of Eumenes II (197–159 BC).

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

780. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. D or K under neck. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike, resting arm on grounded shield, spear behind. Symbol(s) (CreSCenT, CulT imaGe, herm, or PenTalPha) to l. Monogram to l. or in exergue. Struck c. 287/6–282 BC. Thompson 215–229; HGC 3.2, no. 1750j. S

781. Obv. Horned horse head r. Rev. BASILEWS/SELEUKoU. Elephant standing r. Symbol(s) (arTemiS or TyChe buST, bee, herm, or STar) above or to l. and r. or monogram below. Struck c. 282–281 BC. SC 1–2; HGC 9, no. 23 R2– R3

782. Obv. Head of Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. SELEUKoU/BASILEWS. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Symbol (aThena head, CreSCenT, CreSCenTS [2], oVal, or STar) to l. and under throne. Struck c. 282–281 BC. SC 308; HGC 9, no. 125a. S

783. Obv. Head of Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. BASILEWS ALEANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. arTemiS buST to l. and CreSCenT under throne. Struck c. 281/0 BC. SC 306; HGC 9, no. 124a. R3

784. Obv. Head of Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Symbol(s) (aThena head, laurel branCh, or STar) under throne and/or to l. Struck c. 281/0 BC. SC 307; HGC 9, no. 125a. R2

785. Obv. Diademed head of Seleukos I r. Rev. ILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding grounded shield and resting arm on sphinx, spear in crook of arm. Symbol(s) (aThena head, aTTiC helmeT, bow, CreSCenT, herm, or iVy leaf) to l. and to r. or in exergue. Monogram in exergue or on throne (if any). Struck c. 280–271 BC. SC 309. R2

786. Obv. Diademed head of Philetairos r. Rev. ILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding grounded shield and resting arm on sphinx, spear in crook of arm. iVy leaf above knee and monogram on throne. Struck c. 270–263 BC. Westermark 1961, Group II. R2

History

Eumenes I was the son of a woman named Satyra and Eumenes, the brother of Philetairos. As Philetairos was incapable of providing his own heirs, he adopted his nephew to succeed him as dynast of Pergamon. After the death of his uncle, Eumenes I assumed power, but faced serious challenges almost immediately.

The Seleukid king, Antiochos I, took offense at the succession of Eumenes I and made war on the new dynast of Pergamon. This conflict seems to have dragged on until 261 BC, when Eumenes I inflicted a major defeat on Antiochos I near Sardeis, thereby becoming the de facto ruler of large parts of northwestern Anatolia. It is unclear whether the foundation of garrisoned settlements at Philetaireia under Mount Ida in Troas and Attaleia in Lydia precipitated the conflict with the Seleukid king or represent a consolidation of Eumenes’ gains after his victory.

Unfortunately, Eumenes I seems to have enjoyed rather less success against the marauding Galatians (Celts). One surviving anecdote of uncertain date reports his defeat and pursuit by the Galatians. The dynast of Pergamon, who was ill at the time, only managed to escape with his life by abandoning the litter in which he was carried. He is said to have been forced to make tribute payments in order to procure the safety of Pergamon from Galatian attack.

It is unclear what involvement Eumenes I may have had in the western Anatolian theater of the Second Syrian War (260–253 BC) fought between Antiochos II, the son and successor of Antiochos I, and the Ptolemaic king, Ptolemy II Philadelphos. Following the custom established by his uncle, Eumenes I adopted his cousin, Attalos (I), as his successor although he appears to have had children of his own.

Coinage

Four series of silver tetradrachms previously attributed to Attalos I are now thought to have been struck by Eumenes I. All are struck to the Attic standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) and feature the portrait of Philetairos on the obverse and still name him on the reverse, but now his diadem is replaced by a laurel wreath as an indication that he was no longer a living dynast, but rather a god. The earliest series continues the same seated Athena type that was introduced by Philetairos. Subsequent series, however, recast the type to depict Athena crowning the name of the dead dynast rather than holding her shield. The addition of the wreath in Athena’s hand may perhaps allude to the victory over Antiochos I. In any case, much of Eumenes’ silver coin production was probably influenced by the expenses incurred in fighting against the Seleukid king and buying off the Galatians.

A bronze coinage of two denominations (D and E) featuring the helmeted head of Athena on the obverse and reverse types related to the symbols (bow and ivy leaf) on the tetradrachms of Eumenes I and may have been introduced under that king. However, the use of a bee symbol and monograms, one of which is shared by the silver of Attalos I, may suggest that these continued in production under the latter. The bronze types all refer to important local and dynastic cults at Pergamon, like that of Athena Nikephoros (“Victory-bearer”), the divine patroness of Pergamon; Dionysos Kathegemon (“the Leader”), an Attalid dynastic god represented by the ivy leaf; and Telephos, a son of Herakles and divine ancestor of both the Attalid dynasty and the people of Pergamon, symbolized by the bow.

The silver and bronze coins attributed to Eumenes I all carry full Greek legends that falsely name “Philetairos” as the issuing authority.

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

787. Obv. Laureate head of Philetairos r. Rev. TILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding grounded shield and resting arm on sphinx, spear in crook of arm. iVy leaf above knee and bow to r. Monogram on throne. Struck c. 255–250 BC. Westermark 1961, Group III. R1

788. Obv. Laureate head of Philetairos r. Rev. TILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding wreath, spear in crook of arm resting on grounded shield. iVy leaf and monogram to l. bow to r. Struck c. 255/50–241 BC. Westermark 1961, Group IVA. S

789. Obv. Laureate head of Philetairos r. Rev. TILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding wreath and resting arm on grounded shield, spear behind. iVy leaf and monogram to l. bow to r. Struck c. 255-50–241 BC. Westermark 1961, Group IVB. R1

790. Obv. Laureate head of Philetairos r. Rev. TILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding wreath and resting arm on grounded shield, spear behind. GraPe bunCh and monogram to l. bow to r. Struck c. 255/50–241 BC. Westermark 1961, Group V. R1

bronze

Denomination D (11–14mm, 0.83–2.31g)

791. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU. Bow. bee to r. or monogram below or within bow (if any). Struck c. 262–214 BC or later. Westermark 1991, no. 7 (c. 260–230 BC). C

792. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU. Ivy leaf.  below (if any). Struck c. 262–214 BC or later. Westermark 1991, no. 8 (c. 260–230 BC). S

Denomination E (8–10mm, 0.67–0.77g)

793. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic or Corinthian helmet r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU Bow. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 262–214 BC or later. Westermark 1991, no. 9 (c. 260–230 BC). R1

794. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU. Bow in bowcase. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 262–214 BC or later. Chameroy 2012, no. 14. R2

795. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU. Ivy leaf. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 262–214 BC or later. Westermark 1991, no. 10 (c. 260–230 BC). R2

History

Attalos I was the son of Attalos, a brother of Philetairos, and Antiochis, a granddaughter of Seleukos I Nikator, the founder of the Seleukid dynasty. Although it has been suspected that the elder Attalos was originally intended to succeed, his premature death led Eumenes I to adopt his uncle’s son and name him as his dynastic heir.

Attalos I immediately changed the trajectory of Attalid policy when he succeeded his cousin. Whereas Eumenes I had been compelled to pay tribute to the marauding Galatians (Celts) out of fear, Attalos I became the first ruler in western Anatolia to refuse their demands. As the Galatians marched to mete out a bloody punishment on Pergamon and its dynast, Attalos I met them in battle near the mouth of the Kaïkos River, where he inflicted a great defeat on them. This victory was a great coup for Attalos I, providing him with the opportunity to claim both the royal title and the epithet, Soter (“Savior”).

What involvement Attalos I may have had in the so-called War of the Brothers (c. 241–236 BC) fought between the Seleukid king, Seleukos II Kallinikos, and his rebellious brother, Antiochos Hierax, is unclear. However, within a decade of the war’s conclusion, the king of Pergamon found himself facing down Hierax and an army of Galatian allies drawn from the Tolistoagii and Tectosages tribes. In 229/8 BC, Attalos I defeated the forces of the Seleukid usurper in a series of battles fought near the temple of Aphrodite at the foot of Pergamon, in Hellespontine Phrygia, and at Koloe in Lydia. At last, after crushing the Galatians at the Harpasos River in Karia (228/7 BC), Attalos I compelled Hierax to give up all claims to authority in Anatolia north of the Tauros Mountains. These numerous victories over the Galatians were celebrated in a great sculptural group erected on the akropolis of Pergamon and Attalos I began to advertise himself as the champion of Greek civilization against the barbarian.

In 224 BC, the king of Pergamon successfully opposed the generals of Selukos III Keraunos in a failed attempt to restore Seleukid authority north of the Taurus Maountains. Seleukos III was himself assassinated before he could lead a campaign against Attalos I in person the following year. In the aftermath of Seleukos’ murder, the general Achaios was appointed viceroy of Asia by his successor, the young Antiochos III. Within a year Achaios had recovered most of the Anatolian territories so recently seized by Attalos I and had virtually shut the king of Pergamon up in his capital.

Attalos I could do little as Achaios proclaimed himself king in Anatolia (220 BC), but as soon as the latter was away campaigning against the Pisidian city of Selge in 218 BC, the king of Pergamon marched out with an army including many mercenaries of the Galatian Aegosages in order to restore his previous authority in Mysia and Aiolis. In 216 BC, fearing that Achaios might again strip him of his enlarged kingdom, Attalos I joined Antiochos III in campaigning against the Seleukid usurper at Sardeis. However, once Achaios was captured and executed in 214 BC it was little more than a year before Antiochos III had reclaimed almost all of Anatolia for the Seleukid kingdom. The king of Pergamon found himself thwarted again in his desires.

Sometime before 219 BC, Attalos I had become an ally of the Aitolian League, not only out of growing concern over the ambitions of the Macedonian king, Philip V, but because, like himself, the Aitolian League had cast itself as the defender of Greece against the barbarian (Galatian or Macedonian) menace. Thus, the king took an interest in 211 BC when the League entered the First Macedonian War (214–205 BC) as a Roman ally against Philip V. Attalos I was elected one of the two strategoi (generals) of the Aitolian League in 209 BC and sailed to the captured island of Aigina with a fleet in the following year.

Upon his arrival, he purchased the island from the League for 30 talents and then used it as a base of operations for assisting the Roman consul, P. Sulpicius Galba, in making inroads against Philip V from the sea. In 207 BC, Attalos I plundered the island of Peparethos, aided in the capture of Oreos on the island of Euboia, and seized Opous, the chief city of Opountian Lokris. He narrowly escaped capture by the Macedonian king while at Opous, but was then forced to return home to Pergamon after news arrived that the Bithynian king, Prousias I, had begun to attack the Attalid kingdom.

In 205 BC, following the conclusion of the First Macedonian War, but while the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) between Rome and Carthage still raged on, Attalos I endeared himself to the Romans by providing them with the formless cult image of Cybele, the Megale Meter (Great Mother) taken either from her shrine on Mount Ida in Mysia or Pessenous in Galatia. A prophecy found in the Sibylline Books foretold that disaster in the war could only be averted by bringing the Megale Meter, whom the Romans called the Magna Mater, to Rome.

Increasingly concerned about Macedonian expansion as a result of the ongoing Cretan War (205–201 BC), in 202 BC, Attalos I entered the conflict as an ally of the Rhodians against Philip V. Enraged at this development, the Macedonian king mounted an attack on Pergamon in the following year, but was unable to take the city due to improvements made to its defenses before Attalos I went to war. He instead contented himself with plundering the surrounding countryside. The king of Pergamon avenged himself in the subsequent naval Battle of Chios (201 BC). Although outnumbered, the combined Attalid and Rhodian fleet inflicted a crippling defeat on the Macedonians. Nevertheless, Attalos I was again almost captured when his ship ran aground during the fighting. He was only saved when the enemy delayed to plunder the ship’s rich adornments before giving chase. Under these circumstances, it took little persuasion to convince the king of Pergamon to join the Romans in prosecuting the Second Macedonian War (200–196 BC) against Philip V. After failing to raise the Macedonian siege of Abydos in 200 BC, he contributed ships and soldiers to the Roman campaign of the following year, which again saw the capture of Euboian Oreos as well as an attack on Pergamon that required the withdrawal of the Attalid king. This time, however, the enemy at the gates was Antiochos III, who thought better of his assault after the Romans ordered him to desist. With the danger at home averted, Attalos I rejoined the Romans in Greece.

In 197 BC, the Attalid king attempted to use his oratorical skills to detach the cities of Boiotia from their alliance with Philip V. Unfortunately, after prefacing his speech by noting past benefactions to the Boiotians, Attalos I was incapacitated by a sudden stroke. Paralyzed, the king was brought back to Pergamon where he died, supposedly on the same day that Philip V was defeated at the Battle of Kynoskephalai.

Coinage

Attalos I continued to strike silver tetradrachms on the Attic standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) following the model established by Eumenes I. These coins, which came to be known simply as Philetairoi, depict the laureate portrait of Philetairos, the deified founder of the Attalid dynasty, on the obverse and an image of Athena enthroned and crowning his name on the reverse. An early series was probably struck in connection with Attalos’ conflicts with the Galatians and various usurpers and scions of the Seleukid dynasty, while a later series seems to be related to the struggle against Philip V in the Cretan War and the Second Macedonian War.

In addition to Philetairoi, Attalos I also struck Attic-weight tetradrachms reprising the popular types of Alexander the Great. Monograms and symbols shared with the later Philetairoi show that the two series were struck in parallel. It has been suggested that the Alexandrine types might have been struck to pay the Pergamene navy, which was active far from Attalid territory on many occasions after 211 BC. However, it seems equally possible, if not probable, that these coins were produced to meet the requirements of foreign mercenaries, like the Aegosagae Galatians, in Attalid employ. The Alexandrine tetradrachms seem to belong primarily to the period of the Cretan War and Second Macedonian War.

A bronze coinage is often attributed to the reign of Attalos I, but its extent and duration is unclear. Some or all of the bronze issues listed here under Eumenes I may have begun or continued under Attalos I, although their types seem somewhat more closely aligned with the symbols on the silver coins of Eumenes I. Additional emissions of denominations C, D, and E may belong to Attalos I.

Denominations D and E, pairing the head of Athena with a bee and star, respectively, seem to be associated with the later tetradrachms of Attalos I. These same reverse types appear as control symbols on the tetradrachms. Less secure is the attribution of denominations C and D with thyrsos reverse and obverse types featuring the head of Athena (C) or Apollo (D) and denominations D and E with the head of Apollo on the obverse and a tripod (D) or bow in bowcase (E) on the reverse. These are attributed here to Attalos I due to the use of the distinctive form of the letter phi (T), which mostly seems to disappear from Attalid coinage after the reign of this king, and the frequent breaking of the legend in the same manner as on the bronze issues attributed to Eumenes I.

The bronze types tend to advertise major cults of Pergamon. The head of Athena should be understood to represent Athena Nikephoros (“Victory-bearer”) as on the preceding coins given to Eumenes I while the head of Apollo and his mantic tripod almost certainly refer to Apollo Teuthrania, a god whose oracular shrine was located at the foot of Pergamon. The thyrsos refers to the important Attalid dynastic god, Dionysos Kathegemon (“the Leader”). The star had previously appeared on civic bronze coins of Pergamon struck in the late fourth and early third centuries BC as an emblem of the Kabeiroi, twin tutelary deities of Mysia.

With the exception of the Alexandrine tetradrachms, which identify the longdead “Alexander” as the issuing authority, all coins attributed to Attalos I falsely name “Philetairos” as the issuing authority.

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

796. Obv. Laureate head of Philetairos r. Rev. TILETAIRoU or ILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding wreath and resting arm on grounded shield, spear behind. Symbol (bee or Palm branCh) and monogram to l. bow to r. Struck c. 241–235 BC. Westermark 1961, Group VIA. R1

797. Obv. Laureate head of Philetairos r. Rev. TILETAIRoU or ILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding wreath and resting arm on grounded shield, spear behind. Symbol (bee, Club, Palm branCh, SerPenT, STar, or STyliS) and monogram to l. bow to r. Struck c. 205–197 BC. Westermark 1961, Group VIB. R1

798. Obv. Head of Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Symbol (bee, Club, iVy leaf, Palm branCh, SerPenT, or STar) and monogram or magistrate name (DI to l. Struck c. 205–195 BC. Price 1473–1490. R1

bronze

Denomination C (14–16mm, 3.53–3.91g)

799. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. TILETAIRoU. Filleted thyrsos. Monogram or letter(s) (D or ) to l. Struck c. 241–197 BC. Westermark 1991, no. 12 (c. 240–220 BC). R2

Denomination D (10–12mm, 0.83–1.52g)

800. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU. Filleted thyrsos. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 241–197 BC. Westermark 1991, no. 13 (c. 240–220 BC). R3

801. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU. Tripod. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 241–197 BC. Westermark 1991, no. 16 (c. 240–220 BC). R2

802. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU. Bee. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 205–197 BC. Westermark 1991, no. 19 (c. 215 BC). R2

Denomination E (8–9mm, 0.62–1.02g)

803. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU. Bow in bowcase. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 241–197 BC. Westermark 1991, no. 18 (c. 240–220 BC). R2

804. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. TILE/TAIRoU. Eight-rayed star. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 205–197 BC. Westermark 1991, no. 15 (c. 215–200 BC). R2

eumeneS ii SoTer kinG, 197–159 bC

History

Breaking with the tradition established by Philetairos, Eumenes II, the eldest son of Attalos I and Philopatris, succeeded his father as king of Pergamon following his stroke in 197 BC. Eumenes II nevertheless continued the policies of Attalos I, maintaining the alliance with the Romans and presenting himself as a defender of Greece against Macedonian domination.

Under the Roman peace terms that officially ended the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC) against Philip V, and in recognition of Attalid support, Eumenes II was given possession of the cities of Oreos and Eretria on the island of Euboia. In 195 BC, Eumenes II participated in the Roman war against Nabis, the revolutionary Spartan king, and refused to accept the offer of a marriage alliance with the neighboring Seleukid king, Antiochos III.

When the Aitolian War (192–189 BC) broke out between Romans and the disgruntled Aitolian League, Antiochos III mounted a disastrous invasion of mainland Greece before being forced to withdraw to western Anatolia by the Roman consul M’ Acilius Glabrio. During the fighting in Greece and the Roman pursuit of the Seleukid king, Eumenes II lent his support, most notably by using his fleet to assist in the crossing of the Hellespont. At the same time he suffered the devastation of the territory surrounding Pergamon by Seleukos (IV), the son of Antiochos III and the Seleukid army. At last, Eumenes II led his own forces alongside the legions of L. Cornelius Scipio against Antiochos III at the Battle of Magnesia under Mount Sipylos (189 BC). Their victory over the Seleukid king would have far-reaching repercussions for both Eumenes II and the Attalid kingdom.

The terms of the Peace of Apamea (188 BC) that formally ended the conflict forced Antiochos III to evacuate Anatolia north of the Tauros Mountains and many of his former territories there were annexed to the kingdom of Pergamon. These included the regions of Mysia, Hellespontine Phrygia, Greater Phrygia, Lydia, and Lykaonia, as well as the Thracian Chersonesos. Almost overnight, the Romans had made Eumenes II the ruler one of the largest and kingdoms in Anatolia. He immediately expanded his influence still further by marrying Stratonike, the daughter of the Cappadocian king, Ariarathes IV Eusebes.

The success of Eumenes II rankled with other Anatolian kings, like Prousias I Cholos of Bithynia, who refused to cede the territory of Phrygia Epiktetos to the king of Pergamon. In the Attalid-Bithynian War (187–183 BC) that ensued, Prousias I was aided by the fugitive Carthaginian commander, Hannibal, who attempted to strike terror into the Attalid fleet by catapulting jars of venomous snakes onto the decks of its ships. This deadly stratagem notwithstanding, in the end, Eumenes II was victorious with the aid of his Roman allies.

In 181 BC, a dispute with Pharnakes I, the neighboring king of Pontos, developed into a major conflict involving both Eumenes II and Ariarathes IV. Despite a Roman attempt to negotiate a settlement between the kings, the conflict dragged on until 179 BC, when the combined might of Pergamon and Cappadocia finally forced Pharnakes I to seek peace.

The supremacy of Eumenes II in Anatolia led him to take greater interest in meddling in the affairs of other states in the 170s BC. He frequently appeared in

Rome or sent envoys to complain about Perseus, the successor of Philip V in the Macedonian kingdom and even went so far as to support the bid of Antiochos IV to seize the Seleukid empire from his infant nephew in 175 BC, marking the first of several Attalid forays into Seleukid dynastic politics. Eumenes II also seems to have made enemies of the Rhodians, who had received parts of Karia and Lykia under the terms of the Peace of Apamea, by stirring up the Lykians against them.

In 172 BC, following a particularly impressive diatribe against Perseus before the Senate, Eumenes II sailed to Greece, where he visited the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. During the visit he was reportedly attacked by agents of Perseus near Kirrha and for some time it was unclear whether he had survived. Amid the chaos, at Pergamon his brother, Attalos (II), married Stratonike and assumed the kingship. Attalos lay down the diadem and restored the queen to his brother once it became clear that Eumenes II was alive. The king of Pergamon duly reported the attack to the Senate and it became the primary excuse for the Romans to embark upon the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).

Ironically, while he had played a major role in creating the opportunity for the conflict, the Third Macedonian War turned out to be the undoing of Eumenes II. Despite committing his forces to the war on the Roman side, he achieved little, and was suspected of conspiring with Perseus. By the end of the conflict, he had incurred such displeasure with the Senate that its members passed a law to prevent Eumenes II from entering Italy to offer his congratulations and give an explanation. Instead, the Senate welcomed Attalos in the vain hope that he could be used to replace Eumenes II.

The loss of Roman friendship came as a severe blow to the Attalid kingdom, which began to suffer renewed raiding by the Galatians (Celts) in 168–166 BC. In response, Eumenes II mounted a campaign and inflicted a major defeat on the Galatian tribes in 166 BC, but just as he was about to conquer Galatia and make its inhabitants subject to Pergamon, he was warned by Roman envoys to leave Galatia autonomous. Nevertheless, the great victory over the Galatians allowed Eumenes II to claim the title Soter (“Savior”) and may have served as the catalyst for the erection of the Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamon, arguably one of the most famous surviving sculptural monuments of the Hellenistic period.

Over the course of his reign, Eumenes II fortified and adorned his capital at Pergamon. He added a stoa (portico) and a propylon (monumental gate) to the old sanctuary of Athena Nikephoros (“Victory-bearer”), built new temples dedicated to Dionysos Kathegemon (“the Leader”) and Asklepios Soter (“Savior”), and established a great library to rival that of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt. The king also instituted new games, the Nikephoria, to honor the patron goddess of Pergamon. In addition, he made lavish gifts of buildings to Greek cities, including a stoa on the south slope of the Athenian akropolis.

Eumenes II died in 159 BC, leaving his brother to again marry his widow and become his successor since his own son, the future Attalos III, was only a small child.

Coinage

Like his father, Eumenes II produced silver tetradrachms featuring the head of Herakles and enthroned Zeus types popularized by Alexander the Great and the Attalid dynastic types of Philetairos and enthroned Athena. The Alexandrine types on the Attic standard (c. 17.2 g to the tetradrachm) appear to have been struck early in his reign, in the context of the conflict with Antiochos III and the expansion of

the Attalid kingdom after the Peace of Apamea. The production of Philetairoi only resumed around 180 BC, but employed a reduced Attic standard of c. 16.7g.

An issue of reduced Attic-weight tetradrachms was also produced depicting the diademed portrait of Eumenes II on the obverse and the standing figures of the Kabeiroi on the reverse. It is remarkable as the only Attalid coinage to depict a ruler other than Philetairos and for its wreathed reverse, which connects it to the larger milieu of the “wreathed” tetradrachm coinages of western Anatolia in the second century BC. Shared magistrate names also link this portrait issue to the Philetairoi.

During the reign of Eumenes II, a great change in the coinage of the Attalid kingdom began to take place although the precise date of its beginning remains a source of some controversy. At the same time that the Philetairoi (or possibly even the Alexandrine tetradrachms) were in production, a new silver coinage was introduced in an effort to close the previously open monetary economy of the kingdom. The new tetradrachm weighed only c. 12.6g (equivalent to three drachms on the reduced Attic standard) and eschewed overtly royal types and inscriptions. Instead, a Dionysiac cista mystica appears on the obverse and the bow and bowcase of Herakles surrounded by serpents on the reverse—both allusions to the mythological descent of the Attalids from Dionysos and Telephos the son of Herakles. Abbreviated Greek legends and monograms name only the city of issue (Pergamon, Adramytteion, Ephesos, Tralleis, Sardeis, and Apameia on the Meander under Eumenes II) rather than the king. These coins, which came to be known as cistophoroi (“basket-bearers”) from their obverse type, served as a royal coinage in the Attalid kingdom despite the civic elements of their design. However, since the cistophoric coinages continued in production after the dissolution of the kingdom, they are listed separately under their respective mint cities.

The only bronze coinage that can be attributed to Eumenes II with much certainty consists of an emission of bronze denomination C featuring the helmeted head of Athena on the obverse and the seated figure of Asklepios feeding a serpent on the reverse. Not only was Eumenes II responsible for expanding the sanctuary of Asklepios (plundered by Philip V during the Cretan War) at the foot of Pergamon and establishing an Asklepieia festival, but the coins are sometimes found countermarked with an anchor. The latter was the emblem of the Seleukid dynasty and most likely to have been applied as a countermark during the occupation of Pergamene territory by the forces of Antiochos III in 190 BC.

It is uncertain whether any of the bronze coins tentatively attributed to Attalos I might have been continued under Eumenes II.

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

805. Obv. Head of Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Symbol(s) (ChelyS, Club, iVy wreaTh, owl, STar, STyliS, or wreaTh) and monogram or  to l. Struck c. 190–180 BC. Price 1491–1495. R2

silver (reduCed attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 16.7g)

806. Obv. Laureate head of Philetairos r. Rev. ILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding wreath and resting arm on grounded shield, spear behind (if any). Symbol (Palm branCh, STar, STyliS, or TorCh) and monogram or magistrate name (A, AR, AS, ASK, ASW, P, or ) to l. (if any). bow to r. Struck c. 180–159 BC. Westermark 1961, Group VII. R1

807. Obv. Diademed and draped bust of Eumenes II r. Rev. BASILEWS/EUENoU. Kabeiroi, heads surmounted by stars, standing facing, holding spears and sword(?). STyliS or ThyrSoS to l. or r. AR or DIW in exergue. All within laurel wreath. Struck c. 162–159 BC. SNG France 1627. R2

Denomination C (15–19mm, 2.9–4.49g)

808. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILETAIRoU. Asklepios enthroned l., holding staff and feeding serpent from phiale. E or symbol (GraPe bunCh or iVy leaf) to l. (if any). Struck c. 197–190 BC or later. Westermark 1991, no. 11 (240–220 BC). S

kinG, 159–138 bC

History

Attalos II, the younger son of Attalos I and the Kyzikene noblewoman, Apollonis, served his brother, Eumenes II, well after the latter succeeded their father as ruler of the Attalid kingdom in 195 BC. Although Eumenes II had a reputation as a brilliant thinker and a skilled diplomat he was not especially strong physically. He therefore gave charge of many important military matters to brother and made him a virtual co-ruler in the kingdom. Due to this close relationship, Attalos II assumed the title, Philadelphos (“Brother-loving”).

During the Aitolian War (191–189 BC) fought between the Romans and the Aitolian League under the leadership of the Seleukid king, Antiochos III, Attalos II was placed in charge of Pergamon while Eumenes II was away assisting the Romans. He successfully defended the city against assault by Seleukos IV, the son of Antiochos III in 190 BC. In the following year, he played a role in the defeat of Antiochos III at the Battle of Magnesia (189 BC) and fought alongside the Roman consul, Cn. Malius Vulso, during his campaign against the Galatians (Celts). He also served as chief commander for Eumenes II during his conflict with the Pontic king, Pharnakes I, in 181–179 BC and during the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).

The military prowess and character of Attalos II earned him the respect of the Roman Senate, which attempted to convince him to overthrow his brother in 167 BC. He had, after all, briefly taken up the diadem in 172 BC, when Eumenes II was thought to have been murdered while visiting Delphi. Although Attalos II seems to have given serious thought to turning against his brother, he was ultimately dissuaded by the advice of Stratos, a physician in his entourage at Rome.

After more than 30 years of experience, Attalos II was well prepared to rule when he succeeded his brother as king in 159 BC. As part of the succession, he married his brother’s widow, Stratonike, and adopted her young son, the future Attalos III, as his own. His relationship with Stratonike almost immediately drew him into conflict in 158 BC, after her brother, Ariarathes V Eusebes, was deposed from the throne of Cappadocia by the Seleukid king, Demetrios I Soter. After a period of diplomatic wrangling at Rome between the supporters of Ariarathes V and the Seleukid-supported usurper, Orophernes, Attalos II marched into Cappadocia and restored his brother-in-law in c. 156 BC.

Much more serious than the Cappadocian adventure was the war that broke out with the Bithynian king, Prousias II Kynegos in 156 BC. Although the conflict seems to have originated as a border dispute between the Bithynian and Attalid kingdoms, it developed into a major war that dragged on until 154 BC and saw the devastation of the territory surrounding Pergamon and the plunder of the extramural temples of Asklepios Soter and Athena Nikephoros. Attalos II only brought the war to a successful conclusion with the support of Ariarathes V and the Pontic king, Mithradates IV Philopator. Roman threats compelled Prousias II to cease fighting and to pay an indemnity to Eumenes II for the damages inflicted on his territory.

Following on his earlier intervention in Cappadocia, in 152 BC, Eumenes II formed a coalition with Ariarathes V and the Ptolemaic king, Ptolemy VI Philometor, to support the pretender, Alexander (I) of Smyrna, in a bid to drive Demetrios I from the Seleukid throne. Attalos II seems to have financed Alexan-

der’s initial invasion of northern Syria. By the summer of 150 BC, Demetrios I was dead and the pretender was installed as the new Seleukid king.

Having repaid Demetrios I for his earlier intervention in Cappadocia, Attalos II next sought revenge against Prousias II. In 149 BC, he assisted Nikomedes (II), the popular son of Prousias II in overthrowing his father and claiming the Bithynian kinship for himself. For good measure, in 145 BC, Attalos II also campaigned against and defeated the Kainian Thracian king, Diegylis, who had also been the father-in-law of Prousias II.

Somewhat less personal was Attalos’ support for the Romans in the Fourth Macedonian War (150–148 BC) against the pretender, Philip VI Andriskos, and the Achaian War (146 BC), which resulted in the dissolution of the Achaian League and the sack of Corinth.

In addition to his many conflicts with neighboring kings, Attalos II was also a great builder and patron of the arts. He founded two important cities, Philadelphia and Attaleia, which were intended to increase Attalid control in Lydia and Pamphylia, respectively. Like his brother before him, Attalos II also gifted the city of Athens with a stoa (portico) in the city’s agora (marketplace). Furthermore, he is said to have invented a form of embroidery.

Attalos II died in 138 BC at the age of 82. He was immediately succeeded by his unpopular stepson, Attalos III.

Coinage

Attalos II produced two silver coinages, both of which continue the pattern of production that began in the reign of his brother. He struck tetradrachms to a reduced Attic standard (c. 16.7g to the tetradrachm) featuring traditional Attalid dynastic types—the laureate head of Philetairos on the obverse and the enthroned figure of Athena on the reverse, probably until c. 150 BC, when this coinage was brought to an end. As was customary, these tetradrachms carry a full Greek legend falsely naming “Philetairos” as the issuing authority.

The cistophoric tetradrachm of c. 12.6g, which had been introduced by Eumenes II, also continued to be struck, initially alongside Philetairoi and then as the sole royal silver coinage of the Attalid kingdom. Following the model of his brother’s issues, the cistophoroi of Attalos II also feature cista mystica and bow in bowcase types and identify only the mint of issue through monograms and abbreviated ethnics rather than the king. Under Attalos II, the cistophoric mints of Pergamon, Adramytteion, Ephesos, Tralleis, Sardeis, and Apameia on the Meander were joined by Synnada and Laodikeia on the Lykos. These are listed separately under the cities of issue.

Bronze coins of three denominations (C, C/D, and D) featuring the head of Asklepios on the obverse and a serpent with a temple key or a grape bunch are tentatively attributed to Attalos II here, although it is not impossible that production could have begun already under Eumenes II or continued under Attalos III. The form of phi () in the legend naming “Philetairos” seems to preclude a date before the reign of Eumenes II, when the form T was prevalent. Lateness also seems to be implied by the presence of countermarks depicting a star of eight rays on coins of denomination C. Such countermarks may have been applied to validate the Asklepios/temple key coins as Pergamene issues of similar module struck in the name of Athena Nikephoros at the end of the second and the beginning of the first century BC. The latter feature the head of Athena wearing an Attic helmet ornamented with a large star on the obverse.

silver (reduCed attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 16.7g)

809. Obv. Laureate head of Philetairos r. Rev. ILETAIRoU. Athena enthroned l., holding wreath and resting arm on grounded shield, spear behind. Symbol (CornuCoPia, dolPhin, or ThyrSoS) and monogram or magistrate name (AB[?], DA, H, A, or P) to l. (if any). bow to r. Struck c. 159–150 BC. Westermark 1961, Group VII. R2

bronze

Denomination C (15–16mm, 3.54–4.41g)

810. Obv. Laureate head of Asklepios r. Rev. ILETAIRoU. Serpent coiled r. and temple key. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 159–138 BC or later. Westermark 1991, no. 20 (210–early second century BC). R2

Denomination C/D (12–13mm, 2.04–2.39g)

811. Obv. Laureate head of Asklepios r. Rev. ILETAIRoU. Serpent coiled r. and grape bunch. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 159–138 BC or later. Westermark 1991, no. 22 (210–early second century BC). R2

Denomination D (12–13mm, 1.05–1.14g)

812. Obv. Laureate head of Asklepios r. Rev. ILETAIRoU. Serpent coiled r. and temple key. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 159–138 BC or later. Westermark 1991, no. 21 (210–early second century BC). R2

History

When Attalos II succeeded Eumenes II as ruler of the Attalid kingdom in 159 BC, he married his brother’s widow, Stratonike, and adopted her young son, Attalos (III) as his own. In 152 BC, while still a youth, the future Attalos III was presented at Rome as the designated successor to Attalos II. He assumed the kingship following the death of his stepfather in 138 BC.

Fearing plots by the friends of Attalos II, who still held many important positions in the kingdom, Attalos III instituted bloody purges to rid him of his supposed enemies. He is said to have blamed some of his victims for the demise of both his mother, to whom he was very close, and his wife Berenike. The ancient sources give no indication as to the manner of their deaths, making it difficult to judge the veracity of this accusation.

Once he had destroyed his enemies (real or imagined), Attalos III let his hair and beard grow, as if in mourning, and largely abandoned the administration of the kingdom to others while he spent his time sculpting statues in bronze and gardening. In the latter pursuit he was especially interested in the growth and use of medicinal and toxic herbs, and even wrote a treatise on the subject. His recipe for a wound plaster made from pepper still survives in Galen of Pergamon’s On the Composition of Medicines According to Types (second century AD). The king’s interest in herbal pharmacology also had a sinister side. He is said to have sent poisonous extracts taken from plants as gifts to his friends as a means of testing their efficacy.

Apparently in an effort to shore up his reign, which had become increasingly unpopular, Attalos III granted autonomy to the cities of Pergamon and Ephesos in his will, and named the Roman People as the inheritors of his wealth and the territory of the Attalid kingdom. In 134/3 BC, still grieving the death of Stratonike, Attalos III personally began work on a sculptured funerary monument for his beloved mother. Consumed with the desire to honor Stratonike as would befit a king with the epithet Philometor (“Mother-loving”), Attalos III foolishly disregarded the heat of the Mediterranean sun as he worked. He developed heat stroke and after suffering for seven days finally died. Although his bequests should have been a boon to the Romans and the two greatest cities of the former kingdom, they actually sparked an attempted social revolution in western Anatolia and a violent political crisis at Rome.

Coinage

The only silver coinage produced by Attalos III consists of cistophoric tetradrachms (c. 12.6g) and fractions following the identical typology related to Dionysos and Herakles employed by his predecessors, Eumenes II and Attalos II. These were produced at Pergamon, Ephesos, Tralles, Sardeis, Apameia on the Meander, and Kormasa and are listed separately under the city of issue.

A bronze coinage of denomination C, featuring the helmeted head of Athena on the obverse and a coiled serpent on the reverse, probably belongs to the reign of Attalos III, although the reverse legend falsely identifies “Philetairos” as the issuing authority. The lateness of this issue is implied by the frequently heavily serifed letters in the legend and the form of phi, which often tends towards .

Both of these features are also common to the Pergamene bronze coinages struck in the names of Asklepios Soter, Asklepios and Hygieia, Athena Areia, and Athena Nikephoros (listed separately), probably in the last decades of the second century BC and possibly continuing even later.

Further support for the late date of the Athena/serpent issue of denomination C is supplied by the presence of owl countermarks on some specimens. Since the same countermarks are known to have been applied to civic issues of Pergamon struck after 133 BC, it seems reasonable to conclude that the Athena/serpent coins were produced in the reign of Attalos III (or later?) since this would place the issue in the reign of the king closest in time to the period of countermarking.

It may be that the Athena/serpent series continued in production (or was resumed?) well after the end of the Attalid kingdom. One emission carries a magistrate’s signature on the obverse, a feature normally normally associated with the early first century BC. The magistrate, a certain Diodoros, also signed a Pergamene civic brass emission of denomination B featuring the head of Athena and Nike as well as an issue of bronze denomination C in the name of Asklepios Soter (see above, nos. 752 and 774). This Diodoros could potentially be the same individual as Diodoros Pasparos, an important civic benefactor at Pergamon in the period c. 85–63 BC. Interestingly, when Diodoros was awarded the postumous honors of a god, his sacred precinct was located in the Pergamene district of Philetaireia.

bronze

Denomination C (12–16mm, 2.01–4.83g)

813. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILETAIRoU or ILETAIRoU Serpent coiled r. Monogram to l. Struck c. 138–133 BC or later. Westermark 1991, no. 14 (215–early second century BC). C

814. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. DIoDWRoU below. Rev. ILETAIRoU. Serpent coiled r. Struck early first century BC. SNG France 1670. R2

eumeneS iii (ariSTonikoS)

kinG, 133–129 bC

History

In 133 BC, Attalos III, the last legitimate king of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon died. Under the terms of his will, the cities of Pergamon and Ephesos were granted their autonomy while the royal treasury and the territory of the kingdom was bequeathed to the Roman People. This windfall immediately created a crisis.

In Rome, the tribune of the plebs, Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, sought to use this newfound wealth to fund the lex Sempronia agraria—a land reform law intended to provide farmland to the impoverished urban plebs. Opposition from the great landowners in the Senate and claims that Gracchus was overstepping his authority in an effort to become a new king in Rome led to Gracchus’ murder in 132 BC.

At the same time, in western Anatolia, Aristonikos, the reputed illegitimate son of Eumenes II and an Ephesian musician, challenged the will of Attalos III in an attempt to claim the Attalid kingdom for himself. He was unwelcome to the authorities in Pergamon and Ephesos, who had no desire to relinquish their cities’ newfound autonomy to a new king, but briefly managed to rally the cities of Leukai and Smyrna to his cause in 133 BC before he was defeated by the Ephesians in a naval battle near Kyme and forced to withdraw into the region of Lydia.

Establishing himself at Thyateira in 133/2 BC, Aristonikos assumed the throne name of Eumenes III and recast his bid for power as a social revolution with the help of the Stoic philosopher, C. Blossius of Cumae, an individual who had previously influenced the Gracchan reform movement in Rome. Although his army swelled with support from runaway slaves and the rural poor, Eumenes III appears to have been forced to abandon Thyateira and relocate the base of his revolution to Apollonis in 132/1 BC.

In 131 BC, the Roman consul, P. Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus, was dispatched to western Anatolia in order to repress the so-called Revolt of Aristonikos with the assistance of the neighboring kings, Nikomedes II Epiphanes of Bithynia, Ariarathes V Eusebes of Cappadocia, and Mithradates V Euergetes of Pontos. However, the consul was somewhat more interested in personal gain through plunder than with bringing a speedy end to the revolt. While Mucianus was busy besieging Leukai, the forces of Eumenes III attacked and defeated him in battle. The consul attempted to escape to Smyrna, but was overtaken by the usurper’s Thracian bodyguard, who killed him and brought his head to the king.

A new consul, M. Perperna, was sent against Eumenes III in 130 BC and enjoyed much greater success than had Mucianus. Upon his arrival, Perperna drove Eumenes III from Apollonis and forced him to seek safety in Lydian Stratonikeia. Following a brief siege, the city surrendered to Perperna and the usurper was taken prisoner. Blossius committed suicide but the rebel king was transported to Italy where he was to adorn the consul’s triumphal procession. Unfortunately, Perperna fell ill and died near Pergamon before he could return. Eumenes III was strangled while incarcerated at the Tullianum prison in Rome.

In 129 BC, the consul, M’ Aquillius, was sent to western Anatolia to settle the affairs of the defunct Attalid kingdom for good. He sold large parts of Phrygia to Mithradates V for his personal enrichment and reorganized the remainder of the kingdom as the new Roman province of Asia.

Coinage

During the ill-fated Revolt of Aristonikos, a remarkable series of silver tetradrachms struck to the cistophoric standard (c. 12.6g to the tetradrachm) was struck at the Lydian cities that hosted Eumenes III. These coins feature a cista mystica on the obverse and the bow and bowcase of Herakles on the reverse surrounded by serpents—traditional types for the cistophoros going back to the introduction of the denomination under Eumenes II. While the cistophoroi of Eumenes III follow previous Attalid custom by employing abbreviated Greek inscriptions to identify the issuing city, the coins of the usurper also feature abbreviated legends naming “King Eumenes” as the issuing authority and dates reckoned according to his “regnal” years.

Coins of Eumenes III are known from Thyateira in year 2 (133/2 BC), Apollonis in years 3 and 4 (132/1 and 131/0 BC), and Stratonikeia in years 4 and 5 (131/0 and 130/129 BC). A cistophoros issue sometimes thought to name “King Aristonikos” and to have been struck at Synnada in the first year of the revolt shares its obverse die with a Pergamene emission struck under Attalos II. This link seems to divorce it from the revolt context although its abbreviated legends have otherwise defied explanation.

silver (CistopHoriC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 12.6g)

815. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. BA–EU. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. QUA to l. ThunderbolT above and aPollo head to r. Regnal year date B (2=133/2 BC) below. Thyateira. Kleiner and Noe 1977, p. 103, Series 1. R2

816. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. BA–EU. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. ThunderbolT above. zeuS head to l. and aPollo head to r. Regnal year date (G [3 = 132/1] or D [4 = 131/0 BC]) and AP–oL below. Apollonis. Kleiner and Noe 1977, pp. 103–104, Series 2–3. R2

817. Obv. Serpent emerging l. from cista mystica. All within ivy wreath. Rev. BA–EU. Two entwined serpents coiling around bow in bowcase. ThunderbolT above. aPollo head to l. and and zeuS head (?) to r. ST–RA and regnal year date (D [4=131/0 BC]) or E [5=130/29 BC]) below. Stratonikeia. Kleiner and Noe 1977, p. 104, Series 4.

R2–R3

PerPerene

History

Very little is known about the city of Perperene (also written Perperena or Parparana) beyond that it was located to the southeast of Adramyttion, possessed good vineyards, and had access to copper mines.

Coinage

No gold or silver coinage has been attributed to Perperene, although the city does appear to have struck a series of bronze coins of denomination E in the fourth century BC. This regularly features the head of Apollo on the obverse and a grape bunch on the reverse, sometimes surrounded by a vine wreath.

The wreathed series seems to postdate the series lacking the vine wreath, judging from the later letter forms that occur in its legends (P for p and occasionally  for E). Thus from an epigraphic perspective, the wreathed series seems more likely to have been struck in the third than the fourth century BC although it has been traditional to lump both series together in the fourth century BC.

An abbreviated Greek legend invariably names “the Perperenes” as the issuing authority on both series, but on the series without vine wreath it is composed of the first five letters of the city ethnic whereas on the wreathed series it is made up of only the first three letters.

bronze

Denomination E (9–10mm, 0.56–0.80g)

818. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. pER, pERp, or pERpE. Grape bunch. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Stauber 1996, pp. 311–312, nos. 4–8 and 10–11. S

819. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PE, PER, or PERP. Grape bunch. All within vine wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck third century BC. Stauber 1996, pp. 311–312, nos. 1–9 and 11. S

Plakia

History

Little is known about Plakia beyond that it was an original city of Mysian Pelasgians (an indigenous pre-Greek people) established near the foot of Mount Plakios. By the fifth century BC, Plakia had acquired a group of Ionian Greek colonists from Athens, but these are said to have had little impact on the Pelasgian character of the city. Nevertheless, the numismatic evidence indicates that Plakia had become a Hellenized settlement by the fourth century BC.

Although the appearance of the city in antiquity is entirely obscure, it is clear that Plakia possessed a sanctuary of the Phrygian goddess Kybele, who was worshipped under the name of Meter Plakiane (“the Plakian Mother”).

Coinage

Although no gold or silver coinage has been attributed to Plakia, the city struck a bronze coinage beginning in the fourth century BC. This primarily consisted of emissions of bronze denomination D featuring the profile turreted head of Kybele as Meter Plakiane on the obverse and a lion in various poses, or only its head, on the reverse.

One exceptional issue features a three-quarter facing bust of Kybele and a thymiaterion (incense burner). The latter is sometimes misdescribed as an oar.

An additional series of denomination D abandons the traditional Kybele/lion typology entirely to depict a female head on the obverse and a standing bull on the reverse.

Issues of denomination D featuring a lion devouring its prey on the reverse were also accompanied by an emission of denomination B with the same type. Coins of this series carry the Greek inscription pLAKIA, which may be read either as a full legend naming the city or an abbreviation identifying “the Plakians” as the issuing authority. It is unclear whether this possible deviation from usual Greek numismatic practise should be taken as an indication that Plakia had become a dependency of Kyzikos. All other issues feature obviously abbreviated legends, making it uncertain whether the ethic or city name is intended.

Denomination B (19mm, 6.79g)

820. Obv. Turreted and laureate head of Kybele (Meter Plakiane) r. Rev. pLAKIA. Lion standing r., devouring stag head. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 2377. R1

Denomination D (11–12mm, 1.02–1.93g)

821. Obv. Turreted head of Kybele (Meter Plakiane) l. Rev. pLA–KI. Lion seated l. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Gitbud & Naumann 21, lot 202. R1

822. Obv. Turreted head of Kybele (Meter Plakiane) r. Rev. pLAKI. Lion head r. barleyCorn below. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2832. S

823. Obv. Turreted and laureate head of Kybele (Meter Plakiane) r. Rev. pLAKIA. Lion standing r., devouring stag head. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 2378–2382. C

824. Obv. Turreted bust of Kybele (Meter Plakiane) facing 3/4 l. Rev. pLA. Thymiaterion. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. CNG E-Auction 288, lot 200. R2

825. Obv. Female head r. Rev. pLA. Bull standing r. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 2383. R1

826. Obv. Female head r. Rev. pLA. Bull standing l. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG France 2384. R1

Poimanenon

History

Poimanenon was a Macedonian fortress established in the territory of Kyzikos following the victory of Alexander the Great at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC) and the subsequent Macedonian conquest of the Achaemenid Persian empire. It was named after Mount Poimenion in Macedon.

Over time the fortress grew into a larger settlement with its own celebrated temple dedicated to the healing god, Asklepios. In 80/79 BC, C. Claudius Nero, the proconsular governor of the Roman province of Asia, granted autonomy and city status to Poimanenon as part of measures to defend against rampant piracy. As a city, Poimanenon appears to have flourished under the Roman Emperors and continued to be inhabited through the Byzantine period.

Coinage

The only coinage attributed to Poimanenon consists of an emission of bronze denomination B struck in the first century BC. This coinage features the head of Zeus on the obverse and a winged thunderbolt on the reverse—types derived from an earlier bronze issue struck in the name of “the Macedonians,” probably struck after the creation of the Roman province of Macedonia in 148 BC (see the Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors, Part 1, no. 361). The use of these types at Poimanenon thus reflects a celebration of the city’s Macedonian ethnicity.

The coinage regularly carries a full Greek legend naming “the Poimanenes” as well as a date expressed in Greek letter-numerals. At present only year BI (12) is known. Assuming that this date counts from the autonomy of Poimanenon in 80/79 BC, year 12 would fall in 69/8 BC. Such a date would associate the coinage with the Third Mithradatic War (73–63 BC) fought between Rome and the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator. It may be related to the western movement of Roman troops following the victory of the consul L. Licinius Lucullus, over Mithradates’ father-in-law, Tigranes II of Armenia, at Tigranocerta on October 6/7, 69 BC.

bronze

Denomination B (19–22mm, 7.49–8.0g)

827. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. PoIA/NHNWN. Winged thunderbolt. Civic era date BI (12 =69/8 BC) below. SNG France 2385–2386. S

PriaPoS

History

Priapos, founded in honor of the Mysian ithyphallic deity of the same name, was located on a headland of the Propontic coast near Mount Pityos. It has been variously considered a city of Mysia or Troas. The city was probably founded in the early seventh century BC, but ancient accounts differ as to whether Priapos was an Ionian Greek colony established by settlers from Miletos or from neighboring Kyzikos, which was itself a Milesian colony. Priapos possessed a good harbor and enjoyed some fame for the quality of the wine produced in its territory.

Following the defeat of Croesus and his Lydian empire in 547 BC, Priapos was absorbed into the expanding Achaemenid Persian empire of Cyrus I. The city was freed from Persian domination in the aftermath of the failed Persian invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC) and the allied Greek victory at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC).

In 478 BC, the Delian League was formed by the allied Greeks as a means of defending against future Persian aggression and freeing the Greek cities of western Anatolia from Persian rule. Priapos is thought to have been a founding member of the alliance and remained so even after it began to develop into an Athenian empire that required member cities to pay tribute. Priapos is known to have been assessed for tribute payments between 454/3 BC and 428/7 BC, but not during the bulk of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. By 411 BC, the city was being used as a naval station by the Spartan fleet. In that year the waters before its harbor were the scene of a battle between Athenian and Byzantine ships.

Priapos may have enjoyed some level of autonomy under the Spartan hegemony that followed Athens’ defeat in 404 BC. However, the city certainly returned to Persian domination under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that brought an end to the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes. Priapos remained part of the Persian empire until 334 BC, when the city threw open its gates to welcome the advancing Macedonian army of Alexander the Great.

After the death of the Macedonian king in 323 BC, the city and much of Mysia was controlled by Alexander’s former general, Antigonos Monophthalmos, who claimed the kingship in 305 BC. Antigonos was subsequently killed at the Battle of Ipsos (301 BC) and his Anatolian territories, including Mysia and Priapos were claimed by his rival, Lysimachos of Thrace. In 281 BC, Lysimachos was himself killed in battle and Mysia was added to the growing empire of Seleukos I in 281 BC. Priapos probably remained part of the Seleukid empire until c. 229/8 BC, when the Seleukid usurper, Antiochos Hierax, was driven out of Mysia by Attalos I, the dynast of Pergamon. However, Seleukid authority over the city was restored by Antiochos III around 196 BC

A disastrous war between Antiochos III and the Romans ensued in 191–189 BC, resulting in the king’s defeat at Magnesia under Mount Sipylos in Lydia. Under the terms of the of the Peace of Apamea (188 BC) that ended the conflict, Antiochos III was forced to give up all Seleukid territorial claims in Anatolia north of the Tauros Mountains. The bulk of these former Seleukid possessions were subsequently divided between Rome’s allies, the Attalid kingdom and Rhodes. Unfortunately, later, when an unnamed Attalid king desired to reward Priapos’ neighbor, Parion,

he is said to have detached the city’s harbor and a large part of the Priapene agricultural hinterland and given it to the Parians.

In 133 BC, the Roman people inherited the entirety of the Attalid kingdom in accordance with the will of its last legitimate king, Attalos III. The kingdom was reorganized as the province of Asia in 129 BC and soon began to suffer from the excesses of Roman publicani (tax farmers). There is no certain evidence for the status of Priapos under the new provincial administration, but the numismatic evidence suggests that when the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator, provided the opportunity to drive out the Romans, the Priapenes joined him in the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC).

There is little further mention of Priapos, which perhaps fell further under the shadow of Parion under the Roman Emperors. In the Byzantine period the city ceased to exist, replaced by the village of Pagai and its fortress.

Coinage

Priapos is not believed to have struck any gold or silver coinage. However, the city did produce a bronze coinage, probably beginning in the fourth century BC. This consisted of two denominations (B and D) pairing the head of Apollo on the obverse with a crayfish or crab on the reverse.

A rare emission of denomination B depicting the head of Apollo and a monumental altar probably belongs to the second century BC. The altar type strongly suggests the influence of Parion and may be related to the Attalid gift of Priapene territory to Parion after 188 BC.

In the early first century BC, Priapos resumed its production of a bidenominational bronze coinage. New issues of denomination B feature the head of Apollo paired with a charging bull and the turreted head of Artemis-Tyche paired with a recumbent stag on the reverse. Artemis-Tyche type takes its inspiration from earlier coins of Abydos while the recumbent stag is similar to that of contemporary issues of Phanagoria under Mithradates VI (see the Handbook of Coins of Northern and Central Anatolia, no. 166). It seems not improbable that the Artemis-Tyche issue also reflects the influence of the Pontic king and therefore should belong to the period of the First Mithradatic War. Associated issues of denomination D depict the head of Priapos on the obverse and a kantahros on the reverse or the head of Apollo paired with a standing stag.

Later in the first century BC, Priapos struck two issues of denomination B featuring the veiled bust of Demeter paired with either a standing stag or a civic inscription framed by a grain wreath. An emission of denomination B depicting the head of Priapos on the obverse and a civic legend surrounded by an ivy wreath may also belong to this late period. After these issues, the mint of Priapos appears to have closed permanently.

All coins of Priapos carry full or abbreviated Greek legends naming “the Priapenes” as the issuing authority.

Denomination B (19–22mm, 4.95–8.26g)

828. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. pRIApHNWN. Crayfish r. Symbol (bee, bow, GraPe bunCh, SCalloP or SerPenT) below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG France 2401–2402. R1

829. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. P–R/I–A. Lighted altar. CrayfiSh below. Struck c. 188–133 BC. CNG EA 68, lot 46. R2

830. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PRIA/PHNWN. Bull charging r. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. SNG France 2406. R2

831. Obv. Turreted head of Artemis-Tyche r. Rev. PRIA/PHNWN. Recumbent stag r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 90–85 BC. SNG France 2405. R1

832. Obv. Veiled bust of Demeter r. All within grain wreath. Rev. PRIAPH/ NWN. Stag standing r. CiSTa mySTiCa to r. Struck first century BC. SNG France 2408–2409. R1

833. Obv. Veiled bust of Demeter r. Rev. PRIaPH/NN. bull head and monogram below. All within grain wreath. Struck first century BC. SNG France 2410–2411. R1

834. Obv. Head of Priapos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. PRI/aPH. All within ivy wreath. Struck first century BC. BMC Mysia, pp. 116–117, nos. 7–9. R2

Denomination D (9–12mm, 0.98–1.41g)

835. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. pRI/A Crab. harPa below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG France 2378–2382. C

836. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. pRIA. Crayfish l. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG France 2403. S

837. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. pRIA or pRI/A. Crayfish r. CaduCeuS or SCalloP below (if any). Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG France 2404. S

838. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo facing 3/4 l. Rev. pRIA. Crayfish r. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Roma E-Sale 12, lot 511. R2

839. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo facing 3/4 r. Rev. pRIA or pRI/HA. Crayfish r. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG von Aulock 7527. R1

840. Obv. Head of Priapos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. PR–IA. Kantahros. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. CNG 64, lot 141. R2

841. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PR/I–A. Stag standing r. No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. SNG France 2407. R1

ProkonneSoS

History

The city of Prokonnesos was founded on the Propontic island of the same name by Ionian Greeks from Miletos in c. 670 BC, at the same time that Milesian colonies were also being established at Abydos in Troas and Priapos in Mysia. It possessed a harbor and derived wealth and fame for its wine and especially the marble quarried in its territory. Prokonnesian marble was white with black veins and enjoyed great demand. Most of the public buildings of Kyzikos were built from Prokonnesian marble, as was the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Later, in the Byzantine period, the marble of Prokonnesos was used extensively in the restoration of the basilica of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (AD 532–537).

Following the defeat of King Croesus in 548/7 BC, his Lydian empire was absorbed into the growing Achaemenid Persian empire of the Great King, Cyrus I. Prokonnesos was subsequently governed by local tyrants loyal to the Persian regime. When the disastrous Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against Persian rule broke out among the Greek cities of western Anatolia, the Prokonnesians joined the rebellion. At the end of the failed revolt, Prokonnesos was put to the torch by the Phoenician fleet loyal to the Great King. Nevertheless, Prokonnesos was soon rebuilt.

In 479–478 BC, the Great King, Xerxes I, embarked upon an invasion of mainland Greece, which ultimately ended in failure. In the aftermath of the Persian defeat, the allied Greeks began to make inroads against Persian possessions in western Anatolia and formed the Delian League to continue the struggle. By 452/1 BC, Prokonnesos had joined this Athenian-led alliance, which gradually evolved into the core of an Athenian empire. The city paid tribute to Athens in coin until at least 418/17 BC and remained a loyal Athenian ally over the course of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. In 410 BC, the duplicitous Athenian statesman, Alkibiades, used the harbor of Prokonnesos as his base of operations prior to the Athenian victory over the Spartan fleet at the Battle of Kyzikos.

It is unclear how Prokonnesos fared under the Spartan hegemony that followed the final defeat of Athens in 404 BC. However, the city and the rest of western Anatolia was restored to Persian domination under the terms of the King’s Peace that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes. Prokonnesos may have been a member of the Second Athenian League (378–355 BC), but its Athenian alliance could not save the city from a crushing defeat inflicted by Kyzikos in 362/1 BC. The city was conquered and part of the Prokonnesian population was removed to Kyzikos. The Kyzikenes also carried off the city’s marble cult statue of Meter Dindymene (“the Dindymene Mother”)—a local form of Kybele. Thereafter, Prokonnesos appears to have served as a dependency of Kyzikos, although the city is named as an ally of the Athenians during their war against the Macedonian king, Philip II, in 340 BC.

Coinage

The earliest coinage attributed to Prokonnesos consists of silver obols struck to a standard of c. 3.6g to the drachm in the early fifth century BC. This standard has been tentatively described as a ‘Troad’ standard. The forepart of a galloping horse

appears on the on the obverse of these obols and an oinochoe on the reverse. The latter served as the civic emblem of Prokonnesos.

In the late fifth century BC, the ‘Troad’ standard was replaced by a somewhat reduced version of the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos or stater) for new drachms and obols. Both denominations feature a left-facing female head wearing a sakkos on the obverse and an oinochoe on the reverse. On the obol, this wine vessel is surrounded by a laurel wreath.

Although the female head is often considered to represent Aphrodite, the laurel wreath that she wears on subsequent issues and her association with a stag on later issues may indicate that Artemis is intended. If the image is indeed that of Artemis, it is tempting to suggest that she appears here as the fully Greek form of Meter Dindymene. Anatolian mother goddesses were commonly syncretized with Greek Artemis.

Like many other cities, Prokonnesos struck tetradrachms and drachms on the Chian standard (c. 15.6 to the tetradrachm) in the fourth century BC. Both denominations continue to feature the same female deity found on the preceding Persic-weight half-sigloi but with the addition of a laurel wreath. The reverse depicts a recumbent stag.

A related Persic-weight coinage of drachms and hemidrachms was also produced, probably immediately following the Chian-weight coinage. It carries the same obverse type as the tetradrachms and drachms but only the forepart of a stag appears on the reverse.

A bronze coinage of two denominations (C and D) was introduced to supplement the last two silver series in the fourth century BC. One series, clearly related to the Chian-weight coinage, regularly features the female head familiar from the silver. The standard reverse type is the oinochoe. A second series of denominations C and D and probably associated with the late Persic-weight silver coinage, replaces the oinochoe as the main reverse type with a dove. The bird is shown standing on denomination C and flying on denomination D.

The fall of Prokonnesos to the Kyzikenes appears to have brought an end to all coinage at the city.

The silver and bronze coinages of Prokonnesos all carry abbreviated Greek legends that may name the city or identify “the Prokonnesians” as the issuing authority. The Chian-weight silver series and the associated bronze coinage are also notable for the frequent use of magistrate names. Mention of Apollothemis on the tetradrachm issue is especially tantalizing. This was the name of a leading member of the pro-Athenian faction at Prokonnesos who went into exile after the capture of the city by the Kyzikenes.

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Obols (c. 0.6g)

842. Obv. Horse forepart galloping l. Greek letter (A, D or Z) on shoulder. GraPe bunCh to r. Rev. p. Oinochoe. All within incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Thompson 1965, no. 1 (hemiobol). R1

silver (reduCed persiC standard)

Drachms or Half Sigloi (c. 2.5g)

843. Obv. Female head l., wearing sakkos. Rev. pRo–KoN. Oinochoe. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse circle. Struck c. 450–425 BC. Thompson 1965, nos. 2–4. S

844. Obv. Laureate female head r., wearing sakkos. Rev. pRoKoN. Recumbent stag forepart r., head reverted. oinochoe to l. Struck c. 387/6–362/1 BC. Thompson 1965, no. 12. R3

Hemidrachm or Quarter Siglos (c. 1.2g)

845. Obv. Laureate female head r., wearing sakkos. Rev. pRoKoN. Recumbent stag forepart r., head reverted. oinochoe to l. Struck c. 387/6–362/1 BC. Thompson 1965, no. 13. R2

Obol (c. 0.55g)

846. Obv. Female head l., wearing sakkos. Rev. . Oinochoe. All within laurel wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 450–425 BC. CNG 105, lot 218. R2

silver (CHian standard)

Tetradrachm (14.82g)

847. Obv. Laureate female head r., wearing sakkos. Magistrate name ApoLLoQEIS above. Rev. pRoKoN. Recumbent stag r., head reverted. oinochoe to r. Struck c. 387/6–362/1 BC. Thompson 1965, no. 5. R3

Drachms (3.6g)

848. Obv. Laureate female head r., wearing sakkos. ANAXIGENHS above (if any). Rev. pRoKoN. Recumbent stag r., head reverted. oinochoe to r. aSTraGaloS below (if any). Struck c. 387/6–362/1 BC. Thompson 1965, Pl. I, nos. 8 and 11. R2

bronze

Denomination C (17–19mm, 4.76–6.25g)

849. Obv. Laureate female head r., wearing sakkos. Magistrate name (AKTAIWN, DHHTRIoU, or DIAGoRAS) above. Rev. pRo/KoN. Oinochoe. Struck c. 387/6–362/1 BC. Thompson 1965, Pl. I, 10. R1

850. Obv. Laureate female head r., wearing sakkos Rev. pRoKoN. Dove standing r. dolPhin to l. oinoChoe to r. Struck c. 387/6–362/1 BC. Thompson 1965, no. 9. R2

Denomination D (10–15mm, 0.96–2.1g)

851. Obv. Laureate female head r., wearing sakkos. Rev. pRo/KoN. Oinochoe. Struck c. 387/6–362/1 BC. Thompson 1965, Pl. I, 14–15. S

852. Obv. Laureate female head r., wearing sakkos. Rev. pRo. Dove with spread wings standing r. on overturned oinochoe. Struck c. 387/6–362/1 BC. SNG France 2430. R2

TeuThrania

History

According to Greek mythological tradition, Teuthrania was founded by the Mysian king, Teuthras. He was famous for marrying Auge, the ill-fated daughter of the Arkadian king, Aleos, and adopting Telephos, her son by Herakles, as his heir.

The appearance of the city in antiquity is completely unknown and its political history is almost equally obscure. In the fifth century BC, Teuthrania was part of the Achaemenid Persian empire ruled by the Great King, Xerxes I (486–465 BC). He bestowed the city, along with Halisarna and Pergamon, upon Demaratos, the exiled Eurypontid king of Sparta in 491 BC. Demaratos subsequently advised the Great King during the failed Persian invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC).

The descendants of Demaratos continued to rule Teuthrania as dynasts with the title of archon. In 399 BC, the city was ruled by the archon, Prokles, who supported Xenophon and the Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries on their homeward march. Later in the same year, Teuthrania was captured by the Spartan general Thibron, during his campaigns against Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap (governor) of Lydia and Ionia. Nothing further is known about the city and its dynasts.

Coinage

During the rule of Prokles, and probably in the context of his interactions with the Ten Thousand and Thibron in 399 BC, Teuthrania struck its only precious metal coinage. This consists of silver drachms and diobols struck to the Chian weight standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) featuring the head of Apollo on the obverse. The reverse features the apparent portrait of Prokles wearing a kyrbasia, the Persian satrapal headdress, on the reverse. The identification of the portrait is based entirely on the associated Greek monogram, which may be resolved as the archon’s name. The same types occur on a contemporary emission of bronze denomination E.

All coins of Teuthrania carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Teuthranians” as the issuing authority.

silver (CHian standard)

Drachm (c. 3.2g)

853. Obv. Head of Apollo l., wearing tainia. Rev. TEU. Head of Prokles r., wearing kyrbasia. Monogram to r. Struck under Prokles, c. 400–399 BC. CNG 105, lot 213. R2

Diobol (1.6g)

854. Obv. Head of Apollo l., wearing tainia. Rev. TEU. Head of Prokles r., wearing kyrbasia. Monogram to r. Struck under Prokles, c. 400–399 BC. Babelon II.2, no. 41. R3

bronze

Denomination E (9–10mm, 0.85–1.1g)

855. Obv. Head of Apollo l., wearing tainia. Rev. TEU. Head of Prokles r., wearing kyrbasia. Monogram to r. Struck under Prokles, c. 400–399 BC. CNG 105, lot 213. S

Thebe

History

The city of Thebe, located at the foot of Mount Plakios in Mysia, is variously described in the Greek sources as Thebe Hypoplakia (“Thebe under Mount Plakios”) or Thebe Plakia (“Plakian Thebe”) as a means of distinguishing it from other cities of the same name.

According to Greek mythological tradition, Thebe was founded by the hero Herakles on his return journey from sacking Troy. He is said to have named it after his wife Thebe, the daughter of the Pelasgian king, Adramys. Homer reports that by the time of the Trojan War, Thebe was inhabited by Cilicians and ruled by their king, Eëtion. His daughter, Andromache, was married to Hektor of Troy and established a strong alliance between Eëtion and Priam, the king of Troy. In the ninth year of the Trojan War, Thebe was sacked by the Achaians under the leadership of Achilles. As his share of the plunder from Thebe, Achilles carried off a horse named Pedasos and a concubine named Chryseis. The dispute between Achilles and King Agamemnon of Mycenae over possession of Chryseis forms the basis for the plot of Homer’s Iliad.

The historical city originally commanded the fertile Plain of Thebe—an unlocated land so agriculturally rich that its control was disputed at various times by the indigenous peoples of Mysia, the kings of Lydia, and Greeks from Lesbos and Aiolis. The Persian army of Xerxes I passed through the Plain of Thebe on its westward march to begin the disastrous invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC), but appears to have bypassed the city itself.

Thebe is entirely invisible in the historical sources, although numismatic evidence shows that it still existed in the fourth century BC and probably fell under the influence of Orontas, the Persian satrap of Mysia (c. 362/1–344 BC). Nevertheless, the city must have virtually disappeared by the time of the Great’s invasion of the Achaemenid Persian empire in 334 BC. During his passage east through Cilicia in 333 BC, Alexander was shown the supposed site of Thebe by his guides, who recalled that Homer had described the city as “Cilician Thebe” due to the ethnicity of its mythological king. Such a transposition of the city from Mysia to Cilicia only would have been possible if Mysian Thebe had already ceased to exist.

Thebe depicted on a pseudo-autonomous Roman Provincial bronze coin of Adramytion (c. AD 180–200).

Certainly by the second century BC, and most probably earlier, the Plain of Thebe had come to be dominated by Adramytion. By the second century AD Adramytion had even gone so far as to claim the ancient fame of the city of Thebe for itself, as indicated by coins depicting the Tyche of Thebe.

Coinage

No precious metal coinage has been attributed to Thebe, but the city is known to have struck two series of bronze denomination E in the early fourth century BC. What appears to be an early emission depicts a female head wearing a sphendone and grain wreath on the obverse and a triskeles formed of crescents on the reverse. An apparently somewhat later emission features the same female head on the obverse, but replaces the triskeles with the forepart of Pegasos on the reverse.

On the basis of her grain wreath, the female head is often identified as Demeter, but the sphendone and the corkscrew curl that escapes down her cheek seems to suggest a younger agricultural deity. Demeter’s daughter, Persephone, is a good possibility, although the distinctive curl is not a regular feature of her iconography. Another, perhaps better, possibility is that the female deity is the nymph Thebe, who personifies both the city and the fertile plain named after it.

The triskeles reverse is similar to that found on contemporary issues of Birytis and Rhoiteion in Troas and Megara in mainland Greece (see the Handbook of Coins of Central Greece, no. 1787). The same Pegasos reverse appears on contemporary issues of Adramyttion and Lampsakos in Mysia and Iolla in Aiolis.

All coins of Thebe carry Greek legends, but it is unclear whether they merely name the city or identify “the Thebaians” as the issuing authority. The Pegasos series features the inscription QEBA which could represent the Aiolic Greek form of the city’s name, or it could be an abbreviation of the city ethnic. The legend on the triskeles series is abbreviated to the first three letters. If the legends represent the city’s name rather than the ethnic, it may be in indication that Thebe had become a dependency of Adamyttion in the fourth century BC.

bronze

Denomination E (9–10 mm, 0.82–1.17g)

856. Obv. Female head (Thebe?) r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. Q–H–B Triskeles of three crescents. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 390–360 BC. Stauber 1996, p. 243, no. 1. S

857. Obv. Female head (Thebe?) r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain. Rev. QHB–A. Pegasos forepart flying r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 360–345 BC. Stauber 1996, p. 243, nos. 2–3. R1

COINS OF TROAS

SIXTH–FIRST CENTURIES BC

History

The city of Abydos was located on the Mysian shore of the Hellespont almost directly across from the city of Sestos in the Thracian Chersonesos. According to Greek mythological tradition, Abydos was a Trojan ally against the Achaeans in the Trojan War. It was also home to Leander, the tragic lover of Hero, a priestess of Aphrodite in Sestos. During the summer months, Leander would swim across the Hellespont every night to be with Hero, guided by a torch that she placed in the window of her tower. One night, as winter drew near, the wind blew out the torch and Leander lost his way and drowned. In the morning, Hero saw his body and threw herself from her tower so that she could join her beloved in death.

Around 670 BC, the historical city was founded by Ionian Greek colonists from Miletos on the site of an earlier settlement of the Bebrykes (Bithynian Thracians). The foundation had the express permission of the Lydian king, Gyges (c. 680–644 BC), who may have hoped to use the Milesian presence on the Hellespont as a defence for the Lydian empire against incursions from European Thrace.

Due to its location at the shortest distance across the Hellespont between Europe and Asia, the Abydos grew wealthy through intercontinental trade as well as from its tuna fisheries. The city also had the good fortune to possess a gold mine near Kremaste. The appearance of Abydos in antiquity is poorly known, but it is clear that the city was defended by fortification walls and included a theater and a gymnasium among its public buildings.

Abydos, together with the rest of Troas, was absorbed into the expanding Achaemenid Persian empire of Cyrus II following his defeat of King Croesus of Lydia in 547/6 BC. By the 520s BC, the city was ruled on behalf of the Persian Great Kings by a local tyrant named Daphnis, but in 514 BC a garrison was installed and Abydos fell under direct Persian authority. Unfortunately, in the next year, the Great King, Darius I, undertook an indecisive punitive campaign against the Skythians. Upon his return, Darius I feared that the Skythians would mount an invasion of the Persian empire by crossing the Hellespont. He therefore ordered Abydos and other cities of the Hellespontine coast in order to deny their use by the enemy.

The city was subsequently rebuilt, but due to its previous poor treatment, Abydos joined the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) of Greek cities against Persian domination. However, Abydos was recaptured by the Persian general Daurises after a very brief siege in 497 BC. The environs of the city served as the mustering area for the grand army assembled by Xerxes I for his disastrous invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC). Pontoon bridges had been built across the Hellespont near Abydos so that the army could simply march into Europe from Asia, but these were later destroyed in a storm.

In the aftermath of the Persian defeat, Abydos became a member of the Athenian-led Delian League. Although this alliance was initially formed as a defence against future Persian aggression, it evolved into an Athenian empire. Between 454 and 418 BC, the city paid between six and four talents in tribute to Athens. Despite these exactions, Abydos remained loyal member of the League for most of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) fought between Athens and Sparta. In 411 BC, after Athenian naval power had been weakened by a crushing defeat at Syracuse, the Spartan general Derkylidas convinced the Abydenes to defect from the Athenian cause and replace their democratic government with an oligarchy. He

was subsequently appointed to serve as the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos and use the city as a base of operations against the Athenian and Persian interests in northwestern Anatolia.

An Athenian force besieged Abydos in 409/8 BC, but was forced to withdraw, thanks to the timely arrival of Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia who did not desire a return of the city to Athenian control.

In 394 BC, shortly after the outbreak of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth and Thebes, Pharnabazos threatened to attack Abydos, but the Abydenes refused to expel Derkylidas and his Spartan garrison. The city was still in Spartan hands in 389 BC, when then general Anaxibios was dispatched to replace Derkylidas as harmost of Abydos. Anaxibios made some initial inroads against Athenian allies in Troas, but was killed in an ambush by the Athenian general Iphikrates while returning to Abydos. Under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War, Abydos and the other Greek cities of Anatolia were restored to the Persian empire.

In the 360s and 350s BC, the city was ruled by the local tyrants Philiskos and Iphiades on behalf of the Persian satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia. However, in 336 BC, Abydos was seized by the Macedonian general Parmenion, who was leading an advance force to prepare for the full-scale invasion of the Persian empire planned by King Philip II. Emboldened by news of the murder of the Macedonian king later in the same year, in 335 BC, Memnon of Rhodes, the satrap of Troas, besieged Abydos while Parmenion was distracted with his own siege of Pitane. Breaking off his operations at Pitane, Parmenion quickly returned to Abydos and forced Memnon’s forces to withdraw. In the following year, Philip’s son and successor, Alexander the Great, crossed the Hellespont from Sestos to Abydos with his army and continued on to Troy as the prelude to his victory at the Battle of the Grankos River (334 BC) and subsequent conquest of the Persian empire.

After the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC), Abydos and the rest of Hellespontine Phrygia were governed by the Macedonian satraps Leonnatos and Arrhidaios until 319 BC, when the region was added to the expanding territory controlled by Alexander’s former general, Antigonos Monophthalmos. In 302 BC, his possession of Hellespontine Phrygia was challenged by an invasion mounted by the rival king, Lysimachos of Thrace. During the invasion, Parion and Lampsakos surrendered, but Abydos stood firm against the forces of Lysimachos. The city was saved from an extended siege by the timely arrival of Antigonos’ son, Demetrios Poliorketes. Lysimachos took control of Abydos a year later, after Antigonos was killed at the Battle of Ipsos (301 BC). Lysimachos himself died in battle against Seleukos I Nikator at Koroupedion a few decades later in 281 BC. Abydos and Hellespontine Phrygia subsequently became possessions of the Seleukid empire.

The city remained part of the Seleukid empire through the first half of the third century BC, and probably played an important role as a crossing point for the army of Antiochos II Theos during his campaign into European Thrace in the 250s BC. However, Abydos was lost to the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt in 245 BC, shortly after the outbreak of the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC) between Antiochos’ successor, Seleukos II Kallinikos and Ptolemy III Euergetes. The city appears to have remained under Ptolemaic influence until 200 BC, when it was besieged by the Macedonian king Philip V, as part of a pact with Antiochos III to dismember the Ptolemaic overseas empire.

Impatient at the resistance of the Abydenes, Philip V advised them that they had three days in which to surrender or commit suicide before he ordered a direct assault on the city. They responded by killing all the women and children in Abydos

and throwing their valuables into the Hellespont before fighting to the death when the Macedonians stormed the walls. The horror of the fall of Abydos had grave repercussions for Philip V, who had been previously warned by the Roman Senate to end the siege and cease waging war on Greek cities. Shortly after his return from Abydos, the Romans embarked upon the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC), a conflict that resulted in a great reduction of the power of the Macedonian kingdom. The peace terms imposed on Philip V at the end of the war included the withdrawal of the Macedonian garrison from depopulated and damaged Abydos.

Due to its strategic location, even in its depopulated and damaged state, Abydos still remained desirable to kings with ambitions on two continents. Thus, in spring of 196 BC, Antiochos III claimed the partially ruined city as a possession of the Seleukid empire. He immediately used it to cross into the Thracian Chersonesos and take possession of Lysimachia. In 192/1 BC, Antiochos III rebuilt the fortifications of Abydos in preparation for his own showdown with the Romans in the Aitolian War (191–189 BC), but abandoned the city following his defeat in mainland Greece. The Romans subsequently took control of Abydos and used it as a base for troops crossing from Europe to Asia in order to continue the war against Antiochos III. Under the terms of the Peace of Apamea, imposed on the defeated Seleukid king in 188 BC, Abydos and much of western Anatolia was granted to the Attalid kingdom of Eumenes II.

Abydos remained an important city of the Attalid kingdom until 133 BC, when Attalos III died and bequeathed the entirety of the kingdom to the Roman people. The kingdom was reorganized as the Roman province of Asia in 129 BC, at which time Abydos was made a telonion (customs house) for the province. The city’s location at the southern entrance to the Hellespont made it an obvious place to levy taxes on any trade passing through.

The city fell into the hands of the Pontic king Mithradates VI Eupator at the opening of his First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC) against the Romans, but in 85 BC it was retaken by the fleet assembled by L. Licinnius Lucullus, the quaestor (quartermaster) to the proconsul L. Cornelius Sulla. Abydos remained an important arrival point for Roman troops ferried from Europe to Asia during the Third Mithradatic War (73–63 BC), but during the Roman civil wars of the first century BC it was more commonly the crossing point for armies moving from Asia to Europe. Pompeian forces crossed into Thrace from Abydos on the eve of the disastrous showdown with Julius Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalos (48 BC). Likewise, the legions assembled by Caesar’s assassins, M. Junius Brutus and C. Cassius Longinus, were ferried across the Hellespont from Abydos in preparation for the Battle of Philippi (42 BC) against the triumvirs, Octavian and Mark Antony.

In the division of the Roman world that followed the defeat and suicides of Caesar’s killers, Abydos was included in Antony’s eastern territories. However, a little over a decade later, Octavian’s victory over Antony at the Battle of Actium (31 BC) led to the absorption of Abydos and all of the Greek East into a unified Roman Empire.

Coinage

An electrum coinage of staters and fractions struck to the Milesian standard (c. 14.1g to the stater) has long been attributed to Abydos on the basis of its eagle obverse type. This was traditionally associated with the Ionian Revolt and associated with other issues apparently featuring the types of other cities known to have participated in the uprising of Greek cities against Persian authority in the

early fifth century BC. Recent hoard and die-link analysis has shown that the socalled Ionian Revolt coinages actually belong to the end of the sixth century BC and were probably produced by the same workshop—perhaps located at Miletos, but almost certainly not at Abydos. Nevertheless, the Abydos eagle types are listed here for the sake of convenience.

The first gold coinage produced at Abydos appears to have been an issue of darics on the Persic standard (c. 8.4g to the stater), probably struck in support of the Spartan cause after the city opened its gates to Derkylidas in 411 BC. The staters, now known from only a single specimen, feature the same eagle and gorgoneion types that were used for the city’s silver coinage in the fifth century BC.

Additional—and now equally rare—darics were struck in the fourth century BC to meet military emergencies. Issues pairing Nike sacrificing a bull or Artemis riding a stag with the eagle badge of the city may belong to the period of the Corinthian War. The Nike type is particularly notable as it seems to be closely related to electrum and gold issues struck by the nearby cities of Kyzikos and Lampsakos, which depict Eros (often misdescribed as Nike) sacrificing a bull in a similar posture. A third gold stater of the fourth century BC, depicts the head of Artemis wearing a heavily ornamented polos on the obverse and an eagle on the reverse. This probably belongs to the late fourth century BC and may be connected to the Macedonian conquest of western Anatolia. In Mysia, Pergamon also struck a gold emission around the same time. These two issues are probably better considered staters on the Attic standard (c. 8.6g to the stater).

At the close of the fourth century BC, the city also struck Attic-weight gold staters featuring the types popularized by Alexander the Great: the head of Athena wearing a Corinthian helmet on the obverse and Nike holding a wreath and stylis on the reverse. These were almost certainly produced in connection with the ongoing conflicts of Alexander’s Successors.

Abydos also struck gold staters during the reign of Lysimachos (listed separately). These feature the deified portrait of Alexander the Great wearing the horn of Ammon appears on the obverse while an enthroned Athena holds Nike on the reverse. This coinage ended with the death of the king in 281 BC, but the popular types were resurrected for a new emission of staters later in the third century BC. These may perhaps have been struck to buy off marauding Galatians (Celts) in the 270s BC.

Silver coinage was first produced at Abydos probably at the beginning of the fifth century BC, when the city struck triobols or hemidrachms based on a local standard of c. 7.6g to the didrachm stater that has been described as a potential regional ‘Troad’ standard. The triobols feature the eagle emblem of the city on the obverse and an incuse punch design on the reverse.

Within a few decades, by c. 480 BC, the city had expanded its ‘Troad’-weight coinage to include full drachms and obol fractions. Unlike the earlier hemidrachms, the new coins carried pictorial types on the obverse and reverse. The eagle of the triobols was retained for the obverses of the new denominations, but the reverses depicted a facing gorgoneion within an incuse square. The gorgoneion type was also favored for the contemporary coinage of Parion in nearby Mysia.

The ‘Troad’-weight drachms and obols were apparently superseded in the subsequent decades of the fifth century by new drachms and obols struck to the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos). In this new system, the drachm appears to have been equivalent to the siglos and the obol to its sixth fraction. Despite the change in weight, the same types as in the ‘Troad’ weight system appear on the new Persic-weight coins.

In the mid-fourth century BC, Abydos struck tetradrachms, drachms and hemidrachms to the Chian weight standard, probably in connection with the operations of the Rhodian mercenary commanders, Mentor and Memnon of Rhodes, who served as satraps of Troas in the 350s and 340s. These regularly feature the profile head of Apollo on the obverse and the traditional eagle badge of the city on the reverse. One remarkable issue, now known from a single specimen, depicts the archaic cult statue of Athena Ilias on the reverse and has been linked to Memnon and Mentor’s administration in Troas.

The same types were employed in the second half of the fourth century BC, when the Chian standard was replaced by a reduced Persic standard (c. 5.3g to the siglos). Staters and hemidrachms equivalent to double and half sigloi were produced alongside apparent trihemiobols equivalent to a quarter of the reduced siglos. On this smallest denomination the head of Apollo is shown facing.

In the late fourth and early third centuries BC, Abydos struck silver coinage on the Attic standard (17.2g to the tetradrachm) with the ubiquitous Herakles and Zeus types of Alexander the Great and the Alexander and Athena types of Lysimachos (lifetime issues are listed separately under Alexander the Great and Lysimachos). Whereas most mints striking Alexandrine types in this period tended to focus on the tetradrachm denomination, Abydos was a prolific producer of drachms. In the third century BC, the city also struck tetradrachms for Antiochos II (listed separately).

After 245 BC, silver coin production ceased at Abydos, perhaps due to the Ptolemaic occupation, until the second century BC. At some point, probably after 188 BC, the city struck a new series of Attic-weight tetradrachms featuring the old types of Lysimachos and a distinctive spread flan. These tetradrachms seem to have been produced in conjunction with a similar series at Parion, but the impetus for the coinage is uncertain.

No further silver coinage was struck at Abydos until the early first century BC, when an extensive tetradrachm series was produced on a reduced Attic standard (c. 16.5g to the tetradrachm). The obverse of the new tetradrachms depicts a bust of Artemis while the reverse features the city’s eagle standing with spread wings. Additional drachms and hemidrachms are also known. Overstrike evidence shows that this coinage was struck in the context of the Third Mithradatic War.

Bronze coinage was probably introduced at Abydos at the end of the fifth century BC with an emission of bronze denomination E. An uncertain male head, possibly intended to represent Apollo, on the obverse is paired with the eagle civic emblem on the reverse.

In the fourth century BC, a system of three denominations (B, C and D) evolved featuring the same Apollo and eagle types found on the contemporary Chian- and reduced Persic-weight silver. In the last decades of the century, denomination B was redesigned to carry the facing head of Artemis wearing a polos on the obverse and an eagle with spread wings on the reverse. The obverse type is derived from the contemporary gold staters depicting the head of Artemis.

Overstrike evidence shows that Apollo/eagle and Artemis/eagle denomination B types were both followed by a new emission featuring the head of Artemis wearing the turreted crown of Tyche, probably in the third century BC. On this new issue, the eagle of the reverse no longer spreads its wings, but instead stands with its head reverted. An emission of denomination D pairing the head of Apollo with an eagle in a similar pose may have been produced in conjunction with this emission of denomination B.

Bronze denomination B depicting the facing turreted bust of Artemis-Tyche on the obverse and a stag within a laurel wreath on the reverse and denomination C pairing the head of Apollo with the standing figure of Artemis may perhaps belong to the second century BC.

In the first century BC, Abydos appears to have struck only denominations C and D. The larger denomination features the facing bust of Apollo on the obverse and his kithara on the reverse while the smaller is known pairing the head of Apollo or Artemis with an eagle often shown standing on a thunderbolt. The late date of this coinage seems assured by the fabric, the use of dotted borders, brokenbar alpha (a), and especially the representation of Artemis wearing a stephane an iconographic feature derived from the reduced Attic-weight tetradrachms.

The so-called Ionian Revolt coinage erroneously attributed to Abydos is entirely anepigraphic. The gold issues of the fourth century BC as well as the early ‘Troad’weight hemidrachms and Persic-weight obols, which are securely attributed to Abydos also lack legends of any kind.

The bulk of the silver and bronze coinage of Abydos carries a Greek legend reduced to three letters naming “the Abydenes” as the issuing authority. The city ethnic is only given in full on a bronze issue of denomination C, probably to be dated to the second century BC, and on the reduced Attic-weight silver of the first century BC. The abbreviated ethnic is expanded to five letters on an issue of bronze denomination C struck in the first century BC.

The silver coinages of the fourth century BC and the reduced Attic-weight tetradrachms of the first century BC are both notable for the prominent signatures of magistrates or individuals otherwise responsible for their production. It is not clear whether the Mentor named on several silver issues of the mid-fourth century BC should be identified with the Rhodian mercenary commander.

The Alexander types and posthumous Lysimachoi of Abydos regularly carry full Greek legends that falsely declare “Alexander” or “King Lysimachos,” respectively, as the issuing authority. However, on Lysimachoi the true authority is indicated by the insertion of the city’s eagle badge or even an abbreviated legend naming the Abydenes.

eleCtrum (milesian standard)

Staters (c. 14.1g)

858. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle standing l., head reverted. dolPhin to l. VeGeTal moTif to r. Rev. Roughly bisected incuse square. Struck c. 520 BC. Attribution dubious. Head 1875, p. 275, pl. VII, 7. R3

859. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle standing l. head reverted. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 520–510 BC. Attribution dubious. BMC Ionia, p. 23. R3

Trite or Third Stater (c. 4.7g)

860. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle standing l., head reverted. dolPhin to l. VeGeTal moTif to r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 520–510 BC. Attribution dubious. NAC 59, lot 610. R3

Hemihekte or 1/12 Stater (c. 1.17g)

861. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle standing l., head reverted. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 520–510 BC. Attribution dubious. Roma 7, lot 541. R2

1/24 Stater (c. 0.58g)

862. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle head l. No symbols or monograms. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Attribution dubious. Struck c. 520–510 BC. SNG Kayhan 720. R2

gold (persiC standard)

Darics (c. 8.4g)

863. Obv. ABUD/Hnon. Eagle standing l. Rev. Gorgoneion facing within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 411 BC. Robinson 1957, no. 13. R3

864

864. Obv. Nike crouching l., sacrificing bull l. with sword. Rev. Anepigraphic. Eagle standing r. GraPe bunCh on Vine to r. Struck c. 400–387 BC. Babelon II, no. 3449. R3

865. Obv. Artemis seated l. on stag running l. Rev. Anepigraphic. Eagle standing r. GraPe bunCh on Vine to r. Struck c. 400–387 BC. Babelon II, no. 3449. R3

gold (attiC standard)

Staters (c. 8.6g)

866. Obv. Laureate head of Artemis facing, wearing polos. Rev. Eagle standing l. GraPe bunCh on Vine to l. Struck c. 330–320 BC. Numismatica Genevensis SA 6, lot 84. R3

867. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Nike standing l., holding wreath and stylis. Monogram to l. and r. (if any). Symbol (ammon head, CornuCoPia, Griffin head, iVy leaf, lion, or SCalloP) to l. or r. (if any). Struck under Antigonos Monophthalmos, c. 310–301 BC. Price 1527A, 1536, 1550, 1552–1553, 1556–1559. R1

868. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Nike standing l., holding wreath and stylis. Monogram to l. (if any). Symbol(s) (CornuCoPia, Griffin head, iVy leaf, lion foreParT or  in Grain wreaTh) to l. and/or r. (if any). Struck under Lysimachos, c. 301–297 BC. Price 1561–1563, 1568, 1569A, 1570–1574, 1583, 1585. R1

869. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIACoU. Athena seated l. on throne, holding Nike and resting arm on grounded shield, transverse spear behind. eaGle to l. Struck c. c. 280–250 BC. Seyrig 1958, Pl. XLII, A. R3

865

867

868

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Drachm (c. 3.8g)

870. Obv. ABU. Eagle standing l. Rev. Gorgoneion facing within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, no. 2444. R2

Triobol (c. 1.3g)

871. Obv. Eagle standing l. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Babelon II, no. 2444. R2

Obols (c. 0.6g)

872. Obv. ABU. Eagle standing l. Monogram or symbol (kanTharoS, kylix or STar) above (if any). Rev. Gorgoneion facing within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, no. 2446. R2

silver (persiC standard)

Drachms or Sigloi (c. 5.6g)

873. Obv. ABUD/Hnon or ABUD/Ho. Eagle standing l. Rev. A–B (if any). Gorgoneion facing. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, nos. 2440–2443. R1

Obols (c. 0.86g)

874. Obv. Anepigraphic. Eagle standing l. Rev. Gorgoneion facing within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, no. 2445. R2

silver (CHian standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 15.6g)

875. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ABUDHNoN. Archaic cult statue of Athena Ilias standing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 360–350 BC. Gulbenkian 595. R3

876. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. on aphlaston. HTRoDWRoS or ECEpoLIS above. dolPhin or TriSkeleS to r. Struck c. 360–350 BC. Babelon II, nos. 2450–2451. R2

877. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. DIoGENHS or oLpAS above. Struck c. 360–350 BC. Babelon II, no. 2452. R3

Drachms (c. 3.5g)

878. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. ARTEWN, EUKRINHS, ENTWR, NIKoDHoS, or SIWN) above. Symbol (ChelyS, kanTharoS, laurel branCh, STar, TorCh, or TriSkeleS) to r. and/or l. Struck c. 360–350 BC. Babelon II, no. 2455 and 2463. R2

879. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing l. ENTWR above. ChelyS to l. Struck c. 360–350 BC. SNG von Aulock 7535. R2 878 879

880. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. on stag head. DIoGE–NHS above. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 360–350 BC. Leu Numismatik AG Web Auction 9, lot 284. R2

876

877

Hemidrachm (c. 1.6g)

881. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. kanTharoS above. Struck c. 400–350 BC. Babelon II, nos. 2453 (diobol). R2

silver (reduCed persiC standard)

Staters or Double Sigloi (c. 10.6g)

882. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing l. ULLIppoS above. bee to l. Struck c. 350–335 BC. BMC Troas, p. 2, no. 11. R3

883. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. LApINoS above. Galley STern to r. Struck c. 350–335 BC. Roma Numismatics XVII, lot 433. R3

Hemidrachms or Half Sigloi (c. 2.65g)

884. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. Magistrate name (DIoGHNHS, EXEpoLIS, EUKRINHS, IKESIoS, pRWTAGoRAS, ULLIppoS, or CARHS) above. Symbol (bee, dolPhin or wheel) to r. (if any). Struck c. 350–335 BC. Babelon II, no. 2456. R1

885. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing l. Magistrate name (AUQIWN, ANAXIKHS, ANAXILEWS, DIoGHNHS, HAISToLEWS, KEALoU, LUSAS, NoUHNIoS, ENESIppoS, NEILWN, ANQIppoS, or CARHS) above. Symbol (Club and bow, Club in wreaTh, CreSCenT, GraPe bunCh, kanTharoS, laurel branCh, nike, or TriPod) to l. or r. Struck c. 350–335 BC. Babelon II, no. 2463. S

886. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing l. Magistrate name (ARISToKLHS, ARWGoS, EARoS, EARoSToS, NoUHNIoS, or pRWTAGoRAS) above. Symbol(s) (CaduCeuS, Grain ear, ram head, roSe, or TridenT) to l. and/or r. Struck c. 350–335 BC. Babelon II, no. 2460–2461. R1

887. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. ARISToKLHS or LApINHS above. CreSCenT or Galley STern to r. Struck c. 350–335 BC. Babelon II, no. 2457–2459. R1

Trihemiobol or Quarter Siglos (1.22g)

888. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo facing. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. Magistrate name illegible. CreSCenT to r. Struck c. 350–335 BC. Babelon II, no. 2464. R3

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

889. Obv. Head of young Herakles r., wearing lion skin headdress. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus seated l. on throne, holding eagle and scepter. Ammon head to l. Monogram under throne. Struck under Antigonos Monophthalmos, c. 310–301 BC. Price 1549. R2

890. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIACoU. Athena seated l. on throne, holding Nike and resting arm on grounded shield, transverse spear behind. eaGle to l. Struck c. c. 280–250 BC. Seyrig 1958, Pl. XLII, B. R2

891. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIACoU. Athena seated l. on throne, holding Nike and resting arm on grounded shield. Monogram to outer l. and/or inner l. CornuCoPia to outer l. (if any). eaGle flanked by a–BU in exergue.to l. Struck c. c. 180–140 BC. Boehringer 1974, no. 94. R2

Drachms (c. 4.3g)

892. Obv. Head of young Herakles r., wearing lion skin headdress. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus seated l. on throne, holding eagle and scepter. Monogram under throne and/or to l. Symbol (ammon head, CaduCeuS, iVy leaf, kanTharoS, lion, lion head, or Prow) to l. and/or to r. and/or under throne (if any). Struck under Antigonos Monophthalmos, c. 310–301 BC. Price 1527, 1528–1535, 1538–1548A, 1551, 1554–1555, 1560. C

893. Obv. Head of young Herakles r., wearing lion skin headdress. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus seated l. on throne, holding eagle and scepter. Monogram to l. Symbol(s) (Griffin head, head wearinG PhryGian CaP, lion foreParT) to l. and/or under throne. CaduCeuS in exergue (if any). Struck under Lysimachos, c. 301–297 BC. Price 1564–1567, 1569, 1575–1582, 1584. R1

Hemidrachm (c. 2.15g)

894. Obv. Head of young Herakles r., wearing lion skin headdress. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus seated l. on throne, holding eagle and scepter. Grain ear to l. and iVy leaf under throne. Struck under Antigonos Monophthalmos, c. 310–301 BC. Price 1551A. R2

silver (reduCed attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 16.5g)

895. Obv. Bust of Artemis r., wearing stephane, bow and quiver over shoulder. Rev. ABUDHNWN. Eagle with spread wings standing r. Monogram or symbol(s) (amPhora, animal, arTemiS buST, aThena, aThena buST, bee, CaduCeuS, CiSTa mySTiCa, CornuCoPia, dolPhin-enTwined TridenT, eroS, Grain ear, GraPe bunCh, harPa, helioS head, horSe, horSeman, iSiS headdreSS, kybele, Palm branCh, PeGaSoS, Pilei, roSe, STar, ThunderbolT, ThyrSoS, TorCh, TridenT, TriPod, winGed CaduCeuS, or wreaTh) to r. Magistrate name (ANAXAGoRoU, ANAXANDRIDoU, ANQIPPoU, ANTIGoNoU, APoLLoNIDoU, APoLLoANoU, APoLLWNIoU, ARIANQoU, ARTHWNoS, ASKLHPIADoU, ATUANAKTo, AQHNAIoU, AQHNoKLEIoU, DHHTRIoU, DIoNUSIoU, DWSIQEoU, EUKRAToU, HRWDoU, QESPIDoS, IIADoU, LAPWNoS, LENIPPoU, LISTRAToU, ENEDHoU, ENoITIoU, HNIDoS, HTRoDWRoU, ILH, ILHIoU, NIKWNo, oNESIANAKToS, XENoWNToS, XWENoU, oREIToU, PARENIKoU, PUQoGENoU, ERENIKoU, ILIKoU, or ILISKoU) in exergue. All within laurel wreath. Struck c. 89–70 BC. Callataÿ 1996, pp. 84–89, D1 R1–D35 R1. R1

Drachm (c. 3.8g)

896. Obv. Bust of Artemis r., wearing stephane, bow and quiver over shoulder. Rev. ABU. Eagle with spread wings standing r. B to r. IIADoU in exergue. All within laurel wreath. Struck c. 89–70 BC. CNG 99, lot 193. R3

Hemidrachm (1.88g)

897. Obv. Bust of Artemis r., wearing stephane, bow and quiver over shoulder. Rev. ABU. Eagle with spread wings standing r. wreaTh to r. and monograms between legs. All within laurel wreath. Struck c. 89–70 BC. Numismatik Naumann 37, lot 183. R3

Denomination B (20–22mm, 6.45–9.23g)

898. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. Symbol (CreSCenT, demeTer, demeTer head faCinG, GraPe bunCh or wreaTh) to l. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, nos. 2465–2468. S

899. Obv. Head of Artemis facing 3/4 r., wearing polos Rev. ABU. Eagle with spread wings standing r. Galley stern to r.  to r. (if any). Struck c. 330–320 BC. BMC Troas, p. 4, no. 36. S

900. Obv. Turreted head of Artemis-Tyche r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. on thunderbolt, head reverted. kanTharoS or ram head to r. Struck c. 300–250 BC. Babelon II, nos. 2470–2471. S

901. Obv. Turreted bust of Artemis-Tyche facing, bow and quiver over shoulder. Rev. ABU. Stag standing r. Palm branCh to r. All within laurel wreath. Struck second century BC. SNG von Aulock 1450. S

Denomination C (15–18mm, 3.9–6.26g) 898 899

902. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing l. SerPenT in wreaTh to l. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2469. R1

903. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. CreSCenT to r. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2468bis. R1

904. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. TriPod to r. Struck fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 32–33. R1

905. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU/DHNWN. Artemis standing l., holding phiale and torch, hound at feet. No symbols or monograms. Struck second century BC. Numismatik Naumann 78, lot 158. R1

906. Obv. Laureate bust of Apollo facing. Rev. a–B–U/D–I or a–BU/D–I. Kithara. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 42. R1

Denomination D (11–13mm, 1.21–2.55g)

907. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. Symbol (amPhora, ChelyS or bow and arrow) to r. (if any). Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, nos. 2474–2475. R1

908. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing l. amPhora to l. (if any). Struck fourth century BC. SNG von Aulock 1446. R1

909. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing l. Symbol to l. Struck fourth century BC. Hirsch 357, lot 204. R1

910. Obv. Turreted bust of Artemis-Tyche facing. Rev. ABU. Eagle with spread wings standing r. Symbol (GraPe bunCh or PenTalPha) to r. Struck fourth century BC. Savoca 14, lot 161. R1

911. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing l., head reverted. bull head to l. Struck second century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 36. R1

912. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. on thunderbolt. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 33–35. R1

913. Obv. Head of Artemis r., wearing stephane. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing r. on thunderbolt. No symbols or monograms. Struck first century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 41–42. R1

Denomination E (7–9mm, 1.37–1.39g)

914. Obv. Male head r. Rev. ABU. Eagle standing l. STar to l. Struck late fifth century BC. Savoca 14, lot 160. R2

aChaiion

History

The history of Achaiion is very poorly known. The city was located in the Tenedian (formerly Mytilenean?) peraia (mainland possessions) and is normally assumed to have been a dependency of Tenedos. However, numismatic evidence seems to indicate the development of an autonomous civic identity at Achaiion in the late fourth–early third centuries BC.

Coinage

The only coinage attributed to Achaiion consists of bronze issues. The earliest series, struck in the late fourth and early third centuries BC, involves two series of denomination D. One features an Attic helmet on the obverse and a monogram of the city’s initials on the reverse. Another pairs the head of Athena with the same monogram surrounded by a wreath. These were long believed to be issues of Achilleion, rather than Achaiion, but archaeological evidence now shows that Achilleion was only a fort at the time of issue and could not have been responsible for the coinage.

After an hiatus in minting, Achaiion struck two series of denomination B in the second and early first centuries BC. One series pairs the head of Apollo with his mantic tripod while the other features the head of Zeus and the standing figure of Artemis.

All coins of Achaiion carry Greek legends naming “the Achaites” as the issuing authority. On denomination D the city ethnic is reduced to the monogram A, but it is given in full or slightly abbreviated on denomination C.

bronze

Denomination C (16–18mm, 3.82–5.16g)

915. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. A–C/A–I. Tripod. All within wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck second–first centuries BC. Ellis-Evans 2017, no. 3. R3

916. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. aCa–ITWN. Artemis standing l., holding bow and arrow. No symbols or monograms. Struck second–first centuries BC. Ellis-Evans 2017, no. 4. R2

Denomination E (8–11mm, 0.59–1.07g)

917. Obv. Attic helmet l. Rev. Large A. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Ellis-Evans 2017, no. 1. R1

918. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Rev. Large A within laurel wreath. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Ellis-Evans 2017, no. 2. R2

alexandreia TroaS

History

Sometime after 311/10 BC, Alexander the Great’s former general, Antigonos Monophthalmos, founded a new city in Troas with the dynastic name Antigoneia. It was situated on the site of an earlier settlement called Sigia and populated through the forced synoecism (amalgamation) of several small cities in the region, including Hamaxitos, Kebren, Kolonai, Larisa, Neandria, and Skepsis. The foundation of the city may also have provided the occasion for the formation of the Koinon of Athena Ilias—a religious association of 10 cities in Troas and Mysia (as well as in Mysia and Bithynia) focused on the sanctuary of the goddess at Ilion.

After the death of Antigonos at the Battle of Ipsos (301 BC), the city and the rest of Troas passed under the control of his rival, King Lysimachos of Thrace. In order to obliterate the memory of Antigonos and honor that of Alexander the Great, the city’s name was changed from Antigoneia to Alexandreia. It is often described as Alexandreia Troas in order to distinguish the city from the many other Alexandreias that dotted the lands that had previously made up the empire of Alexander the Great.

Unfortunately, the peoples who made up the population of Antigonos’ original synoecism were not especially suited to living together. The Skepsians were old enemies of the Kebrenes and this animosity seems to have continued at Alexandreia Troas, leading Lysimachos to permit the Skepsians to withdraw. The Kebrenes, Hamaxitans and Larisaians also seem to have seceded from Alexandreia Troas at some point in the third century BC.

The city was defended by fortification walls and had access to the Aegean Sea through a harbor. Public amenities included a bouleuterion (council chamber), a theater, a gymnasium, and a stadium. The important temple of Apollo Smintheus (“of the Mice”), which had previously belonged to Hamaxitos, was also located within the territory belonging to Alexandreia Troas, but perhaps only after 188 BC. This sanctuary was dedicated to an old, pre-Greek deity associated with the causes of plague. This god, identified with Apollo by the Greeks, was especially well known as a protector of farmers from the destruction of their grain by field mice. Due to the connection of this Apollo to mice, the temple of Apollo Smintheus maintained a nest of the small animals beneath the god’s altar at public expense.

After the death of Lysimachos at the Battle of Koroupedion (281 BC), Alexandreia and the rest of Troas were absorbed into the expanding empire of Seleukos I Nikator. It is unclear how the turmoil associated with the sudden assassination of Seleukos I in 281 BC and the entry of the Galatians (Celts) into western Anatolia in 278 BC may have affected Alexandreia Troas. Neighboring Ilion is known to have quickly declared for Seleukos’ son and successor, Antiochos I Soter, but suffered attack by the Galatians. It is possible that in this period Alexandreia Troas may have suffered a political revolution in which the democratic constitution was overturned in favor of an oligarchy or tyranny. The democracy was subsequently restored, and a law was enacted to make attempted oligarchy and tyranny punishable by death.

Alexandreia Troas remained under Seleukid influence for much of the third century BC but following the defeat of Antiochos Hierax in 228/7 BC, the city probably entered the political orbit of Attalos I, the increasingly powerful dynast of Pergamon. When the Seleukid king, Antiochos III, dispatched the general

Achaios to reclaim the territories lost to Attalos I in 222 BC, he was extremely successful, but Alexandreia Troas stood firm against the Seleukid reconquest.

In an attempt to gain the upper hand against Antiochos III, Attalos I made the mistake of hiring Galatian mercenaries and ultimately found it necessary to settle these in the environs of the Hellespont. Unfortunately, these Galatian settlers were not willing to give up their tradition of plunder, and in 217 BC made an attack on Ilion. In response, an army of 4,000 men marched from Alexandreia Troas and inflicted a severe defeat on the Galatians. The marauding mercenaries were subsequently driven from Troas into Bithynia, where they were destroyed by King Prousias I.

Alexandreia Troas remained a largely autonomous ally of the Attalid kingdom into the early second century BC. However, 192 BC, Antiochos III besieged and captured the city in preparation for the disastrous Aitolian War (192–189 BC), in which he hoped to drive the Romans out of mainland Greece. His invasion of Greece in support of the Aitolian League proved to be a failure and when the king withdrew to western Anatolia in 190 BC, he attempted to end the conflict by offering to restore the freedom of Alexandreia Troas together with Ilion and Lampsakos. The Romans ignored this olive branch and instead defeated Antiochos III at the Battle of Magnesia (189 BC). Under the terms of the Peace of Apamea that followed in 188 BC, Alexandreia Troas was established as an autonomous city free from tribute. It may have been on this occasion, that Hamaxitos, Kebren and Larisa were (re)absorbed into the synoecism of Alexandreia Troas.

From this point the history of the city becomes very obscure, although it is clear that Alexandreia Troas must have enjoyed prosperity in the second century BC. Around the middle of the century, a grander temple of Apollo Smintheus was built within the god’s sanctuary and the traditional Pythian games held in honor of Apollo at Alexandreia Troas were reorganized as the Sminthieia. Alexandreia Troas appears to have retained its freedom after the Attalid kingdom was bequeathed to the Roman people in 133 BC and its territories were reorganized as the Roman province of Asia in 129 BC. It is unclear how the city fared during the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC) between the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator, and the Romans or if it was compelled to pay any of the great indemnity imposed on many cities of western Anatolia in its aftermath. However, some degree of economic hardship seems to be implied by the fact that in 77 BC, the Koinon of Athena Ilias, to which Alexandreia Troas belonged, had become so indebted to the goddess that the member cities arranged with the Roman quaestor (quartermaster), L. Julius Caesar, to reduce their debt.

Following the Roman victory in the Third Mithradatic War (73–63 BC), the fortunes of Alexandreia Troas probably improved. By the late first century BC it was recognized as the chief city of Troas. It was refounded by Augustus, probably before 12 BC, as a Roman colony under the new name of Colonia Alexandria Augusta Troas.

Coinage

Traditionally, gold staters struck to the Attic standard (c. 8.6g to the stater) and featuring the personal Alexander the Great and Athena types of Lysimachos have been attributed to Alexandreia Troas (see Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors II, no. 1743e). However, recent scholarship has doubted the attribution of this gold coinage to the city as well as Lysimachos’ tetradrachms using the same types (see the Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors II, no. 1750h).

Attic-weight gold staters with the Athena and Nike types of Alexander the Great are believed to have been struck at the city under Antiochos Hierax (c. 245–227 BC) (see the Handbook of Syrian Coins, no. 397).

The earliest silver coinage of Alexandreia Troas is most probably a series of tetradrachms and drachms struck to a reduced Persic standard (c. 5.3g to the siglos or stater). These coins feature the laureate head of Apollo on the obverse and a grazing horse—the civic badge of Alexandreia Troas—on the reverse. This coinage probably came to an end with the death of Lysimachos although it is perhaps not impossible that it could have continued into the early Seleukid period.

By the mid-third century BC, Alexandreia Troas served as a Seleukid mint for tetradrachms of Antiochos II Theos (261–246 BC) and Antiochos Hierax (see the Handbook of Syrian Coins, no. 236c, 238e and 399g–h). But after the fall of Hierax, no further silver coinage was struck at the city until the mid-second century BC.

Beginning in 164/3 BC, Alexandreia Troas began to strike silver tetradrachms to a reduced Attic standard (c. 16.65g to the tetradrachm) featuring the head of Apollo on the obverse and the figure of Apollo Smintheus on the reverse. It is uncertain whether the reverse image was intended to represent a famous cult image of the god sculpted by Skopas of Paros in the fourth century BC. On the coins, Apollo Smintheus is shown armed with his bow and arrow and carrying a phiale for sacrifice, but the defining feature of Skopas’ statue was said to be the mouse that the god treads upon. The introduction of the new tetradrachm coinage may be related to the institution of the Sminthieia and the erection of the new temple around the same time.

The reduced Attic-weight coinage seems to have been produced rather sporadically until 135/4 BC, after which it ceased until 118/17 BC. Tetradrachms were struck on a much more regular basis from the 90s to the mid-60s BC, which suggest involvement for the coins in the financing of the Mithradatic Wars. This possibility is perhaps further supported by the discovery of tetradrachms struck to the cistophoric standard (c. 12.75g to the tetradrachm) in 85/4 and 68/7 BC, but featuring the same Apollo/Apollo Smintheus types of reduced Attic-weight series. Additional dotted and wreath borders serve to distinguish these lighter coins from the reduced Attic weight series. The cistophoric tetradrachm was the standard coin of Roman Asia and these years fall within the First and Third Mithradatic Wars, respectively. Reduced Attic-weight didrachms and drachms featuring the head of Apollo and standing Apollo Smintheus were also struck in the 70s BC.

An emission of obols featuring the head of Athena wearing a Corinthian helmet and her owl perched on an overturned amphora should probably be associated with the higher denomination Apollo/Apollo Smintheus types despite the differing iconography. A connection is suggested by both the use of the Attic standard and the reverse type, which seems to be derived from Athenian stephanephoric tetradrachms. The latter were introduced at Athens in c. 165 BC.

A bronze coinage of denomination B struck in the name of Alexander the Great has long been attributed to Alexandreia Troas as an issue of the city when it was still Antigoneia. However, it has been pointed out that this attribution is very dubious and hinges entirely on finds from the excavations at Troy. This issue, which features the head of Herakles on the obverse and a fast biga on the reverse is included here for the sake of convenience.

The first bronze coinage of Alexandreia Troas was probably struck in the lifetime of Lysimachos and consists of three denominations (B, C and D) pairing the rightfacing head of Apollo with a horse grazing left. These same denominations were

produced through the third century BC, with the addition of tiny denomination E. All carry the same types, but the issues of the later third century BC depict the horse grazing left rather than right and the head of Apollo appears facing left or right.

In the second century BC, a new bronze coinage of two denominations (B and C) was introduced featuring the facing bust of Apollo and his kithara on the reverse within a laurel wreath border. This was probably superseded in the late second or early first century BC by new emissions of the same denominations pairing the head of Apollo with an image of Apollo Smintheus on denomination B and with a tripod on denomination C.

Emissions of denomination C, D and E linked by a shared monogram may perhaps be somewhat later than the Apollo/Apollo Smintheus and Apollo/ tripod issues. Denominations C and D feature the head of Apollo on the obverse, sporting formal curls clearly derived from the reduced Attic-weight silver. The old reverse type of the grazing horse was resurrected for denomination C while a Greek legend surrounded by a wreath appears on the reverse of Denomination D. Denomination E variously pairs a kithara with a tripod or features a chelys on each side.

With the exception of the reduced Attic-weight silver coinage, which names “Apollo Smintheus of the Alexandreians,” all coins attributed to Alexandreia Troas with certainty carry full or abbreviated Greek legends naming “the Alexandreians” as the issuing authority. The names of magistrates also occur regularly on the reduced Attic-weight silver and some issues of bronze denominations B and C in the late second and early first centuries BC.

CiviC Coinage

silver (reduCed persiC standard)

Tetradrachm or Double Siglos (c. 10.6g)

919. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ALEXAN/DREWN. Horse grazing r. SI and barelyCorn below. Struck c. 301–281 BC. Meadows 2004, no. 1. R3

Drachm or Half Sigloi (c. 2.65g)

920. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ALEXAN/DREWN. Horse grazing r. barelyCorn below. SI below (if any). Struck c. 301–281 BC. Meadows 2004, nos. 2–3. R2

silver (reduCed attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 16.65g)

921. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. APoLLWNoS/zINQEWS/ ALEXAN. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. Monogram(s) to l. ILI to r. (if any). Magistrate name (ANTAIoU, ANTIANoU, ARISToU, BAKCIoU, BoKICoU, DWKIDoU, ERoKREoNToS, zWILoU, HRWDIKo, QEISToU, LUSIoU, LWNoAoU, NIKANDRoU, PARENToU, PEISISTRAToU, PRWToLo, SKAANDRoU, TIANoRo, TIHSAG, or ILITA) in exergue (if any). Civic era date (RLZ [137 = 164/3 BC], RLH [138 = 163/2 BC], RA [141 = 160/59 BC], RNG [153 = 148/7 BC], RX [166 = 135/4 BC], RPG [183 = 118/7 BC], S [200 = 101/0 BC], S [206 = 95/4 BC], SH [208 = 93/2 BC], SQ [209 = 92/1 BC], SI [210 = 91/0 BC], SIG [213 = 88/7 BC], SI [216 = 85/4 BC], SK [220 = 81/0 BC], SKA [221 = 80/79 BC], SKB [222 = 79/8 BC], SKG [ 223 = 78/7 BC], SL [230 = 71/0 BC], SLB [232 = 69/8 BC], SLG [233 = 68/7 BC], SLE [235 = 66/5 BC], or SL [236 = 65/4 BC]) to r. Bellinger 1961, A133–A137, A148–A159, A161–A162, and A165–A170. R1

Didrachm (6.98g)

922. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. APoLLWNoS/zINQEWS/ALEXAN. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. Monogram to l. ARCAGoRoU in exergue. Civic era date R (199 = 73/2 BC) in exergue. CNG EA 235, lot 161. R3

Drachms (4.0g)

923. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. APoLLWNoS/zINQEWS/ALEXAN. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. Monogram to l.

Magistrate name (ARCIPULoU, HRoDIKoUoU or PANAREToU) in exergue. Civic era date (SKA [221 = 80/79 BC] or SKH [228 = 73/2 BC) in exergue. Bellinger 1961, A160 and A 163–A164. R2

Obol (0.71g)

924. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ALEXAN. Owl standing r. on overturned amphora, head facing. SerPenT to l. Struck c. 164–65 BC. Bellinger 1961, A125. R3

silver (CistopHoriC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 12.75g)

925. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. APoLLWNoS/zINQEWS/ ALEXAN. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. Monogram to l. NIKANDRoU in exergue. Civic era date SI (216 = 85/4 BC) in exergue. Numismatik Lanz München 163, lot 95. R3

926. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. APoLLWNoS/zINQEWS/ALEXAN. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. Monogram to l. DIoANoU in exergue. Civic era date SLG (233 = 68/7 BC) in exergue. All within laurel wreath. Gorny & Mosch Giessener Münzhandlung 249, lot 274. R3

bronze

Denomination B (18–21mm, 4.48–10.22g)

927. Obv. Head of young Herakles r., wearing lion skin headdress. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Fast biga r. TridenT below. Struck underAntigonos Monophthalmos, c. 310–301 BC. Price 1587. Attribution dubious. R2

928. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ALEXAN/DREWN. Horse grazing r. Monogram below. Palm branCh to r. barleyCorn in exergue. Struck c. 301–281 BC. Meadows 2004, A. S

929. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ALEXAN. Horse grazing l. Monogram or barleyCorn below. ThunderbolT in exergue. Struck third century BC. Bellinger 1961, A104–A108. R1

930. Obv. Laureate bust of Apollo facing 3/4 r. Rev. ALE/XA–N. Kithara. Caduceus or mouse below (if any). Struck second century BC. Bellinger 1961, A138–A140. S

931. Obv. Laureate bust of Apollo facing. Rev. A–LE/XA–N. Kithara. Monogram below. Grain ear or STar to r. (if any). Struck second century BC. Bellinger 1961, A141–144. S

932. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ALEXAN. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. DH in exergue. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. Bellinger 1961, A177. R1

Denomination C (15–19mm, 3.39–6.67g)

933. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ALEXAN/DREWN. Horse grazing r. Monogram and barleyCorn below. Struck c. 301–281 BC. Bellinger 1961, A2 9. S

934. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ALEXA or ALEXAN. Horse grazing l. Monogram or symbol (bee, eaGle, GraPe bunCh, or wreaTh) below. ThunderbolT in exergue. Struck third century BC. Bellinger 1961, A53–A72. S

935. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ALEXAN. Horse grazing l. Monogram or barleyCorn below. ThunderbolT in exergue. Struck third century BC. Bellinger 1961, A109–113. S

936. Obv. Laureate bust of Apollo facing. Rev. A–LE/XA–N. Kithara. No symbols or monograms. Struck second century BC. Bellinger 1961, A145. R1

937. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. All within laurel wreath. Rev. ALEX. Tripod. ABBWILL (?) to r. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. Bellinger 1961, A178. R1

938. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ALEXAN. Horse grazing l. Thunderbolt in exergue. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. Bellinger 1961, A171–A175. S

Denomination D (12–13mm, 1.22–2.45g)

939. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ALE. Horse grazing r. Palm branCh to r. Monogram below. barleyCorn in exergue. Struck c. 301–281 BC. Bellinger 1961, A30. S

940. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ALEXA. Horse grazing l. Monogram or K below. ThunderbolT in exergue. Struck third century BC. Bellinger 1961, A71–A72. R1

941. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. ALE. Horse grazing l. Monogram or symbol (GraPe bunCh or wreaTh) below (if any). Club or ThunderbolT in exergue. Struck third century BC. Bellinger 1961, A114–A122. S

942. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. AL/EX. Monogram below. All within laurel wreath. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. Bellinger 1961, A179. R1

Denomination E (9–11mm, 0.54–1.55g)

943. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. A or ALE. Horse grazing r. Palm branCh to r. (if any). Monogram or symbol (barleyCorn, PelleT, SerPenT, SPearhead, STar or wreaTh) below. Club or ThunderbolT in exergue (if any). Struck c. 301–281 BC. Bellinger 1961, A31–A46. S

944. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ALEXA. Horse grazing l. K below. ThunderbolT in exergue. Struck c. 261–246 BC. Bellinger 1961, A72. R1

945. Obv. Chelys. Rev. ALEX. Chelys. Monogram to l. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. Bellinger 1961, A146. S

946. Obv. Kithara. Rev. A–L/E–X. Tripod. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. Bellinger 1961, A147. S

anTandroS

History

The historical origin of Antandros is variously reported in the ancient Greek sources. According to some, this city on the Gulf of Adramytion was originally a settlement of the Lelegians or Pelasgians (pre-Greek peoples of western Anatolia). Others believed it to have been founded by Edonian Thracians and later ruled by the Cimmerians, an Iranian people related to the Scythians who invaded Anatolia in the seventh century BC. The site was subsequently settled by Aeolian Greek colonists from Mytilene. A tradition claiming that Antandros was founded by Ionian Greeks from the Cycladic island of Andros is based entirely on false etymology derived from ἀντ’ Ἄνδρου (“instead of Andros”). The mythological explanation that the city received its name after it was exchanged with the Pelasgians for the release of Ascanius, the son of Aeneas, whom they were holding hostage is based on a similarly false etymology from ἀντ’ ἄνδρου (“instead of a man”).

Due to its proximity to the Aegean Sea and forested Mount Ida, Antandros derived wealth from shipbuilding and the export of timber. Indeed, mythological tradition made Antandros the city at which Aeneas built his fleet and from which he set out to find a new country for his people after the fall of Troy. The historical city was defended by a fortified akropolis and frequently controlled Mysian Astyra as a dependency.

In 512 BC, Antandros, which appears to have belonged to the Mytilenean peraia (mainland possessions), was captured by Otanes, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia, and subsequently became subject to the Great Kings of the Achaemenid Persian empire. Following the defeat of the Persian invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC), under Xerxes I, and the Greek destruction of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC), Mytilenean influence over Antandros and the peraia was restored.

Mytilene was one of the founding members of the Delian League formed under the leadership of Athens to defend Greek cities against future Persian aggression. However, over time the Mytileneans became increasingly disenchanted as the League evolved into the core of an Athenian empire and members were compelled to pay tribute in coin. At last, in the early phase of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, Mytilene seceded from the Delian League in 428 BC. The Athenian fleet forced the surrender of Mytilene in the following year and was poised to execute the entire population of the city when the order was countermanded. Instead, Mytilene was punished by the destruction of its walls, the imposition of a garrison, and the loss of much of its territory on Lesbos and the entirety of the Mytilenean peraia. Antandros was subsequently enrolled as a member of the Delian League, paying tribute to Athens. In 425/4 BC, a group of Mytilenean exiles captured Antandros with the intention of using the city as a base to reclaim the peraia and then drive the Athenians out of Lesbos, but it was soon retaken by Athenian forces.

Antandros remained a tributary member of the Delian League until at least 421 BC, but at some point, between this year and 411 BC, the city was seized and garrisoned by Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia. This garrison was expelled with the help of Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos in 411/0 BC, but was quickly reimposed after Pharnabazos agreed to use the resources of Mount Ida to construct a fleet at Antandros for use by the Spartans and their Peloponnesian allies. The walls

of the city, which may have been razed in 425 BC, were rebuilt with Syracusan assistance in 409 BC. The Antandrians were reportedly so grateful for this aid that they awarded sympoliteia (joint citizenship) to the Syracusans.

The city seems to have remained under Persian influence until 389 BC, when the Antandrians revolted to Anaxibios, the new Spartan harmost of Abydos. However, Spartan hegemony was challenged by a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes over the course of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC). Under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the conflict, Antandros and the rest of the Greek cities of western Anatolia were recognized as possessions of the Persian empire. This status came to an end in 334 BC, when Alexander the Great crushed the forces of the western Persian satraps at the Granikos River and embarked on the Macedonian conquest of the Persian empire.

Very few details survive for the political history of Antandros after the death of the Macedonian king in 323 BC, although the city successively fell under the influence of Alexander’s rival generals-turned-kings, Antigonos Monophthalmos, Lysimachos (after 301 BC) and Seleukos I Nikator (after 281 BC). Antandros continued as a possession of the Seleukid empire under Seleukos’ son and successor, Antiochos I Soter, but was lost to the dynast of Pergamon, Eumenes I, between 261 and 241 BC. Epigraphic evidence indicates that Antandros hosted an Attalid garrison in this period. The city was also a member of the koinon of Athena Ilias, a cult association focused on the temple of Athena at Ilion that was established between 311 and 306 BC.

Antandros and most of the other cities of Troas were reincorporated into the Seleukid empire by Antiochos III in 196 BC. However, the king was forced to cede the city along with the bulk of western Anatolia to the Attalid kingdom under the terms of the Peace of Apameia (188 BC) that ended his disastrous conflict with the Romans in the Aitolian War (191–189 BC). Antandros thereafter remained part of the Attalid kingdom until 133 BC, when Attalos III, the last king of Pergamon, died and bequeathed the entirety of the kingdom to the Roman people. The city subsequently became part of the new Roman province of Asia in 129 BC.

It is not clear how Antandros fared during the great upheavals of the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC), in which King Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontos raised many cities of Asia against the Romans, and the Roman civil wars of the first century BC. Nevertheless, it is certain that the city survived all of these storms to flourish under the Roman emperors.

Coinage

The earliest precious metal coinage struck at Antandros involves drachms and fractions struck to the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm). These coins regularly feature a female head on the obverse and a goat on the reverse. Only hemiobols diverged from this pattern by employing the head of a lion or an astragalos as reverse types. The female head is usually considered to represent Artemis Astyrene, a goddess whose sanctuary at Astyra was frequently controlled by Antandros and whose cult image was depicted on bronze coins struck at Antandros in the first and second centuries AD. The reverse types of all the Chianweight denominations are contained within an incuse square.

Staters or double sigloi struck to the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos) may be roughly contemporary with the Chian-weight series, but their distinct weight standard seems to be signalled by the use of different types: the forepart of a lion on the obverse and an incuse square containing a goat before a fir tree on the reverse.

A series of Persic-weight fractions followed in the fourth century BC, all of which feature the same female head of the late Chian-weight drachms on the obverse. The reverse of the triobol carries a goat and fir tree type similar to that found on the stater, but now the animal is represented striking the trunk of the tree with its hoof. A goat stands alone on the reverse of the drachm while the head of a lion is found on the obol. In the Persic-weight series, the prominent incuse square surrounding the reverse type gradually disappears, although vestiges of this feature are still often visible.

The Persic standard was abandoned for the final silver coinage of Antandros, which was probably struck in the late fourth century BC. This consists of drachms struck to a reduced Chian standard (c. 13.6g to the tetradrachm). Although the types replicate those of the preceding Persic-weight hemidrachms, the reduced Chian-weight drachms are distinguishable by their weight standard and the total absence of a surrounding incuse square on the reverse.

A bronze coinage of four denominations (B, C, D and E) was introduced at Antandros in the fourth century BC. All of these depict the head of a lion on the reverse. The head of Apollo appears as the obverse type on the three largest denominations while the female head derived from the Persic-weight silver is depicted on the obverse of denomination E.

With the exception of the Persic-weight stater, which is anepigraphic, all coins of Antandros carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may identify “the Antandrians” as the issuing authority or name the city.

silver (CHian standard)

Drachms (c. 3.9g)

947. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANTA/N. Goat standing r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2278. R1

948. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANTA/N. Goat standing r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2278. R1

Hemidrachm (c. 1.95g)

949. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANTA/N. Goat standing r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth century BC. SNG von Aulock 1492. R2

Obol (c. 0.64g)

950. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANTA/N. Goat standing r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth century BC. SNG von Aulock 1492. R1

Hemiobols (0.32g)

951. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. A–N. Lion head facing. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 427–410 BC. Babelon II, no. 2276. R2

952. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANT. Astragalos. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 427–410 BC. Nomos, Obolos 24, lot 142. R2

silver (persiC standard)

Stater or Double Siglos (c. 11.1g)

953. Obv. Lion forepart leaping r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Goat standing r. Fir tree to r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck fifth century BC. Babelon II, 2275. R3

Drachm or Half Siglos (c. 2.8g)

954. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANT/AN Goat standing r., raising foreleg. Fir tree to r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, 2277. R1

Hemidrachm or Quarter Siglos (c. 1.4g)

955. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANTA/N. Goat standing r. GraPe bunCh above. All within incuse square. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2281. R1

Obol or Sixth Siglos (c. 0.93g)

956. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANTAN. Lion head facing 3/4 r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck fourth century BC. SNG von Aulock 7582. R2

silver (reduCed CHian standard)

Drachm (c. 3.2g)

957. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANT/AN. Goat standing r. Fir tree to r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fourth century BC. Babelon II, 2282. R2

Denomination B (17–18mm, 5.69–11.67g)

958. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ANTAN. Lion head r. GraPe bunCh below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 33, nos. 3–5. S

Denomination C (13–15mm, 3.35–3.93g)

959. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ANTAN. Lion head r. GraPe bunCh or iVy leaf below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 33, nos. 6–7. S

Denomination D (10–15mm, 0.86–2.62g)

960. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ANTAN. Lion head r. Symbol (CornuCoPia, GraPe bunCh, or TriPod) above, below or to r. (if any). Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 34, no. 8. S

961. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ANTAN. Lion head facing 3/4 r. GraPe bunCh below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen, (Troas), no. 217. R1

Denomination E (7–9mm, 0.55–0.84g)

962. Obv. Female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair. Rev. ANTAN. Lion head r. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG Ashmolean 1045 (Apollo). R1

History

The the city of Assos, situated on the Gulf of Adramytion, is variously treated as belonging to the region of Mysia or Troas by ancient authorities. It was founded in the tenth century BC by Aiolian Greek colonists from Methymna or Mitylene, probably on the site of an original settlement of the Lelegians (a preGreek people of western Anatolia). Assos possessed an extensive agricultural hinterland that enjoyed some fame for the quality of its wheat, and may have included the dependent cities of Gargara and Lamponeion. The city had access to the Aegean Sea through a protected harbor and exported a local limestone (lapis Assius) used for sarcophagi. The urban area was defended by a circuit wall and a fortified akropolis, which also contained a temple dedicated to Athena Polias. Other public amenities of Assos included an agora (marketplace), stoas (porticos) a bouleuterion (council chamber), and a theater.

In the seventh and early sixth centuries BC, Assos was part of the Lydian empire, which spanned most of western Anatolia. However, following the defeat of the Lydian king Croesus in 547/6 BC, Assos was absorbed into the expanding Achaemenid Persian empire of the Great King, Cyrus II. The city remained under Persian domination until the early 460s BC, when the Athenian-led Delian League ended Achaemenid authority in western Anatolia.

By 454/3 BC, Assos was a tributary member of the Delian League, which had become the core of an Athenian empire. The city continued to pay tribute to Athens until 426/5 BC, during the early phase of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, and probably also in 410/09 BC, in the aftermath of the Athenian victory at the Battle of Kyzikos. Nevertheless, the final defeat of Athens in 404 BC, brought an end to Athenian influence in Assos. The city subsequently remained firmly under Spartan hegemony until the outbreak of the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes.

In 394 BC, Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia, in support of Athens defeated the Spartan fleet off Knidos and terminated Spartan control of most of the Greek cities in Mysia and Troas. Under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War, these cities were recognized as possessions of the Persian empire.

Around 360 BC, Assos and the Mysian city of Atarneus were given to the Bithynian banker, Euboulos, as surety for a loan made to a Persian satrap (presumably Artabazos, who governed Hellespontine Phrygia). Euboulos ruled as tyrant of both Assos and Atarneus, but made his primary seat at the latter. Euboulos was succeeded in the tyranny by his freed slave, Hermias, after he died in c. 355 BC. Although he still ruled over both cities, Hermias appears to have resided at Assos between 348 and 345 BC. During this period, he welcomed a visit from the famous Peripatetic philosopher, Aristotle, whom the tyrant had previously met in Athens while receiving an education at Plato’s Academy.

Aristotle had come to Assos as an envoy from Macedonian king, Philip II, who hoped to use Atarneus and Assos as a base for his planned invasion of the Persian empire. Hermias accepted Philip’s proposal, but received no Macedonian aid in 341 BC, when he was attacked by the Greek mercenary commander, Mentor of Rhodes, who had been given command of the Asiatic coast of the Persian

empire. Assos and Atarneus were both captured and Hermias was tortured to death in a vain attempt to extract information about the coming invasion.

It began with an advance Macedonian force of 10,000 men in 336 BC, which Mentor’s brother and successor, Memnon of Rhodes, managed to push back. However, when Alexander the Great arrived with his full army in 334 BC, he inflicted a major defeat on Memnon and the other western satraps at the Battle of the Granikos River and could not be prevented from embarking on his conquest of the Persian empire. Assos subsequently belonged to the rapidly expanding Mecedonian empire.

After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, Assos and the rest of Troas successively fell under the influence of Alexander’s former generals, Antigonos Monophthalmos (from 311 BC), Lysimachos (from 301 BC), and Seleukos I Nikator (in 281 BC). In the third and second centuries BC, Assos belonged first to the Seleukid empire and then to the Attalid kingdom. In 133 BC, the entirety of the kingdom was bequeathed by its last king, Attalos III, to the Roman people, and it became the new Roman province of Asia.

Assos appears to have enjoyed some prosperity under the Roman emperors of the first and second centuries AD, but the city later fell into decline.

Coinage

No gold coinage has been attributed to Assos, but the city produced its first silver coinage probably beginning at the end of the sixth century BC. This appears to have consisted of hektai or 1/12 staters struck to the Euboic standard (c. 17.2g to the stater). The silver fractions, which feature a crouching griffin on the obverse and an incuse square on the reverse, have previously been attributed to the Ionian city of Teos, but it has been argued recently that their style is more appropriate to Assos.

In the early fifth century BC, Assos adopted a regional standard based on a drachm of c. 3.8g, which has been tentatively described as a ‘Troad’ standard. The city struck drachms and fractions to this weight standard in the early fifth century BC. All of the coins feature the crouching griffin badge of the city on the obverse, except for one emission of obols which depicts only he head of the mythical beast. The standard reverse type depicts the head of a lion within an incuse square.

By the late fifth century BC, the so-called ‘Troad’ standard was abandoned in favor of the Persic standard based on the siglos of 5.6g. New drachms and hemidrachms (half and quarter sigloi) carried the helmeted head of Athena on the obverse while continuing the reverse lion head within an incuse square from the preceding ‘Troad’-weight coinage.

A remarkable issue of tetradrachms, now known from a single example, was struck to the Chian weight standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) in c. 400 BC, perhaps in connection with developing Spartan influence in Troas. This features a head of Athena on the obverse similar to that found on the Persic-weight silver, but her helmet on the tetradrachm is very ornate. The reverse depicts the archaic cult statue of Athena Ilias, suggesting that at the close of the fifth and the opening of the fourth century BC Assos had control of the sanctuary of the goddess. It is unclear whether the type can be used as evidence for the possible existence of the koinon of Athena Ilias in Troas before the end of the fourth century BC.

The subsequent silver coinage of Assos in the fourth century BC reverted to the Persic standard and involved drachms and hemidrachms pairing the head of Athena with the facing head of a bull. After these issues, no further silver coinage

was produced at Assos except for several emissions of tetradrachms in the third and second centuries BC. These were struck to the Attic weight standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) and reproduced the head of Herakles and enthroned Zeus types popularized by Alexander the Great.

The first bronze coinage attributed to Assos, which consisted entirely of bronze denomination E, may have been struck late in the fifth century BC. It features the same griffin and lion head iconography as the immediately preceding ‘Troad’weight silver.

The early emission of denomination E was followed in the late fourth century by an issue of bronze denomination D that pairs the head of Athena with the facing head of a bull. This typology is clearly derived from the contemporary Persicweight silver, but also suggests a relationship with Lamponeia, a city that employed a similar bull’s head reverse type for denomination D in the same period.

At the end of the fourth and continuing into the third century BC, the city struck a coinage of three denominations (B, C and D) featuring the head of Athena already familiar from the earlier Persic-weight silver coinages on the obverse and the griffin badge of the city on the reverse. One series of denomination B is notable for its use of a three-quarter facing head of Athena, rather than the usual profile head, and for an advancing, rather than a crouching griffin.

With the exception of the silver coinage struck before c. 479 BC, which is anepigraphic, the silver and bronze coinage of Assos regularly carries full or abbreviated Greek legends naming “the Assians” as the issuing authority. Notable are issues of the late fifth century BC that give the ethnic as “Assoans” or employ the archaic letter sampi () to represent double sigma.

The Attic-weight tetradrachms with the types of Alexander the Great falsely name “Alexander” as the issuing authority as a matter of course. However, the mint city is identified by the presence of a griffin in the left field.

silver (euboiC standard)

Hemihekton or 1/12 Stater (c. 1.43g)

963. Obv. Eagle-griffin at bay r. Anepigraphic. Rev. Irregular incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 520–510 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 1. R2

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Drachm (c. 3.8g)

964. Obv. Eagle-griffin at bay l. Rev. Anepigraphic. Lion head r. within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 3a. R1

Hemidrachm (c. 1.9g)

965. Obv. Eagle-griffin at bay r. Rev. Lion head r. within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Anepigraphic. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 3b. R1

Obols (c. 0.6g)

966. Obv. Eagle-griffin head r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Lion head l. within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 3c. R2

967. Obv. Eagle-griffin leaping r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Lion head r. within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 479–440 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 4a. S

968. Obv. Eagle-griffin leaping r. Rev. ASS or ASSooN. Lion head r. within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Anepigraphic. Struck c. 479–440 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 4c. S

Hemiobols (c. 0.3g)

969. Obv. Eagle-griffin recumbent r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Lion head r. within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG Arikantürk 281–297. R1

970. Obv. Eagle-griffin at bay r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Lion head r. within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 479–440 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 4b. R2

silver (persiC standard)

Drachms or Half Sigloi (c. 2.9g)

971. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. AS/So/oN. Lion head l. within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 430–420 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 7a. R1

972. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. AS/SI/oN. Bull head facing. GraPe bunCh or ThunderbolT to l. or r. (if any). Struck c. 380–340 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 13a. R1

Hemidrachms or Quarter Sigloi (c. 1.45g)

973

974

973. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. AS/So/oN or AS/SI/oN. Lion head l. within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 430–420 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 7b–c. R1

974. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. AS/SI. Bull head facing. Grain ear to r. Struck c. 380–340 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 13b. R1

Obols or 1/12 Siglos (c. 0.41g)

975. Obv. Female head l. Rev. A, Ao or ASS/ooN (if any). Eagle-griffin head and neck r. iVy leaf to r. (if any). All within incuse square. Struck c. 430–410 BC. Lazzarini 2017, figs. 8–11. R2

silver (CHian standard)

Tetradrachm (14.95g)

976. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. ASSIoN. Cult statue of Athena Ilias standing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff. Struck c. 350–340 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 12. R3

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

977. Obv. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Griffin to l. Struck c. 210–200 BC. Price 1599. S

978. Obv. Head of young Herakles in lion skin headdress r. Rev. ALEXANDRoU. Zeus enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter. Griffin to l. Monogram and/or symbol (buCranium, GraPe bunCh, iVy leaf, STar, ThunderbolT, or winG) to l., beneath throne, or in exergue. oRWTToU in exergue (if any). Struck c. 188–160 BC. Price 1600–1610. S

bronze

Denomination B (19–22mm, 6.60–9.32g)

979. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ASSI. Eagle-griffin recumbent l., raising forepaw. Symbol (bee, CaduCeuS, dolPhin, Plow, SPearhead, ThunderbolT, TriPod, or ThyrSoS) in exergue (if any). Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2314. S

980. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet facing 3/4 r. Rev. ASSI. Eagle-griffin leaping l. STar to l. and helmeTed head below. Struck third century BC. BMC Troas, p. 38, no. 23. R1

Denomination C (15–17mm, 2.72–4.41g)

981. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ASSI. Eagle-griffin recumbent l., raising forepaw. Symbol (bull head, branCh, eaGle, GraPe bunCh, ThunderbolT, Vine leaf, or winG) in exergue (if any). Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, nos. 2315–2316. S

Denomination D (9–13mm, 0.88–1.97g)

982. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. or r. Rev. AS–SI. Bull head facing. Symbol(s) (CaduCeuS, iVy leaf, kanTharoS, lion head) above and/or below (if any). Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, 2310–2311. S

983. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. or r. Rev. ASSI. Griffin crouching l. Symbol (Grain ear, Palm branCh or ThunderbolT) in exergue (if any). Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, 2317–2318. S

Denomination E (8mm, 0.68g)

984. Obv. Eagle-griffin recumbent r., raising forepaw. Rev. Lion head r. Anepigraphic. Struck c. 420 BC. Lazzarini 2017, fig. 6. R1

biryTiS

History

Little is known about the city of Birytis beyond that it was situated in Troas and struck coins in the late fourth century BC. The mention of “Berysians” in the Athenian tribute lists between 454/3 and 446/5 BC has led to the suggestion that Birytis might have been a tributary member of the Athenian-led Delian League in this period, but elsewhere the inhabitants of Birytis are described as “Berytites.”

Coinage

Birytis struck a fractional silver coinage on the Persic standard (c. 5.35g to the siglos) in the fourth century BC. This consists of obols or 1/12 sigloi featuring the three-quarter facing head of Herakles on the obverse and the head of a young Kabeiros on the reverse.

This rare silver emission was supplemented or replaced by a bronze coinage of two denominations (B and D) in the late fourth or early third century BC. What appears to be the earliest series involves only the smallest of the two denominations. A bearded Kabeiros is depicted on the obverse while a triskeles formed of crescents makes up the reverse design. A similar reverse type occurs at Rhoiteion in Troas, Thebe in Mysia, and Megara in mainland Greece (see the Handbook of Coins of Central Greece, no. 1787) in the same period.

A later series of denominations B and D feature the head of a young or bearded Kabeiros on the obverse and the club of Herakles within an olive wreath on the reverse.

Although the silver coinage of Birytis is anepigraphic, the bronze regularly carries an abbreviated Greek legend, but it is unclear whether it represents only the name of the city or identifies the issuing authority through he use of a city ethnic.

silver (persiC standard)

Obol or 1/12 Siglos (c. 0.46g)

985. Obv. Head of Herakles facing 3/4 r., club over shoulder. Rev. Anepigraphic. Head of Kabeiros l., wearing pileus flanked by stars. aSTraGaloS(?) to r. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2476. R2

bronze

Denomination B (17–19mm, 4.99–6.18g)

986. Obv. Head of Kabeiros l., wearing pileus Rev. B–I/R–U. Club. All within olive wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2481. C

987. Obv. Bearded head of Kabeiros l., wearing pileus Rev. B–I/R–U. Club. All within olive wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2482. S

Denomination D (10–12mm, 0.89–1.7g)

988. Obv. Bearded head of Kabeiros r., wearing pileus. Rev. BI or B–I/UR. Triskeles of crescents. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, nos. 2477–2478. C

989. Obv. Head of Kabeiros l., wearing pileus. Rev. B–I/R–U. Club. All within olive wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2479. S

990. Obv. Bearded head of Kabeiros l., wearing pileus flanked by stars. Rev. B–I/R–U. Club. All within olive wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2480. S

dardanoS

History

According to Greek mythological tradition, Dardanos, a son of Zeus and Elektra, originally reigned as king in Arkadia. However, a great flood that destroyed many of his people caused him to lead a group of survivors first to Samothrace and then to Troas, where they finally settled. In Troas, Dardanos married the daughter of King Teukros (the ancestor of the Trojan people) and was granted lands of his own in the environs of Mount Ida. Here he founded a city and called it after himself. Although the appearance of the historical city in antiquity is obscure, it is clear that Dardanos was absorbed into the expanding Achaemenid Persian empire following the victory of the Great King Cyrus I, over King Croesus and his Lydian empire in 547/6 BC. The city seems to have chafed under Persian domination and later joined with other Greek cities in the disastrous Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against Great King Dareios I. Dardanos’ rebellion was swiftly punished in 497 BC, when Daurises, a son-in-law of Dareios I, marched on Troas and sacked the city.

Considering this treatment, it is not surprising that in the aftermath of the Greek defeat of the Persian invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC) and the destruction of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC), Dardanos joined the Delian League. This Athenian-led alliance was originally formed to defend members against future Persian aggression, but over time became the basis for an Athenian empire. Between 451/0 and 425/4 BC, Dardanos paid an annual tribute of one talent in coin to Athens. In 411 BC, late in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, a Spartan-allied naval squadron was driven ashore before Dardanos. When the Spartan fleet sailed from Abydos to rescue the beached ships, it suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Athenians.

In the last quarter of the fifth century BC, the city seems to have been ruled by Zenis, a local dynast who served as satrap (governor) of Aiolis under Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. When Zenis fell ill and died, his wife, Mania, succeeded him in power at Dardanos. Thanks to her skillful negotiation and liberal distribution of gifts, Mania was recognized by Pharnabazos as the new satrap of Aiolis, despite the usual custom of granting satrapal posts only to men. She proved to be just as reliable to the Persian satrap as her husband had been and supported him in many campaigns. Unfortunately, Mania’s son-in-law, Meidias, grew jealous of her power and in 399 BC strangled her in order to take it for himself. The unpopular Meidias was subsequently removed by Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos, at which time Dardanos probably also fell under Spartan hegemony.

In 387 BC, Dardanos and the other Greek cities of western Anatolia were officially restored to Persian control under the terms of the King’s Peace that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes. The city remained under Persian influence until Alexander the Great began his conquest of the Persian empire in 334 BC, although it may have revolted already in favor of Macedon during the preparations for the invasion made by the Macedonian general Parmenion in 336 BC.

The history of Dardanos after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC is very obscure, although it is certain that the city and the rest of Troas was successively under the influence of his former generals-turned-kings, Antigonos Monophtalmos, Lysimachos (from 301 BC), and Seleukos I Nikator (in 281 BC). Dardanos remained part of the Seleukid empire for much of the third century BC,

but probably fell under the influence of King Attalos I of Pergamon between 228 and 222 BC.

At some point in the third century BC Dardanos became a dependency of Abydos. However, the city received back its freedom from the Roman consul, Cn. Manlius Vulso, during the implementation of the Peace of Apameia (188 BC) that formally ended the Aitolian War (192–189 BC) between the Romans and the Seleukid king, Antiochos III. This boon was granted to Dardanos due to the association of the city with the ancestor of the Trojan people, from whom the Romans also claimed descent.

Dardanos was included in the Roman province of Asia created in 129 BC from the territories of the Attalid kingdom that were bequeathed to the Roman people by the last king, Attalos III, in 133 BC. In 85 BC, Dardanos became important in the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC) that saw much of Asia revolt against the Romans under the leadership of the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator. At Dardanos, the victorious Roman consul, L. Cornelius Sulla, met with the king to negotiate the end of the bloody conflict. After the signing of the Treaty of Dardanos little further is heard of the city, but it is clear that it continued to exist under the Roman emperors and later became a Byzantine bishopric.

Coinage

It has been long believed that electrum staters on the Milesian standard (c. 14.1g to the stater) were struck by Dardanos in the context of the Ionian Revolt. These feature a cock on the obverse and a quadripartite incuse punch design on the reverse. However, a recent study of the so-called Ionian Revolt coinage has shown that the coinage probably dates to the end of the sixth century BC, rather than to the period of the Ionian Revolt, and that it most likely originated in a single workshop—perhaps at Miletos.

Silver coinage began at Dardanos with production of silver fractions at the beginning of the fifth century BC. These were struck to an apparent regional standard based on a didrachm stater of c. 7.6g that has been tentatively described as a ‘Troad’ standard. The earliest issues were obols and hemiobols featuring a cock on the obverse and a quadripartite incuse square or cross-hatched design on the reverse. Only the head of the bird appears on the hemiobols.

A later series consisting of diobols, obols and hemiobols is much more sophisticated and was probably struck in the early fifth century BC. It pairs a cock (diobol and hemiobol) or a copulating cock and hen (obol) on the obverse with incuse reverse types depicting the head of a horse (diobol), the head of a lion (obol) or the head of a calf (hemiobol).

At the close of the fifth century BC, a new silver coinage of drachms and fractions was struck at Dardanos apparently based on a reduced Persic standard (c. 4.8g to the siglos or stater). The obverses of all denominations carry the cock badge of the city, although on triobols two are represented in a fighting attitude in order to easily distinguish the denomination from the obol. The reverses of staters, triobols and obols depict a female rider who is usually thought to represent Mania herself. Additional issues of obols and hemiobols seem to depict a male rider, but it is unclear whether this should be understood as a brief issue struck for Meidias after the murder of Mania.

In the fourth century BC, Dardanos struck drachms on the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) and fractions of full Persic weight (c. 5.6g to the siglos). Both series feature a horseman on the obverse and a cock on the reverse.

The Chian-weight drachms are easily distinguished by the incuse square that encloses the design.

The horseman type is notable for the depiction of the rider with his hand raised in a gesture of greeting and especially for his headgear. Although his hat is often described as a petasos, it seems possible that it is really a Macedonian kausia and that the entire type reflects the influence of the remarkably similar tetradrachms struck by the Macedonian king, Philip II, in the 350s BC (see the Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors, Part I, nos. 858–861). If the Dardanian type is indeed inspired by the coinage of Philip II, it might suggest that Dardanos was a city that had already declared for the Macedonians in 336 BC, when Parmenion was preparing the bridgehead for the full-scale invasion of the Persian empire. The Chian-and Persic-weight horseman series marks the end of silver coin production at Dardanos.

A bronze coinage of denomination E may have been introduced at Dardanos at the end of the fifth or the beginning of the fourth century BC. This carries the cock civic emblem on the obverse and an abbreviated Greek legend on the reverse. Following this emission there seems to have been no further bronze coinage struck at the city until the late fourth or early third century BC.

When bronze coin production resumed, perhaps due to the end of silver coinage at the city, Dardanos struck denominations B and D featuring the same horseman and cock types as the Persic-weight silver. Denomination C may have been introduced in the third or second century BC. It is distinguished from the larger and smaller denominations by its depiction of the horseman charging with a couched spear, rather than raising his arm, and by the representation of the cock in a fighting attitude.

Probably beginning in the late second century BC, a new bronze coinage of four denominations (B, C, D and E) was struck that sometimes diverges from established Dardanian iconography for the larger denominations. Denomination B pairs the head of Zeus with a representation of the king of the gods in the form of an eagle abducting Ganymede to be his cup-bearer on Mount Olympos. The reverse type alludes to the mythological tradition that the beautiful youth Ganymede was a descendant of the hero Dardanos.

Two series of denomination C were produced. One pairs the three-quarter facing head of Apollo with a horseman charging with a couched spear while the other resurrects the third-century BC types of the horseman with raised arm and a standing cock. Denomination D, however, employs the charging horseman on the obverse and restores the fighting cock type of the third century BC on the reverse. Denomination E also features the charging horseman on the obverse, but on the reverse reverts to the old standing cock type.

The fifth century coinage of Dardanos is anepigraphic and its attribution to the city hinges largely on the use of the cock type. Later coinages commonly carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Dardanians” as the issuing authority. The abbreviation normally consists of three letters through the third century BC, but later lengthens to four in the second century BC.

The drachms and fractions associated with Mania frequently also bear the Greek monogram B that is thought to abbreviate the name of her dead husband, Zenis. The Chian- and Persic-weight silver, as well as some bronze issues of the late second or early first century BC, are notable for the addition of the names of magistrates or other individuals responsible for the coinage.

eleCtrum (milesian standard)

Stater (c. 14.1g)

991. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock standing r. PalmeTTe above. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 520–510 BC. Attribution dubious. Babelon I, no. 374. R2

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Diobols (c. 1.3g)

992. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock standing r. Rev. Incuse horse head l. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. CNG EA 460, lot 240. R2

Obols (c. 0.6g)

993. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock standing r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. CNG EA 385, lot 198. R2

994. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock standing l. Rev. Cross-hatch design. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG Ashmolean 1119. R2

995. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock standing l. on back of hen standing l. Rev. Incuse lion head l. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 480–450 BC. CNG 90, lot 575. R2

Hemiobols (c. 0.3g)

996. Obv. Anepigraphic. Head of cock r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Numismatik Naumann 50, lot 170. R2

997. Obv. Anepigraphic. Cock standing l. Rev. Incuse calf head l. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 480–450 BC. SNG München 173. R2

silver (reduCed persiC standard)

Stater or Siglos (4.86g)

998. Obv. Female rider (Mania?) on horse prancing l. Rev. DAR. Cock standing l. B above. All within incuse square. Struck c. 413–399 BC. Babelon II, no. 2426. R2

Triobol or Sixth Siglos (1.06g)

999. Obv. Female rider (Mania?) on horse prancing l. Rev. DAR. Two cocks confronted in fighting attitude. B to l. All within incuse square. Struck c. 413–399 BC. Babelon II, no. 2427. R3

Obols or 1/12 Sigloi (c. 0.7g)

1000. Obv. Female rider (Mania?) on horse prancing l. Rev. Anepigraphic. Cock standing l. B to r. All within incuse square. Struck c. 413–399 BC. SNG Ashmolean 1120. R2

1001. Obv. Male(?) rider on horse prancing l. Rev. Anepigraphic. Cock advancing l. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2428 (Mania). R2

Hemiobol or 1/24 Siglos (c. 0.4g)

1002. Obv. D. Male(?) rider on horse prancing l. Rev. Cock standing l., head reverted. PelleT to l. and r. All within incuse square. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 283. R2

silver (CHian standard)

Drachm (3.57g)

1003. Obv. Horseman, wearing kausia, charging r. on horseback, raising arm. Rev. DAR. Cock standing r. Club and TIQWNoS to r. All within incuse square. Struck c. 336 BC. Roma E-Sale 60, lot 224. R3

silver (persiC standard)

Drachms or Half Sigloi (c. 2.6g)

1004. Obv. Horseman, wearing kausia, charging r. on horseback, raising arm. TridenT below (if any). Rev. DAR. Cock standing r. Magistrate name (GLAUKETHS, EpI LEpTWNoS, or EpI TIWNAKToS) to r. aThena PromaChoS or Grain ear to r. (if any). Struck c. 336–330 BC. Babelon II, nos. 2429–2432. R2

bronze

Denomination B (17–20mm, 6.31–9.30g)

1005. Obv. Horseman, wearing kausia, charging r. on horseback, raising arm. Rev. DAR. Cock standing r. Symbol (aThena PromaChoS, bow or CoCk) to l. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, nos. 2434–2435. R1

1006. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. DAR–DA. Eagle with spread wings r., abducting Ganymede. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. R1

Denomination C (15–17mm, 3.08–4.06g)

1007. Obv. Horseman, wearing kausia, charging r. on horseback, with couched spear. Rev. DAR. Cock standing r. in fighting attitude. Grain ear or ThunderbolT below (if any). Struck third–second centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 50, nos. 18–22. R1

1008. Obv. Laureate bust of Apollo facing 3/4 r. TriPod to r. Rev. DAR. Horseman charging r. on horseback, with couched spear. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second century BC. R1

1009. Obv. Horseman charging r. on horseback, raising arm. ILoKRA and owl below (if any). Rev. DARDA. Cock standing r. Monogram to r. (if any). Symbol (aThena PromaChoS, owl or ThunderbolT) to r. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. BMC Troas, pp. 48–49, nos. 5–7. R1

Denomination D (10–14mm, 1.13–2.86g)

1010. Obv. Horseman, wearing kausia, charging r. on horseback, raising arm. Rev. DAR or DA–R. Cock standing r. Symbol (barleyCorn, SPearhead, STar, TorCh, or wreaTh) to l. (if any). Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 49, nos. 8–10. R1

1011. Obv. Horseman charging r. on horseback, raising arm. Rev. DAR. Cock standing l. SPearhead to r. (if any). Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 295–296. R1

1012. Obv. Horseman charging r. on horseback, with couched spear. Monogram below (if any). Rev. DARDA. Cock standing r. in fighting attitude. Grain ear below. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 289. R1

1013. Obv. Horseman, wearing kausia, charging r. on horseback, with couched spear. DEI below. Rev. DARDA. Cock standing l. in fighting attitude. Grain ear below. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 295–296. R1

Denomination D/E (9–10mm, 1.13–2.86g)

1014. Obv. Cock standing l. Rev. D–A–R. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth early fourth centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 49, no. 17. R1

1015. Obv. Horseman, wearing kausia, charging r. on horseback, raising arm. Rev. DAR or DA–R. Cock standing r. Symbol (barleyCorn, SPearhead, STar, TorCh, or wreaTh) to l. (if any). Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 49, nos. 8–10. R1

1016. Obv. Horseman charging right on horseback, with couched spear. Monogram below. Rev. DAR. Cock standing r. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 289. R1

GarGara

History

Gargara was founded on the site of an original settlement of the Lelegians (a preGreek people of western Anatolia) by Aiolian Greek colonists from Assos at an uncertain date in the Archaic period. The city was strongly defended by circuit walls, a fortified akropolis and by its location atop a peak of Mount Ida. A temple dedicated to Zeus was contained within the akropolis.

At some point the city moved from its mountainous site to a new coastal location on the Gulf of Adramyttion, but it is unclear whether this took place before the fifth century BC or later, in the Hellenistic period. Following this relocation, the original site of the city came to be known as Palaigargaros (Old Gargaros).

The political history of Gargara is very obscure. However, it is certain that in the aftermath of the Greek victory over the Persian army at the Battle of Plataia and the destruction of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mykale in 479 BC, Gargara became a member of the Delian League. This Athenian-led alliance was intended to defend member cities against future Persian aggression, but gradually evolved into the core of an Athenian empire. By 452/1 BC, Gargara was paying an annual tribute of 4,500 drachms to Athens and continued to do so at least until 428/7 BC. The city was assessed for Athenian tribute one final time in 410/09 BC, late in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) fought between Athens and Sparta.

After this conflict, Gargara is rarely mentioned in the ancient textual sources, although it is certain that the city was officially recognized as a Persian possession under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes. It is equally clear that Gargara was absorbed with the rest of Troas into the Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great following his victory over the western Persian satraps (governors) at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC).

By c. 306 BC, Gargara had become a member of the Koinon of Athena Ilias, organized to support the sanctuary of the goddess at Ilion, but nothing else is known of the city under Alexander’s successors in Troas, Antigonos Monophthalmos, Lysimachos and Seleukos I. The city belonged to the Seleukid empire for much of the third century BC but was included in the territories granted to King Eumenes II of Pergamon under the terms of the Peace of Apameia (188 BC). This settlement was imposed on the Seleukid king, Antiochos III, following his defeat by the Romans in the Aitolian War (192–189 BC).

At some point in the Hellenistic period, Gargara is said to have received colonists from Miletopolis in Mysia through the intervention of unnamed kings. It is suspected that this episode may have taken place during an invasion of the Attalid kingdom by the Bithynian king, Prousias II, in 156–154 BC. These newcomers reportedly diluted the traditional Aiolic character of the city.

In 129 BC, Gargara was incorporated into the new Roman province of Asia that was formed from the lands of the Attalid kingdom bequeathed to the Roman people in 133 BC. The city was subsequently given the status of a customs house where taxes were collected on goods imported into the province.

It is unknown what involvement Gargara may have had in the Mithridatic Wars (89–63 BC) fought between the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator and the Romans or in the Roman civil wars of the first century BC. However, it is clear that the city continued to exist under the Roman emperors and later became a Byzantine bishopric.

Coinage

No electrum or gold coinage has been attributed to Gargara, but the city’s first silver coinage began production at the beginning of the fifth century BC. This coinage consisted entirely of obols based on a standard of c. 3.8g to the drachm, which has been tentatively described as a regional ‘Troad’ standard. The earliest obols feature a female head wearing a close-fitting cap on the obverse and a quadripartite incuse square on the reverse. A subsequent series of obols pairs the head of Apollo wearing a tainia with the head of a ram.

In the early fifth century BC, the so-called ‘Troad’ standard was abandoned in favor of the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos or stater) and a new coinage of drachms (half sigloi) and fractions was produced depicting a male head, probably intended to represent Apollo, on the obverse. On obols, this head wears a tainia as on the earlier ‘Troad’-weight issue. Denominations are distinguished by different reverse types set with an incuse square. Drachms carry a grazing bull, hemidrachms a galloping horse, and obols a wheel.

The Persic standard remained in vogue at Gargara in the fourth century BC, when the city struck its last silver coinage, consisting of drachms and obols. Both denominations feature the laureate head of Apollo on the obverse. The new drachms follow the pattern of the late fifth century BC and depict a grazing bull on the reverse, but without the incuse square enclosing the type. The obols of the fourth century BC take their iconographic cue from the ‘Troad’-weight obols of the early fifth century BC by featuring the head of a ram on the reverse, again without the surrounding incuse square.

A bronze coinage involving only denomination E was probably introduced in the late fifth or early fourth century BC. This closely follows the types used for ‘Troad’-weight silver obols, but on the bronze coins the male head is depicted without a tainia to clearly identify it as that of Apollo.

No further bronze coinage seems to have been struck at Gargara until the late fourth or early third century BC, when the city produced a coinage of four denominations (B, C, D and E). All denominations depict the laureate head of Apollo on the obverse and a galloping horse—a type derived from the Persicweight hemidrachms of the late fifth century BC.

A bronze coinage involving denominations C and D was also struck in the late second or early first century BC. Denomination C, taking its inspiration from the earlier bronze issues, features the head of Apollo on the obverse and a standing horse on the reverse. In contrast, denomination D carries new types. On one emission, the turreted head of Kybele appears on the obverse while her lion prowls on the reverse. Another issue depicts the bust of Hermes on the obverse and a standing horse on the reverse.

All coins of Gargara carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Gargareans” as the issuing authority.

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Obols (c. 0.6g)

1017. Obv. GAR. Female head l., wearing close-fitting cap. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. SNG Arikantürk 481. R2

1018. Obv. Head of Apollo r., wearing tainia Rev. GAR. Ram head r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, no. 2283. R2

silver (persiC standard)

Drachms or Half Sigloi (c. 2.96g)

1019. Obv. Bare male head (Apollo?) r. Rev. GARG. Bull grazing l. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, no. 2288. R2

1020. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GARG. Bull grazing l. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2289. R2

Hemidrachms or Quarter Sigloi (c. 1.44g)

1021. Obv. Bare male head (Apollo?) r. Rev. GAR. Horse galloping r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, no. 2287. R2

Obols or 1/12 Sigloi (c. 0.4g)

1022. Obv. Head of Apollo r., wearing tainia. Rev. G–A–R–G. Four-spoked wheel. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, no. 22 84. R2

1023. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. GAR. Ram head r. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2285. R2

1022

1023

Denomination B (19–20mm, 7.04–9.05g)

1024. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GAR. Horse rearing r. GraPe bunCh below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 316. S

Denomination C (16–18mm, 3.31–5.37g)

1025. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GAR. Horse rearing r. Symbol (CaduCeuS, Club, GraPe bunCh, iVy leaf, laurel branCh, or TorCh) below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 317–320 and 322. S

1026. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GAR. Horse standing l., raising leg. No symbols or monograms. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 332. R2

Denomination D (10–13mm, 1.15–2.27g)

1027. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GAR. Horse rearing r. Symbol (CaduCeuS, Club or wreaTh below (if any). below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2290. S

1028. Obv. Turreted head of Kybele r. Rev. GaR. Lion standing r., head reverted. Struck late second–early first centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 333. R3

1029. Obv. Bust of Hermes r., wearing petasos, caduceus over shoulder. Rev. GAR. Horse standing r. Struck first century BC. Roma E-Sale 58, lot 229. R2

Denomination E (6–9mm, 0.47–0.90g)

1030. Obv. Male head (Apollo?) l. Rev. GAR. Ram head l. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Künker 133, lot 7509. R2

1031. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. GAR. Horse galloping r. Symbol (GraPe bunCh, iVy leaf, or STar) below. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2290. S

GenTinoS

History

According to one Greek mythological tradition, the small city of Gentinos was originally founded by Trojan hero, Aeneas. The circumstances under which the historical city was settled are unknown but archaeological remains show that by the fourth century BC, Gentinos was defended by a fortified akropolis and possessed an agora (marketplace) as well as a temple.

Like the other cities of Troas, Gentinos was incorporated in the Achaemenid Persian empire following the defeat of King Croesos and the fall of the Lydian kingdom in 547/6 BC. It is unknown whether the city participated in the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) of Greek cities against the Persian Great King, Dareios I. However, it is certain that in the aftermath of the failed Persian invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC) and the Greek destruction of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC) Gentinos became a member of the Delian League. Although the Delian League was originally established to defend its members against future Persian aggression, under Athenian leadership it gradually evolved into the core of an Athenian empire. Between 452/1 and 444/3 BC Gentinos paid an annual tribute of 500 drachms to Athens and may have done so again in 425/4 BC, however, the city seems to have been largely free from involvement in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta.

It is not clear to what degree Gentinos might have fallen under Spartan hegemony after the Athenian defeat in that conflict, but the city was certainly a possession of the Persian empire after 387 BC. The terms of the King’s Peace that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes explicitly recognized all Greek cities of western Anatolia as subjects of the Great Kings. However, once Alexander the Great defeated the western Persian satraps (governors) at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC), Gentinos and the remainder of Troas were absorbed into his expanding Macedonian empire.

What became of Gentinos in the Hellenistic and early Roman periods is completely unknown.

Coinage

No precious metal coinage has been attributed to Gentinos, but the city struck a bronze coinage of four denominations (B, C, D and D/E) in the fourth century BC. Denominations B and C feature the head of Apollo on the obverse and a bee within a laurel wreath on the reverse. Denomination D pairs a female head with a bee and a palm tree while denomination D/E depicts a turreted female head on the obverse and a bee with a laurel spray on the reverse.

As the bee was an insect closely associated with the goddess Artemis, the sister of Apollo who appears on denominations B and C, these female heads on denominations D and D/E are frequently identified as Artemis and Artemis-Tyche, respectively. The bee as a symbol of Artemis on the coinage of Gentinos is further underlined by the addition of a small palm tree or a laurel spray to the bee on the reverses of denominations C/D and D. In Greek mythology, Leto gave birth to the twin deities, Artemis and Apollo, beneath a palm tree on the island of Delos. Laurel was the plant associated with Apollo.

All coins of Gentinos carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Gentinians” as the issuing authority.

bronze

Denomination B (22mm, 8.52g)

1032. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. G–E/N–T. Bee. STar below (if any). All within laurel wreath. Struck fourth century BC. SNG von Aulock 7600. R1

Denomination C (14–16mm, 2.84–4.59g)

1033. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. G–E/N–T. Bee. STar below (if any). All within laurel wreath. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2486–2487. R1

Denomination D (12–14mm, 1.54–2.14g)

1034. Obv. Female head (Artemis?) r. Rev. G–E/N. Bee. Palm Tree to l. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2485. S

Denomination D/E (10–11mm, 0.95–1.37g)

1035. Obv. Turreted head of Artemis-Tyche r. Rev. G–E/N–T/I. Bee. oliVe SPray to r. All within linear square. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2484. S

GerGiS

History

Greek mythological tradition held that the fortified city of Gergis was founded by the Teukrians (ancestors of the Trojans) as they made their way to western Anatolia from Crete. However, unlike Hamaxitos, another Teukrian settlement in Troas, Gergis retained an indigenous non-Greek character well into the Classical period.

The city was defended by fortification walls and is known to have possessed temples dedicated to Apollo and Athena. The territory of Gergis was renowned for its inclusion of the dependent village of Marpessos, the birthplace the Hellespontine Sibyl, Herophile, in the sixth century BC. Her oracular utterances were written down and preserved in the temple of Apollo at Gergis. The Hellespontine Sibyl was so famous that prophecies attributed to Herophile continued to be read as late as the early Middle Ages.

Following the Persian conquest of the Lydian empire in 547/6 BC, Gergis was incorporated with the rest of Troas into the Achaemenid Persian empire of Cyrus II. In 480 BC, the grand army of the Persian Great King, Xerxes I, passed by the city on its way to begin the disastrous invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC).

There is no evidence to indicate that Gergis slipped free of Persian domination in the aftermath of the failed assault on Greece or that it had any involvement with the Delian League or the combatants in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). Instead, the city seems to have been ruled by local dynasts appointed by the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia.

In the late fourth century BC, Zenis of Dardanos, who had ruled as a subordinate satrap (governor) of Aiolis, fell ill and died. Although Pharnabazos, the incumbent satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, planned for another man to take his place, Mania, Zenis’ widow, convinced him to give her the opportunity to take up her husband’s post at Gergis. She showed herself to be an extremely loyal and useful ruler, protecting the city and expanding her power and that of Pharnabazos through successful military campaigns against neighboring cities and peoples. Unfortunately, in 399 BC, Mania was murdered by her jealous sonin-law, Meidias. He attempted to gain the goodwill of Pharnabazos by sending him gifts but did not receive the desired response. Instead, the outraged satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia told him to keep his presents since he would be coming to Gergis soon enough to collect both them and Meidias himself.

Fearful of Pharnabazos, Meidias entered into an alliance with Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos. However, after opening the gates of Gergis and revealing the treasury of Mania to Derkylidas, Meidias found himself cast out of the city and reduced to the status of a private citizen. The Spartans restored Gergis to Pharnabazos in 395 BC and the city was officially recognized as a Persian possession under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes.

The victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC) spelled the end of Persian domination over Gergis and the city became part of the growing Macedonian empire. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, it fell under the influence of his rival former generals, Antigonos Monophthalmos and Lysimachos. At last, in 281 BC, Gergis and the rest of Troas were incorporated into the empire of Seleukos I Nikator.

The city probably slipped from Seleukid control following the expulsion of the usurper, Antiochos Hierax, from western Anatolia in 228 BC. Around 218 BC, Gergis was destroyed by Attalos I Soter, the king of Pergamon. He subsequently removed the population to the mouth of the Kaïkos River where they inhabited a new city called Gergitha. This city fell under the influence of the Seleukid king, Antiochos III, in 196 BC, however, in the aftermath of his defeat by the Romans at the Battle of Magnesia (189 BC) he was forced to evacuate Anatolia north of the Tauros Mountains. During the Roman reorganization of western Anatolia in 188 BC, Gergitha was made a dependency of Ilion by the Roman consul, Cn. Manlius Vulso.

Coinage

No electrum or gold coinage has been attributed to Gergis, but a silver coinage was produced at the city in the mid-fifth century BC. This consists of several issues of tetrobols that seem to have been struck to a standard of c. 3.3g to the drachm—a slightly reduced version of the so-called ‘Troad’ standard (c. 3.6g to the drachm). The earliest issues feature a sphinx on the obverse and the head of Athena within an incuse square on the reverse. The final series of tetrobols, however, pairs the sphinx with a facing gorgoneion within an incuse circle.

At the end of the fifth century BC, Gergis adopted the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) for a new coinage involving triobols, obols and hemiobols. A three-quarter facing head of Apollo appears on the obverse of all three denominations. The larger two depict an eagle-griffin on the reverse while hemiobols reprise the sphinx of the earlier ‘Troad’-weight tetrobols. After these issues no further silver coinage was struck at Gergis.

A bronze coinage of denomination E featuring the same Apollo/sphinx types of the Chian-weight hemiobols was probably introduced in the late fifth or early fourth century BC. However, no additional bronze coinage appears to have been struck by the city until the late fourth century BC when the city produced issues of bronze denominations C and D featuring a three-quarter facing bust of the Sybil Herophile on the obverse and a seated sphinx on the reverse. In the third century BC, the system was expanded to include denomination B, while denomination D was redesigned to depict a double-bodied sphinx on the reverse.

Despite the relative obscurity of the city, the bronze coinage of Gergis seems not to have escaped the notice of the Romans. Its Herophile/sphinx types are believed to have inspired an emission of silver denarii in 46 BC. The interest of the types of Gergis to a Roman audience lay in the belief that the collected prophecies of Herophile were ultimately passed on to the Sibyl of Cumae in Italy. They were later purchased by L. Tarquinius Superbus, the last Etruscan king of Rome, and kept in the Capitoline temple of Jupiter for consultation in times of emergency.

All coins attributed to Gergis carry a full or abbreviated Greek legend naming “the Gergisians” as the issuing authority. On the reduced ‘Troad’-weight tetrobols only the initial of the city ethnic appears.

Roman Republican silver denarius of the moneyer, T. Carisius (Rome, 46 BC).

silver (reduCed ‘troad’ standard)

Tetrobols (c. 2.2g)

1036. Obv. Winged sphinx seated l., raising paw. Rev. G. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 470 BC. Lazzarini 2016, figs. 1a–1b. R2

1037. Obv. Winged sphinx seated r. Rev. G. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 460 BC. Lazzarini 2016, fig. 2. R2

1038. Obv. Winged sphinx seated r., raising paw. Rev. G. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 460–450 BC. Lazzarini 2016, fig. 3. R2

1039. Obv. Winged sphinx seated r. Rev. Facing gorgoneion within incuse circle. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 450–440 BC. Lazzarini 2016, fig. 4. R2

silver (CHian standard)

Triobol (1.94g)

1040. Obv. Head of Apollo facing 3/4 r. Rev. GER–G/I/S/I–o/N. Eagle-griffin standing r. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 410–400 BC. Triton XX, lot 249. R3

Obol (c. 0.65g)

1041. Obv. Head of Apollo facing 3/4 r. Rev. GER. Eagle-griffin standing r. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 410–400 BC. CNG EA 385, lot 201. R3

Hemiobol (c. 0.35g)

1042. Obv. Head of Apollo facing 3/4 r. Rev. GER. Winged sphinx seated r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 410–400 BC. Lazzarini 2016, fig. 5. R2

1036

1037

1038

Denomination B (19–21mm, 7.84–8.5g)

1043. Obv. Laureate bust of Sibyl Herophile facing 3/4 r. Rev. GER. Winged sphinx seated r. Monogram to l. CaduCeuS in exergue. Struck third century BC. Roma Numismatik Naumann 43, lot 333. R1

Denomination C (15–17mm, 3.36–4.86g)

1044. Obv. Laureate bust of Sibyl Herophile facing 3/4 r. Rev. GER. Winged sphinx seated r. A to l. (if any). Grain ear in exergue. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2395. S

1045. Obv. Laureate bust of Sibyl Herophile facing 3/4 r. Rev. GER. Winged sphinx seated r. Monogram to l. CaduCeuS in exergue. Struck third century BC. Gorny & Mosch 165, lot 1288. R1

Denomination D (11–14mm, 1.00–2.02g)

1046. Obv. Laureate bust of Sibyl Herophile facing 3/4 r. Rev. GER. Winged sphinx seated r. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2394. S

1047. Obv. Laureate bust of Sibyl Herophile facing 3/4 r. Rev. GER. Doublebodied, winged sphinx seated. No symbols or monograms. Struck third century BC. Numismatik Naumann 78, lot 161. R2

Denomination E (8–10mm, 0.78–0.93g)

1048. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo facing 3/4 r. Rev. GER. Winged sphinx seated r. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2393. S

1044

1045

1046

1047

hamaxiToS

History

According to Greek mythological tradition, Hamaxitos was originally founded by the Teukrians (ancestors of the Trojans) when they came to western Anatolia from Crete. They knew that the site of Hamaxitos was the right place to settle when their leather shields were gnawed to ruin by field mice over night, for previously an oracle of Apollo had advised them to found their city where they should be attacked by earth-born enemies in the night. Taking the mice to be the enemies mentioned in the oracle, the Teukrians founded Hamaxitos and built a temple dedicated to Apollo Smintheus (“Lord of Mice”).

The historical city may have been founded by Aiolian Greek colonists in the seventh century BC, but this is uncertain. Its territory included the important regional temple of Apollo Smintheus and may have included the salt pans at Tragasai.

Like the rest of Troas, Hamaxitos was absorbed into the Achaemenid Persian empire of the Great King, Cyrus I, following his conquest of the Lydian empire in 547/6 BC. The city later joined the Athenian-led Delian League in the aftermath of the failed Persian invasion of mainland Greece in 480–479 BC. This alliance was originally formed to defend the Greek cities against future Persian aggression, but soon formed the basis for an Athenian empire. Hamaxitos was a tributary member of the Delian League in the early phase of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. The city is known to have been assessed for tribute in 425/4 and 422/1 BC.

It is unclear how Hamaxitos fared in the later phases of the conflict or under the Spartan hegemony that followed the total defeat of Athens in 404 BC. However, in 399 BC, it was reclaimed by the Persians, only to be freed by Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos in 398 BC. It is unclear how the city fared under Spartan hegemony, but it is certain that Hamaxitos was restored to the Persian empire under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes.

Hamaxitos was incorporated into the expanding Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great after his defeat of Persian forces at the Battle of the Granikos River in 334 BC. It has long been thought that Hamaxitos was one of the small cities of Troas forcibly absorbed through synoecism (amalgamation) in order to found the new city of Antigoneia between 310 and 306 BC. However, new appraisals of the archaeological, epigraphic, and numismatic evidence indicate that Hamaxitos was not included in the original synoecism that created this city honoring Antigonos Monophthalmos, Alexander’s former general. Alternatively, it has been suggested that Hamaxitos was part of this synoecism, but resumed autonomous city status for a period in the third century BC. In any case, Antigonos was killed at the Battle of Ipsos in 301 BC and Antigoneia was renamed Alexandreia Troas by Lysimachos, the victorious king of Thrace.

Lysimachos attempted to tax the profitable salt pans at Tragasai in order to increase royal revenue, but the Hamaxiteans resisted and made arguments for leaving this important resource free from tax. Ultimately the king was persuaded by the envoys of Hamaxitos and the salt pans continued in use without royal impositions.

Following the death of Lysimachos at the Battle of Koroupedion (281 BC), Hamaxitos and the rest of Troas was incorporated into the growing empire of Seleukos I Nikator. The city probably remained under Seleukid influence until the usurper, Antiochos Hierax, was driven out of northwestern Anatolia in 228 BC. Seleukid authority was restored by Antiochos III in 196 BC, but collapsed in the aftermath of his disastrous war against the Romans in Greece (191–189 BC). Under the terms of the Peace of Apameia (188 BC) that officially ended the conflict, Antiochos III was forced to renounce all claims to territory in Anatolia north of the Tauros Mountains. The Romans subsequently granted many of his former possessions, including much of Troas, to Eumenes II, the Attalid king of Pergamon.

It is thought that Hamaxitos was absorbed into the synoecism of Alexandria Troas for the first or second time in the aftermath of the Peace of Apameia, sometime in the period c. 188–171 BC. Hamaxitos ceased to exist as an autonomous entity after this date.

Coinage

No precious metal coinage has been attributed to Hamaxitos, although the city did produce two series of bronze coinage in three or four denominations (B, C, D, and E). An early series, struck in the late fourth century BC, features the head of Apollo on the obverse and a kithara, the god’s favored instrument, on the reverse. A later series, probably produced in the late third century BC, also depicts the head of Apollo on the obverse, but the reverse is graced by the standing figure of Apollo Smintheus. The latter may represent the famous cult statue of this important local god sculpted by the Parian artist, Skopas.

All coins of Hamaxitos carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Hamaxiteans” as the issuing authority.

bronze

Denomination B (17–20mm, 4.37–5.23g)

1049. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. AA/IX. Kithara. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2319. S

1050. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. AAXI. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. Monogram to r. Struck third century BC. Babelon II, no. 2320. S

Denomination C (14–16mm, 2.65–3.8g)

1051. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. AA–XI. Kithara. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 342. R1

1052. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. AAXI. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. No symbols or monograms. Struck third century BC. Rhousopoulos 3471. R1

Denomination D (10–12mm, 1.18–2.37g)

1053. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. AA–XI. Kithara. GraPe bunCh above (if any). Struck late fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 343. S

1054. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. AA–XI. Kithara. arrrow below (if any). Struck late fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 344. S

1055. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. AAXI. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. Monogram to r. Struck third century BC. BMC Troas, 56, no. 3. R1

Denomination E (8–9mm, 1.18–2.17g)

1056. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. AAXI. Apollo Smintheus standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow. Monogram to r. Struck third century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 345. R1

ilion (Troy)

History

The city of Ilion, also known as Troy, is perhaps the most famous city in Greek mythological tradition. It was founded by the eponymous hero, Ilos, whose descent from Tros, the originator of the Trojan people caused the city to go by the name of Troia (English Troy) as well. The Ilion of mythology was renowned for its wealth and strength. Not only did it possess walls that had been constructed by the gods Poseidon and Apollo, but the city was protected by the sacred Palladion—an archaic wooden cult image of Athena reputed to have fallen from the sky. Ilion could not be taken by enemies so long as the Palladion remained in its temple.

Unfortunately, when a dispute between the goddesses Athena, Aphrodite and Hera over which of them was the fairest was judged by the Trojan prince, Paris, the doom of the city was sealed. In return from choosing Aphrodite, the goddess promised him Helen, the most beautiful woman in the world. Not only did the judgement of Paris inspire the anger of Hera and Athena against him and his city, but his abduction of Helen, who was already married to Menelaos, the king of Sparta, set in motion a great war. Demanding the return of Helen, a great Achaian fleet led by some of the most famous heroes of Greek mythology sailed against Ilion and fought a ten-year war before the city walls. In the tenth year, the Achaian heroes Odysseus and Diomedes learned the secret of Ilion’s impregnability and stole the Palladion in secret. No longer protected by the sacred image, the city fell victim to the subterfuge of the Trojan Horse and was destroyed.

Archaeological evidence shows that Ilion was an important fortified city of the Bronze Age (3000–1180) settled by an indigenous Anatolian people who may have been speakers of a Luwian language. It may have been mentioned in Hittite documents of the fifteenth and fourteenth centuries BC as Wiluša (equated with Ilion) or Truwiša (equated with Troy). The city suffered attack and was destroyed amid the general societal collapse that took place at the end of the Late Bronze Age. Much of the city was rebuilt, only to be destroyed again by fire around 950 BC. After this calamity the site was abandoned except for a small settlement that continued to exist in the city’s old citadel.

In 480 BC, the Persian Great King, Xerxes I, is said to have marched his great army to Ilion at the outset of his invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC) in order to sacrifice 100 cattle to Athena Ilias, thereby continuing the cycle of conflict between East and West symbolized by the mythical Trojan War. However, in the years after Xerxes’ failed invasion, if not earlier, Ilion became a dependency of Mytilene on Lesbos and probably received Aiolian Greek colonists from that city.

As part of the Mytilenean peraia (mainland possessions), Ilion was brought into the Delian League with Mytilene in 478 BC. This Athenian-led alliance of Greek cities was intended to defend against future Persian aggression, but evolved into the core of an Athenian empire in which member cities were compelled to pay tribute of Athens in silver. Tiring of Athenian domination during the early phase of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, in 428–427 BC, the Mytileneans attempted to secede from the League. The revolt was repressed and Mytilene was punished by the detachment of the cities of the peraia from its control. Ilion was subsequently enrolled as an autonomous tributary member of the Delian League. The city was assessed for a tribute payment of two talents in 425/4 and 422/1 BC. Nevertheless, the Spartan general Mindaros is reported to

ilion (Troy) 261 have sacrificed at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias prior to his defeat by the Athenian fleet at battle of Abydos in 411 BC.

Before the end of the fifth century BC, Ilion and other cities of Troas were ruled by the dynast Zenis of Dardanos who served as satrap (governor) of Aiolis on behalf of Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. Zenis was succeeded in his satrapy (province) by his widow, Mania, but she was murdered in 399 BC. In the following year, Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos expelled the garrison of Greek mercenaries that had been holding Ilion on behalf of Mania’s son-in-law and killer. The city was restored to the Persian empire under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes and fell under the authority of Artabazos, Pharnabazos’ successor as satrap of Hellespointine Phrygia.

Ilion honored Artabazos with a statue erected before the temple of Athena Ilias, but the friendly relationship that the city seems to have had with the satrap came to an end when he was crucified in 362 BC as punishment for his involvement in the Great Satraps Revolt (366–360 BC) against the Great King, Artaxerxes II. In the aftermath of the revolt, Ilion was briefly seized by the notorious mercenary commander, Charidemos of Oreos, before he was expelled in 359 BC through the agency of an Athenian citizen named Menelaos, son of Arrabaios. Beginning in the later 350s BC, Ilion appears to have been counted among the cities ruled by the mercenary commanders Mentor and Memnon of Rhodes as satraps of Troas.

In 334 BC, just as he was about to embark upon the conquest of the Persian empire, Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont in order to sacrifice at the temple of Athena Ilias and honor the Achaian heroes of the Trojan War. This was fitting since he saw himself as both a new Achilles come to destroy the latter-day Trojans and the avenger of Xerxes’ invasion of Greece, which had also begun with a sacrifice at Ilion. When he arrived at Ilion, still only a small city, he was gratified to see that the statue of Ariobarzanes had fallen down, which he took as an omen of his impending victory over the western Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC). He furthermore declared the city to be free and exempt from tribute and gave orders for the improvement of its buildings. Alexander placed so much symbolic importance on Ilion that when he died in 323 BC, he is said to have been planning to rebuild the sanctuary of Athena Ilias on such a scale that it would be the largest temple in the world. A more modest advancement of Alexander’s plan for the expansion of the temple began to take shape after Alexander’s former general, Antigonos Monophthalmos, took control of Troas in 311 BC. Between c. 310 and 306 BC, the cities of Abydos, Assos, Dardanos, Ilion, Gargara, Rhoiteion, and Skepsis banded together to form the koinon of Athena Ilias—a cult association dedicated to maintaining the sanctuary at Ilion and financing the annual Panathenaic festival honoring the goddess—and work began on rebuilding the temple.

After the death of Antigonos at the Battle of Ipsos (301 BC), work continued under his rival, Lysimachos, who constructed the city’s circuit wall and increased its population through synoecism (amalgamation) with neighboring cities. Although none of these cities are named in the ancient textual sources, it has been suggested that Achilleion, Birytis, Gentinos, Glykeia, Kenchreai, Skamandreia, Sigeion, and Thymbra might have been absorbed into Ilion at this time. In addition to the walls of Lysimachos, in the early Hellenistic period Ilion is known to have included a prytaneion (city hall) and a dikasterion (lawcourt) among its public buildings. The city also possessed a theater financed by the koinon of Athena Ilias.

In 281 BC, Lysimachos was killed at the Battle of Koroupedion and his territories were absorbed into the empire of Seleukos I Nikator. Although Seleukos I was assassinated shortly thereafter, Ilion and Troas remained part of the Seleukid empire for much of the third century BC. Although the unexpected murder of Seleukos I sparked revolt in some quarters, Ilion promptly recognized his successor, Antiochos I Soter. The city seems to have enjoyed a friendly relationship with the early Seleukid kings, despite a late and improbable anecdote suggesting that the city had lost its autonomous status and paid tribute under Seleukos II Kallinikos (246–225 BC). According to the salacious Roman biographer, Suetonius, the Romans had offered an alliance to Seleukos with the proviso that he first free Ilion from royal impositions. The Romans believed themselves to be the descendents of the Trojan hero, Aineias, and therefore felt an obligation to protect Ilion.

Despite incorporation into the Seleukid empire, Ilion suffered attack and brief occupation by marauding Galatians (Celts) who had crossed from Thrace into western Anatolia in 278 BC. At this time, Philetairos, the dynast of Pergamon and former ally of Seleukos I, contributed to the defence of the city. This support no doubt stood his nephew, Attalos I Soter, in good stead with Ilion when the Seleukid king, Antiochos Hierax, was killed in 227 BC. The city seems to have welcomed absorption into the new Attalid kingdom that Attalos I had forged from the former Seleukid territories in western Anatolia.

Ilion remained loyal to Attalos I even after the Seleukid general, Achaios, had reclaimed most of these lands for Antiochos III in 222 BC. Unfortunately, as part of Attalos’ attempts to win back his kingdom, he hired a band of Galatian mercenaries that was subsequently settled on the Hellespont. The Galatians soon turned to marauding and besieged Ilion in 217 BC. As Attalos I was too busy fighting Achaios, who had usurped the Seleukid kingship in 220 BC, and reaching a rapprochement with Antiochos III, it was left to the men of Alexandreia Troas to march against Galatians and raise the siege.

By 192 BC, Ilion seems to have been reclaimed by Antiochos III, since he continued the old tradition of sacrificing at the temple of Athena Ilias prior to embarking on the disastrous Aitolian War (192–189 BC). This conflict saw the Seleukid king cross into mainland Greece to oppose the Romans ended in defeat for Antiochos III. When the Romans pursued the defeated king in 190 BC, both the praetor, C. Livius Salinator, and the consul, L. Cornelius Scipio, began their respective naval and military operations in western Anatolia by sacrificing at the temple of Athena Ilias. In 188 BC, the Roman consul, Cn. Manlius Vulso imposed the terms of the Peace of Apameia that formally concluded the conflict and forever ended Seleukid authority in Anatolia north of the Tauros Mountains. Much of western Anatolia, including Troas, was granted to the Attalid kingdom. At the same time, Vulso honored Ilion as the supposed source of the Roman people by making Gergis and Rhoiteion dependencies of the city.

Ilion and Troas remained part of the expanded Attalid kingdom until 133 BC, when Attalos III, the last king of the dynasty, died and bequeathed the entirety of the kingdom to the Roman people. In 129 BC, this was reorganized as the Roman province of Asia. Little is heard of Ilion at the end of the second and the beginning of the first century BC, although it would seem that at some point the rapacious Roman administration began to impose taxes on sacred land attached to the temple of Athena Ilias. This affront to Ilion’s traditional autonomous status and freedom from tribute was rectified by the Roman censor, L. Julius Caesar, in 89 BC.

The city fell under the influence of the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator, during the first Mithradatic War (89–85 BC) against the Romans, but the precise

nature of Ilion’s involvement is unknown. In 85 BC, as the Roman consul, L. Cornelius Sulla, was about to cross into western Anatolia and bring the war to an end, he was preceded by the rogue quaestor, C. Flavius Fimbria, who sacked many of the Greek cities that lay in his path. After a siege of 11 days, Fimbria and his legions stormed the walls of Ilion and plundered the city, including the temple of Athena Ilias, before putting it to the torch. The only thing to survive the destruction was said to have been the archaic cult statue of the goddess.

Although Sulla made unspecified attempts to restore the city, Ilion fell on difficult times in the late 80s and early 70s BC, in part thanks to the heavy war indemnity that he imposed on many cities of Asia, perhaps including Ilion. In 80 BC, the city faced an uncertain threat—usually assumed to have been pirates—that prompted the proconsul, C. Claudius Nero, to provide a garrison at the Ilian’s request, and in 77 BC, the members of the Koinon of Athena Ilias found themselves unable to meet their financial obligations to the goddess.

When the Third Mithradatic War (73–63 BC) began in earnest with the Pontic siege of Kyzikos, it was reported that Athena Ilias appeared to the people of Ilion, saying that she had just returned from aiding the Kyzikenes. Regardless of what may have happened during the First Mithradatic War, it was clear that the Ilians were firmly on the Roman side in this final struggle with the king of Pontos.

The city continued to profit from its Roman connections later in the first century BC, thanks to the claim that the gens Iulia (Julian family) was directly descended from Trojan hero, Aeneas. When Julius Caesar pursued his rival for power, Pompey the Great, in the aftermath of the Battle of Pharsalos (48 BC), Caesar made a point of stopping at Ilion. During his visit he confirmed the status of the city as autonomous and free from tribute, and enlarged its territory. Indeed, Caesar’s appreciation of Ilion was so great that it was rumored that he had once considered moving the Roman capital there before he was struck down by assassins in 44 BC.

Little is heard of Ilion during the Roman civil wars of the late 40s and 30s BC, but following his defeat of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Octavian (Augustus after 27 BC), the adopted heir of Julius Caesar, made much of Roman, and especially Julian connections to the city. In 20 BC, he visited the city and stayed in the house of its leading citizen, Melanippides, son of Euthydikos, after which the emperor personally financed the rebuilding of the temple of Athena Ilias as the city’s bouleuterion (council chamber) and theater. Upon completion of the theater, Melanippos erected a statues of Augustus, his lieutenant M. Vipsanius Agrippa, in recognition of his benefactions. Ilion prospered under subsequent Roman emperors and survived into the Byzantine period, when the city became the seat of a Christian bishopric.

Coinage

No electrum or gold coinage has been attributed to Ilion and the city’s silver production was very limited. The earliest silver series consists of silver drachms and hemidrachms struck to what has been described as a reduced version of the Chian standard (c. 2.65g to the drachm). Both denominations feature the head of Athena wearing an Attic helmet on the obverse and the Archaic cult image of Athena Ilias on the reverse. The weight standard combined with the use of a prominent rose symbol—often associated with Rhodes—has led to the convincing suggestion that the coinage was struck under the influence of Memnon of Rhodes in the mid-fourth century BC.

After the emissions of the fourth century BC, no further silver coinage was struck at Ilion until the mid-third century BC, when the city produced tetradrachms on the Attic standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) with the Seleukid royal types of Antiochos II Theos and Antiochos Hierax (see the Handbook of Syrian Coins, nos. 238d and 399f, 400e, 403d, 405f). In the early second century BC, the city also struck Attic-weight tetradrachms featuring the deified Alexander the Great and Athena types previously popularized by Lysimachos. Attic-weight drachms depicting the head of Athena wearing a Corinthian helmet on the obverse and a Classical representation of the cult statue of Athena Ilias may also belong to the second century BC.

Although it has sometimes been misconstrued as a civic coinage of Ilion in the past, the impressive series of reduced Attic-weight tetradrachms naming Athena Ilias was actually struck by the Koinon of Athena Ilias (listed separately).

A bronze coinage of denomination D was probably introduced at Ilion at the same time that the reduced Chian-weight drachms and hemidrachms were struck. in the mid-fourth century BC. These feature the same head of Athena on the obverse and Archaic cult statue of Athena Ilias on the reverse.

In the third and second centuries BC, the bronze system at Ilion expanded to include denominations B, C, D and E, all of which feature the head of Athena on the obverse and the Hellenistic cult statue of Athena Ilias on the obverse. The head of the goddess is commonly represented in profile and wearing a Corinthian helmet on denomination B, but she more frequently wears an Attic helmet on lower denominations. On one emission of denomination E, probably struck in the early third century BC, the cult statue is replaced by a hydria while on an issue of denomination B of the second century BC, the obverse head of Athena is represented facing three-quarters right.

In the early first century BC, the bronze system contracted to two denominations (C and E). Denomination C represents the head of Athena and Athena Ilias in imitation of the contemporary silver tetradrachms of the koinon of Athena Ilias, but also adds a wreath border around the reverse type. An associated issue of denomination E also features the Athena Ilias type of the tetradrachms on the reverse, but depicts the owl of Athena on the obverse. A second and probably later series of denomination E, the usual representation of Athena Ilias is replaced with a more generic representation of the goddess wielding a spear and shield.

The coinage of Ilion regularly carries a three-letter Greek abbreviation that may name the city or identify “the Ilians” as the issuing authority. However, the reduced Chian-weight silver of the mid-fourth century BC is anepigraphic. Royal Seleukid issues of Ilion carry full Greek legends naming “King Antiochos” as the issuing authority, while the city’s posthumous Lysimachoi falsely identify the long-dead “King Lysimachos” as the issuer. On both of these tetradrachm series of the Hellenistic period, an owl or Athena Ilias serve as symbols to indicated Ilion as the issuing mint.

silver (reduCed CHian standard)

Drachm (c. 2.65g)

1057. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Archaic cult statue of Athena Ilias standing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. roSe to l. Struck under Memnon of Rhodes, c. 350–340 BC. Ellis-Evans 2017, p. 66, O1/R1–O2/R3. R2

Hemidrachm (c. 1.28g)

1058. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. Anepigraphic. Archaic cult statue of Athena Ilias standing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. roSe to l. Struck under Memnon of Rhodes, c. 350–340 BC. Ellis-Evans 2017, p. 67, O1/R1. R2

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 17.2g)

1059. Obv. Diademed head of Alexander the Great r., wearing horn of Ammon. Rev. BASILEWS/LUSIACoU. Athena enthroned l., holding Nike and grounded shield, spear behind (if any). owl to l. or in exergue. Monogram(s) on throne or in exergue (if any). APELLIoU in exergue (if any). Struck c. 200–180 BC. Bellinger 1961, T32–T35. R2

Hemidrachm (c. 2.15g)

1060. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet l. Rev. ILI. Cult statue of Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. Monogram and owl to l. Struck c. 200–180 BC. Bellinger 1961, T31. R1

bronze

Denomination B (18–22mm, 4.99–8.08g)

1061. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ILI. Cult statue of Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. barleyCorn to l. Struck c. 281–261 BC. Bellinger 1961, T6. S

1062. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ILI. Cult statue of Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. owl and monogram to l. Struck c. 241–228 BC. Bellinger 1961, T24. S

1063. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet facing 3/4 r. Rev. ILI. Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. alTar or serpent to l. Struck c. 133–119 BC. Bellinger 1961, T82–T83. S

1064. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ILI. Cult statue of Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. Symbol (GorGoneion, nike, Shield, or ThunderbolT) to l. Struck c. 133–119 BC. Bellinger 1961, T84–T88. S

Denomination C (14–18mm, 3.27–5.05g)

1066. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILI. Cult statue of Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. AD or symbol (owl or owl and ThunderbolT) to l. Monogram to l. (if any). Struck c. 241–228 BC. Bellinger 1961, T25–28. S 1063 1064

1065. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILI. Cult statue of Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. barleyCorn or Palm branCh to l. (if any). Struck c. 301–281 BC. Bellinger 1961, T1 and T4. R1

1067. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ILI. Cult statue of Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. Monogram or symbol (Club or SPearhead) to l. Struck c. 133–119 BC. Bellinger 1961, T89–T91. R1

1068. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILI. Athena Ilias standing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff. Grain ear to r. All within wreath. Struck c. 95–87 BC. Bellinger 1961, T89–T91. S

Denomination D (12–15mm, 1.40g–2.57g)

1069. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. ILI. Archaic cult statue of Athena Ilias standing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. No symbols or monograms. Struck under Memnon of Rhodes, c. 350–340 BC. Bellinger 1961, T2. R1

1070. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILI. Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. Symbol (CaduCeuS, STar or ThunderbolT) to l. Greek letter (A, H or X) to l. (if any). Struck c. 159–133 BC. Bellinger 1961, T59–T63 and T68. R2

Denomination E (7–10mm, 0.45–1.02g)

1071. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. IL–I. Hydria. Palm branCh to l. (if any). Struck c. 301–281 BC. Bellinger 1961, T3 and T5. R1

1072. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILI. Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. anChor to l. Struck c. 281–261 BC. Bellinger 1961, T7. R1

1073. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. ILI. Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. anChor to l. Struck c. 281–261 BC. Bellinger 1961, T8. R2

1074. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILI. Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. owl or ThunderbolT to l. Struck c. 281–261 BC. Bellinger 1961, T29–T30. R2

1075. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILI. Athena Ilias advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff. Symbol (helmeTed head, owl, SerPenT, or ThunderbolT) to l. (if any). Monogram or Greek letter (A, H, Z or X) to l. (if any).Struck c. 159–133 BC. Bellinger 1961, T64, T66–T67, T69–T78. S

1076. Obv. Owl standing r., head facing. Rev. ILI. Athena Ilias advancing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 95–87 BC. Bellinger 1961, T101. R1

1077. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. ILI. Athena advancing l., holding spear and shield. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 85–65 BC. Bellinger 1961, T106. R1

The koinon of aThena iliaS

History

The Koinon of Athena Ilias was a cult association formed in the period between 311/10 BC and 306 BC to organize the worship of the goddess, maintain her sanctuary at Ilion, and celebrate her annual festival—the Panathenaia. Based on rare coinages struck at Lampsakos, Parion and Ilion in the mid-fourth century BC, all of which feature the cult statue of Athena Ilias as a reverse type, it has been suggested that a less-formal version of the koinon may have existed already prior to the last decade of the century.

In the Hellenistic period the Koinon of Athena Ilias is known to have included at least twelve member cities, ten of which were located in Troas or Mysia: Abydos, Alexandreia Troas, Assos, Dardanos, Gargara, Ilion, Lampsakos, Parion, Rhoiteion, and Skepsis. The Bithynian cities of Myrleia and Kalchedon were also members for a brief period in the third century BC. The organs of the Koinon consisted of a synedrion (council) and a board of five agonothetai (superintendents). The latter were charged with overseeing and underwriting the costs of the Panathenaia.

The organization of the koinon was a boon to Ilion, since its members were often responsible for improvements, such as repairs to the sanctuary of Athena Ilias, and the construction of public buildings, like the city’s theater. However, the financial obligations of the member cities to the temple of Athena Ilias could become problematic when hard times struck. After years of financial pressure brought on by the disasters of the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC) between the Pontic king, Mithradates VI Eupator, and the Romans, in 77 BC, the cities of Abydos, Alexandreia Troas, Assos, Dardanos, Ilion, Lampsakos, and Skepsis were unable to meet their obligations and petitioned the Roman quaestor, L. Julius Caesar, to have the debt of the Koinon lowered.

Coinage

Perhaps influenced by the freedom granted to other cities of Troas by the Roman consul, Cn. Manlius Vulso, in 188 BC, and by increased interest in Ilion due to Roman claims of descent from the Trojan hero, Aineias, around 185 BC, the koinon of Athena Ilias began to produce a silver coinage of tetradrachms and drachms on a reduced Attic standard (c. 16.75g to the tetradrachm). The new coinage builds on the iconography of Ilion’s earlier civic coinage and features the head of Athena wearing an Attic helmet on the obverse and the standing figure of Athena Ilias on the reverse.

Full Greek legends name “Athena Ilias” as well as the personal names of magistrates, probably the agonothetai of the Koinon.

The silver coinage of the Koinon of Athena Ilias, was struck over a long period and, like the contemporary tetradrachms of Alexandreia Troas, seems to have had some involvement in financing the belligerents during the period of the Mithradatic Wars (89–63 BC). The symbol of Pegasos drinking—a well-known emblem of Mithradates VI—found on one issue of Athena Ilias tetradrachms strongly suggests that some issues were struck while Ilion and the Koinon were subject to the Pontic king.

silver (reduCed attiC standard)

Tetradrachms (c. 16.75g)

1078. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. AQHNAS/ILIADoS. Athena Ilias standing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff. owl to r. (if any). Symbol (aThena iliaS, CaduCeuS, GorGoneion, Prow, STar, winGed CaduCeuS, winGed ThunderbolT) to l. (if any). Monogram to l. (if any). Symbol (amPhora, bull SuSPended from PoST, helmeT, nike, nike on Prow, owl, owl and Palm branCh, Palm branCh, PeGaSoS drinkinG, SPider, TriPod, TyChe, or wreaTh) to r. (if any). Magistrate name(s) (AGAQoU ToU HNoILoU, AQHNoKLEoUS, AKKoU, ANTIANoU, APHANToU, APoLLoDWRoU, DHHTRIoU, DHoWNToS ToU DIoNUS, DIoNUSIDWRoU, DIoNUSIoU, DIoPEIQoUS ToU ZHNIDoS, ERIPPoU ToU HNoANoU, ERoKREoNToS, EUBoULIDoU, EUDHoU, EUQUDIKoU, ZIQINoU, HGHSIDHoU, HGHSIDHoU ToU DIoANoU, HRIoU, QEoKUDoU, IPPoDAANToS, IIADoU, KALLISQHNoUS, KLHWNoS, LUSIKLEIoU, ELANIPPIDoU, ELANToU, ENERoNoS, ENERoNoS ToU ENERoNoS, ETRIKHEToU, HTRoDWRoU, HTRoNAKToS ToU IPPoDAANToS, NASEAS ToU DHHTRIoU, oIGANoU, PRUTANIDoS, PRWToKLEIDoU, PoULADoU, SoSTRAToU, SWTHRIDoU, XANQIPPoU, ILoDRooU ToU TUCANDRoU, ILoKLEoUS KAI ILWNoS, oINIKoS, across fields and/ or in exergue. Struck c. 185–50 BC. Ellis-Evans 2016, pp. 107–120, O1 R1–O35 R37. R1–R2

Drachm (c. 2.65g)

1079. Obv. Head of Athena in Corinthian helmet r. Rev. AQHNAS/ILIADoS. Athena Ilias standing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff. owl to r. Monogram to l. EUQUDIKoU in exergue. Struck c. 185–50 BC. Ellis-Evans 2016, p. 120, oE rE. R2

kebren

History

By the mid-seventh century BC, Aiolian Greek colonists from Kyme founded the city of Kebren on the site of an earlier indigenous Anatolian settlement. A massive circuit wall and a fortified akropolis protected the city from attack. Although numerous remains of buildings have been discovered at Kebren, they have not been fully identified.

Kebren and the rest of Troas were annexed to the Achaemenid Persian empire after the fall of the Lydian kingdom to the Great King, Cyrus I, in 547/6 BC. However, in the aftermath of the disastrous Persian invasion of mainland Greece in 480–479 BC and the destruction of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mykale (379 BC), Kebren joined the Athenian-led Delian League. Although it was originally formed to defend the Greek cities against future Persian aggression, the League evolved into the core of an Athenian empire.

Between 454/3 and 447/6 BC, Kebren paid an annual tribute of three talents in coin. The city was assessed for tribute again in 425/4 BC, but otherwise the city seems to have had little direct involvement in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) fought between Athens and Sparta. Indeed, late in the fifth century BC, Kebren seems to have fallen under the influence of Zenis of Dardanos and his wife, Mania, who served as the successive satraps (governors) of Aiolis for Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia.

Following the murder of Mania in 399 BC, Kebren was captured by Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos, but the city was soon restored to Pharnabazos. Recognition of Kebren and the other Greek cities of western Anatolia as possessions of the Persian empire was established under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes. However, in 360/59 BC, the city was captured by the rogue Euboian mercenary commander, Charidemos, before he was expelled by Artabazos, the satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia.

Kebren and the rest of Troas were permanently wrested from the Persian empire in the aftermath of Alexander the Great’s defeat of the combined western Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granikos River in 334 BC. After Alexander’s death (323 BC), Troas fell under the influence of his former general, Antigonos Monophthalmos, who founded a new city in the region with the dynastic name of Antigoneia at some point between 310 and 306 BC. Kebren was one of the cities of Troas that was joined through synoecism (amalgamation) in order to populate Antigoneia (renamed Alexandreia Troas after 281 BC). Following the synoecism, Kebren ceased to exist as an independent entity, except perhaps for a period in the early third century BC.

Based primarily on numismatic evidence, it has been suggested that Kebren was detached from Alexandreia Troas by the Seleukid king, Antiochos I Soter (281–261 BC), and refounded as Antioch in Troas, possibly in synoecism with Birytis. This historical reconstruction remains disputed.

Coinage

Although no electrum or gold coinage was struck at Kebren, silver coinage was produced at the city at the beginning of the fifth century BC. This coinage was based on a didrachm stater of c. 7.6g—a standard tentatively described as a ‘Troad’ standard. An early fractional series features the head (triobols and hemiobols) or forepart (obols) of a ram on the obverse and a quadripartite incuse square on the reverse. A somewhat later ‘Troad’-weight series consists of drachms and hemidrachms that pair a female head with a ram’s head within an incuse square.

By the end of the fifth century BC, the ‘Troad’ standard had disappeared at Kebren and the city struck a new coinage of triobols and obols on the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm). The obverse of these coins features the ram’s head badge of the city while the reverse depicts a facing gorgoneion within an incuse square. Later, perhaps in the mid-fourth century BC, Chian-weight drachms were struck featuring the head of Athena wearing an Attic helmet on the obverse and an eagle on the reverse. After this emission, no further silver coinage was struck at Kebren.

Bronze coinage was probably introduced at the city in the late fifth century BC with an issue of denomination E that reprises the old ‘Troad’-weight obol type of confronted rams’ heads on the obverse. The reverse, however, carries only the monogram of the city ethnic (i).

This issue may have been followed relatively closely by a second emission of denomination E with a similar monogrammatic reverse but featuring a male head wearing a kyrbasia (satrapal headdress) on the obverse. As this head is beardless it is not likely to represent Artabazos, who is represented with a beard on other coinages struck in Troas.

Coinage in tHe name of kebren

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Drachm (c. 3.8g)

1080. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female bust l., wearing tainia. Rev. Ram head l. within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. CNG 94, lot 15. R2

Triobols (c. 1.3g)

1081. Obv. KB or KBN, or KEBRENI. Ram head r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Babelon II, nos. 2326 and 2330. R1

1082. Obv. Anepigraphic. Female bust l., wearing tainia. Rev. Ram head l. within incuse square. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, no. 2331. R1

Obols (c. 0.6g)

1083. Obv. KBN (if any). Ram forepart leaping r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Babelon II, no. 2327–2328. R1

1084. Obv. KEBRE or KEBRHNI (if any). Two confronted ram heads. PalmeTTe between. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square or ‘mill sail’ design. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Babelon II, no. 2332–2333. R2

Hemiobol (c. 0.3g)

1085. Obv. KB. Ram head r. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Babelon II, no. 2329. R1

silver (CHian standard)

Drachm (3.50g)

1086. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. i. Eagle standing l., head reverted. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2341. R3

Triobols (c. 1.95g)

1087. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram head r. Rev. Gorgoneion facing within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Numismatik Naumann 54, lot 143. R2

1088. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram head l. Rev. Gorgoneion facing within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. SNG von Aulock 7619. R2

Obol (c. 0.65g)

1089. Obv. Anepigraphic. Ram head l. Rev. Gorgoneion facing within incuse square. Struck c. 400 BC. Babelon II, 2331bis. R2

bronze

Denomination B (19–20mm, 7.21–8.40g)

1090. Obv. i. Ram head r. Rev. Laureate head of Apollo r. eaGle below. Struck late fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2344. R1

1091. Obv. Ram head r. Symbol (barleyCorn, eaGle, Grain ear, or STar) below (if any). Rev. K–E. Laureate head of Apollo r. CaduCeuS below (if any). Struck late fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2342–2343. S

Denomination C (19–20mm, 7.21–8.4g)

1092. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. K–E. Ram head r. eaGle below. Struck late fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2345. R1 1087 1088

Denomination E (8–10mm, 0.72–1.07g)

1093. Obv. Two confronted ram heads. PalmeTTe between. Rev. Large i. Struck late fifth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2334. C

1094. Obv. Male head (Zenis?) l., wearing kyrbasia. Rev. Large i. Struck late fifth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2335. C

1095. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. K or i. Ram head r. Struck late fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2337–2340. S

1096. Obv. Ram head r. Rev. K–E. Laureate head of Apollo r. Struck late fourth century BC. SNG von Aulock 1550. S

Coinage in tHe name of antioCH

Denomination B (19–20mm, 7.09g)

1097. Obv. B–K. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ANTIoCEWN or ANTIo/ CEWN. Ram head r. Club to l. Struck c. 280–260 BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 270. R1

Denomination C (16–18mm, 3.77–4.60g)

1098. Obv. B–K. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ANTIoCEWN or ANTIo/CEWN. Ram head r. Symbol (Club, eaGle, or TridenT) to l. or below. Struck c. 280–260 BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 271–272. R1

Denomination D (12–13mm, 1.89–1.99g)

1099. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. ANTI. Ram head r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 280–260 BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 274. R1

Denomination E (8–10mm, 0.84–1.14g)

1100. Obv. ANTIo. Ram head r. TridenT below. Rev. Laureate head of Apollo r. Struck c. 280–260 BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 273 and 275. R1

History

Greek mythological tradition held that the city of Kolonai on the coast of Troas was ruled by the Thracian king, Kyknos, in the period before the Trojan War. He was said to have strongly supported the Trojan cause and was responsible for the deaths of 1,000 Achaians on the first day of the war before he was at last killed by Achilles. As a son of Poseidon, Kyknos was invulnerable to attack by spear and sword, thus forcing the Achaian hero to crush and suffocate him. Upon his death he was transformed into a swan (kyknos in Greek). Enraged at the great damage caused by the dead king, the Achaians marched on Kolonai with the intention of destroying the city. However, they relented and spared Kolonai after the children of Kyknos were handed over as hostages.

The historical city was founded by Aiolian Greek colonists, possibly from Mytilene on Lesbos, in the seventh century BC. Kolonai was defended by a circuit wall and may have possessed a fortified akropolis. It certainly contained a temple dedicated to Apollo Killaios (“of Killa”).

Although it was once thought to have belonged to the peraia (mainland possessions) of the island of Tenedos, Kolonai actually seems to have belonged to the Mytilenean peraia. The city is believed to have served as a dependency of Mytilene until the period of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. In 428 BC, Mytilene seceded from the Athenian-led Delian League only to be forcibly restored to tributary membership the following year. As punishment for this revolt, the Athenians stripped Mytilene of the dependent cities in its peraia and enrolled them as distinct tributary members of the Delian League. Kolonai was assessed a payment of 1,000 drachms in tribute to Athens in 425/4 BC.

Spartan victory over Athens in the Peloponnesian War freed Kolonai from Athenian influence, but in 399 BC, the Dardanian dynast, Mania, captured the city on behalf of Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia. Kolonai was taken from Pharnabazos by Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos, in the next year but returned to Persian control by 387 BC. Under the terms of the King’s Peace that ended the Corinthian War (398–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes, the Greek cities of western Anatolia were recognized as possessions of the Achaemenid Persian empire.

In 344 BC, Persian domination of Kolonai and the rest of Troas collapsed after Alexander the Great defeated the combined forces of the western Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granikos River. The city was subsequently incorporated into a Macedonian empire that began to fragment almost immediately after Alexander’s death in 323 BC. Troas fell under the authority of the Macedonian conqueror’s former general, Antigonos Monophthalmos, in 310 BC. At some point between this year and 306 BC, Antigonos founded a new city in the region with the dynastic name of Antigoneia. The population of Antigoneia was drawn from Kolonai, Hamaxitos, Kebren, Larisa, Neandria, and Skepsis, which were brought together through forcible synoecism (amalgamation). Kolonai henceforth ceased to exist as an independent entity.

Coinage

The only coinage attributed to Kolonai consists of three bronze denominations (B, C and D) struck in the fourth century BC. All three denominations depict the head of Athena wearing an Attic helmet on the obverse and a star of eight rays on the reverse.

A full Greek legend names “the Kolonaians” as the issuing authority.

bronze

Denomination B (20mm, 5.35g)

1101. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. K–o–L–W–N–A–I–W–N Eight-rayed star. barleyCorn below. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2321. R2

Denomination C (16mm, 3.7g)

1102. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. K–o–L–W–N–A–I–W–N. Eightrayed star. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2322. R2

Denomination D (10–12mm, 1.27–1.5g)

1103. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. K–o–L–W–N–A–I–W–N. Eightrayed star. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2323–2324. R1

1104. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet l. Rev. K–o–L–W–N–A–I–W–N. Eightrayed star. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2325. R1

lamPoneia

History

The city of Lamponeia was founded in Troas by Aiolian Greek colonists at an uncertain date. In c. 512 BC, it was captured and incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian empire by the Persian general Otanes. Following the Persian conquest, nothing further is heard of the city until the aftermath of the failed Persian invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC).

Lamponeia is believed to have been a founding member of the Athenian-led Delian League in 478/7 BC. This alliance was formed to defend the member cities against future Persian aggression, but developed into the basis for an Athenian empire. Between 454/3 and 430/29 BC, Lamponeia paid an annual tribute of 1,000 drachms to Athens and possibly did so again in 425/4 BC. However, the city is not otherwise mentioned in the context of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta.

Nothing further is heard of the city, although it appears to have struck coinage in the fourth century BC. It is suspected that Lamponeia may have become a dependency of Assos.

Coinage

No gold or electrum coinage has been attributed to Lamponeia, but the city’s silver coinage seems to have begun at the beginning of the fifth century BC with a series of hemiobols the facing head of a bull and a quadripartite incuse punch design. These coins seem to have been struck to a standard based on a drachm of c. 3.8g, which has been described tentatively as a regional ‘Troad’ standard.

The ‘Troad’ standard was subsequently abandoned at Lamponeia and replaced by the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) at the end of the fifth or the beginning of the fourth century BC. At this time a new coinage, consisting of Chian-weight drachms and fractions was struck bearing the head of Dionysos on the obverse and the facing bull’s head badge of the city on the reverse. All of the drachms, triobols, obols and hemiobols feature the same types, except for one emission of hemiobols that replaces the facing bull’s head with the profile head of a calf.

A bronze coinage involving only denomination D was produced with the same types as the Chian-weight silver was also struck in the fourth century BC. The reverse type, including the placement of adjunct symbols is very similar to that used for bronze coins of Assos in the same period.

With the exception of the early hemidrachms, which are anepigraphic, all coins of Lamponeia carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Lamponeans” as the issuing authority.

silver (‘troad’ standard)

Hemiobol (c. 0.3g)

1105. Obv. Anepigraphic. Bull head facing. Rev. Quadripartite incuse square. Struck c. 500–480 BC. Babelon II, no. 2292. S

silver (CHian standard)

Drachm (c. 3.9g)

1106. Obv. Bearded head of Dionysos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. L–A–M. Bull head facing. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2293. R2

Triobol or Hemidrachm (c. 1.8g)

1107. Obv. Bearded head of Dionysos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. L–A–M. Bull head facing. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2294. R2

Obol (c. 0.65g)

1108. Obv. Bearded head of Dionysos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. L–A–M. Bull head facing. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2295. S

Hemiobols (c. 0.65g)

1109. Obv. Bearded head of Dionysos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. L–A–M. Bull head facing. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2295. R1

1110. Obv. Bearded head of Dionysos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. L/AM. Calf head r. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. CNG EA 257, lot 121. R2

Denomination D (11–13mm, 1.18–2.87g)

1111. Obv. Bearded head of Dionysos r., wreathed with ivy. Rev. LA–M. Bull head facing. GraPe bunCh or kanTharoS above. All within incuse square. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, nos. 2296–2297. S

lariSa

History

Archaeological evidence suggests that the site of Larisa in Troas had been inhabited by a pre-Greek population since the Early Bronze Age (2700–2200 BC) and Homer mentions the Larisaians as allies of Troy against the Achaeans during the Trojan War. In antiquity, these indigenous Anatolian people were described as Pelasgians and the name of the city was believed to be the Pelasgian word for “citadel.”

In the eighth century BC, Larisa was settled by Greek colonists—probably Aiolians from Mytilene—attracted by the fertility of the surrounding territory and the nearby salt pan at Tragasai. The Greek city appears to have been founded as a dependency belonging to the Mytilenean peraia (mainland possessions), but almost nothing is heard of it before 425/4 BC, when Athens stripped Mytilene of its peraia and enrolled its cities as autonomous tributary members of the Delian League. In return for freedom from Mytilene, Larisa was assessed for a tribute of three talents in sliver coin, which suggests that it was a relatively affluent and important city among those detached from the Mytilenean peraia.

After 422/1 BC, the last year in which Larisa is known to have been assessed for tribute to Athens, the city seems to have been absorbed into the Persian empire. In 399 BC, it was certainly one of the cities ruled by the Dardanian dynast, Mania, as satrap (governor) of Troas under Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. However, following her murder, Larisa was quickly captured by Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos, in 398 BC. However, under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth and Thebes, Larisa and the other Greek cities of western Anatolia were recognized as Persian possessions.

The subsequent history of Larisa is very obscure, although it is certain that the city was incorporated into the Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great after his victory at the Battle of the Granikos River in 334 BC. In the years after Alexander’s death in 323 BC, the city fell under the domination of various of his former generals when they controlled Troas. Larisa is often listed among the cities of Troas that Antigonos Monophthalmos forcibly united in synoecism (amalgamation) in order to found the city of Antigoneia (refounded as Alexandreia Troas after 301 BC), but it is now believed that Larisa was not absorbed until the Roman reorganization of Troas in 188 BC.

After the death of Antigonos at the Battle of Ipsos (301 BC), Larisa and the rest of Troas fell under the control first of his victorious rival, Lysimachos, and then of Lysimachos’ conqueror, Seleukos I. Larisa probably remained part of the Seleukid empire until the period of the Third Syrian War (246–241 BC) fought between Seleukos II Kallinikos and the Ptolemaic king, Ptolemy III Euergetes. During this conflict, Larisa may have been seized by Ptolemaic forces and refounded with the dynastic name Ptolemaïs, although this historical reconstruction remains disputed.

While there is some epigraphic evidence for the continued existence of the city in the period c. 230–220 BC, Larisa was probably incorporated into Alexandreia Troas in the second century BC. The site of the city was certainly abandoned by the early first century BC, if not already at some point before 77 BC.

Coinage

All of the silver and bronze coinage presently believed to have been produced at Larisa in Troas was long mistakenly attributed to the city of Larisa Phrikonis in Aiolis. The city’s only silver coinage consists of fractions struck to the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) in the late fifth and early fourth centuries BC. Triobols, diobols and obols all feature a female head, probably representing a local nymph, on the obverse and an amphora on the reverse. The triobols and obols seem to have been struck earlier than the diobols since their reverse types appear within an incuse square.

A bronze coinage of denomination E was introduced, probably in the late fifth or early fourth century BC, featuring the amphora badge of the city on the obverse and the abbreviated Greek city-ethnic on the reverse. In the late fourth or early third century BC, the city struck a bronze coinage of three denominations (B, C and D). Denominations C and D reprise the female head and amphora types of the earlier silver issues, but on denomination B the female head on the obverse is replaced by a bearded male head. On one rare issue of denomination D a kantharos is depicted on the reverse instead of the usual amphora.

All of these coins carry an abbreviated Greek legend naming “the Larisaians” as the issuing authority.

Under the name of Ptolemaïs, Larisa appears to have struck bronze coins of denomination B, C/D, D and E that have often been attributed to the refounded Ionian city of Lebedos in the past. All of the coins thought to belong to LarisaPtolemaïs pair the head of Apollo with an amphora while full or abbreviated Greek legends name “the Ptolemaieans” as the issuing authority.

Coinage in tHe name of larisa

silver (CHian standard)

Triobol or Hemidrachm (c. 1.95g)

1112. Obv. Female head r., wearing sphendone. Rev. LAR–IS–AI. Amphora. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. CNG 97, lot 164. R3

Diobol (c. 1.3g)

1113. Obv. Female head r., wearing sphendone. Rev. LAR–IS–AI. Amphora. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck fourth century BC. BMC Troas, p. 332, no. 26 (Larisa Phrikonis). R2

Obol (c. 0.65g)

1114. Obv. Female head r., wearing sphendone. Rev. LAR–IS–AI. Amphora. No symbols or monograms. All within incuse square. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Savoca 25, lot 168. R2

Denomination B (19–22mm, 6.18–9.05g)

1115. Obv. Bearded male head r. Rev. LARISAI. Amphora. barleyCorn to r. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 134, no. 1 (Larisa Phrikonis). R1

Denomination C (15–18mm, 3.47–6.09g)

1116. Obv. Female head r., wearing sphendone. Rev. L–A/R–I. Amphora. GraPe bunCh above. Club to l. and CaduCeuS to r. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 134, no. 2 (Larisa Phrikonis). R1

1117. Obv. Female head l., wearing sphendone. Rev. LA–RI. Amphora. GraPe bunCh above. CaduCeuS to l. and Grain ear to r. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 134, no. 3 (Larisa Phrikonis). R1

Denomination D (10–11mm, 1.14–1.51g)

1118. Obv. Female head r., wearing sphendone. Rev. L–A/R–I. Amphora. GraPe bunCh above. Club to l. and CaduCeuS to r. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 134, no. 2 (Larisa Phrikonis). R1

1119. Obv. Female head l., wearing sphendone. Rev. L–A/R–I or LA–RI. Amphora. GraPe bunCh above (if any). CaduCeuS to l. (if any). barleyCorn or Grain ear to r. Struck late fourth–early third centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 134, no. 2 (Larisa Phrikonis). S

Denomination E (7.5mm, 1.05g)

1120. Obv. Amphora. Rev. LA. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth century BC. Nomos, obolos 25, lot 291. R2

Coinage in tHe name of ptolemaïs

bronze

Denomination B/C (20–23mm, 4.15–5.10g)

1121. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PToLEAIEWN. Amphora. eaGle to l. Struck c. 245–220 BC. CPE B412. R1

Denomination C (15–18mm, 2.50–3.30g)

1122. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PTo–LE or PToLEAIEWN. Amphora. double CornuCoPia to l. Struck c. 245–220 BC. CPE B413–B414. R1

Denomination D (13–14mm, 1.77–2.12g)

1123. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PToLEAIEWN. Amphora. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 245–220 BC. CPE B415. R1

Denomination E (9–11mm, 0.67–0.75g)

1124. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PToLEAIEWN. Amphora. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 245–220 BC. CPE B416. R1

1125. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. PToLEAI. Amphora. eaGle to l. Grape bunch and regnal year date KD (24 = 223/2 BC) to r. CPE B417. R3

neandreia

History

According to one late Greek mythological tradition, Neandreia, rather than Kolonai, was the home of Kyknos, the Thracian who was killed on the first day of the Trojan War. However, there is little archaeological evidence for the settlement of the city before the sixth century BC.

The historical city was located atop the granite mountain of Çığrı Dağ, a strategic site chosen by its Aiolian Greek founders for its command of the western coast of Troas and a route from the coast to the middle Skamander Valley. In addition to the protection afforded by its mountainous location, Neandreia was defended by a circuit wall and is known to have contained such public amenities as an agora (marketplace), a stoa (portico), a temple probably dedicated to Apollo, and a theater. The city prospered from its agricultural hinterland in the Plain of Samonion and from its granite quarries.

Like the rest of Troas, Neandreia was incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian empire in the late sixth century BC, but became a member of the Athenian-led Delian League following the failed Persian invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC) and the destruction of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC). The alliance was originally formed to defend the Greek cities against future Persian aggression, but developed into the core of an Athenian empire. As a member of the League, Neandreia paid an annual tribute of 2,000 drachms to Athens between 454/3 and 430/29 BC. Almost nothing is heard of the city during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, although Neandreia was again assessed for Athenian tribute in 410/09 BC.

After the total defeat of Athens in 404 BC, or perhaps a few years earlier, Neandreia fell under the influence of the Dardanian dynast, Zenis, who ruled as the satrap (governor) of Aiolis on behalf of Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. By 399 BC, Neandreia was garrisoned by Greek mercenaries loyal to Zenis’ widow, Mania, who had succeeded her husband as satrap of Aiolis. However, following her murder, the garrison was expelled, and the city taken by Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos, in 398 BC. Like many of Derkylidas’ gains in Troas, Neandreia may have been restored to Pharnabazos soon thereafter. It was certainly recognized as a Persian possession under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes.

In the aftermath of Alexander the Great’s victory over the western Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC), Neandreia was absorbed with the rest of Troas into the expanding Macedonian empire. After the death of the Macedonian conqueror in 323 BC, the cities of Troas fell under the influence of his rival former generals. Between c. 310 and 306 BC, one of the most powerful of these generals, Antigonos Monophthalmos, forcibly combined the populations of Neandreia, Kebren, Kolonai, Skepsis and perhaps Hamaxitos through synoecism (amalgamation) in order to found the new city of Antigoneia (renamed Alexandreia Troas after 301 BC). From this point Neandreia ceased to exist as an independent entity.

Coinage

Neandreia is not believed to have struck any electrum or gold coinage. However, a fractional silver coinage on the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) was struck in the late fifth or early fourth century BC. Triobols, obols and hemiobols all feature the laureate head of Apollo on the obverse. A ram frequently appears on the reverse of triobols and obols, but an altar and an oinochoe also occur as reverse types on triobols and hemiobols, respectively. The reverse types are regularly framed by an incuse square or circle (hemiobols).

Later in the fourth century BC, Neandreia produced a new Chian-weight series consisting of drachms, hemidrachms and hemiobols. The two largest denominations pair the head of Apollo with a grazing horse while obols depict an Attic helmet on the obverse and a barleycorn on the reverse.

A bronze coinage of three denominations (B, C and D) may have supplemented or followed the new silver series in the late fourth century BC, before the synoecism that created Antigoneia/Alexandreia Troas between c. 310 and 306 BC. All denominations feature the laureate head of Apollo on the obverse, but, following the model of the silver coinage, denominations B and C depict a grazing horse on the reverse, while denomination D depicts a barleycorn.

The Apollo, horse, and barleycorn types all reappear on the earliest coinage of Alexandreia Troas, which tends to suggest that Neandreia may have been the most important member of the synoecism.

All coins of Neandreia carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Neandrieans” as the issuing authority.

silver (CHian standard)

Drachm (3.68g)

1126. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. NEAN. Horse grazing r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 350–310/306 BC. Gorny & Mosch 176, lot 1262. R3

Triobols or Hemidrachms (c. 1.95g)

1127. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. A–N/N–E. Horned altar with laurel tree in background. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2386. R2

1128. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. NEAN. Ram grazing r. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. CNG 105, lot 226. R3

1129. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. NEAN. Horse grazing r. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 350–310/306 BC. BMC Troas, p. 73, no. 1. R1

Obols (c. 0.65g)

1130. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. NEAN or NEA/N. Ram standing r. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 23863. R1

1131. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. NEA/. Ram standing l. All within incuse square. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. BMC Troas, p. 73, no. 2. R2

Hemiobols (c. 0.3g)

1132. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. N–E or N–E/–A Oinochoe. All within incuse circle. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth–early fourth centuries BC. CNG EA 287, lot 138. R2

1133. Obv. Attic helmet r. Rev. NE/AN or N–E/–A. Barleycorn. All within incuse square or circle. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 350–310 BC. Babelon II, no. 2387. R2

bronze

Denomination B (19–21mm, 5.58–8.26g)

1134. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. NEAN. Horse grazing r. barleyCorn in exergue. Struck c. 350–310/306 BC. Babelon II, no. 2390. C

Denomination C (16–17mm, 2.77–2.95g)

1135. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. NEAN. Horse grazing r. barleyCorn in exergue. Struck c. 350–310 BC. Babelon II, no. 2391. R1

Denomination D (10–11mm, 1.19–1.69g)

1136. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. N–E–A–N. Barleycorn. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 350–310 BC. SNG München 294. R1

1137. Laureate head of Apollo r. Rev. NEAN or N–E–A–N. Barleycorn. STar and/or GraPe bunCh to r. (if any). Struck c. 350–310 BC. Babelon II, nos. 2388–2389. S

oPhryneion

History

Conflicting Greek mythological traditions variously ascribe the foundation of Ophryneion to Akamas, a son of the Athenian hero Theseus, to Askanios, the son of the Trojan hero Aineias, or to Skamandrios, the son of the Trojan hero Hektor. The tradition associating the city with Akamas is often considered to have developed in support of Athenian imperialism in the fifth century BC.

The historical city may not have been founded before the sixth century BC and seems to have been included in the peraia (mainland possessions) controlled by Mytilene. It was defended by a fortified akropolis, but the public buildings possessed by Ophryneion have not been identified. The city was most famous for a tomb reputed to be that of Hektor located in a grove of trees in its territory.

Like the other cities of Troas, Ophryneion was incorporated into the Achaemenid Persian empire following the conquest of the Lydian kingdom by the Great King Cyrus I in 547/6 BC. What involvement Ophryneion may have had in the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against the Great King Dareios I is unknown, but his son, Xerxes I, reportedly passed by the city while leading his army to Abydos to embark on the disastrous invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC).

In the aftermath of the invasion, Ophryneion and the rest of the Mytilenean peraia were brought into the Athenian-led Delian League. This alliance of Greek cities was originally formed as a defense against future Persian aggression, but gradually evolved into the core of an Athenian empire. Chafing under Athenian domination, Mytilene seceded from the League in 428 BC, shortly after the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. Mytilene’s membership was forcibly restored by an Athenian naval squadron the following year. In punishment for the revolt, Mytilene was stripped of its peraia and the dependent cities there were enrolled as autonomous tributary members of the Delian League. The cost of Ophryneion’s freedom from Mytilene was the payment of an annual tribute to Athens, assessed at five talents in 425/4 BC, and the loss of some of the city’s property to Athenian citizens.

The fate of the city after the final defeat of Athens in 404 BC is unknown, but it is reported that in 399 BC the Athenian mercenary commander Xenophon stopped at Ophryneion to sacrifice at the tomb of Hektor while leading the Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries home after serving in the failed revolt of Cyrus the Younger against his brother, the Great King Artaxerxes II. It is similarly uncertain how the city fared during the Corinthian War (398–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth and Thebes. However, under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the conflict, Ophryneion and all other Greek cities of western Anatolia were recognized as possessions of the Persian empire.

The history of Ophryneion is obscure for most of the fourth century although it appears that at some point, perhaps in the 340s BC, the city suffered damage from an earthquake. Following the victory of Alexander the Great over the western Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granikos River (334 BC), the city and the rest of Troas were absorbed into the expanding Macedonian empire. However, after his death in 323 BC, both were dominated by a series of the king’s former generals.

Ophryneion may have been included among the Greek cities that banded together in c. 316 BC to rebuild Thebes, the important Boiotian city that had been destroyed by Alexander in 335 BC. Ophryneion certainly transferred the bones

believed to be those of Hektor from their tomb to the reconstructed Thebes in order to fulfil an oracle’s prophecy that promised prosperity for Thebes if the remains of the hero were brought to the city. Despite the transfer of Hektor’s bones, his tomb at Ophryneion remained a tourist attraction into the first century BC/AD.

The political history of Ophryneion in the Hellenistic period is very poorly known, but the city probably belonged to the Seleukid empire for much of the third century BC. At some point in this period the city seems to have become a dependency of Dardanos. Following the Roman defeat of the Seleukid king, Antiochos III, in the Aitolian War (192–189 BC) the political map of western Anatolia was redrawn. The terms of the Peace of Apameia (188 BC) that ended the conflict gave the bulk of Seleukid territory north of the Tauros Mountains, including Troas, to the Attalid kingdom of Pergamon. At the time of the peace settlement, the consul Cn. Manlius Vulso added Ophryneion to the territory of Ilion out of respect for the supposed Trojan ancestry of the Roman people.

Nothing further is heard of the city, although it was almost certainly bequeathed to the Roman people with the rest of the Attalid kingdom when Attalos III died in 133 BC. This territory was reorganized as the Roman province of Asia in 129 BC. Despite the complete disappearance from written sources, archaeological evidence shows that Ophryneion continued to be inhabited under the Roman Emperors through to the Byzantine period.

Coinage

The only precious metal coinage produced at Ophryneion consists of silver drachms and hemidrachms struck to the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos) in the late fourth century BC. These coins feature the facing head of Hektor on the obverse and a youth riding a horse and carrying a palm branch on the reverse. The reverse type is remarkable as it seems to be copied from tetradrachms struck by the Macedonian king, Philip II, between 347 and 336 BC (see the Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors, Part 1, nos. 862–865). In the same period this reverse type was also employed for the reverses of Philip’s peculiar fifth tetradrachm fractional denomination, which is very close in weight to the drachms of Ophryneion struck to the Persic standard (Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors, Part 1, nos. 875–876). This apparent relationship with the Macedonian coinage of Philip II is tantalizing and seems to raise the possibility that Ophryneion was one of the cities held by the Macedonian advance force sent to western Anatolia in 336 BC to prepare the way for the full-scale invasion of the Persian empire.

A bronze coinage of two denominations (B and D) was probably first struck at Ophryneion in the early fourth century BC. Both denominations feature a threequarter facing head of Hektor (left for denomination B and right for D) on the obverse and a crouching figure of the infant Dionysos holding a grape bunch on the reverse. The pose and the use of the wine god in the form of a child seems to be influenced by the representation of the infant Herakles on coins struck by nearby Kyzikos and Lampsakos, as well as by more distant Byzantion, Ephesos, Iasos, Knidos, Rhodes, and Samos, probably in the aftermath of their detachment from Athenian domination by the Spartan general Lysander in c. 409 BC.

Bronze issues of denomination D/E may have been produced later in the fourth century BC. These depict the head of Zeus on the obverse and a crouching or advancing nude warrior armed with spear and hoplite shield on the reverse. The heroic nudity of the warrior suggests that he is intended to represent Hektor going into battle. The reverse type invites comparison with the kneeling warrior who

appears as the obverse type of Persic-weight silver drachms struck at Kisthene in the name of Orontas, the Persian satrap of Mysia (c. 362–344 BC).

A third and final bronze series, involving denominations C and D, features the same head of Hektor/youth on horseback types as the Persic-weight silver issues of Ophryneion. It was probably struck in the late fourth or early third century BC. All coins of Ophryneion carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Ophryneans” as the issuing authority.

silver (persiC standard)

Drachm or Half Siglos (c. 2.9g)

1138. Obv. Bearded head of Hektor facing, wearing Attic helmet. Rev. oRUNEWN Youth riding horse prancing r., holding palm branch. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 336–334 BC. Babelon II, no. 2420. R2

Hemidrachm or Quarter Siglos (c. 1.3g)

1139. Obv. Bearded head of Hektor facing, wearing Attic helmet. Rev. oRUNEWN. Youth riding horse prancing r., holding palm branch. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 336–334 BC. BMC Troas, p. 75, no. 1. R3

bronze

Denomination B (17–19mm, 5.0–7.15g)

1140. Obv. Bearded head of Hektor facing 3/4 l., wearing Attic helmet. Rev. oRU Infant Dionysos kneeling r., holding grape bunch. Vine below. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2423. R1

Denomination C (15–17mm, 4.13–4.21g)

1141. Obv. Bearded head of Hektor facing, wearing Attic helmet. Rev. oRUNEWN. Youth riding horse prancing r., holding palm branch. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 336–334 BC. BMC Troas, p. 75, no. 1. R1

Denomination D (11–13mm, 1.05–2.5g)

1142. Obv. Bearded head of Hektor facing 3/4 r., wearing Attic helmet. Rev. oRU. Infant Dionysos kneeling r., holding grape bunch. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2424. S

Denomination D/E (8–11mm, 0.97–1.54g)

1143. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. oRU. Warrior (Hektor?) crouching l., holding spear and shield. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2425. R1

1144. Obv. Laureate head of Zeus r. Rev. oRU. Warrior (Hektor?) standing l., holding spear and shield. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 450. R2

SiGeion

History

Sigeion was founded on a promontory in Troas by Aiolian Greek colonists from Mytilene in the eighth or early seventh century BC or perhaps by the Athenian Olympic victor, Phrynon in the late seventh century BC. Although the appearance of Sigeion in antiquity is poorly known, it certainly possessed a prytaneion (city hall) and was defended by walls reputedly constructed from stones taken from the ruins of Ilion.

Dispute between Athens and Mytilene over the control of Sigeion boiled over into a long and eventful conflict in the late seventh century BC. During the war, the Mytilenean lyric poet, Alkaios, famously fled from the battlefield and lost his shield, which was subsequently kept as a trophy by the Athenians. Although Phrynon was reportedly killed in a duel with the Mytilenean general Pittakos, this seems not to have settled the dispute over the city, the Athenians and Mytileneans therefore asked for the arbitration of Periander, the tyrant of Korinth. He concluded that the Athenians had a greater right on the grounds that they had previously participated in the mythical destruction of Troy, whereas Mytilene had sent out its colonists at a much later date.

Sigeion remained in Athenian hands through the early sixth century BC, but was constantly threatened by the Mytileneans who held the nearby fort of Achilleion. Sigeion was captured by the Mytileneans, probably in the 540s BC but the city was soon retaken by the Athenian tyrant, Peisistratos. He established his illegitimate son, Hegesistratos, as tyrant of Sigeion, but the latter was only able to hold onto power and the city through continued fighting with the Mytileneans. Sigeion later became home to Peisistratos’ son and successor in the Athenian tyranny, Hippias, after he was expelled from Athens in 510/09 BC.

Although no evidence survives for the political history of Sigeion in the period of the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) of Greek cities against the Persian Great King, Dareios I, or the failed invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC) undertaken by his son and successor, Xerxes I, it is clear that the city remained closely bound to Athenian interests. Sigeion may have been an original member of the Athenianled Delian League, an alliance of Greek cities established in 478 BC as a defense against future Persian aggression. The League evolved into the core of an Athenian empire and in 450/49 BC Sigeion began paying an annual tribute of 1,000 drachms or a talent of silver to Athens. The city was praised for its loyalty and continued to make tribute payments as late as 418/17 BC.

It is unclear what direct involvement Sigeion may have had in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) fought between Athens and Sparta or in the subsequent Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes. Under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War, Sigeion and the other Greek cities of western Anatolia were recognized as Persian possessions, although at some point during the fourth century BC the island city of Tenedos appears to have claimed some authority over the city. Between 355 and 334 BC, Sigeion was the preferred residence of the Athenian general Chares, who had a friendly relationship with Artabazos, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia.

Following Alexander the Great’s victory over the Persian forces at the Battle of the Granikos River in 334 BC, Sigeion and the rest of Troas were absorbed into his expanding Macedonian empire. Alexander’s death in 323 BC inaugurated a period

of upheaval in which the cities of Troas found themselves under the influence of successive Macedonian generals who sought to make kingdoms for themselves. In 311 BC, Troas was dominated by Antigonos Monophthalmos, a general to whom Sigeion appears to have shown its loyalty. When Antigonos’ rival, Lysimachos of Thrace, invaded Troas in 302 BC, Sigeion did not willingly join him, but had to be taken by force. The city remained a possession of Lysimachos until his death at the battle of Koroupedion (281 BC), after which his territories were claimed by Seleukos I Nikator.

Nothing is heard of Sigeion for most of he Hellenistic period, although the city probably remained part of the Seleukid empire for much of the third century BC. All of Troas was lost to the Seleukids after the Seleukid king Antiochos III was defeated by the Romans in the Aitolian War (192–188 BC). Under the terms of the Peace of Apameia (188 BC) that ended the conflict, Troas and the majority of Anatolia north of the Tauros Mountains were granted to Eumenes II, the Attalid king of Pergamon. However, in 168 BC, as the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC) between the Romans and King Perseus of Macedon was nearing its conclusion, a Macedonian fleet anchored off Sigeion intercepted and destroyed 35 transport vessels carrying Galatian (Celtic) mercenaries and horses intended to join the Attalid forces aiding the Romans in Macedon.

At some point after this incident, perhaps in the first century BC, Sigeion was destroyed by nearby Ilion as punishment for disobedience. Although the precise context of the city’s destruction is unknown, the charge of disloyalty may tend to suggest that at some time before Sigeion had become a dependency of Ilion.

Coinage

The only precious metal coinage attributed to Sigeion consists of silver drachms apparently struck to the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos stater) in the fourth century BC. These feature the three-quarter facing head of Athena on the obverse and an owl and crescent derived from the contemporary Athenian tetradrachm on the reverse. It is generally believed that the drachms were struck while Chares had control of the city.

Sigeion appears to have struck three series of bronze coins in the fourth century BC. What appears to be the earliest series, involving denominations D and E, features the profile head of Athena on the obverse while a standing owl (D) or crescent (E) appears on the reverse. Both the representation of Athena and her owl are derived from the iconography of Athenian tetradrachms.

A subsequent bronze series consisting of denominations B/C and D was probably struck in the late fourth century BC to supplement the drachms. Both bronze denominations carry the same types as the silver.

The third and latest bronze series of Sigeion involves denominations B and D, both of which feature an obverse three-quarter facing head of Athena inherited from the preceding series. However, the reverse of the new coinage depicts a double-bodied owl rather than the traditional single-bodied Athenian owl. This coinage probably belongs to the late fourth or third century BC.

All coins of Sigeion carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Sigeans”as the issuing authority.

silver (persiC standard)

Drachm or Half Siglos (c. 2.8g)

1146. Obv. Head of Athena facing 3/4 r., wearing Attic helmet. Rev. SIGE. Owl standing r., head facing. Crescent to l. Struck c. 355–334 BC. Babelon II, no. 2412. R2

bronze

Denomination B (19–21mm, 4.47–9.26g)

1147. Obv. Head of Athena facing 3/4 r., wearing Attic helmet. Rev. SIGE. Doublebodied owl. CreSCenT to r. Struck late fourth–third centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2415. C

Denomination B/C (18–19mm, 5.00–6.92g)

1148. Obv. Head of Athena facing 3/4 r., wearing Attic helmet. Rev. SIGE. Owl standing r., head facing. CreSCenT to l. Struck c. 355–334 BC. Babelon II, no. 2413. C

Denomination D (12–14mm, 1.79–2.30g)

1149. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. SIGE. Owl standing r., head facing. No symbols or monograms. Struck early fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2416. R1

1150. Obv. Head of Athena facing 3/4 r., wearing Attic helmet. Rev. SIGE. Owl standing r., head facing. CreSCenT to l. Struck late fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2414. C

1151. Obv. Head of Athena facing 3/4 r., wearing Attic helmet. Rev. SIGE. Double-bodied owl. CreSCenT to l. Struck late fourth–third centuries BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 494. S

Denomination D/E (9–10mm, 0.7–1.41g)

1152. Obv. Head of Athena in Attic helmet r. Rev. S–I/G–E. Crescent. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2417. C

rhoiTeion

History

Greek mythological tradition held that the city of Rhoiteion was founded in honor of Rhoiteia, a daughter of the sea god Proteus. Following the destruction of Troy by the Achaians, the great city’s territory was said to have been divided between Rhoiteion and Sigeion.

The historical city was on was founded in Troas by Dorian Greek colonists from the island of Astypalaia by the eighth century BC. It was defended by a fortified akropolis and commanded a shoreline on the Hellespont that was excellent for harboring ships. The Achaians were said to have beached their ships before Rhoiteion at the opening of the Trojan War. The city was also famous for a tumulus tomb in its territory that was believed to belong to the Achaian hero, Ajax, the son of Telamon.

After heroically bringing back the body of Achilles for burial, Ajax went mad with rage after the armor of Achilles was awarded to Odysseus, who also played a role in the return of Achilles’ corpse. Ajax subsequently slaughtered the cattle and sheep of the Achaians, believing them to be Odysseus, Agamemnon and other Achaian leaders. When he came to his senses, the shame of what he had done caused Ajax to fall on his own sword.

Despite its Dorian origins, Rhoiteion fell under the domination of Aiolian Greek Mytilene on Lesbos and was incorporated into the Mytilenean peraia (mainland possessions). Rhoiteion remained a dependency of Mytilene until 425 BC, when the Athenians freed the cities of the peraia in punishment for Mytilene’s revolt from the Delian League in 428–427 BC. In 425/4 BC, Rhoiteion and other cities of the Mytilenean peraia were enrolled as autonomous tributary members of the Delian League. The League had been formed originally in 478 BC to defend the Greek member cities against future Persian aggression, but soon evolved into the core of an Athenian empire. As a member of the Delian League, Rhoiteion was assessed for a large tribute payment of eight talents in 425/4 BC and an unknown amount in 422/1 BC.

In 424 BC, a group of Mytilenean and other exiles from Lesbos seized Rhoiteion and held the city for ransom. The Athenians were evidently unable to retake the city by force and instead paid 2,000 Phokaian staters for its return. Since the Ionian city of Phokaia primarily produced electrum hektai (sixth staters) in tandem with Mytilene in the fifth century BC (see the Handbook of Coins of the Islands, nos. 924–932), it is tempting to suggest that this ransom was actually paid in Mytilenean hektai struck to the Phokaic standard (c. 16.1 to the stater).

Rhoiteion was Hamaxitos was a tributary member of the Delian League in the early phase of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. The city is known to have been assessed for tribute in 425/4 and 422/1 BC, however, Athenian influence seems to have waned at the city by 411 BC. Nothing stopped the Spartan fleet from beaching there in the autumn of that year as it made its way to challenge the Athenians for control of the Hellespont at the Battle of Abydos. Likewise, the Athenian fleet took shelter on the shore before Rhoiteion to escape damage by winter storms in 409 BC.

Nothing is heard of the city following the defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC, although it was certainly recognized as a possession of the Persian empire under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens,

Corinth and Thebes. The city subsequently fell under the jurisdiction of the Persian satraps (governors) of Hellespontine Phrygia and regional satraps, like the brothers Mentor and Memnon of Rhodes.

In 336 BC, the Macedonian king, Philip II, dispatched an advance force across the Hellespont to prepare for a planned full-scale invasion of the Persian empire. In the following year, the Macedonian general, Kalas, was defeated in battle by a large Persian force led by Memnon of Rhodes, but managed to escape to Rhoiteion. The city was absorbed into the Macedonian empire after Alexander the Great defeated the western satraps at the Battle of the Granikos River in 334 BC.

In the decades after the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Rhoiteion and Troas successively fell under the influence of his former generals-turned kings: Antigonos Monophthalmos between 311 and 301 BC, Lysimachos between 301 and 281 BC, and Seleukos I in 281 BC. Rhoiteion subsequently belonged to the Seleukid empire for much of the third century BC.

The city was certainly under Seleukid control during the disastrous Aitolian War (192–189 BC) fought between Antiochos III and the Romans. However, following the king’s defeat in mainland Greece and withdrawal to western Anatolia, in 190 BC Rhoiteion surrendered to the Roman praetor, C. Livius Salinator. Under the terms of the Peace of Apameia (188 BC) that ended the conflict, Antiochos III was forced to renounce all claims to territory in Anatolia north of the Tauros Mountains. Much of the former Seleukid territory there, including Troas, was granted by the victorious Romans to Eumenes II, the Attalid king of Pergamon.

Little further is heard of Rhoiteion under the Attalids or the Roman administration after the Attalid kingdom was reorganized as the province of Asia in 129 BC. However, it is reported that after the triumvir Mark Antony assumed control of the eastern provinces in 39 BC, he carried of the statue of Ajax from the hero’s tomb at Rhoiteion in order to give it as a gift to his lover, Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt. In the aftermath of Antony’s defeat at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian, his victorious rival, restored the statue to the city.

Coinage

The only coinage attributed to Rhoiteion consists of an emission of drachms struck to the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachms) in the fourth century BC. Now known from only a single specimen, these drachms feature the head of Apollo on the obverse and a triskeles composed of crescents on the reverse. The same reverse type occurs on roughly contemporary bronze coins of Birytis in Troas, Thebe in Mysia, and Megara in mainland Greece (see the Handbook of Coins of Central Greece, no. 1787). The triskeles of crescents also appears as a symbol on Chianweight silver tetradrachms and drachms.

An abbreviated Greek legend may name the city or identify “the Rhoiteians” as the issuing authority.

silver (CHian standard)

Drachm (3.08g)

1145. Obv. Laureate head of Apollo l. Rev. Ro–IT–EI. Triskeles of crescents. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2419. R3

Skamandreia

History

Almost nothing is known about the city of Skamandreia other than that it was located in Troas near the Skamander River, issued a bronze coinage in the fourth century BC and was absorbed by Ilion through synoecism (amalgamation) in the first century BC. Nevertheless, it still existed as a small city in the first century AD and survived to become a bishopric in the Byzantine period.

Coinage

The only coinage attributed to Skamandreia consists of an issue of four bronze denominations (B, C, D, and E) in the fourth century BC. The obverse type for all four denominations is the head of the nymph Ida, whose mountain was the source of the Skamander River. The reverse of the three largest denominations depicts a fir tree while the small denomination E features a pinecone. The fir tree was also employed as a reverse type at Skepsis and for this reason the coinage of Skamandreia is sometimes attributed to that city.

All coins of Skamandreia carry an abbreviated Greek legend that may name the city or identify “the Skamandreians” as the issuing authority. The obverse depiction of Ida is sometimes also labeled in Greek.

Denomination B (19–20mm, 5.82–8.68g)

1153. Obv. IDH (if any). Head of Ida r., wreathed with fir(?). Rev. SK–A. Fir tree. boar head to r. Struck fourth century BC. BMC Troas, p. 79, no. 1. R1

Denomination C (16–19mm, 3.06–4.47g)

1154. Obv. Head of Ida r., wreathed with fir(?). Rev. SK–A. Fir tree. boar head to r. (if any). Struck fourth century BC. BMC Troas, p. 79, nos. 2–3. R1

Denomination D (14–15mm, 2.11–2.30g)

1155. Obv. Head of Ida r., wreathed with fir(?). Rev. S–KA. Fir tree. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. BMC Troas, p. 79, nos. 2–3. R1

Denomination E (9–10mm, 0.97–1.02g)

1156. Obv. Head of Ida r., wreathed with fir(?). Rev. S–K/A. Pinecone. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 466–468. R1

SkePSiS

History

According to Greek mythological tradition, Skepsis was originally an ancient Trojan city founded near the source of the Aisepos River on Mount Ida and supposedly received its name from the fact that it could be seen all around (from Greek skepsis or “observation”). It was the capital of the territory ruled by the Trojan hero, Aeneas, and at some later date—apparently before the Trojan War and his flight to Italy—the city was moved to a new site lower down the slope by Askanios, the son of Aineias, and Skamandrios, the son of Hektor. The original site then came to be known as Palaiskepsis (“Old Skepsis”). The new Skepsis was established in the valley of the Skamander River near the city of Kebren and was believed to have been ruled initially by the descendants of Ascanius and Skamadrios.

The historical city of Skepsis was an Aeolian Greek foundation that was probably relocated to the Skamander Valley only after the arrival of Ionian Greek colonists from Miletos in the early fifth century BC. These newcomers may have been fleeing the Persian sack of Miletos in 494 BC. Unfortunately, little is known about the appearance of Skepsis in antiquity, beyond that it was defended by a fortified akropolis and possessed a temples dedicated to Athena and Dionysos Bambouleios. A small walled settlement known as Polichna, which may have been a small dependent city, also protected Skepsian territory.

Although Skepsis had paid tribute to the Achaemenid Great Kings of the Persian empire since the mid-sixth century BC, the defeat of Xerxes’ invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC) and the destruction of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mykale (479 BC) freed the city from Persian domination. As a means of preserving this freedom from Persia, Skepsis became a member of the Athenianled Delian League, which gradually evolved into the core of an Athenian empire. By 454/3 BC, Skepsis was paying tribute to Athens in silver coin and continued to do so until probably 410/09 BC.

Following the Spartan defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), the city fell under the influence of Zenis of Dardanos, who ruled Skepsis, Gergis and other cities as the satrap (governor) of Aiolis on behalf of Pharnabazos, the Persian satrap (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia. When Zenis died in 399 BC, he was succeeded by his wife, Mania. She had a reputation as a skilled general and a loyal administrator. However, Meideias, her jealous son-in-law, killed her and claimed the right to rule in Skepsis and the other cities that had been under Mania’s authority. In an attempt to protect himself from the vengeance of Pharnabazos, Meideias handed Skepsis over to Derkylidas, the Spartan harmost (military governor) of Abydos in 398 BC. He was ultimately removed from power after revealing the treasury of Mania at Gergis.

The Spartan interlude at Skepsis was brief and the city was restored to Paharnabazos in 395 BC. The King’s Peace (387 BC) that ended the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes formally recognized Skepsis and the other Greek cities of western Anatolia as possessions of the Persian empire. However, the entirety of Troas was absorbed into the Macedonian empire of Alexander the Great in the aftermath of his victory over the western satraps at the Battle of the Granikos River in 334 BC.

Skepsis was frequently in conflict with the neighboring city of Kebren in the late fourth century BC. The fighting was briefly brought to an end between 310 and 306 BC, when Alexander’s former general, Antigonos Monophthalmos, forcibly transferred the populations of Skepsis and Kebren, together with those of Hamaxitos, Kolonai, Larisa and Neandria to his new foundation of Antigoneia. In 301 BC, after Antigonos was killed at the Battle of Ipsos, his rival, Lysimachos, refounded Antigoneia as Alexandreia Troas and permitted the Skepsians to return to their original homes. Lysimachos was soon defeated and killed in turn at the Battle of Koroupedion (281 BC), and Skepsis was absorbed along with the rest Troas into the nascent Seleukid empire.

The city remained largely under the influence of the Seleukid kings through the third century BC. However, a disastrous confrontation between Antiochos III and the Romans in the Aitolian War (192–189 BC) and the defeat of the king at the Battle of Magnesia under Mount Sipylos in 190/89 BC broke Seleukid power in western Anatolia. Under the terms of the Peace of Apameia that settled the conflict in 188 BC, much of the territory in northwestern Asia Minor previously claimed by the Seleukid kings was ceded to the Roman ally, King Eumenes II of Pergamon.

One of the city’s famous sons was Neleus of Skepsis, who was a pupil of Aristotle and a friend of Theophrastos. The latter had carried on Aristotle’s Peripatetic school of philosophy after the death of the master. When Theophrastos died in 287 BC, Neleus carried off the combined library of Aristotle and Theophrastos from Athens to his native Skepsis. Later, the heirs of Neleus hid the books in a cellar to prevent them from being seized for the grand library that Eumenes II was assembling at Pergamon. The books moldered underground at Skepsis for decades before they were again brought to light and sold to the famous Athenian book collector, Apellikon of Teos, in the late second or early first century BC.

When Attalos III died in 133 BC, he bequeathed the entire Attalid kingdom, including Skepsis, to the Roman people. Skepsis was included in the new Roman province of Asia and managed to the turmoil that resulted from the early Roman administration. The city seems not to have been directly involved in the Revolt of Aristonikos (133–129 BC), which saw a failed attempt to restore the Attalid kingship and it is not clear what role Skepsis may have played in the First Mithradatic War (89–85 BC), although it is certain that at least some Skepsians supported King Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontos in his unsuccessful campaign to drive the Romans out of Asia. The orator Metrodoros of Skepsis earned the nickname Misoromaios (“Roman-hater”) from his anti-Roman speeches and was appointed chief judge of Mithradates’ Pontic kingdom, but it is unclear how many of Metrodoros’ fellow countrymen shared his views.

It is similarly uncertain how Skepsis fared during the Roman civil wars between the adherents of Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar, the Second Triumvirate and Caesar’s assassins, and Octavian and Mark Antony. However, it is clear that the city survived all of these conflicts to flourish under the Roman emperors and later become a Byzantine bishopric.

Coinage

The earliest coinage of Skepsis appears to have consisted of silver fractional issues struck to the Persic standard (c. 5.6g to the siglos) in the early fifth century BC. Diobols depict the forepart of Pegasos on the obverse while obols feature the forepart of a galloping horse and hemiobols the head of a horse. All three denominations depict a fir tree within an ornamented frame on the reverse.

A second series of Persic-weight diobols and obols struck on more compact flans and featuring the forepart of a horse and Pegasos, respectively, is associated with what appears to be several issues of obols on the so-called ‘Troad’ standard (c. 3.8g to the drachm). A reverse type depicting a grape bunch seems to signal the different standard for these obols while on the obverse they carry the forepart or head of a horse familiar from the Persic-weight series.

In the late fifth century BC, Skepsis adopted the Chian standard (c. 15.6g to the tetradrachm) for didrachms and drachms that reprised the earlier Pegasos forepart and fir tree types. These types were redesigned for drachms and hemidrachms struck in the fourth century BC, before the city’s incorporation into Antigoneia. On the new coins, the Pegasos forepart has been transformed into a rhyton (drinking horn) while the fir tree stands within a linear square frame rather than an ornamented incuse square.

After the restoration of Skepsis by Lysimachos, the city seems not to have immediately resumed its former silver coinage production, although it did produce a series of Seleucid royal tetradrachms on the Attic weight standard (c. 17.2g to the tetradrachm) for Antiochos Hierax (see the Handbook of Syrian Coins, no. 399i). Skepsian civic coinage was again produced in the later third and early second centuries BC using similar types to those of the fourth century, but the new hemidrachms and trihemiobols are distinguished from the earlier coinage by the use of a reduced Persic standard (c. 4.9g to the siglos or stater) and by the filleted rectangular border surrounding the fir tree on the reverse.

The final silver coinage of Skepsis was an emission of tetradrachms struck to a reduced Attic weight standard presently known from a single specimen. This depicts the laureate head of Zeus on the obverse and the standing figure of the same god within an oak wreath on the reverse. Based on the use of broken-bar alpha (a), usually considered to be a late letter form, this coinage was probably struck in the early first century BC, although the possibility of production in the second century BC cannot be ruled out.

The first bronze coinage at Skepsis is represented by an issue of bronze denomination E, probably struck in the late fifth century BC. It features the original types of the city depicting the forepart of Pegasos and a fir tree within a linear rectangular border.

In the fourth century BC, before the inclusion of the city in the synoecism of Antigoneia, a system of three denominations (B, D and E) evolved. The typology of this coinage was very similar to that of the preceding emission of bronze denomination E except that the Pegasos forepart has become the ornamental tip of a rhyton. This bronze system seems to have expanded to include denomination C, featuring the same typology, in the third century BC, after Skepsis was released from the synoecism. In the late third or early second century BC, this denomination was produced with the same filleted border around the fir tree that occurs on the contemporary reduced Persic-weight silver coinage of Skepsis.

An emission of bronze denomination E that replaces the expected Pegasosforepart rhyton with a winged thunderbolt may perhaps belong to the second or early first century BC. This weapon of Zeus also occurs as a prominent symbol on the city’s reduced Attic-weight tetradrachm coinage.

More certainly belonging to the early first century BC are issues of bronze denominations B, C and E that generally depart from the traditional iconography of Skepsis. Denomination B features the facing head of Dionysos and a standing eagle. The latter is clearly derived from the silver coinage of Abydos struck in the context of the Mithradatic Wars.

Although denomination C depicts the old Skepsian badge of the Pegasosforepart rhyton on the obverse, the reverse carries a Greek legend surrounded by an ivy wreath. The form of the wreath is clearly derived from contemporary cistophoric tetradrachms.

Denomination D pairs the head of Dionysos with his thyrsos—types that may reflect Pontic influence during the First Mithradatic War. Mithradates VI was well known for his associations with Dionysos.

With the exception of several anepigraphic bronze issues of denomination E, the coinage of Skepsis regularly carries a full or abbreviated Greek legend naming “the Skepsians” as the issuing authority. Initially, the Aiolic Greek form, “Skapsian,” was used, but this was soon replaced by the Attic-Ionic form, “Skepsian.”

Some issues of the fifth century BC include the additional abbreviation  or E. This has been variously interpreted as evidence of an alliance with Neandreia or an indicator of the transfer of the city from the site of Palaiskepsis (“Old Skepsis”) to that of Nea Skepsis (“New Skepsis”). There is no independent evidence to support either of these suggestions.

silver (persiC standard)

Diobols or Third Sigloi (c. 2.0g) 1157

1157. Obv. KAIoN. Pegasus forepart flying r. Rev. –. Fir tree. All within incuse square frame. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, no. 2349. R2

1158. Obv. KHIoN. Horse forepart galloping r. Rev. Fir tree. All within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 480–450 BC. SNG Tübingen 323. R2

Obols (c. 0.9g)

1159. Obv. KAIoN. Horse forepart galloping r. Rev. – (if any). Fir tree. All within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 480–450 BC. Babelon II, nos. 2346–2347. R1

1160. Obv. KHI. Pegasus flying r. Rev. n. Fir tree. All within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 450–400 BC. Babelon II, no. 2353. R2

Hemiobol (c. 0.4g)

1161. Obv. KA. Horse head r. Rev. – (if any). Fir tree. All within incuse square frame. PelleT to l. (if any). Struck c. 480–450 BC. SNG Copenhagen 469. R2 silver (‘troad’ standard)

Obols (c. 0.88g)

1162. Obv. KH. Horse forepart galloping r. Rev. n. Grape bunch. All within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets. No symbols or monograms. Struck c. 480–450 BC. SNG Arikantürk 724. R2

1163. Obv. KH. Horse head r. Rev. n (if any). Grape bunch. All within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets. No symbols or monograms Struck c. 480–450 BC. Numismatik Naumann 58, lot 131. R2

silver (CHian standard)

Stater or Didrachm (c. 7.6g)

1164. Obv. KHIoN. Pegasus forepart flying r. Rev. . Fir tree. All within square frame. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2350. R3

Drachms (c. 3.8g)

1165. Obv. KHIoN. Pegasus forepart flying r. Rev.  (if any). Fir tree. All within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2351. R2

1166. Obv. KHIoN. Pegasus forepart flying r. Rev. Fir tree flanked by grape bunches. All within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2352. R2

1162

1163

1167. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. Rev. SK/HI/W/N. Fir tree. Crab to l. Monogram to r. All within linear square. Struck fourth century before 310/306 BC. BMC Troas, p. 81, no. 8. R2

Hemidrachm (c. 1.8g)

1168. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. Rev. SKHIWN. Fir tree. A to l. and K to r. All within linear square. Struck fourth century before 310/306 BC. Babelon II, no. 2357. R2

silver (reduCed persiC standard)

Drachms or Half Sigloi (c. 2.45g)

1169. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. STar below (if any). All within fillet border. Rev. SKH. Fir tree. All within filleted square. ThyrSoS to l. Struck late third–early second centuries BC. Kagan 1984, p. 15, a1-p1–a2-p2. R2

Hemidrachms or Quarter Sigloi (c. 1.24g)

1170. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. Rev. SK–H. Fir tree within filleted square. Struck late third century BC. Kagan 1984, p. 18, a1-p1. R3

1171. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. All within fillet border. Rev. SKH. Fir tree. All within filleted square. No symbols or monograms. Struck late third–early second centuries BC. Kagan 1984, p. 15, ai-pi. R2

silver (attiC standard)

Tetradrachm (16.73g)

1172. Obv. Head of Zeus r., wreathed with oak. Rev. SKHIWN. Zeus standing l., holding thunderbolt and scepter. ThunderbolT to l. Magistrate name PoSIDaIoU/KoNWNoS to l. and in exergue. All within oak wreath. Struck second–early first centuries BC. Leu Numismatik 10, lot 2139. R3

bronze

Denomination B (18–21mm, 5.60–9.59g)

1173. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. Rev. SK–H. Fir tree within linear square. Symbol (Grain ear, lion head or ThunderbolT) to l. (if any). Struck late third century BC. Babelon II, no. 2358. C

1174. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos l. STar below (if any). Rev. SK–H. Fir tree within linear square. Symbol (CornuCoPia or GraPe bunCh) to l. (if any). Struck late third century BC. Babelon II, nos. 2359–2360. S

1175. Obv. Horned and bearded head of Dionysos facing, wearing polos and wreathed with ivy. Rev. S–KH. Eagle with spread wings, standing r. STar to r. All within oak wreath. Struck early first century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 488. R2

Denomination C (15–17mm, 3.41–4.84g)

1176. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. Rev. SK–H. Fir tree within linear square. Symbol (CornuCoPia, Grain ear, ThunderbolT, TorCh or kanTharoS) to l. or r. Struck third century BC. Babelon II, no. 2365–2367. S

1177

1172

1173

1174

1177. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos l. Rev. SK–H. Fir tree within linear square. CornuCoPia or ThyrSoS to l. bull head to r. (if any). Struck third century BC. Babelon II, no. 2361–2364. S

1178. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. Rev. SKH within ivy wreath No symbols or monograms. Struck early first century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 487. R2

Denomination D (11–14mm, 1.10–2.48g)

1179. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos l. Grain ear below (if any). Rev. SK. Fir tree. All within linear square. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century before 310/306 BC. Babelon II, no. 2368. C

1180. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. Rev. SK. Fir tree. All within linear square. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century before 310/306 BC. Babelon II, no. 2369. S

1181. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos l. Rev. SKH. Fir tree. bull head or kanTharoS to r. (if any). Struck third century BC. Babelon II, nos. 2372–2373. R1

1182. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. All within fillet border. Rev. SKH. Fir tree. All within filleted square. No symbols or monograms. Struck late third–early second centuries BC. Gitbud & Naumann 34, lot 229. R2

Denomination E (7–10mm, 0.61–1.48g)

1183. Obv. Pegasos forepart flying r. Rev. Fir tree within linear square. Anepigraphic. No symbols or monograms. Struck late fifth century BC. Babelon II, no. 2370. C

1184. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. Rev. Fir tree within linear square. Anepigraphic. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century before 310/306 BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 483. R1

1185. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r. Rev. SK–H. Fir tree within linear square. ThunderbolT to l. Struck third century BC. Naville Numismatics 11, lot 61. R1

1186. Obv. Rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos l. Rev. SK–H. Fir tree within linear square. STar to r. Struck third century BC. Savoca Numismatik Online Auction 25, lot 176. R2

1187. Obv. Winged thunderbolt. Rev. SK–H. Fir tree within linear square. Struck second–early first centuries BC. Babelon II, no. 2371. R2

1188. Obv. Bearded head of Dionysos r., wearing polos and wreathed with ivy. Rev. SKH. Filleted thyrsos. GraPe bunCh to l. Struck early first century BC. BMC Troas, p. 83. no. 24. R2

zeleia

History

Variously considered a city located in Mysia or Troas, Zeleia was situated on the Aisepos River at the foot of Mount Ida. According to mythological tradition, Zeleia was a settlement of Lykians allied to King Priam of Troy. During the Trojan War, a contingent of Zeleians was led against the Achaians by the great archer, Pandaros. He was later deceived by Athena into wounding Menelaos with an arrow during a truce that might have brought an end to the war. His untimely shot broke the truce and the conflict resumed that would ultimately see the destruction of Troy.

The historical city was defended by a fortified akropolis and boasted a temple of Apollo Pythios. The latter had been an oracular shrine but at some point the oracle seems to have been repressed, perhaps after Zeleia was absorbed by Kyzikos (see below).

Zeleia was presumably absorbed into the Achaemenid Persian empire of the Great King, Cyrus I, following his conquest of the Lydian empire of Croesus in 547/6 BC. The city, however, became a supporter of Athens once the Persian invasion of mainland Greece (480–479 BC) had failed and the allied Greeks began to bring war to the Persians in western Anatolia.

By the mid-fifth century BC, Zeleia had become a member of the Athenianled Delian League, an alliance originally formed in 478 BC to defend against future Persian aggression and to liberate Greek cities from Persian rule. The Delian League soon formed the basis for an Athenian empire in which member cities were compelled to pay tribute to Athens in coin. Zeleia appears to have paid tribute only in 441 BC, but may have been assessed in 425 BC, early in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta. The city may have returned to Persian domination

Greek recognition of Zeleia and the other cities of western Anatolia as Persian possessions was later guaranteed under the terms of the King’s Peace (387 BC) that brought an end to the Corinthian War (395–387 BC) fought between Sparta and a coalition of Argos, Athens, Corinth, and Thebes.

In 334 BC, the Persian satraps (governors) of western Anatolia met at Zeleia to make preparations for halting the advance of Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army. Holding a council in the city, it was determined that the best option was to use their superior forces to compel Alexander to fight a pitched battle on the banks of the nearby Granikos River and hopefully kill him. As it turned out, the satrapal army was outmaneuvered by the Macedonian king and utterly defeated. In the aftermath, Alexander pardoned the Zeleites for their involvement in the battle on the grounds that the had fought under Persian compulsion. A political revolution also occurred around this time, in which the previous oligarchic constitution of the city was replaced by a new democracy.

Little further is heard of Zeleia after the passage of Alexander through the surrounding region. However, it is certain that the city fell into decline over the course of the Hellenistic period until it was absorbed into the territory of Kyzikos. Zeleia subsequently lost its status as even a dependent city and became a Kyzikene fort.

Coinage

Although Zeleia struck no coinage in gold or silver, the city produced a bronze coinage in two series in the fourth century BC. One, probably earlier, series involves denominations B and D and features the head of Artemis wearing a polos (often ornamented with the forepart of Pegasos) on the obverse and a stag on the reverse.

A second, probably later, series of denomination D pairs the same female head with an uncertain object or monogram surrounded by a grain wreath. All coins of Zeleia carry abbreviated Greek legends that may name the city or identify “the Zeleites” as the issuing authority.

bronze

Denomination B (17–22mm, 5.37–7.41g)

1189. Obv. Head of Artemis r., wearing polos. Rev. z–E/L–E. Stag standing r. Grain ear below. Struck fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 50 1. R1

Denomination D (11–14 mm, 1.21–2.10g)

1190. Obv. Head of Artemis r., wearing polos Rev. z–E/L–E Stag standing r. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), no. 502. S

1191. Obv. Head of Artemis l., wearing polos. Rev. z–E/L–E. Stag standing l. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. Naumann 75, lot 207. R1

1192. Obv. Head of Artemis r., wearing polos Rev. z–E/–L or –z/L–E Uncertain object. All within grain wreath. No symbols or monograms. Struck fourth century BC. SNG Copenhagen (Troas), nos. 503–504. S

index of minTS

Abydos, 858–914

Achaiion, 915–918

Adramyttion, 1–20

Agathokleia(?), 660–665

Alexandreia Troas, 919–927

Antandros, 947–962

Antioch-Kebren, 1097–1100

Antioch-Miletopolis, 665

Apollonia on the Rhyndakos, 21–27

Apollonis, 816–817

Assos, 963–984

Astyra, 28

Atarneus, 29–37

Birytis, 983–988

Colonia Gemella Iulia Lampsacus, 651

Colonia Gemella Iulia Parium, 708–715

Dardanos, 991–1016

Eleutherion, 38

Gambreion, 39–49

Gargara, 1017–1031

Gentinos, 1032–1034

Hamaxitos, 1049–1056

Harpagion, 50

Ilion, 1057–1077

Iolla, 51–59

Kebren, 1080–1100

Kisthene, 60–63

Kolonai, 1101–1104

Kyzikos, 64–584

Lamponeia, 1105–1110

Lampsakos, 549–651

Larisa, 1112–1125

Miletopolis, 652–559

Neandreia, 1126–1137

Ophryneion, 1138–1144

Parion, 666–715

Pergamon, 716–814

Perperene, 818–819

Plakia, 820–826

Poimanenon, 827

Priapos, 828–841

Prokonnesos, 842–852

Ptolemaïs-Larisa, 1121–1125

Rhoiteion, 1145

Sigeion, 1146–1152

Skamandreia, 1153–1156

Skepsis, 1157–1188

Teuthrania, 853–855

Thebe, 856–857

Thyateira, 815

Zeleia, 1189–1192

index of PerSonS

Alexander III, the Great, 471–473, 519–523, 598–600, 617–620, 674–676, 780, 783, 798, 805, 867–869, 889–894, 927, 1059

Antigonos Monophthalmos, 598–600, 620, 861, 889, 889892, 894, 927

Aristonikos, 815–817

Attalos I Soter, 796–804

Attalos II Philadelphos, 809–812

Attalos III Philometor, 813–814

Balbus, T. Ampius, 742

Eumenes I, 787–795

Eumenes II Soter, 805–808

Eumenes III, 815–817

Fabius, C., 744

Fimbria, C. Fabius, 738

Gongylos, 716, 719–720

Gorgion, 47–49

Julius Caesar, 651

Labeo, C. Atinius, 35

Lysimachos, 471–473, 515–518, 618–619, 674, 780, 869, 890–891, 893, 1059

Memnon of Rhodes, 577, 1057–1058

Orontas, 61, 576

Pharnabazos, 62

Philetairos, 780–814

Prokles, 853–855

Pulcher, C. Claudius, 746

Scipio, Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius, 747

Seleukos I Nikator, 781–782, 785

Septumius, C., 745

Timotheos, 220–221

Tissaphernes, 28

index of obVerSe TyPeS

Aktaion, head l., with stag horns, 167, 348, 587

Alexander the Great, head r., diademed and wearing horn of Ammon, 471–473, 520–523, 618—619, 674, 780, 869, 1059

altar, lighted, 682, 684, 890–891 amphora, 1118

Apollo, bust facing, laureate, 906

—, head facing, laureate, 616, 888, 931

—, head facing 3/4 l., laureate, 838

—, head facing 3/4 r., laureate, 158, 345, 839, 928, 1038–1040, 1046

—, head l., laureate, 6–7, 40, 43, 49, 548, 569, 1136, 853–855, 875–876, 894, 902–903, 920–923, 925–926, 929, 932, 935, 941, 1023, 1049, 1053, 1136, 1147

—, head l., laureate, within laurel wreath, 937

—, head r., laureate, 21–22, 29–32, 34, 39, 41–42, 44–48, 219, 533, 536, 615, 621, 623–624, 628–629, 677, 719–722, 758–760, 775, 800–803, 818–819, 828–830, 835–837, 841, 877–885, 886–887, 904–905, 907–909, 911–912, 915, 919–920, 928–929, 933–934, 938–940, 942–943, 958–961, 1020, 1024–1027, 1031–1034, 1050–1052, 1054–1055, 1095, 1097–1099, 1121–1124, 1132, 1134–1135, 1137

—, head r., wearing tainia, 1018, 1022

—, kneeling r., holding bow and arrow, 175, 458

—, seated l. on lion-griffin, holding wreath, 177

—, seated l. on swan flying l., 176

—, seated r. on omphalos, holding kithara, 226

Aphrodite, head l., wearing sphendone and wreathed with lotus, 594

—, wearing stephane, 161

—, standing facing 3/4 l., leaning on column before which Eros dances facing 3/4 r., 227

archer, kneeling r., holding bow and arrow, 561

Artemis, bust r., bow and quiver over

shoulder, 700

—, bust r., wearing stephane, 26

—, bust r., wearing stephane, bow and quiver over shoulder, 685, 895

—, head facing, laureate, wearing polos, 866

—, head facing 3/4 r., laureate, wearing polos, 899

—, head l., wearing polos, 1191

—, head r., wearing polos, 1189–1190, 1192

—, head r., wearing stephane, 913

—, seated l. on stag running l., 865

Artemis-Tyche, bust facing, turreted, 910

—, head r., turreted, 831, 900, 1035

Asklepios, head r., laureate, 754, 774, 772, 774, 810–812

ass, standing l., 203, 371

Athena, bust r., wearing Corinthian helmet, 701

—, bust r., wearing Corinthian helmet, within wreath, 776

—, bust l., wearing Corinthian helmet, 751

—, half-length figure, standing l., holding aphlaston, 178

—, head facing, wearing Attic helmet, 101, 653, 763, 765

—, head facing 3/4 r., wearing Attic helmet, 159, 575, 980, 1063

—, head l., wearing Attic helmet, 18, 95, 100, 288, 292, 407, 573, 593, 755, 764, 974, 976, 1069, 1104

—, head l., wearing Corinthian helmet, 96, 160, 542, 596, 634, 637, 703, 757, 916, 1060

—, head r., wearing Attic helmet, 10, 51, 56, 652, 716, 718, 752, 768, 770, 771, 778, 791–795, 799, 804, 813–814, 979, 981, 982–983, 1057–1058, 1065–1066, 1068, 1070–1072, 1075–1079, 1086, 1101–1103

—, head r., wearing Corinthian helmet, 211, 454, 535, 538, 541, 543, 547, 598–600, 614, 626, 630, 633, 654–656, 753, 756, 773, 779, 876–878, 924, 1061–1062, 1064, 1066,

Index of Obverse Types 315 1073–1074

Attic helmet l., 917

Attic helmet r., 1133

Attis, head l., wearing Phrygian cap, 495, 504

—, head r., wearing Phrygian cap, 37, 168, 349, 434, 456

bird, standing r., 257, 388

—, lion-headed, standing r., 258, 389

boar, standing l., 122, 310, 420

—, head r., with tunny in mouth, 72, 264, 393

boar forepart, charging l., 497–498, 500–502, 506–507, 508

—, charging r., 499

boar, winged, forepart flying l., 93, 287

bull, charging l., 690, 695

—, charging r., 534, 679, 696

—, recumbent l., 121, 309, 419

—, standing l., 120, 308

—, standing l., head reverted, 670–671

—, standing r., head lowered, 202, 370

bull head facing, 707, 769, 1105

bull head l., 119

bull head r., 544

—, winged forepart, flying l., 92, 404

bull, man-faced, standing l., head facing, 153, 339, 431, 450

—, man-faced, forepart charging r., 198, 367

caduceus, within laurel wreath, 640–641

centaur, advancing l., head reverted, holding branch, 338 chelys, 943

Chimaira, at bay l., 89, 129, 282, 316, 401, 447

cock, standing l., 994, 997

—, standing l. on back of hen standing l., 995

—, standing r., 991–993

—, forepart with spread wing l., 86, 280

—, head r., 256, 387, 996

Corinthian helmet r., 639, 659

cow standing l., head reverted, suckling calf standing r., 244

crab,holding tunny, 477

—, holding tunny head, 74, 265, 395

Demeter, bust r., veiled, 833

—, bust r., veiled, wreathed with grain, 25, 678, 688

—, head facing 3/4 l., veiled, wreathed with grain, 209

—, head l., veiled, wreathed with grain, 157, 571

—, head r., veiled, within grain wreath, 642, 832

—, head r., wreathed with grain, 767

Demeter (or Persephone?) seated l., holding grain ears and poppy head, 225

Demeter Phosphoros, standing r., holding torches, 224

Dionysos, reclining l. on panther skin, holding kantharos, 437, 460

—, seated facing, holding kantharos and thyrsos, 229

—, seated l., holding kantharos, 180, 356

Dionysos, bust facing, wreathed with ivy, 699

—, head facing, horned and bearded, wearing polos and wreathed with ivy, 1175

—, head l., bearded, wreathed with ivy, 164, 565

—, head l., wreathed with ivy, 591

—, head r., wearing mitra and wreathed with ivy, 5

—, head r., bearded, wreathed with ivy, 1106–1111, 1188

—, head r., wreathed with ivy, 631, 704

dolphin, leaping l., 279, 400

—, swimming l. above tunny swimming l., 480, 493

—, swimming r. above tunny swimming r., 486

dolphins (2), swimming l., 127, 314

dolphin rider l., holding tunny, 141, 327

doe, winged forepart, flying l., 134, 319, 423

eagle, standing l., 248, 863, 870–874

—, standing l., head reverted, 858, 860, 861

—, standing l. on hare, head reverted, 859

—, standing r., head reverted, 247

—, with spread wings, standing l., tearing at tunny, 126

—, with spread wings, standing r., 246 eagle head l., 862

—, above tunny head r., 268

eagles (2), standing confronted on omphalos, 245, 379

Eleutheria, seated l. on kippos, holding wreath, 239, 444, 468

Eros, crouching l., sacrificing bull with sword, 358

Eumenes II, diademed bust r., 807

Europa, seated on bull charging l., 140, 325

female figure, kneeling r., holding scepter or torch, 240

—, winged, half-length l., holding tunny, 108, 298, 411

female bust l., 1080

female head l., 163, 973, 1082

—, wearing close-fitting cap, 1017

—, wearing sakkos, 843, 846

—, wearing sphendone, 138, 323, 426, 842, 846, 1118, 1119

female head r., 33, 825–826

—, laureate, 627, 638

—, laureate, wearing sphendone, 50

—, laureate, wearing sakkos, 844–845, 847–852

—, wearing sakkos, 162, 346

—, wearing sphendone, 1112–1114, 1116, 1118,

female head (Artemis Astyrene?) r., with bound hair, 947–952, 954–957, 962

female head (Lampsake?) l., 581

female head (Thebe?) r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain, 856–857

female head (Venus?) r., 706

female rider (Mania?), on horse prancing l., 998–1000

Gaia, rising out of the earth l., holding grain ears and grapes, 579

—, rising out of the earth r., holding infant Erechthonios, 182

goat, kneeling l., 124, 312, 359

—, standing l., 85

—, head l., 84, 276 gorgoneion, facing, 155, 343, 656, 666–669, 671–673, 683, 687

—, facing 3/4 l., 170, 692

—, facing 3/4 l., on aegis, 766

—, facing 3/4 r., 686, 693, 698 grape bunch, 694

griffin (eagle), at bay l., 131, 317–318,

964

—, at bay r., 965, 984

—, seated l., 285

—, seated l., raising forepaw, 132–133, 422

—, forepart at bay l., 130, 283

—, head l., 284, 402

—, head l., with tunny head in mouth, 262

griffin (lion), forepart at bay l., 90

Harmodios and Aristogeiton advancing r., holding swords and with chlamydes draped over extended arms, 149

harpy, flying l., 390

—, standing r., holding tunny, 67–68

—, four-winged, flying l., 260

—, four-winged, flying l., holding tunny, 259

head in Corinthian helmet l., 113

Hekate head l., laureate, torch over shoulder, 588

Hektor, bearded head facing, wearing Attic helmet, 1138–1139

—, bearded head facing 3/4 l., wearing Attic helmet, 1140, 1142

Helle, riding ram charging l., 557

Helios, radiate, kneeling r., horses to l. and r., 174, 353

Helios head l., radiate, 577

Hera, head l., wearing stephane, 582

Herakles, head, facing 3/4 r., club over shoulder, 985

—, head l., bearded, wearing lion skin headdress, 570

—, head l., young, wearing lion skin headdress, 217

—head r., bearded, wearing lion skin headdress, 36, 166, 455

—, head r., young, wearing lion skin headdress, 519, 595, 617, 620, 675–676, 717, 723, 761–762, 782–784, 798, 805, 889, 892–894, 927, 977–978

—, kneeling l., club over shoulder and holding rhyton, 233

—, kneeling l., strangling serpents; behind, Iphikles attacked by serpent, 232, 378

—, kneeling r., brandishing club and holding bow, 139, 324

—, kneeling r., holding club and bow, 102, 293

—, kneeling r., strangling lion, 185, 362, 439

—, seated facing 3/4 l., holding club, 234

—, child, kneeling r., strangling serpents, 361, 511, 556

—, child, seated facing, head r., holding tunny, 193, 365, 462

Hermes, bust l., wearing petasos, caduceus over shoulder, 212

—, bust r., wearing petasos, caduceus over shoulder, 1029

—, head l., wearing petasos, 568

—, head r., wearing petasos, caduceus over shoulder, 689

—, head r., wearing pileus, caduceus over shoulder, 57

—, head r., wearing winged petasos, 503

—, head r., wearing winged tainia, 27

—, kneeling r., reaching into amphora and holding caduceus, 228

hero, kneeling r., wearing pileus and holding club and animal skin, 191

Herophile, bust facing 3/4 r., laureate, 1043–1046

horse, galloping l., trailing reins, 243

—, prancing l., crowned by rider, 238

—, forepart, galloping l., 842

—, forepart, galloping r., 3, 1158–1159, 1162

horse head r., 1161, 1163

—, horned, 781

horseman, charging r. on horseback, raising arm, 1009

—, charging r. on horseback, with couched spear, 1008, 1016

—, bearded and wearing kausia, riding horse galloping r., 192

—, wearing kausia, charging r. on horseback, raising arm, 1002–1004, 1011, 1013, 1015

—, wearing kausia, charging r., with couched spear, 1007

hound, at bay l., 125, 313, 421

—, standing l., biting tunny, 73, 394

—, forepart, running l., head reverted, 277

—, winged, seated l., head reverted,

136, 321, 424

Hygieia, bust r., laureate, 777

ibex head l., 399

Ida, head r., wreathed with fir(?), 1153–1156

Isis head r., 705

janiform head, composed of satyr l. and nymph r., 109, 299

janiform female head, 603, 607–613, 632, 643

Julius Caesar, laureate head r., 651

Kabeiros, head l., wearing pileus, 165, 347, 986, 989

—, head l., bearded, wearing pileus, 213, 592, 987, 990

—, bearded r., bearded, wearing pileus, 988

Kekrops l., holding olive branch, 183, 360

Kerberos , at bay l., 135, 320

ketos, swimming l., 87, 278

kithara, 204, 373, 442, 465, 946

Kore, head r., head r., wearing sphendone, wreathed with grain, 210

—, wreathed with grain, 9, 505

Kore Soteira, head l., wearing sphendone, wreathed with grain, 509–510, 512–518

—, head r., diademed and wreathed with oak, 524

—, head r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with grain, 529, 537

—, head r., wearing sphendone and wreathed with oak, 531–532, 540, 546

—, head r., wreathed with grain, 539

—, head r., wreathed with oak, 524–528

Kybele, head facing 3/4 r., turreted, 38 Kybele (Meter Plakiane), bust facing 3/4 l., turreted, 824

—, head l., turreted, 821

—, head r., turreted, 822, 1028

—, head r., turreted and laureate, 820, 823

Lapith, standing r., holding sword and strangling fallen centaur r., 194

lion, at bay l., 116, 305

—seated l., raising forepaw, 17, 306, 417

—, standing l., devouring prey, 79, 115,

304, 416, 441

—, standing r., devouring prey, 201, 369, 464

—, forepart at bay l., head reverted, 77, 269

—, forepart, leaping r., 953

—, standing l., devouring prey, 78, 270, 396

—, winged forepart, at bay l., 128, 315

—, head l., 76, 267

—, head r., 75, 266

—, head r. with tunny in mouth, 478

—, head and ram head r., conjoined, 88, 281

—, scalp, 114, 303, 415

lion skin, draped over club, within ivy wreath, 748–750

mainad, head l., wreathed with ivy, 216, 566, 572

male figure, winged, kneeling-running l., holding tunny, 69

—, winged, standing l., holding tunny in each hand, 70, 261, 391

—, dolphin-headed and winged, flying l., holding tunny, 111, 414

—, lion-headed and winged, kneelingrunning l., holding tunny, 152, 337, 430

male head l., 169, 350, 435, 589

—, bearded, 98, 290, 406

—, bearded and laureate, 223

—, laureate, 94, 405

—, on raised disk, 137, 322, 425

—, wearing tainia, 218

male head r., 912

—, bearded, 1113

—, wearing tainia, 17, 20, 657–658, 660–665

—, wreathed, 680–681, 697

male head (Apollo?) l., 1030

male head (Apollo?) r., 1019, 1021

male head (Timotheos?) r., laureate, bearded and balding, 221

male head (Timotheos?) r., laureate, bearded and balding, 220

male head (Zenis?) l., wearing kyrbasia, 1094

male(?) rider, on horse prancing l., 1001–1002

Nike, crouching l., sacrificing bull with sword, 864

—, crouching l., sacrificing ram with knife, 562

—, flying r., holding wreath, 354

—, kneeling l., holding aphlaston, 179, 355, 436, 459

—, kneeling r., nailing helmet to trophy, 580

—, kneeling-running l., head reverted, holding tunny, 150, 335

Orestes, seated l., holding sword and clutching omphalos, 189, 364

Orontas, head l., bearded and wearing kyrbasia with diadem, 576

—, head r., bearded and wearing kyrbasia with diadem, 61, 63

Orpheus seated r. on rock, holding kithara, 559

owl, standing 3/4 r., head facing, 372, 656, 776, 1074

Pan, head l., wreathed with ivy, 567

—, head r., wreathed with ivy, 215, 377, 467, 597

panther, at bay l., 118, 307, 418 panther head, facing, 80, 271, 397

panther head r., 650

Pegasos, flying r., 200, 1160

—, forepart, flying l., 286, 549–553, 605

—, flying r., 554–555, 601–602, 604, 1157, 1164–1166

Peleus standing r., with arms around waist of Thetis standing l., 326

Persephone, head r., wearing sphendone, wreathed with grain, 210

—, head r., wreathed with grain, 9, 505, 564

Persian archer, seated r., stringing bow, 190

Perseus, kneeling r., head reverted, holding harpa and head of Medusa, 186, 363, 440, 463

—, head l., wearing winged helmet, 97, 289, 558

Pharnabazos, bearded head r., wearing kyrbasia, 62

Philetairos, diademed head r., 786

—, laureate head r., 787–790, 796–797, 806, 809

Phrixos, crouching l., sacrificing ram with sword, 181, 357, 438, 461

plow l., above grain ear r., 712–713, 715

Poseidon, charging r. on hippocamp, brandishing trident, 173

—, head l., diademed, 208, 375

—, head l., wearing ketos headdress, 99, 291

—, kneeling r., holding dolphin and trident, 172, 352

Priapos, head r., wreathed with ivy, 622, 625, 635, 644, 649, 834, 840

prow l., ornamented with winged boar forepart, 112, 302

prow r., 530, 533

ram, kneeling l., head reverted, 83, 275

—, standing l., 123, 311

—, forepart charging l., 82, 274

—, forepart, charging r., 1083

—, head l., 255, 386, 1088–1089

—, head r., 1081, 1085, 1087, 1090–1091, 1096, 1100

—, head r. and lion head l., conjoined, 88, 281

ram heads (2), confronted, 1084, 1093

rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos l., 1174, 1177, 1179, 1180, 1186

rhyton in the form of forepart of Pegasos r., 1167–1170, 1173, 1176, 1178, 1180, 1184–1185

—, within fillet border, 1171

satyr, kneeling-running l., holding tunny, 151, 336, 429

satyr head, facing 3/4 l., 563

satyr, female head l., wreathed with ivy, 586

Seleukos I Nikator, diademed head r., 785

serpent, emerging l. from cista mystica, within ivy wreath, 1–3, 724–747, 815–817

Sibyl, laureate bust facing 3/4 r., 1043–1047

Silenos, kneeling l., drinking from amphora, 197

—, kneeling r., pouring wine into kantharos, 196, 366

—, seated r., holding uncertain object, 195

—, head facing, 110, 300, 412

—, head l., wreathed with ivy, 214,

Index of Obverse Types 319

222, 376, 443, 466

siren, standing l., holding tunny, 107, 297, 410

Skylla, swimming l., holding tunny, 199, 368

sow, standing l., 81, 273, 398

sphinx, winged, at bay l., 105, 242, 296, 341 , 409

—, winged, seated l., 106

—, winged, seated l., raising forepaw, 1036

—, winged, seated r., 1037, 1042

—, winged, seated r., raising forepaw, 1038

—, winged, forepart at bay l., 104, 295, 408

—, winged, double-bodied, seated facing, 154, 342, 451

stag head, facing, 494

Thetis, riding dolphin swimming l., holding wreath and shield, 184

—, seated l. on dolphin swimming r., holding shield and greaves, 184, 560

thunderbolt, winged, 1187

Triptolemos, driving biga of winged serpents r., 187

Tissaphernes, head r., bearded, 28

Triton, swimming l., 301, 340, 413, 432

tunny, swimming l., 483, 491

—, swimming l., above tunny swimming r., 66, 254

—, swimming r., 253, 384, 492

—, swimming r., lotus in mouth, 484

—, winged, flying l., 71, 263, 392

—, head l., 64, 249–250, 380, 445, 469–470, 474–475, 481

—, fish in mouth, 487

—, garfish in mouth, 385

—, head r., 251, 381, 446, 476, 479, 482

—, above tunny swimming r., 488

—, above tunny head l., 489

—, garfish in mouth, 65

—, lotus in mouth, 490

tunny heads (2) l., 252, 382

tunny heads (2) l. and r., 383

tunnies (2), swimming r., 485

Venus, head r, wearing stephane, 708–711, 714

warrior, in Corinthian helmet, kneeling

l., playing aulos and holding sheathed sword, 145, 331, 449

—, in Corinthian helmet, kneeling l., testing arrow with bow slung on wrist, 146, 332

—, in Corinthian helmet, kneeling r., pointing and holding shield, 235

—, in Corinthian helmet, kneeling r., testing arrow with bow slung on wrist, 147, 333

—, in Corinthian helmet, standing r., extending arm and holding shield, 148, 334

—, in pileus, kneeling l., holding spear and shield, 237 wolf head l., 272

youth, kneeling facing, throwing knucklebones, 241

—, kneeling l., holding Corinthian helmet and sheathed sword, 144, 331

—, kneeling l., holding tunny, 142, 329, 427, 448

—, kneeling l., holding tunny in each hand, 103, 294

—, kneeling l., head reverted, wearing kalathos and raising arms, 188

—, kneeling r., holding knife and tunny, 143, 328

Zeus, , head l., laureate, 4, 12, 578

—, head r., laureate, 8, 11, 19, 23–24, 52–55, 58–59, 452, 636, 702, 827, 916, 1143–1144, 1172

—, kneeling r., holding scepter and eagle, 171, 351, 457

—, diademed head r., 13–14

—, laureate head, facing 3/4 r., 15–16, 205, 374

Zeus(?), head r., diademed, scepter over shoulder, 691

Zeus Ammon, head facing 3/4 l., 206, 590

—, head r., 156, 207, 344, 433, 453

index of reVerSe TyPeS

aDRaUTHNWN within ivy wreath, 5

ALEX within laurel wreath, 940 altar, 693, 697, 707

—, lighted, 679, 681, 706, 829

—, laurel tree behind amphora, 548, 645, 1112–1119, 1121–1125

—, before lighted altar, 679

Apollo, head r., laureate, 1090–1091, 1096, 1100

—seated l. on omphalos, holding phiale and kithara, 514

—, seated l. on omphalos, holding plektron and kithara, 515

—, seated l. on omphalos, holding phiale and resting elbow on kithara, 517–518

—, seated r. on omphalos, holding phiale and kithara, 516

—, standing l., holding bow above tripod and resting elbow on column, 630

Apollo Aktaios, standing l., holding palm branch and resting hand on grounded bow, 677

—, standing l., sacrificing with phiale

over lighted altar and resting hand on kithara above omphalos, 678

Apollo Smintheus, standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow, 921–923, 925, 932, 1050, 1052, 1055–1056

—, standing r., holding phiale and bow and arrow, within laurel wreath, 926 Artemis, advancing r., holding bow and spear, 691

—, standing l., holding bow and arrow, 916

—, standing l., holding phiale and torch, hound at feet, 903

Artemis Astyrene, cult statue standing facing, 28

Asklepios, enthroned l., holding staff and feeding serpent from phiale, 808

—, standing facing, holding staff entwined by serpent, 751

astragalos, 952

Athena, enthroned l., holding grounded shield, resting arm on sphinx, spear in crook of arm, 785–787

—, enthroned l., holding Nike, resting arm on grounded shield, spear

behind, 471–473, 520–523, 618–619, 674, 780, 869, 890–891, 1059

—, enthroned l., holding wreath, resting arm on grounded shield, 806

—, enthroned l., holding wreath, resting arm on grounded shield, spear behind, 788–790, 796–797, 809

—, standing l., holding Nike and grounded shield, spear behind, 628

—, cult statue, standing facing, wearing polos and brandishing spear and shield, 717–718, 723

Athena, head l.,wearing Attic helmet, 763, 1034–1036

—, head l., wearing Corinthian helmet, 603, 607, 609, 611

—, head r., wearing Attic helmet, 761

—, head r., wearing Corinthian helmet, 610, 612–613, 643

Athena Ilias, advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff, 1070, 1072–1075, 1077

—, advancing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff, 1076

—, standing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff, 1078–1079

—, standing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff, within laurel wreath, 1068

—, archaic cult statue standing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff, 1057–1058, 1069

—, archaic cult statue standing r., brandishing spear and holding distaff, 875, 974

—, cult statue, advancing l., brandishing spear and holding distaff, 1058–1060, 1069, 1072–1077

Athena Nikephoros, cult statue, standing facing, holding Nike and palm branch, grounded shield at feet, 766

A, 917–918

barelycorn, 1133, 1136–1137

biga r., 926

bee, 802, 1034

—, within laurel wreath, 1032–1033

—, within linear square, 1035

boar, winged forepart, flying r., 62–63

boar head l., 759

bow, 791, 793

Index of Reverse Types 321

—, in bowcase, 794, 803

bucranium, within grain wreath, 531

—, within oak wreath, 530

bull, advancing l., 657–658, 683

—, advancing r., 659

—, charging l., 40, 44, 49, 529, 680

—, charging r., 830

—, grazing l., 1018–1020

—, standing l., 826

—, standing l., head reverted, 671

—, standing r., 703, 825

—, standing r., before altar, 692

—, forepart, charging l., 39

—, forepart, charging r., 47–48

bull head facing, 972, 974, 982, 1106–1109, 1111

bull head l., 543, 757

bull head r., 756

bull heads (2), confronted, 755, 763–764

·ATVIN T·ANII AE, 713

caduceus, 35, 647–648

—, winged, 27

—, winged, and legionary standard, 738

calf head r., 722, 758, 1110

calf head (incuse) l., 997

calf heads (2), confronted, 760

chelys, 943

club, within laurel wreath, 696

—, within olive wreath, 986–987, 989–990

cock, standing l., 998, 1000–1002, 1011

—, standing l., in fighting attitude, 1013

—, standing r., 1004–1007, 1009–1010, 1015–1016

—, standing r., in fighting attitude, 1007, 1012

cocks(2), standing confronted in fighting attitude, 999

cornucopia, flanked by pilei, 6–7

crab, 834

crayfish l., 836

crayfish r., 828, 837–839

cross-hatch design, 994

DAR, 1014

Dionysos, child, kneeling r., holding rape bunch, 1140, 1142

dove, standing r., 850

—, with spread wings, standing r. on overturned oinochoe, 852

eagle, standing l., 866, 879, 882, 885, 886, 902, 907–909, 914

—, standing l. on altar, 15

—, standing l., head reverted, 910, 1086

—, standing r., 864–865, 876–878, 880–881, 883–884, 887–888, 898, 903–904, 907

—, standing r. on bucranium, within oak wreath, 535

—, standing r. on rock, 16

–, standing r., on thunderbolt, 912

—, standing r., head reverted, 900

—, with spread wings, standing l. on thunderbolt, 4

—, with spread wings, abducting Ganymede r., 1006

—, with spread wings, standing r., 899, 910

—, with spread wings, standing r., within laurel wreath, 685–686, 895

—, with spread wings, standing r., within oak wreath, 1175

—, with spread wings, standing r. on thunderbolt, within laurel wreath, 687

elephant, advancing r., 781 fir tree, 1153–1155

—, within filleted square, 1169–1170

—, within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets, 1157–1161, 1164–1165

—, within linear square, 1167–1168, 1173–1174, 1176–1177, 1179–1184, 1186–1187

—, flanked by grape bunches, within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets, 1166

fish, swimming r., 50

goat, standing r., 947–950, 955

—, standing r., before fir tree, 953

—, standing r., raising foreleg, before fir tree, 954, 9557

gorgoneion, facing, 43, 670, 863, 870, 872–874, 1039, 1087–1089

grain ear, between poppy heads, 688 grape bunch, 672, 699, 818

—, on leaf, 748–750

—, within incuse square frame ornamented with pellets, 1162–1163

—, within vine wreath, 819

griffin (eagle), leaping l., 980

—, standing r., 1038

—, recumbent l., raising forepaw, 979, 981, 983

—, head and neck r., 975

hare, standing r., 37

Hermes head r., wearing winged pileus, 646

horse, galloping r., 1021, 1031

—, grazing l., 929, 934–935, 938, 940–941, 944

—, grazing r., 919–920, 928, 932, 943, 1126, 1129–1135

—, prancing r., 32

—, rearing r., 1024–1027

—, standing r., 1029

—, forepart, galloping r., 31, 34

horse head (incuse) l., 992

horseman, charging r., raising arm, 12–14, 60–61

—, on horse prancing r., holding double-axe, 11

—, wearing kausia, charging r. on horseback, with couched spear, 1008

hydria, 1071

incuse cruciform design, 666

incuse square, 669

—, irregular, 961

—, quadripartite, 64–470, 474–494, 549–555, 601, 604–606, 859–862, 991, 993, 996, 1017, 1081, 1083, 1084–1085, 1105

—, roughly bisected, 858

—, with cruciform design, 667–668

—, with irregular design, 667

—, with mill-sail design, 1084

ivy leaf, 792, 795

Kabeiroi (2), heads surmounted by stars, standing facing, holding spears, within laurel wreath, 767

—, heads surmounted by stars, standing facing, holding spears and sword(?), within laurel wreath, 807

Kaberios, head l., wearing pileus, flanked by stars, 985

kalathos, grain ear behind, 9

kantharos, 635, 704, 840

i, 1093–1094

kithara, 21–22, 628, 682, 689, 906, 1049, 1050, 1053–1054

—, within laurel wreath, 930–931

KUZI within oak wreath, 533, 539

LA within ivy wreath, 649

LAA within ivy wreath, 644

legionary standard and winged caduceus, 738

lion, seated l., 821

—, standing r., devouring stag head, 820, 823

—, standing r., head reverted, 38, 1028

lion head facing, 951

lion head facing 3/4 r., 956, 961

lion head l., 495–501, 504, 506–513, 966, 971, 973

lion head r., 502, 822, 958–960, 962, 964–965, 967–970, 984

lion head (incuse) l., 995

male head (Gongylos?) r., bearded and wearing kyrbasia, 716, 719–721

male head (Priapos?) r., bearded, 602

monogram, surrounded by three dolphins swimming clockwise, 547

—, within oak wreath, 545

V

IIII

, 715

Nike, advancing r., holding wreath and palm branch, 752–753

—, standing l., holding wreath and palm branch, 673

—, standing l., holding wreath and stylis, 598–600, 867–868

oinochoe, 842–843, 849, 851, 1132

—, within laurel wreath, 846

owl, standing 3/4 l., head facing, 56, 653

—, standing 3/4 r., head facing, 20, 656

—, standing 3/4 r., head facing, on overturned amphora, 10, 924

—, standing 3/4 r., head facing, on palm branch, 698

—, standing 3/4 r., head facing, on thunderbolt, 771

—, standing 3/4 r., head facing, within wreath, 778–779

—, with spread wings, standing 3/4 l., head facing, on thunderbolt, 18

—, with spread wings, standing 3/4 r., head facing, on thunderbolt, 18

—, with spread wings, standing 3/4 r., head facing, on palm branch, 768–770

—, double bodied, standing facing, 17,

652, 654–655, 665

PARI within laurel wreath, 684, 690

Pegasos, forepart flying l., 556–557, 596, 646–647

—, forepart, flying r., 8, 51–55, 57–58, 558–595, 597, 614–616, 624–627, 632–634, 857, 1183

pinecone, 1154

praefericulum, 708–711, 714

PRIaPH within ivy wreath, 834

PRIaPHNN within grain wreath, 833

Priapos, standing r., holding kantharos and carrying filleted thyrsos over shoulder, 621, 623

priest, plowing r. with yoked bull and cow, 651

Prokles, head r., wearing kyrbasia, 853–855

ram, grazing r., 1128

—, standing l., 1131

—, standing r., 1130

ram head l., 1030, 1080, 1082

ram head r., 1018, 1023, 1092, 1095, 1097–1099

serpent, coiled r., 29–30, 33, 36, 813–814

—, coiled r., around omphalos, 772, 777

—, coiled r., around staff, 774

—, coiled r., and grape bunch, 811

—, coiled r., and temple key, 810, 812

serpents (2), entwined, coiling around bow and bowcase, 1–3, 724–737, 739–742, 744–746

—, coiling around legionary eagle, 743

—, coiling around tripod, 743

sistrum, 705

SKH within ivy wreath, 1178

sphinx, winged, doubled-bodied, seated facing, 1047

stag, recumbent r., 831

—, recumbent r., head reverted, 847–848

—, stadning l., 1191

—, standing r., 700, 832, 841, 1189–1190

—, standing r., within laurel wreath, 901

stag forepart, recumbent r., head reverted, 844–845

star, 8-rayed, 804, 1101–1104

—, 12-rayed, 41, 45 stars (2), 765

T·ANIIo ·ATVINo AE, 712

thunderbolt, 23–24, 642

—, within oak wreath, 525 thunderbolt, winged, 701–702, 827 thymiaterion, 824 thyrsos, 650

—, filleted, 799–800, 1188

—, within ivy wreath, 631

—, within oak wreath, 546 torch, 26, 534, 694

—, within grain wreath, 695

—, within oak wreath 524, 526 torches (2), 25 tripod, 42, 46, 505, 528, 532, 536–538, 540–542, 775, 801, 937, 946

—, within laurel wreath, 915 triskeles of crescents, 856, 988, 1145 trophy of Galatian arms, 773

tunny, swimming l. above tunny swimming r., 497

—, swimming r., 503

—, swimming r., within oak wreath, 522

uncertain object or symbol, within grain wreath, 1192 warrior (Hektor?), crouching l., holding spear and shield, 1143

—, standing l., holding spear and shield, 1144

wheel, 4-spoked, 1022

Zeus, enthroned l., holding eagle and scepter, 519, 617, 675–676, 782–784, 798, 805, 889, 892–894, 977–978

—, standing l., holding thunderbolt and scepter, 1172

ISBN 978-1-7355697-7-2