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The ecoefficient organization: an integration of eco-efficiency and architecture to design and model a drinking water system in sub-Saharan Africa Morris ZOMBO1 and Claude ROCHET2
Summary The ecoefficient organization through a drinking water supply system design model in an African village in Angola, addresses a critical situation that rural people are facing with but they don’t like it particularly. This situation is, having at the level of a village or a municipality, a water system which is not in conditions to attend the felt needs of the concerned population. Generally, those systems are not efficients, as far as the environmental dimension and the population participation are not being considered during the design and the implementation of the said systems. As per results, a defined modulable model valid in the African context has linked a palaver ‘tree empirical designing approach of a real system with a theoretical approach that could validate the eco-effectiveness and the resilience of each implemented system. Keywords: Eco-efficiency, drinking water, resilience, palaver tree, veto. Corresponding Author: Morris Zombo, CEMI-EHESS, Paris, @: mussemabroad@gmail.com Tel +244 927 674 447
Introduction Eco-efficiency has been defined as a methodology to bring competitively priced goods and services to satisfy the human need, providing quality of life while reducing environmental impacts (WBCSD, 2001). We apply the methodology to the designing and monitoring of a drinking water supply system in a rural African municipality in Angola. Access to clean water is still a big issue in the developing world as a basic common good for development regarding as well its economic, social as its sanitary impacts [(Ofoueme-Berton, 2013), (Serrat,2015), (Terre des hommes, 2013)]. Water must be clean, cheap, available for everyone and supplied on a regular basis (Briscoe,1992). To allow the system to be selfgoverned and operates without depending of an external expert intervention, the technology mobilized must be appropriate to the local culture of the people. This appropriation is key for the system to be resilient, as well regarding endogenous event (social appropriation).
1 Chercheur, CEMI, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales de Paris, France 2
Professor, LAREQUOI, UniversitĂŠ Paris Saclay, France, claude.rochet@uvsq.fr
2 We consider here “technology” in his dual meaning of “technique” (techné) - which must be robust – and “knowledge” (logos) that is the relationship between the user as a social being and the technique. As we aim to define of model design – in the H. Simon’s “sciences of conception” – of a safe water supply system that would be valid in the African context (scare financial resources, need to use local sustainable technologies, and African village sociology), we link an empirical approach of designing a real system with a theoretical approach that could validate the eco-effectiveness and the resilience of each implemented system. To design this extended view of eco-efficiency, we integrate the insights of system thinking and system architecture to conceive a system that could have the characteristics of a “model”, that is an abstraction of the reality that describes the set of interacting parts forming a complex or intricate whole and the activities to be carried out. The model represents the set of meta-rules to be observed to conceive an eco-efficient system under a set of delimited constraints in the environment. An effective model, moreover an eco-efficient model, is expected to integrate the variables of the context in a delimited set of environmental constraints. The paper describes the notion, design, and principle of the model of ecoconception in an African rural area; the design of a sustainable eco-efficient system, the six compulsory activities to be carried out and the index of eco-effectiveness as well. In this context, our initial question can be expressed as follows: What would be the scope of eco-efficiency in the design of a drinking water supply system that is relevant, sustainable and integrated in rural areas, and that allows public authorities to manage more efficiently and improve the performance of their water services? Ultimately, four specific questions are asked, which this research will address: 1. What would be the approach to the operationalization of the reliability metric for drinking water supply systems suitable of measuring the control variables and the limit values of the model and to highlight the scattered elements of specific eco-efficiency indicators to the drinking water sector integrated into a systemic index? 2. What would be the decision-making approach in a complex situation that would enhance the participation of beneficiaries of drinking water supply systems in the design and implementation of such systems? 3. What are the normative modeling rules for such a reference system applicable to rural municipalities in terms of resilience, performance, and regulation, which can help to abstract an ecodesign model of rural drinking water supply systems? 4. What innovation can be derived from the ecodesign model to make the drinking water system adaptable to the environment in which the system integrates?
Theoretical framework Our study uses four theoretical frameworks to answer the questions of this research, including the basic criteria for performance in water management (Boyer, Tremblay and Petry, 2001), the concept of ecoefficiency [ (Papanek, 1971) (ADEME, 2006), (WBCSD, 2001), (OECD, 1999) and (Benyus, 2011) ], the systemic analysis model (AFIS, 2011), the co-production of public services (Steen (2016), Boyle and Harris (2009) and Ginsbourger (2008)) and the management of the commons (Ostrom, 1990). The theoretical framework of performance (Supizet., 2002), water management and the concept of ecoefficiency will be used to further discuss the first question on the reliability metrics of supply systems in view of the limits to the optimization of operational performance in water management. The work on these two theoretical frameworks has focused on the historical foundations of eco-efficiency and related concepts, known indicators, prerequisites, and limitations. The same work will also be exploited to try
3 to arrive at both to identify a complement of indicators specific to the eco-efficient system of drinking water supply in rural areas of the developing countries and to suggest a method of calculation of the index of " Eco-efficiency of drinking water supply systems, suggested as a managerial tool in assessing the eco-efficiency of water systems. To address the last three questions raised by this study, the theoretical frameworks of system engineering, the co-production of public services and the governance of the commons, developed successively by the French Association of System Engineering (AFIS, Steiner (2016) and Ostrom (1990), Hardin (1968), will help our modeling process with the production of stakeholder knowledge and the valorization of the different contributions of science, innovation, and the guarantee of public authority. The answers to these last two questions of our research will demonstrate how the implicit dynamics of co-production of public services and collective management (Ostrom, 2010) (Ostrom, 1990) (Ostrom & James, 2003) (Ramaswamy, Venkat, and Gouillart, 2010), can be integrated into explicit modeling and contribute to the emergence of innovative approaches to the management of common goods generated through co-creation. In this study, it is the dimension relating to the participation of the actors, the implicit and explicit rules to be respected, the mechanisms of follow-up and sanctions about those who benefit from the natural resource that is the distributed water.
Methods Our research fits preferentially into a constructivist epistemological framework (Le Moigne, 1994), and (rather than positivist) interpretativist. This is because the two-dimensional objective of this research is above all to understand and explain the object studied, the operability of drinking water supply systems existing in the African municipality of Buengas in Angola, and propose a meta-model for the design and management of eco-efficient systems. It is therefore necessary to understand the phenomenon of water supply in the interior of rural African municipalities, by examining management practices related to water supply management and infrastructure and by interpreting the behavior of local actors around of the systems put in place. To carry out this study, we have opted for the third methodological stream, that of research using mixed methods [Jick, 1979] (Jonsen & Jehn, 2007) (Guevel & Pommier, 2012). And the corresponding theoretical frameworks, justify the need for such an approach on the ground. This research, both qualitative and quantitative, took place in four main stages, including a literature review (i); A diagnosis (Bouquin, 2005), of three existing drinking water systems leading to the calculation of the criticality of these systems and the management mode of the water supply systems based on the participating observations in situ in African villages of Cambozo , Nova Esperanรงa and Buenga Sul (ii); (Gerstle, 2003)) under the palaver tree in 9 focus group meetings, with distinct groups of women, men and notables, in order to grasp the key input and output variables in (Iii) an analysis of failure modes, their effects and criticality in assessing the optimization level of existing water systems (iv) .
Results and discussion The Concept, design, and principle of the model of eco-conception In the order of current scientific research, the notion of the model is understood as an instrument of production and exposure of knowledge (Le Moigne, 1985). The French Association of System Engineering (AFIS, 2011) defines the model as a representation of a system, a process, or a phenomenon with a given objective. The model of a system is intended to be homomorphous to the system to be studied or to be constructed, which gives an abstract partial view and enables us to study certain characteristics, the more the model will be rich, the more it can be Isomorphic to a large number of configurations in that it has identified constants of structures that allow to construct homomorphic models. Per AFIS (2011), the system engineering approach encompasses and structures all the activities necessary to design, evolve and verify a "system" providing an economical and efficient solution to the needs and constraints considered.
4 This model concept has been mobilized to allow us to propose a possible representation of the structure of the process of definition and operation of eco-efficient drinking water systems in rural areas of developing countries. This, thanks to the dynamic and symbiotic views, showing the functioning and the working model and the design process through sequence diagrams, collaboration, states-transitions, and activities. Also, this simplified modeling allows us to address the problems of design, implementation, and management of drinking water supply systems, about operational performance and sustainability (UNEP, 2011), Pingault & Preault, 2007)] of these systems, capable of guaranteeing to the rural populations, a regular, abundant, and non-discriminatory service. The principle of our model is to take in account the exigencies defined by the village empirical experience based on previous with non-eco-efficient organizations of clean water management. We define a normative and predictive rule of conception and a meta-architecture that integrate: stake holder exigencies references, functional architecture, and physical architecture to avoid any mismanagement practice. Our model consists of 3 categories of metaprocesses capable of producing both a requirements repository, a functional architecture, and a physical architecture of the system. The metamodeling rules described below, applicable to rural communes, generated 7 sub-categories of metaprocesses and 96 variables, which consist of 53 endogenous variables and 43 underlying exogenous variables. 7 of these variables are indicators with veto rights. The model design of an eco-efficient drinking water supply system This study, focusing on small village communities, best fits with the explicit modeling we propose. The work of Ostrom (2009) will be of great assistance in the definition of a set of meta-processes and a reference system as management tools serving as a guide in the design as well as in the implementation of the " Water systems deemed eco-efficient by public and private actors in charge of rural projects. Thus, in this ecodesign approach, the theory of co-production of public services (Trui Steen, 2016), which focuses on organizational issues in public sector management and the role of citizens in this framework, The multiple virtues of co-production in the development of the eco-efficient model [(Friedman, 2002), (Fine, 2001), (Feizi & Zadeh, 2013). Assessable ex-ante, controllable in itinere an evaluable ex-post. These are context independent and configurable in situ. We have developed and represented in a triangle (Figure 1 below) a technical process for the definition of eco-efficient systems for drinking water supply in rural municipalities in developing countries. The particularity of this model is that it can guarantee the resilience of the drinking water supply system to offer efficient water services. In other words, this model makes it possible to guarantee the sustainability of a system whose relevance is objectively evaluable using a calculation reliability metric before or after the installation of the water supply systems. This "model" is an essential Figure 1 : Ecoefficient model contribution of our research. It constitutes a set of meta-rules that are valid independently of the context of their implementation by parameterizing them per the host environment. Although this research is certainly based on the state of the art of eco-design [(AFNOR, 2005), (Aubert, 2012), (Thomas & Perdreau, 2015) This approach suits our problem and how and how we validate this approach.
5 Modelling compulsory activities The six compulsory activities to be carried when designing the eco-efficient model include the followings: a. b. c.
d. e. f.
Defining the monitoring system: end of the eco-efficient system, decision making system, Kaizen like tools of the monitoring system (PDCA, user involvement, ex-ante criticality assessment…); Meta-rules of system analysis; Functional architecture. We test and underline here the role of the process of co-creation between public authorities, end-users, experts, and other relevant stake-holders with emphasis on the role of the African traditional decision making process, the palaver tree, to build consensus based and resilient specifications of the system. Tools, technical organs to be dealt with in the process of co-creation to define the specifications of the water system; The stake holders and their role when building the water system; The metrics to assess the eco-efficiency of the system.
Activity 1: What are the basic levers for setting up a baseline of stakeholder requirements geared to the logic of performance in the rural water sector in the South? In designing the eco-efficient model, it must be ensured that the purpose of an eco-efficient system (Boiral, 2005) for drinking water supply, its decision-making system and its steering tool constitute the three main levers an appropriate model for the rural environment of developing countries. § Purpose: The purpose of the eco-efficient system of drinking water supply. § The decision-making system: In the process of managing the eco-efficient system, the decisionmaking system suggested is decision-making by consensus. This model system firstly facilitates learning and remains very advantageous for the integrated players both in design and in the implementation of drinking water supply systems. §
It is based on collective deliberation. At this level, as a model for developing countries, the African palaver tree is one of the oldest deliberative systems that explores all dimensions of a problem and A strong consensus must play its part. This traditional African democracy [(Bidima, 1997), (Berger & Luckman, 1996)] on the rural scale, would allow to control the complexity of water supply systems because it privileges the role of the inhabitant as a user of artefacts and producer of local data, and guarantees the mastery by the latter, already at the level of the base, of the technological systems and the data generated around these eco-efficient systems of drinking water supply is imperatively three-dimensional: (I) ensure a regular and abundant supply of good quality drinking water in rural communes with an access rate that is in line with the MDG targets, Bayon (2012), (ii) Sanitation and sewage systems and (iii) collective and responsible management of the supply system infrastructure and infrastructure.
§
The Drinking Water Supply Management Tool: As tools to assist in decision making, management tools are necessary for efficient driving (Mintzberg, 2014), (Legrand, 2002). System of drinking water supply. The Kaizen (from the Japanese "continuous improvement", is the main tool we recommend for the management of the rural water system. Kaizen is a process of concrete, simple, inexpensive improvements carried out in a lapse Very short time and involving all the actors of the directors to the operators All his philosophy lies in this assertion: "Do the best, makes the best, improves the same if it is not broken, because if we do We cannot compete with those who do it. " " Breaking paradigms "," working the process as much as the results "," evolving in a global framework "and" not judging, not blaming "are the pillars of The Kaizen philosophy to be observed
6 during its use as a tool for steering the drinking water supply system, according to Kaizen management principles. Activity 2: What meta-rules are needed for the logical sequence of processes of the drinking water system engineering loop suitable for rural communities? Building an ecoefficient model allows to generate an index of eco-efficiency which integrates: 1) The quality of the cocreation process 2) The operational design 3) The performance in execution 4) The reliability 5) And finally, the variable and the limits of the viability of the system, since we have this model as an abstraction of an empirical realization in an African context, and the replicability of our methodology. Figure 2 below shows the meta-rules corresponding to the engineering processes leading to the definition of the eco-efficient system. The engineering loop of this system marks interactions between the processes of the loop on the one hand and the iterations of the whole loop on the system, its subsystems as well on the constituents of the subsystems. Analysis of the system stakeholders' requirements, functional analysis and allocation corresponding to a logical design as well as the analysis process corresponding to the physical design constitute the three main processes of the loop. These processes are validated and verified by system analysis operating as a support process. Because these system definition processes are highly intertwined, the process of defining stakeholder requirements and design are intimately linked. It will be understood that the requirements cannot be specified in terms of the conceptual requirement, the available and emerging technological capabilities, existing
Figure 2:
Meta-rules for modelling ecoefficient system
knowledge, market products, and even solution assumptions. By logically placing the analysis of the needs and constraints of the stakeholders in the first position, it makes it possible to identify the conflict of requirements, to find the necessary compromise and to evaluate the impacts of these on the system. Thus, the framework of the requirements to be observed by the parties involved in the action constitutes the deliverable of this analysis. Once the system
7 requirements are specified, the functional analysis and allocation evaluates the functional alternatives, analyzes the risks, compares them, and finds a compromise. From functional analysis emerges the construction of a verifiable functional architecture. Finally, synthesis is one of the processes of the engineering loop that aims at building a physical architecture based on available and efficient alternatives. Activity 3: What functional architecture is needed to ensure the design of a drinking water supply system that is resilient, eco-efficient and appropriate to rural communities? Cocreation, operational design, execution and testing, reliability measurement, and Reliability measurement of control variables and limit assessment values are the five functions that form the entire functional architecture of the system. This first Execution function on cocreation is an innovative tool for et test creating value for drinking water systems. This function improves the experience that players already have on drinking water as a product or service. At this level, beneficiaries, local decision-makers and experts from the water sector come into play. We believe that the co-creation of an ecoFigure 3: Functional architecture of ecoefficient efficient drinking water supply system in rural areas should be symbiotic approach undertaken by several actors. It is a shared mastery of work. This exercise is the very expression of the democratization of project management, in which each actor plays his role in a coherent and harmonious way within the set of stakeholders, to satisfy his own needs Expectations and needs felt by the final beneficiaries of the work to be put in place. Activity 4: What tools and technical bodies are involved in the co-creation and eco-design of ecoefficient drinking water supply systems? Co-creation and operational design are two key levers in the engineering loop of the eco-efficient model because, together, they can be used effectively to design a drinking water supply system from radical to strong innovations Social impact, capable of responding to societal challenges. The dashboards and the specifications are the two important tools that give access to concrete methods and good practices to clarify the advantages of such an ecodesign approach and to guide its systematic implementation. The contribution of cocreation is significant because it can change the relationships between players in the value chain and their perception, to challenge economic models, to encourage openness and open innovation, well to imply a change of culture and system of thought to adopt another type of management. Water system specifications needed by all people and organizations involved must therefore have two main parts in it. The technical part and the administrative part. It is desirable that the technical part of these specifications should be limited to listing the technical constraints which have been established, while the administrative part must fix the administrative provisions applicable to the drinking water supply project. Care must be taken when drawing up a plan not to confuse preferences and constraints, to avoid in the future misunderstandings and re-enactments as late as dramatic. The constraints listed in the specifications must be interpreted in such a way that their reading is the expression of the technical needs ordered and delivered. Ultimately, their interpretation must be the result of a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the whole drinking water supply system to be erected.
8 Moreover, care must be taken when drawing up specifications that these constraints considered as basic conditions for an eco-efficient system of drinking water should be considered: Constraints Economic Ecological Human Industrial Material
Characteristics Monetary constraints related to the operating budget of the system after implementation Water recyclability, pollution, green energy, natural capital, water flow, clouds, precipitation .. Participation of actors, capacity of local staff Local manufacturing capacity, technology transfer. Availability and access to spare parts.
Table 1. Table of constraints to be included in a specification
Activity 5: What stakeholders and what role in the implementation, evaluation, and validation of eco-efficient drinking water systems? In the group of actors involved in the drinking water sector in rural areas, we must count on local authorities, water users, private companies, civil society agencies, national regulators and The State, research centers and universities specializing in water issues. Even though research centers and universities make their contribution and not the least in relation to knowledge and technological innovations, about the highly local nature of the drinking water supply service, local authorities and users do not cannot be excluded in the process of implementing and managing supply systems. On the contrary, their technical and financial capacities need to be strengthened. It should not be forgotten that private companies and civil society agencies involved in the water sector can become very professional and productive. Activity 6: What reliability metrics could be the ex-gate validation tool and the evaluation of the relevance of the eco-efficient system?
We sought to design a metric that would measure and evaluate against a given scale indicating the maturity of mastering the design model of rural drinking water supply systems in developing countries. The proposed metric is the ZOMBO index, which means: "Zero Managerial Omission for a Good Optimization" of rural drinking water supply systems, abbreviated "Iz", is a proposed tool for ex post validation, Evaluation of the control of the eco-efficient model (Zombo, 20017). We have attempted to define the Iz as "the ecological ratio attributed to a drinking water supply system in proportion to the physical, financial and human resources invested in its implementation and the economic, social and environmental effects produced by it System ". The importance of this index in the rural drinking water sector in developing countries is not significant. The Iz is a management tool for assessing the viability of a drinking water supply system. An abundant and permanent supply of high quality food and clean water for human consumption is proof of the criterion. The ZOMBO index thus makes it possible to measure the reliability of a homomorphic system (the practical case of the system in its context) about an isomorphic modeling (the structure of a reference configuration of an eco-efficient system) It has considered a sufficient variety of situations. We will call VETO the limitations imposed on our model by the complexity of the environment, the inverse of Ashby's law which establishes that a system must have a complexity at least equivalent to that of its environment. There is VETO when the complexity of the environment exceeds that of the reference configuration of the model and therefore this one no longer allows to validate its eco-efficiency. The application of the veto depends on the type of response to these five questions from the elimination phase imposed by the eco-efficiency index calculation procedure. If one of the answers to the first question is YES, this will lead to a veto if there is a NO response to one of the final three elimination questions: 1. Is the flow of the selected stream insufficient or seasonal?
9 2. Is the proposed technology energy-intensive? 3. Will the system use a renewable energy source? 4. Are the waters to be distributed polluted by toxic substances? 5. Is the installation area of the system exposed to the risk of natural disasters? Finally, the variation in the eco-efficiency index is a function of the weightings attributed to whether all variables they are endogenous or exogenous to the designed system. System validation is performed using the eco-efficiency index calculation. This calculation of the index is made possible by the formula below, considering 73 exogenous variables and 23 endogenous variables, determining both the criticality and the sustainability of existing or emerging water services.
Figure 4:
Iz Index calculation formula
In terms of complexity language, application of the veto is apparent to Ashby's law, which applies when the internal complexity of the system becomes less than the external complexity of the environment (Rochet, 2014). Some variables of the eco-efficiency index can generate veto. Of the 81 parameters that make up the design model for eco- efficient drinking water systems, 5 have veto rights. These five criteria are so important that they cannot be treated in the same way as others in different meta-systems. For each metaprocess, these criteria, such as pollution, water flow, energyintensive technologies, renewable energies as well as natural disasters, can be applied the concept of veto threshold, some of which may correspond to regulatory requirements. The absence or presence of any of the criteria may limit the eco-efficient nature of the given water supply system. Hence the need for veto power. As a precaution, the application of a veto cancels out all the eco-efficiency of the system of supply of drinking water whose scale of value corresponds to 0.
The modulability of ecoefficient system An efficient system of drinking water supply in rural areas is 'eco-friendly' only if there is a selfregulating property. But this property is generated only by the potentiality of natural capital coupled with technological choices, pumping and water treatment as well as the energy source used), to adapt to a specific environment. Such as the origins of water, groundwater, surface or rainfall, clouds or atmospheric air and their respective flow, would require a different technological coupling and adapted to the specific parameters thus making every ecosystem of drinking water supply, Unique and selfregulating, hence, performing and resilient. Such is the case illustrated by this study through the blue
10 pump, invented and installed in the village for the pumping of surface water coming from a high-flowing river near the village. This rustic technology is economical, ecological, and efficient, ensures perpetual pumping, works non-stop and without electrical energy, maintenance is carried out at zero cost, pollution is at zero point, holds a long useful life, manufactured Locally, its appropriation is simple, and makes the system immediately resilient within the limits of criticality.
CONCLUSION Despite considerable efforts, research remains insufficient in this drinking water sector. The scientific challenge of this research was to define and characterize a model of the design of resilient, eco-efficient drinking water supply systems, which makes it possible to bring together, at the rural scale of the developing countries, minimum conditions likely to encourage steering Oriented to the logic of performance. The engineering loop of the eco-efficient model, which guarantees the performance of water services on the economic, environmental, and social level, is set out below:
FIG. 5 - Mouth of engineering of the functional architecture of the design model of eco-efficient systems of drinking water supply
Finally, the study demonstrated that the ex-gate validation and the evaluation of the relevance of the model depend on the reliability metric as a function of the endogenous and exogenous variables integrating the model, and to which a specific weight would have been attributed per their order of importance in the water chain. In the end, the contributions of this research were characterized by the relevance of this research to the extent that they would be able to guide public decision-makers in their agenda on issues of access to drinking water, to make prevention Reducing unnecessary waterborne diseases, reducing public or individual costs of care, promoting community participation as an expression of democracy in rural decision-making, assessing the effectiveness of supply systems In drinking water by the criticality study and the calculation of the maturity of the ecodesign model through the ZOMBO Index. In addition, the contributions of this research are of three types. These contributions, both managerial, methodological, and theoretical, can be elucidated in the following way. Theoretically, the performance of the eco-efficient system of water supply has been defined as "The capacity of a system attributable to the State, naturally deemed effective in guaranteeing access to water, truly fit for human consumption, if through a sustainable, abundant, and continuous, non-discriminatory, regulable and, the said system is valorizing, water resource as a factor of production capable of promoting an
11 economic development of the rural contryside". The determinants that favor the eco-efficient system have been identified, an introduction to the regulation of water supply was discussed to clearly differentiate it from the concept of regulation and define it as "the set of practices allowing the permanent and stable functioning of the drinking water supply system capable to ensure an abundant and continuous service, and to consider the sensitive targets and fragile ". This definition has suggested two forms of regulation that can be described as optimal or exceptional. Optimal regulation means that this form guarantees the inhabitants an abundant and uninterrupted supply of water if all the environmental, technical, and managerial conditions of the system of supply are united. Exceptional regulation, for example, is one that knows a bricolage, a modification dictated by one or more natural or technical constraints, thus ensuring a limited or partial water supply in favor of the priority targets pre-designated by the power Municipal government. Thus, at different scales, eco-efficiency as a management strategy as an integral part of the composite of performance in water governance can have a positive impact on the relevance of rural water services in developing countries. Development, since certain conditions dictated the level of operationality of water supply systems and aiming at making the intervention of the public power in the water sector efficient".
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