B Restructuring Seasonal Torrent_Thesis dissertation_MaHS

clara medina garcĂ­a

Infrastructure as a Development Paradigm An illustrated redefinition in the context of Moatize in Mozambique.

In 2016 the Mozambican Government subscribed the Regional Development Plan (PEOT) for the Zambezi basin as the roadmap towards development in the following 30 years. This paper critically addresses the paradigm of development pursued in this document and the infrastructures planned to achieve it, assuming that it is mainly preoccupied with following the old occidental paradigm of development and that it fails both to translate learnings to the local territorial and social realities and to face current and future challenges such as climate change and rapid urban growth.

How can infrastructures enhance resilience in the future? Can the relationship between natural systems and human infrastructures be rethought so that landscape features and ecosystem services substitute or improve infrastructural networks?

Taking the specific case of Moatize, the following pages reflect on the functions and challenges of infrastructure and build on alternative infrastructural approaches to the monofunctional and centralized grey infrastructures conceived in the PEOT. To explore alternative scenarios and to build on a redefinition of infrastructure as a development paradigm, the main methodology used will be research by design, informed by literature on development and infrastructures to frame the Mozambican context and illustrated with successful study cases that use novel technologies and principles towards sustainable and resilient development.

1

Introduction

“By development, we understand a multifaceted phenomenon which not only involves

the first causes of degradation of fresh water ecosystems, decreasing services and

economic growth, but also engages in the relationships between economic, social,

threatening agricultural and other local activities (Beilfuss, 09-12).

cultural, political and environmental dynamics, their logics and their various forms.”

Furthermore, not only shall new infrastructures address and incorporate local

(González & Healey, 2005)

specificities and practices, but also pressing global challenges derived from climate change and growing urban population. For this matter, integrated management

In 2016 the government of Mozambique issued the Special Plan for Regional

through multi-functional and multi-scalar infrastructures that incorporate natural

Development (PEOT), with the aim of defining land uses and exploitation of resources

systems and processes must be enhanced. This shall be combined with efforts

towards social and ecological development for the Zambezi Basin (Conselho

towards closed-loop systems where the waste or excess from one system becomes

de Ministros de Mozambique, 2016). However, the paradigm of development

the input for others (Khouri, cited in Margolis and Chaouni, 2015).

established in the PEOT replicates blinkered and outdated exogenous discourses,

From the previous observations, the study and enhancement of ecosystem services

failing to address local particularities and future challenges. Alternatively, Ndhlovu

and natural processes brings an opportunity to leapfrog towards sustainable and

(2017) defends translative adaptation when African regions are to embrace external

resilient alternatives adapted to the Mozambican context (Inamdar, 2017). On

influences, rather than merely copying occidental thinking. By this means, they can

the one hand, largely unknown low-tech solutions that recreate natural processes

benefit from learnings from other cultures while translating them into their specific

are available today. These can become powerful alternatives to wide spread

context and reality. External influx, however, shall not be the main addition to the

infrastructures that fail to address problems from a holistic perspective and that

new paradigm, but traditional knowledge and proven experiences dealing with

can be too expensive, superfluous or unfeasible to the specific circumstances of

local challenges shall be integrated. Accordingly, Ezeanya-Esiobu (2017) argues for

the area of study (Izembart and Le Boudec, 2008). On the other hand, networks of

empowerment of local population to think ahead and envision strategies to deal

decentralised infrastructures are complementary to those already developed and

with current and future challenges in the road to development in African contexts.

reinforce an integrated performance, as they are able to adapt to and strengthen

Development is linked to economic models, and so to productive systems and

communities’ specificities and allow faster implementation (Putri, 2018).

infrastructures. Thus, alternative paradigms require alternative infrastructures to

The following pages are organized in three thematic sections that favour a deep

support it. Therefore, a redefinition of infrastructures is also required against the

understanding of the challenges and opportunities faced in different infrastructural

reliance on wide and centralized grey infrastructures and intensive monofunctional

fields. However, they shall all together contribute to a multifunctional and holistic

exploitation of natural resources supported in the PEOT. Such approach largely

redefinition of infrastructures. Each section starts with literature review to allow a

differs from and affects indigenous ways of inhabiting the land, in close relationship

broader thematic analysis and contextualization, followed by interpretive maps and

with natural cycles and embracing rivers as the main infrastructure for economic

fieldtrip pictures to frame the specific situation in Moatize. Finally, an example of

and social activity. For instance, dams like Cahorra Bassa or the new ones proposed,

successful systemic small scale, disperse and low-tech solution in a similar context

as well as concessions for mining, engender changes in the regional topography

to the situation depicted is described together with a bigger scale study case.

and water courses, affecting downstream areas and endangering already fragile

These study cases help envision alternative approaches to the challenges faced and

ecosystems. As a matter of fact, International Rivers highlights dams as one of

elaborate on a translative redefinition of infrastructure as development paradigm.

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Adaptation of Systhesis Plan of the PEOT (Conselho de Ministros de Mozambique, 2016)

Plano Especial De Ordenamento Do Territรณrio (PEOT) The PEOT relies on concessions for intensive unsustainable monofunctional exploitation of resources like coal mining or agriculture for development in the following 30 years. Centralized big scale infrastructures and networks are reinforced and envisioned to support these activities, among which four new hydro-power plants along the Zambezi and smaller ones in all major tributaries, new combustion plants and the extension of road, rail and energy networks. Conservation areas are only foreseen in peripheric mountain areas and neglect river ecosystems, the richest and most related to indigenous practices and major settlements like Tete and Moatize.

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01_Water supply and sanitation Natural processes as a framework

4

Map drawn by the author based on observations in fieldwork trip.

The presence of water shapes social, economic and ecological systems in a territory (Margolis and Chaouni, 2015). As severity of flush rains and draughts characteristic of the semi-arid climate of the Zambezi region increase due to climate change, so does risk of floods, landslides and water scarcity. Furthermore, infrastructures linked to the obsolete paradigm of development tend to build wide and expensive systems that highly interfere with the natural water cycle. In Mozambique, many areas both in the urban and rural contexts remain disconnected from supply systems and still depend on isolated pumps or the river itself to meet their needs, as do traditional economic practices. In addition, most areas lack any kind of sewage system (Conselho de Ministros de Mozambique, 2016).

Currently, flush rains carve seasonal creeks in unprotected slopes while water supply companies pump up water from rivers in costly centralized distribution systems. In order to increase resilience, a new integrated definition of water infrastructures is needed. Why not taking advantage of the natural network of torrents as a framework to upgrade the cities with new water supply and sewage systems?

Integrated Water Management Systems (Khouri, cited in Margolis and Chaouni, 2015) are based on retention, infiltration, collection and purification of water at the source replicating natural processes and taking into account the whole water cycle.

Thus, IWMS allow extended use of the scarce water supplies along the year and its reuse to address domestic, agricultural and industrial needs.

Regarding the needs and means of the region, networks of isolated solutions could be more easily implemented than new time and money consuming centralized models for water supply or sewage.

Indeed, low-tech solutions that learn from natural processes are available and their implementation has already proven more efficient and beneficial for the social and ecological development of both urban and rural areas (Margolis and Chaouni, 2015; Semiyaga et al., 2015). Still, disperse low-tech infrastructures require systemic thinking for greater efficiency and success. In this process, combining new water systems with the natural water network at a large scale has the potential of becoming the framework for development of multifunctional infrastructural landscapes when consolidating and expanding urban areas (Margolis and Chaouni, 2015).

Interpretive map of existing natural and centralized water networks and opportunities in Moatize.

Natural networks already cover most of the urbanized area.Urbanization units also have potential to become disperse elements of an integrated water management system if rain captured in fenced complexes and wastewater from buildings was incorporated.

Fieldtrip images by the author.

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Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Water supply and sanitation in Moatize 1. There is a strong relationship between local population and rivers in Mozambique, and the Moatize River is no exception, catering for basic needs for domestic, agricultural, sanitation and social activities.

2. The water supply company in Moatize (FIPAC) pumps up water from the Rivobue River to a deposit in the centre of the city, from which it is distributed by gravity. Houses within the network get some hours of supply from an exterior tap daily.

3. Some houses in areas not yet supplied by the network are already implementing systems for rainwater harvesting.

4. In the lack of any kind of sewage system for wastewater, exterior or open-air latrines connected to self-built septic tanks the most common wastewater treatment.

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01_Water supply and sanitation DISPERSE low-tech WATER technologies

CAWAST (since 2001)

Canada, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Niger and Nicaragua.

(CAWST | Biosand construction manual )

(Unknown author | https://www.cawst.org/blog)

(Unknown author | http://www.rufwork.org/)

The power of training for network implementation “The Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology (CAWST) teaches people how to get safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in their own homes, using simple, affordable technologies�

(CAWST, 2018). What makes their work innovative, though, is the implementation model followed to achieve this objective. The base for their work is state-of-the-art research and low-tech technologies made comprehensible and available for local communities. Through the establishment of Water Expertise and Training Centres (WET Centres) in partnership with on-site training associations, they manage to engage communities in wide implementation of these solutions and offer follow-up services, as well as support entrepreneurial initiatives to produce the technologies locally (Dow Baker and Ka Kit Ngai, 2015).

One of their main fields of action is household water treatment and safe storage, with Biosand Filters as their most spread technology. It is an adaptation of traditional filtering systems that can provide with save drinking water for households combined with technologies for water harvesting from alternative sources to the supply network (CAWST, 08-12).

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wadi al azeiba Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Atelier Jacqueline Osty (2012) (All images | Š Osty | https://www.landezine.com)

Wadi state before intervention in May 2009

From abandoned torrents to productive spaces Wadis are dangerous dry torrents that flood on the few days of the year when flush rains occur, fragmenting the city and stopping circulation. However, they remain abandoned or used as damping sites for the rest of the year. This is only one of the increasing examples of projects that attempt to incorporate seasonal torrents as socio-cultural, economic and ecological infrastructural landscapes in the city, integrated as part of holistic water management systems (Margolis and Chaouni, 2015).

The aim of this project is to redesign the network of wadis of Muscat so that they can become living spaces and part of a network of parks and pedestrian promenades linking the neighborhoods in the city. The torrent bed is covered in rocks that slow down the flow and sand to allow infiltration and keep water on site. The slopes are restructured in terraces featuring different plants, from grasses to trees, to help reduce evaporation and regenerate the ecosystem so that human activity can reconquer the space(Atelier Jacqueline Osty & associĂŠs).

Phase 1 Park in February 2012

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02_Energy and waste Closing the cycle

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MOZAMBIQUE

CENTRALIZED NETWORK

Mean wind speed Wind turbine farm viable from 5m/s

Average global horizontal radiation Tete: 1.927 kWh/sqm/yr

Future Existing Substation

66 kV grid 110/132kV 220/275 kV 330/400 kV 533 kV grid

WIND POTENTIAL

SOLAR POTENTIAL

National electricity grid

<1750 kWh/sqm/yr

>2150

>7 m/s

< 3m/s

OTHER RURAL POTENTIAL Renewable with management Biomass (from forests and plantations) Micro- Hydroelectric

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MOATIZE

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RENEWABLE POTENTIAL

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Overlay of solar, wind and other renewable energy resources

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PEOT PROPOSAL

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Water network in the basin

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New big hydroelectric plants in Zambezi river New hydroelectric plants in tributaries Preferent area for extraction (mainly coal mining) Proposed extension of national power grid

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300Km

Interpretive map comparing energetic infrastructure planed by PEOT and sustainable energy potential in Mozambique and the Zambezi basin for alternative energy production.

Map drawn by the author based on maps from the Renewable Energy Atlas of Mozambique (Gesto Energia, 2014)

60% of countries in the Zambezi basin depend on hydropower to meet their electricity demands. Mozambique is no exception, as the Cahorra Bassa Dam generates most of the national supply, but productivity is already threatened by evaporation and draughts (Frey, 2018), processes intensified by climate change.

By 2050, the Zambezi basin as a whole is expected to lose between 26 and 40% of its flow (Beilfuss, 09-12).

In this context, energetic diversification proves mandatory for resilience in energetic supply. Some countries are already moving to alternative sources.

Kenya, for instance, has largely developed wind and geothermal plants (United Nations Office for SouthSouth Cooperation, 2014) while Zambia is turning to solar (Justicia Ambiental, 2017).

According to the Renewable Energies Atlas carried out for the Mozambican government, the country has exceptional potential for implementing most renewable energies (Gesto Energia, 2014). Indeed, efforts in electrifying rural areas using solar and wind energy are already succeeding (The World Bank, 2012; Frey, 2018b). The PEOT, however, still focuses on building new hydroelectric and thermal plants.

At the same time, waste management becomes an ever increasing global problem both in rural and urban areas (United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation, 2014) . Yet, both problems could be tackled at once closing the cycle by using solid waste or biomass from wastewater treatment systems for energy production and landscape productivity.

Statistically, around 70% of the water consumed in the world is used in agriculture, and food demand is predicted to increase 60% by 2050 (World Food Programme). Regarding this data and the fact that agriculture is the most extended subsistence economy in Mozambique, implementation of systems for rain and waste water catchment and management to be reused in agriculture would boost productivity and increase resilience (Margolis and Chaouni, 2015).

Also in this field, systems of small scale decentralized technologies appear as the most effective and fastest model for implementation. These can become economically feasible if mass-produced using standard approaches (Zimmermann, 2013) and can incorporate different low-tech solutions for energy production and organic waste and wastewater treatment.

Fieldtrip images by the author.

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Energy supply and waste management in Moatize 5. Wood from the local forests or charcoal is still the main cooking source of energy in Moatize.

6. The disadvantage suffered by houses on the slopes not yet supplied by the grid is spreading the use of small solar panels. Individual generators are also frequent in bars and businesses against power cuts from Cahora Bassa.

7. Recycling is not implemented by authorities, but entrepreneurial activities have arisen collecting and reusing some materials like plastic bottles or aluminium cans in the local economies. Larger scale collecting and recycling is also implemented by bringing large metals and glass bottles directly to factories in Tete, Maputo and Beira.

8. No formal sewage system collects and treats wastewater in Moatize, septic tanks are the common practice instead.

Wastewater and organic waste remain daily waste not addressed by the local recycling economies.

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02_Energy and waste industrial WASTEWATER treatment PLANT

BioInovate Africa (2015)

(Captions from video produced by SciDev.Net’s Sub-Saharan Africa desk)

(Unknown author | http://bioinnovate-africa.org)

Arusha, Tanzania

Wastewater collection after biodigestors

Wastewater inlet to purifying system

Constructed wetlands

Partnerships between industry and universities to research on productive waste management The treatment system at a banana liquor factory starts with a process of clarification followed by biodigestors that turn wastewater into biogas. A second step cleans wastewater and effluents through constructed wetlands so it can be reused in neighbouring farms. In total, 80.000l of wastewater are treated daily, generating 100.000l of biogas that run two of the companies’ boilers, while sludge can be used as fertilizer. (BioInnovate Africa, 2015b). Through an effective partnership, university research groups from the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology found a site to implement laboratory results while the industry managed to obtain economic benefit from the waste that was threatening their productive process, saving up to 100l of fuel per day (Ochieng’ Ogodo, 2015).

This is one of the three pilot research initiatives funded by Bio-Innovate in integrated waste water treatment technologies that combine pollution reduction, energy production and nutrient recovery from agro-industrial waste. The aim is to establish partnership between local industries and universities to research and develop technologies as to be scaled-up and disseminated in other local industries (BioInnovate Africa, 2018a)

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LARGE-SCALE BIODigestors

KIST (2001)

Rwanda

(Unknown author | https://www.ashden.org/winners/kist)

Biogas plant under construction at Kitama prison, Rwanda

From unsafe septic tanks and deforestation to large-scale energy production and fertilizing The high concentration of prisoners in Rwanda by 2001 (up to 7.500 people) was threatening health conditions both for humans and the surrounding environment due to the overflowing septic tanks polluting water courses and enormous amounts of firewood needed for daily cooking.

To address these issues, The Kigali Institute of Science, Technology and Management (KIST) started implementing large-scale biodigestors in the prison of Nsinda. The biodigestors are fed with the toilet waste and cow dung from the prison.

The natural process of decomposition of organic waste in absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions) generates biogas that is be used for cooking and a sludge that is composted for 3 months to be used as fertilizer used to improve productivity in the feeding farms (ASHDEN, 2017).

The prison features a total of 12 buried dome shaped waterproofed brick containers, each one able to host 100 cubic meters of biogas that is piped back to the kitchens. The prisoners learn the technology and carry out maintenance works, what would allow them to further spread the technology in their home towns (Kabeja, 2015).

By 2011 already 10 prisons had implemented the technology (Holliday, 2011) and by 2014 a total of 126 biogas plants had been built in different communal premises including schools and other institutions, saving more than 70% of firewood (Rwigema, 2014).

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1. Latrines 2. Digestor 3. Biogas storage 4. Gas kitchen 5. Fertilizer

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Process and digestor schemes by the author

( James Mollison | http://cleanleap.com/)

(Unknown author | https://www.ashden.org/)

3

03_Social infrastructures Meet and exchange

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Map drawn by the author based on observations in fieldwork trip.

From the previous sections one can identify an underlying common concern: production. The Oxford dictionary (2018) defines infrastructure as “The basic physical and organizational structures and facilities needed for the operation of a society or enterprise”.

As such, production is the first issue to be addressed and water, energy and waste systems need to work together to support and enhance it. Consequently, as already argued, rather than defining each system separately, a holistic approach towards infrastructures intertwining productive processes is preferable.

This enables efficient and resilient sharing of resources as one process may benefit from another. Namely, the biosand filter could be produced from plastic collected and recycled locally with the appropriate technology. Nonetheless, for these interactions to emerge, social infrastructures that promote meeting, sharing and exchange are crucial (Muller, 2013).

Attention to the social perspective of infrastructures is not missing in any of the study cases described.

Both small low-tech projects as well as big interventions rely on establishing social networks to succeed.

These networks engage a wide variety of actors, from different local population and businesses to universities and research centres, together with service providers and organizations. In words of Dow Baker and Ka Kit Ngai, “infrastructure requires investment for physical elements but also for education for capacitation in technology and management, policies and a legal framework as soft infrastructure” (2015).

This requirement is very evident in implementation of decentralized systems like the work of CAWST, where the WET centres play a key role as places for learning, exchange and follow up (Prottas, 2017).

Therefore, decentralization and multi-scalar and multi-actor approaches should inform effective models for implementation of new infrastructures in the context of Moatize, in contrast with the centralized proposals of the PEOT. Such a perspective could trigger faster local responses to the global challenges to be tackled (Peter and Kramer cited in Vázquez-Barquero and Rodríguez-Cohard, 2016). In this quest, spatial definition of urban and rural areas shall be understood as the frame for these processes and networks to occur with the potential of becoming multifunctional infrastructural landscapes.

ENDOGENOUS PRODUCTION Rural

EXOGENOUS PRODUCTION

Semi-rural

Semi-urban

Mining infrastructure

Subsequent activity

Water bodies

Potential confluences

Corn mills

Road

Mine related business

Wood and timber

Recycling collection

Workshops

Train rail

Quarry

Agriculture

Small agriculture

Commercial areas

Mining pit

Resettlements

Clay bricks

Street shops

Recycling collection

Current mining area

Workers housing

Interpretive map of existing endogenous and exogenous exploitation activity and production in Moatize.

Local population maintain a strong relationship with natural resources and exploitation of the landscape and expands the city along the river. When mining arrived with its own infrastructures new opportunities arose for population along the road. Yet, the resettlement, isolated in-between, can´t benefit from either of them.

Fieldtrip images by the author.

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Figure 9

Figure 10

Figure 11

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Production and related social infrastructures in Moatize 9. The sides of the road host exogenous businesses settled in the area to supply the mine with services together with shops, bars and workshops by local population.

10. An informal market gathers next to the only main street in the expansion of the city where locals sell their produce.

11. Family is the most common link for workers to gather, like this carpentry close to the main roads intersection.

12. The corn mills work both as private business and rental spaces. They gather women that come to make or have their flour made. They are the most developed communal business in the area, close to the concept of social infrastructure.

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03_Social Infrastructure AGROFORESTRY INNOVATION CENTREs

World Agroforestry Centre (2012)

(All pictures | Unknown author | http://www.worldagroforestry.org)

Ethiopia, Rwanda and Uganda

Researching on integrated options to scale up agroforestry for food security The project Trees for Food Security (T4FS) aims at â&#x20AC;&#x153;developing integrated options and accelerating scaling up of agroforestry for improved food security and resilient livelihoods in Eastern Africaâ&#x20AC;? (World Agroforestry Centre, 2017). It focuses on building and sharing appropriate locally adapted agroforestry practices and improving the whole value chain of trees from a holistic approach that includes water management, sustainable grazing options, strengthening smallholders ability to access credit and markets and supporting local academic institutions. The success of the project in scaling up innovative practices lays, however, in the establishment of communities of practice that research on how to improve local practices and allow for innovation through knowledge exchange.

Five Rural Resource Centres and nurseries were established to enhance training and supply of improved tree germplasm. These centres feature trial fields and organize participatory trials and trainings. These activities encourage collective learning and empowerment of local farmers to keep innovating in their fields and share their experience. In addition, the findings on species distribution, suitability and ecological services are included in The Potential Natural Vegetation (PNV) map of Eastern and Southern Africa (van Breugel et al., 2015) for further dissemination.

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Conclusion landscape urbanism studio proposal

Clara Medina G (2018)

Moatize, Mozambique

(Picture by the author from model by Nathan De Feyter, Clara Medina, Nadia Nusrat & Julia Paiva)

How landscape features and ecosystem services can substitute or benefit infrastructural networks

This research by design proposal elaborates on the potential of landscape urbanism principles and spatial definition to enable multifunctional and resilient infrastructural landscapes in Moatize.

The proposal starts from an understanding of the overlap and pressure of the grid developed from the influence of the exogenous forces arriving in Moatize on the natural networks and ecosystems.

The premise supported is that the restructuration of the course of a dry torrent from a basin area on the edge of the urban tissue on the plateau could bring natural resources closer to the local population that has been isolated in between productive systems and can even become a connecting space for these systems. Informed by the discourse followed in this paper and the study cases shared, the proposal strengthens the natural networks and cycles along this seasonal creek fed by the surrounding urbanization so that it could represent an example of incipient multifunctional and holistic infrastructure where endogenous and exogenous forces can meet and create shared knowledge to allow new services in the urban tissue.

All in all, the project proposes a set of multi-scalar interventions to reactivate the landscape, boost activity and increase socio-economic and environmental resilience in the future.

The basin area as epicentre for development.

Pictures from individual models by Clara Medina

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Landscape Urbanism describes a disciplinary realignment currently underway in which landscape replaces architecture as the basic building block of contemporary urbanismâ&#x20AC;? (Tennent, 2006, p. 11)

1:5000 Concept model of natural network as a framework

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Conclusion

(Pictures by the author from individual models by the author)

h pat

Natural forest can reconquer the creek

Flooding grasslands for cattle and agriculture

Pilot houses

et stre

ture icul

oa d ia l r

Shadow trees create cattle paths

Water storage

Implementation of technologies

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ustr I nd

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Water can be stored in meander areas

Industries can reuse water

Houses feeding with wastewater

RESEARCH CENTRE AND NURSERY

Water inďŹ ltration

Microtopography with agricultural terraces

Urban tissue

1:1000 Concept model of re-structuration of dry torrent as multifunctional infrastructural landscape. This area has the potential to become a communal space for innovation and exchange through agricultural experimentation and may become the starting point for a wave of further implementing learned technologies in the semi-urban tissue.

1:500 Detail Model showing topographic interventions carried out to redefine the space in the basin area enhancing water courses, intermediate islands, controlled flooding areas and terraced slopes. In this frame, bigger scale water retention, infiltration and purifying systems are introduced to allow an integrated water cycle management and are combined with low-tech individual and/or collective infrastructure for water and waste management. Different economic activities meet along the water course with the opportunity to benefit one from the other.

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(Picture by the author from model by Nathan De Feyter, Clara Medina, Nadia Nusrat & Julia Paiva)

Site pictures by the author

The proposal is inspired by the natural green creeks.

Unstructured current state of basin area.

Cattle reaching the basin area for water and grass.

1:5000 model of the integrated vision for Moatize enhancing the natural water networks as framework for development.

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