Dialogo 5.2: Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence

Journal of the Dialogue between Science and Theology

DIA LOGO Volume 5 - Issue 2 - June 2019

Edited by Cosmin Tudor Ciocan

InterReligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence

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DIALOGO Journal with biannual volumes on regard to the Dialogue between Science and Theology

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DIALOGO 2019 volume 5 - issue 2: Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence

Organized by the RCDST - Romania in collaboration with other Institutions from Slovakia - Pakistan - Switzerland - Poland India - Egypt - Uganda - Jordan - Turkey Argentina - USA - Canada - Germany June 2019

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Publication Series: Description: ISSN (CD-ROM): ISSN (ONLINE): ISSN (PRINT): ISSN-L: Editors:

Dialogo (Multidisciplinary Journal for the Dialogue between Science and Theology) 2392 – 9928 2393 – 1744 2457 – 9297 2392 – 9928 Fr. lecturer Cosmin Tudor Ciocan, Ph.D. (Romania) - In-Chief - and Ing. Stefan BADURA, Ph.D. (Slovak Republic)

Series Publisher: RCDST (Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology) of

the “Ovidius” University of Constanta. Romania Volume5, Issue 2 Title: Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence subtitle: DOI: Published by: (DOI issuer) Pages: Printed on: Publishing date:

DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2 EDIS - Publishing Institution of the University of Zilina Univerzitna 1, 01026 Zilina - Slovak Republic 168 100 copies 2019, June 30

Note on the issue: This is the volume of our general topic, with articles gathered until June 2019 on 5 sections of research.

*All published papers underwent blind peer review. *All published papers are in English language only. Each paper was assigned to 3 reviewers and went through two-level approval process. * The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of RCDST. Authors only hold responsability over their papers and content.

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Conference Sponsors and Parteners

Ovidius University of Constanta (UOC/Romania) www.univ-ovidius.ro

University of the Punjab (Lahore) www.pu.edu.pk

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International Scientific Committee, Reviewers and Contributers Christoph Stueckelberger Globethics.net Executive Director and Founder; Prof. PhD. (Switzerland)

Ahmed Kyeyune Islamic University in Uganda

Maria Isabel Maldonado Garcia Directorate External Linkages/Institute of Language University of the Punjab; Head of Spanish Dpt. / Assistant Professor (Pakistan)

Ahmed Usman University of the Punjab (Pakistan)

Filip Nalaskowski

Mihai Valentin Vladimirescu Faculty of Orthodox Theology, University of Craiova; Professor PhD. (Romania)

Faculty of Educational Sciences - Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun; Dr. (Poland)

Mohammad Ayaz Ahmad University of Tabuk; Assistant Professor PhD (Saudi Arabia)

Lucian Turcescu Department of Theological Studies - Concordia University; Professor and Chair (Canada)

IPS Teodosie PETRESCU Archbichop of Tomis disctrict; Faculty of Orthodox Theology; “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof.

PhD. (Romania)

Francesco FIORENTINO Dipartimento di Filosofia, Letteratura e Scienze Sociali; Universita degli Studi di Bari «Aldo Moro»; Researcher in Storia della Filosofia (Italy)

Edward Ioan Muntean Faculty of Food Sciences and Technology - University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj–Napoca; Assoc. Professor PhD. (Romania)

Dagna Dejna NCU Faculty of Educational Sciences (Poland)

Altaf Qadir University of Peshawar (Pakistan)

Panagiotis STEFANIDES Emeritus Honoured Member of the Technical Chamber of Greece HELLENIC AEROSPACE IND. S.A. - Lead engineer; MSc Eur Ing (Greece)

Eugenia Simona Antofi “Dunarea de Jos” University (Romania)

Wade Clark Roof J.F. Rowny Professor of Religion and Society; Emeritus and Research Professor Walter H. Capps Center for the Study of Ethics, Religion, and Public Life; Director Department of Religious Studies - University of California at Santa Barbara (United States of America) Cristiana Oprea European Physical Society; member Joint Institute for Nuclear Research - Frank Laboratory of Neutron Physics; Scientific Project Leader (Russia) Gheorghe Istodor Faculty of Orthodox Theology - “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof.

PhD. (Romania) Nasili Vaka’uta Trinity Methodist Theological College University of Auckland; Ranston Lecturer PhD. (New Zealand)

D. Liqaa Raffee Jordan University of Science and Technology (Jordan) George Enache Faculty of History, Philosophy and Theology „Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati; Associate professor PhD. (Romania) Ahed Jumah Mahmoud Al-Khatib Faculty of Medicine - Department of Neuroscience University of Science and Technology; Researcher PhD (Jordan) Ioan-Gheorghe ROTARU ‘Timotheus’ Brethren Theological Institute of Bucharest (Romania) Akhtar Hussain Sandhu Department of History, University of the Punjab; Associate professor PhD. (Pakistan) Richard Woesler European University press, PhD. (Germany)

Dilshad Mahabbat University of Gujrat (Pakistan) Adrian Niculcea Faculty of Orthodox Theology, “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof.

PhD. (Romania) Tarnue Marwolo Bongolee Hope for the Future; Executive Director (Liberia)

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Coli Ndzabandzaba Rhodes University (South Africa)

Riffat Munawar University of the Punjab; Dr. PhD. (Pakistan) Hassan Imam Aligarh University, PhD. (India) Ioan G. Pop Emanuel University of Oradea; PhD. (Romania) Farzana Baloch University of Sindh Associate professor PhD. (Pakistan)

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International Scientific Committee, Reviewers and Contributers Petru BORDEI Faculty of Medicine - “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Khalil Ahmad University of the Punjab; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan)

Fouzia Saleem University of the Punjab, Dr. PhD. (Pakistan)

Maciej Laskowski Politechnika Lubelska; Prof. PhD. (Poland)

Mihai CIUREA University of Craiova, PhD. (Romania)

Muhammad Hafeez University of the Punjab; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan)

Mohammad Ayaz Ahmad University of Tabuk, Assistant Professor PhD. (Saudi Arabia)

Muhammad Shahid Habib International Islamic University; Lecturer Ph.D. (Pakistan)

Mirosaw Zientarski Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru, PhD. (Poland)

Muhammad Zakria Zakar University of the Punjab; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan)

Manisha Mathur G.N.Khalsa College; University of Mumbai; Assistant Professor (India)

R S Ajin GeoVin Solutions Pvt. Ltd.; PhD. (India)

Pratibha Gramann Saybrook University of San Francisco, California (United States of America)

Mustfeez Ahmad Alvi Lahore Leads University; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan)

Adrian Gorea Concordia University, Montreal (Canada)

Radu Niculescu Ovidius University of Constanta; Assist.prof. PhD. (Romania)

Richard Alan Miller

Navy Intel (Seal Corp. and then MRU); Dr. in Alternative Agriculture, Physics, and Metaphysics (United States of America)

Fermin De La Fuente-Calvo De La Fuente Consulting (Corporative Intelligence) B.Sc. Physics and Professor PhD. (United States of America)

Maria Ciocan “Mircea cel Batran” Naval Academy; teacher PhD. (Romania)

Kelli Coleman Moore University of California at Santa Barbara (United States of America) Osman Murat Deniz Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi; Associate Professor PhD. (Turkey) Daniel Munteanu The International Journal of Orthodox Theology (Canada) Dragos Hutuleac Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava; Assistant Lecturer, PhD candidate (Romania) Shiva Khalili Faculty of psychology and education - Tehran University; Associate Professor PhD. (Iran) Mihai Himcinski Faculty of Orthodox Theology - „1 December 1918” University of Alba Iulia; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Richard Willem Gijsbers The Institute for the Study of Christianity in an Age of Science and Technology - ISCAST (Australia) Flavius Cristian MaRCaU Constantin Brancusi” University of Targu Jiu; Phd. Candidate (Romania)

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Stanley Krippner Association for Humanistic Psychology, the Parapsychological Association; President; Prof. PhD. (United States of America)

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Sorin Gabriel ANTON Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi; PhD. (Romania) Sultan Mubariz University of Gujrat; PhD. (Pakistan) Gheorghe Petraru Faculty of Orthodox Theology, Iasi; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Rania Ahmed Abd El-Wahab Mohamed Plant Protection Research Institute; PhD. (Egypt) Rubeena Zakar University of the Punjab; Prof. PhD. (Pakistan) Mihai GIRTU The Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology (RCDST); President Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering - “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Prof. PhD. (Romania) Cosmin Tudor Ciocan The Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology (RCDST); Executive Director Faculty of Orthodox Theology - “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Lecturer PhD. (Romania)

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International Scientific Committee, Reviewers and Contributers Mihaela RUS “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Professor PhD. (Romania) Sónia Morgado Instituto Superior de Ciências Policiais e Segurança Interna, (ISCPSI); Aux. Prof., PhD (Portugal)

Muhammad Shahzad Aslam Universiti Malaysia Perlis; Assistant Professor PhD (Pakistan) Musferah Mehfooz Islamic Studies, Humanities Department; Assistant Professor PhD (Pakistan)

Jean FIRICA

University of Craiova; Assoc. Professor PhD. (Romania) Ahmed Ashfaq Assistant Professor PhD (Saudi Arabia) Shoaib Ahmad Siddiqi Faculty of Biological Sciences, Lahore Garrison University; Assistant Professor PhD (Pakistan) Rehman Ataur

Stefan Gregore Ciornei University of Agricultural Science and Veterinary Medicine; Assistant Professor PhD (Romania) Ahmed Kadhim Hussein Babylon University, College of Engineering; Assist.Prof.Dr.Eng. (Iraq) Muhammad Sarfraz Kuwait University, Department of Information Science, College of Computing; Professor and V. Dean of Research & Graduate Studies (Kuwait)

Lahore Garrison University; Senior Lecturer PhD. (Pakistan) Kuang-ming Wu

Abbasali Barati Al-mustafa International university in Qom; Professor PhD (Iran)

Yale University Divinity School; Senior Lecturer PhD. (Pakistan) Nursabah Sarikavakli “Ovidius” University of Constanta; Professor PhD. (Turkey) Laurentiu-Dan MILICI “Stefan cel Mare” University of Suceava; Professor PhD. (Romania) Emad Al-Janabi “Al-Mussaib” Technical College; Asist. Prof. Dr. (Iraq) Sugiarto Teguh Budi luhur and AAJ Jayabaya; Lecturer PhD. (Indonesia)

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Mahesh Man Shrestha International Network on Participatory Irrigation Management (INPIM); Lecturer PhD. (Nepal)

Amando P. Singun Higher College of Technology, Muscat; Lecturer PhD (Oman) Marian Gh. Simion Harvard University - Harvard Divinity School; PhD (United States)

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Organizing Committee Cosmin Tudor ciocan - Scientific Programme Officer RCDST Executive Director and Founder; Lect. ThD. Faculty of Orthodox Theology, Ovidius University of Constanta (Romania) Mihai GIRTU RCDST President and Founder; Professor PhD. Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering , Ovidius University of Constanta (Romania)

responsible for ALL session Osman Murat Deniz Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi; Associate Professor PhD. (Turkey) Bruno Marchal

Université Libre de Bruxelles; Prof . PhD. (Belgium) Maria Isabel Maldonado Garcia University of the Punjab; Assist. Prof., PhD (Pakistan)

Stefan badura - responsible for Publishing & I.t.

Publishing Society of Zilina; Ing. PhD. (Slovakia)

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Welcome Address

INTRODUCTION Dear Reader, it is our pleasure to introduce you this volume. This book contains all the accepted papers from the conference, which is described below in more details. We hope that all these published papers contribute to the academic society and provide interesting information for researchers world-wide.

I. Conference details: »»

Conference full name: Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence

»»

Conference short name: DialogoConf 2019 IRDW

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Conference edition: 9th

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Conference dates: May 19-26, 2019

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Conference web page: www.dialogo-conf.com

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Conference online archive: www.dialogo-conf.com/archive

II. Conference paper approval process: Each registered paper was evaluated in double tier approval process.

1. Scientific Committee evaluation (in average 2 reviews were prepared per paper).

2. Conference Editorial Board.

Only papers recommended by these committees were accepted for online presentation at the conference and for publication in the Journal.

III. Conference presentation: 1. General presentation The world is full of conflictual feelings and opinions on religion lately. This is a historical moment for humankind from lots of angles, and religion has its own moment of crossroads when strange and new situations occur. Two decades ago everyone questioned if the new millennium will be religious or not, and religious people, mostly the fundamentalists, have struggled to prove it is, but the path that we all, religious or secular, took and set before us reveal issues that no religious leaders have ever think of. With each step taken into defense, traditional religions seem to lose followers and credibility, the 2nd generation religions have their moment to prove they deserve being followed, but the newest generation of religions, liberal and nothing-to-do-with-traditional, gain trust and numbers.

This unexpected turn in religion’s countenance can have lots of explanations and even more scenarios for its future. For the moment the only hypothesis we throw in this debate is that civil society is eager to have peace from all the conflictual streams and, since religion proved with time to be the most important source of violence, humanity has turned every opportunity against religion’s liability

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Welcome Address over people. The last strategy it adopted was to demythologize and debunk its essence, but this only aimed the religious leadership’s mistakes and its pecuniary opportuneness, while the human need for spirituality and idealism still remain far beyond the reach of secularism. Would this be the best story for society-religion partnership? Would this scenario end the religious violence for good? Or, would this “scenario” be only our side of reality and another explanation is still out there, waiting to be said or unveiled?

2. Religion’s Response to Interfaith Issue: Charles Carroll Bonney: Bonney’s suggestion that the Parliament would “unite all religion against all irreligion, make the Golden Rule the basis of this union, and present to the world... the substantial unity of many religions in the good deeds of the religious life.”

Globalization and Religion For decades, the view that the world would grow increasingly secular dominated the field of sociology of religion, yet we have seen a persistence and resurgence of religion around the globe. The Berkley Center devotes much of its efforts to understanding how the process of globalization intersects with the resurgence of public religion and also how religion itself, particularly Catholicism and its Jesuit Order, has shaped—and been shaped by—the very process of globalization. Additionally, in recognizing that a globalized world means increased contact between members of different cultures and faiths, the Berkley Center promotes interreligious and intercultural dialogue through a number of programs.

In particular, the Doyle Engaging Difference Program—a campus-wide collaboration between the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs and the Center for New Designs in Learning and Scholarship (CNDLS)—is designed to strengthen Georgetown University’s core commitment to tolerance and diversity and to enhance global awareness of the challenges and opportunities of an era of increasing interconnectedness. Doyle Seminars, the Junior Year Abroad Network, and the Doyle Undergraduate Fellows Program allow students and faculty to explore intercultural and interreligious issues through teaching, learning, and research.

Religion, Culture, and Society Religion fundamentally shapes the way individuals see the world, their role in society, and the roles of others in their communities. For some, it inspires the literary imagination, as is well documented in Berkley Center Senior Fellow Paul Elie’s Faith and Culture Lecture Series. Since 2007, Elie has led conversations with prominent cultural figures, including author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, filmmaker Martin Scorsese, and poet Billy Collins. In these discussions, Elie explores with guests the relationship between their artistic process and their religious belief and upbringing. For others, religion can impact and change their lives in unexpected and fundamental ways, as shown in our American Pilgrimage Project, which chronicles the role religious beliefs play at crucial moments in everyday American’s lives.

Religion also influences the way societies view issues of social justice, gender roles and relationships, and identity, which the Berkley Center investigates through research projects, events, online discussions, and student programming.

Religion, Norms, and Ethics How do religion and values influence global political, cultural, and legal systems in transnational and comparative perspective? This is one of the primary streams of inquiry at the Berkley Center. On issues ranging from nuclear proliferation, to climate change, to migration and refugees, we investigate how morality and religion influence policy decisions and approaches of multinational institutions to shared crises. Projects on political theology analyze both historical and contemporary understandings

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Welcome Address

of political engagement across Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, approaching political theologies not merely as a set of theoretical concepts, but as religious beliefs and principles that ground political action within contemporary geopolitical struggles. Law and religion is another major focus of the center, which we approach both by looking at issues of U.S. constitutional law related to free exercise, establishment, and the accommodation of diverse religious practices and international religious freedom, and also by addressing fundamental theoretical questions about the way that political and legal systems are legitimated in an increasingly pluralistic world.

Church and the World The Catholic Church has developed teachings on justice and peace that address global challenges of economic and social development, democracy and human rights, conflict resolution, and interreligious dialogue. The Berkley Center, in support of Georgetown’s larger Catholic mission and identity, studies the positions and influence of the Church through a number of programs.

Covenant with God As stated in the Torah, if we do not “hear” God’s voice and become the moral and ethical example to the world, we will lose our homeland and turn into wanderers, prey to hatred and mass killings, victims of violence so ugly that it will stain the pages of history, our oppressors so depraved as to be no longer images of God. All this is implied in the third covenant.

Sincere thanks for:

•

Scientific Committee for their volunteer work during reviewing.

•

Conference partners for promotional work and their contribution.

•

Editorial Board for enormous workload and patience.

Be welcomed to enjoy this accomplishment!

See you again for the DIALOGO 2019 November aniversary event! your host, lect. Ciocan Tudor Cosmin, PhD Executive Director of The Research Center on the Dialogue between Science & Theology (RCDST) „Ovidius” University Constanța / Romania Scientific Programme Officer of DIALOGO international conferences E-mail: office(at)dialogo-conf.com

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Great minds discuss ideas; Average minds discuss events; Small minds discuss people.

Eleanor Rosevelt

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CONFERENCES & JOURNAL

t h e Di a l ogue b et ween Sci en c e a n d Th eol ogy

4 6 7 9 12 13 17

Database List Description Conference Sponsors and Parteners International Scientific Committee, Reviewers and Contributers Organizing Committee Preface by Ciocan Tudor Cosmin Table of Content

57

session 2 - Society and Religion relationship In the Country of the One-Eyed Giant, the Two-Eyed

73 Man is in Danger: Conflicts, Nationality and Religion in James Joyce’s Ulysses (“Nestor” and “Cyclops”) Nicoleta Stanca

session 1 - religions in dialogue

The Vision of the Apostol John in the Book of Revelation, Constructed Around the Tension Between 83 the Present and the Future, in the Vision of Jacques B. Doukhan Ioan-Gheorghe ROTARU

New Philosophical Approach in Understanding the

21 The Serpent and its Tail: the Biological Basis of the

95 Context Through Application of Theory of Probabilities

Religious Impulse

in Construction of the Meaning

Tina Lindhard

Ahed J Alkhatib; Oleg Ju. Latyshev

38 The relevance of Acts 2,42 for the religious dialog – an introduction

Nicolae Mosoiu

The topicality and the necessity of the inter-religious

56 dialogue in a world full of conflict and violence. The role of the person in the mediation of conflict and violence Stelian Manolache

Molecular Sociology: Micro-Environmental

64 Approaching of Evil

Ahed J Alkhatib; Oleg Ju. Latyshev

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Tabel of Content

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session 3 - religious violence

164

Guidelines for the Authors

103 The theological Trap

Bruno Marchal

113 The book of Joshua. An orthodox perspective on war Adrian Vasile

session 4 - Diversity and Pluralism

123 Ecumenical Movement and Interreligious Dialogue Tudor Cosmin Ciocan

Total Daily Life Philosophy (Tdlp): New Conceptual and 131 Fundamentals Ahed J Alkhatib; Oleg Ju. Latyshev

135

The impact of secularism on the activity of the Church Cristian Marius Munteanu

145 The Church - responsibilities and models of service Cristian Marius Munteanu

154 Transylvania – Orthodox and Catholic confluences Emanuel George Oprea

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Tabel of Content

Section 1

Religions in dialogue

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This paper was presented in the

Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, (DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW)

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held online, on the Journal’s website, from MAY 19 - 26, 2019

journal homepage: http://dialogo-conf.com

The Serpent and Its Tail: the Biological Basis of the Religious Impulse Tina Lindhard, PhD

Dept. of Consciousness Studies International University of Professional Studies (IUPS) Maui, Hawaii. USA

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 13 April 2019 Received in revised form 24 May Accepted 24 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.1

Throughout the ages, people of all creeds, backgrounds, and cultures have dedicated their lives to search for a higher reality where the visionary experience of Cosmic Consciousness brought about through mystical union, is part of an inner process which may lead to enlightenment. Traditions in India hold that this urge to find the truth involves awakening kundalini energy. In its dormant state, this serpent energy is said to lie coiled up at the base of the spine. In search of a biological basis of the religious impulse, we look at early embryonic human development, which is seen as being guided by higher cosmic forces. On approximately day 30-33, the human embryo begins to grow a tail, which then disappears. The corresponding development of the heart during this phase resembles that of reptiles. Linking the time lapse between the formation and absorption of the tail with an increase in voltage between the tail and the head suggests that on intake, the increase in charge could result in the potential at the base of the spine where it lies dormant until used either for procreation or reverse itself up to join the cosmic source from which it originated. To further our understanding of kundalini energy and its connection to light, we also consider these terms from various perspectives, including quantum physics.

Keywords: kundalini; biological basis; religious impulse; mystical union; serpent; energy; embryology; quantum physics;

© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. Introduction

“If we want to solve a problem that we have never solved before, we must leave the door to the unknown ajar.” Richard P. Feynman This paper is an attempt to show that there might be a new avenue from which we can begin to understand the origin

of the religious impulse. I take the view that information gained through studying the literature of spiritual traditions of different cultures is a consistent and epistemologically valid approach if we want to discover more about the spiritual dimension of human nature [1]. I also hold that the autobiographical data of people who have undergone the inner journey can help us understand not only the nature

Session 1. Religions in dialogue

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CONFERENCES & JOURNAL on th e D ial o gu e b e t we e n S ci e n c e a nd T heology

of these expanded experiences but also our fundamental nature and the nature of Nature. In this article I look at certain concepts that appear in the literature of many spiritual traditions and to clarify them, I present information from different unrelated scientific disciplines to see if there might be some scientific evidence through which we can better understand the terms.

I aim to throw more light on the biological basis of mystical experiences of saints and sages of all cultures throughout the ages both in the East and in the West. In doing this, I hope to reduce the conflict between different religious traditions and creeds as well as decrease the tremendous gulf that presently exists between science and religion.

Here I use the term ‘religious impulse’ to refer an impulse which impels people to actively begin to engage themselves in an inner search for a higher truth regardless of the faith they might or might not profess and also regardless of the methods they might use.

Nature is a grand mystery and how we approach it will determine what we see.

There are two main ways of exploring the nature of reality and discovering its laws, the “outside in” perspective and the “inside out” perspective [2]. Science uses the first approach, which is based on our senses or extensions of them and then speculates about what they have found using inductive and deductive reasoning. These suggestions or hypotheses then undergo scientific testing using the scientific method.

People known in India as philosophers, yogis and seers, explored and still explore reality today from the “inside out position”.

They too want to know the nature of Nature, but not only know about it but experience it for themselves. They felt that if they knew their own nature, they would know the nature of the Universe [3], [4]. The theories based on these explorations are often

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couched in mythical terms where certain names give us clues to the underlying reality that is being described.

One of these theories that have found its way into the scientific realm is the kundalini.

It is associated with a serpent, and the word is derived from the Sanskrit kund, “to burn”; kunda, “to coil or to spiral”. It is considered as the primordial energy, which in its dormant state, is coiled at the base of the spine in the area of the sacrum [5]. The meaning of this triangular shaped bone in Latin is holy or sacred. In Greek, it was called “Hieron Osteon’, meaning “burning bone”.

The Egyptians also held this bone to be very valuable and considered it the seat of special power” [6].

The serpent power of the kundalini system is also recognized by other traditions such as that of the pre-Colombian Mayan cultures where the feathered visionary serpent was known as the deity Quetzalcoatl. The visionary serpent was seen as creating a “center axis”, which permitted communication between the spiritual world and the earthly plane [7. p. 68]. An interesting analogy to this can be found in yogic science, they talk of three channels or nadis, the ida, the pingala and the central Sushumna. Although there are discrepancies in the literature regarding whether the ida and pingala are nerves or ‘channels of energy’ which represent dualistic qualities in nature, most schools agree that they need to be brought into balance for the energy to move up the central channel known as the Sushumna. The primary channel mentioned in Yogic science seems to coincide with the central axis mentioned in pre-Colombian Mayan cultures.

In the Greek tradition, we find a similar idea: The caduceus, the wand of Hermes, with two intertwining serpents crossing each other to form three circles, symbolizes the dynamic circulation of fundamental male and

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female energies and the three separations and unions that are part of the alchemical work in creating a sacred marriage. This healing and awakening rod has the power to reconcile conflicting elements and forces into a more inclusive harmonious state and support the transition of the soul into the domain of sacred wisdom. In physical terms...the shaft of this staff represents the spinal cord (the central axis of the nervous system and the path that generate sexual energy takes to the higher centers of the heart and the head. [8, p. 114].

Experiences that can be compared with the spiritual awakening are also “found in the liturgical descriptions of revered mystics of all three Abrahamic monotheistic traditions” [9, para. 3]. In the Gospel of John [10, 3:14–­15]1 there is an interesting comparison made by Jesus when he says “As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so, must the Son of Man be lifted up”, indicates that Jesus is talking about the kundalini system. In the mystical traditions of the Jewish, Christian and Islamic faiths we find respectively the Kabbalah, Christian Mysticism and Sufism, each of which has variations and adaptations that I shall not go into here. However, what distinguishes them is that they were secretive or esoteric traditions where God or the Absolute is revealed through undertaking certain spiritual practices.

To talk of mysticism in the Buddhist tradition is somewhat more complicated, and there are variations between the schools. The idea of union with a Higher Being or Absolute is absent in Theravada tradition, but they do talk of liberation or Nirvana as being the ultimate goal [11]. To get to the liberated state, they too undertake spiritual exercises but in this article, I shall not be looking at methods used by any 1. for varying translations of the original verse see https://biblehub.com/john/3-14.htm

tradition, but paint our underlying biological nature using a very broad brushstroke in which I adopt a multidisciplinary approach.

Although Jung [12] gave a series of lectures on the kundalini in 1932, the term entered mainstream science mainly through the framework of the yogi and mystic Gopi Krishna [13] who popularized knowledge about it in the West. His claim that the energy behind the kundalini experience has a biological basis has opened an investigation into its nature from biological and psychological perspectives, and now there are numerous publications from a variety of viewpoints. This article is from yet another perspective where I suggest there is a physiological underpinning to this system, which is also energetic.

In spite of the fact that Dixon [5] feels that it is unfortunate that the kundalini has been associated with symbols such as the serpent as “non-awakeners might relegate it to the mere physical domain”, in this article I look for the physiological basis of the kundalini system and its association with the serpent precisely because a demonstrated physiological connection to this primordial energy would give support to the hypothesis that there is an underlying biological basis for the religious impulse.

For supporting evidence, in section A I look at our embryonic development and the different phases the embryo undergoes.

In section B, I consider the terms light and kundalini energy from different spiritual and scientific disciplines, including quantum physics.

In this article, I am using the term kundalini to understand our underlying biological nature rather than drawing our attention to any specific method. I must also make it clear that there are methods for spiritual awakening that neither explicitly nor intentionally involve awakening the kundalini energy. Like a flower opening slowly, awakening can occur naturally

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following certain practices, which do not bring any trauma to the person.

II. Background Assumptions

This article rests on assumptions that are only slowly beginning to change in science today, the main one being that consciousness is primary and not just a product of the brain. This is consistent with classical Indian spiritual perspectives such as found in the Upanishads [Sen in 14]. I also follow Arka [3] when he adds “consciousness manifests itself through physical matter ….can take any form or shape and can emerge under challenging life conditions…. is mainly a non-physical yet powerful entity that is the pivotal point of all life and activates the senses in every living being. It is highly responsive and expressive and activates many levels, especially in humans” [3, p. 37].

In the life sciences, materialistic scientists consider living organisms to be the sum of their parts. However, the view taken here is that “it is the appearance which changes not the essence. . . . In the desert of modern day thought life, it is the embryo which cries out that wholeness comes first in living nature. . . There is an endless series of differentiation, following one another over time, creating the organs and the different parts of the body, it never happens the other way around! [15, p. 37].

The assumption that consciousness is primary and is an inherent and ubiquitous property of living matter is now being supported by evolutionary biologists of the 21st Century such as Shapiro [16] who points out that “molecular biology has identified components of cell sensing, information transfer, and decision-making processes.

In other words, we have numerous precise molecular descriptions of cell cognition” [16, p. 24]. According to Bhakti Niskama Shanta [17] “biology cannot avoid intelligence and

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creative tags” [17, 2nd heading]. For Arka, awareness pervades itself “inside and outside of every cell, a mother like awareness of intelligence which prompts everything that happens biologically, psychologically, emotionally, or in any other way [S. Arka, personal communication in 4, p. 103].

III. The Kundalini System: A Multidisciplinary Perspective

The intention of this article is to learn more about the kundalini system and its biological basis, which Gopi Khrisna [13] claims is underlying not only the ‘religious impulse’ but also the impulse that guides intellectual activity. It is also to discover more about the relationship between light, energy and the kundalini system. To aid in our understanding, I take a multidisciplinary perspective.

Where appropriate, information from various spiritual traditions are interspersed with scientific insights within the narrative to highlight their view on the topic.

A. Embryology

This section is divided into three sections.

In the first, I consider what guides the structure of the human body, in the second, I consider the morphological ontology of the human embryo and in the third, I present the problem of the ‘serpent’s tail’ and a hypothesis regarding its solution.

1) Structure of the human body:

Blechschmidt [17] questions the theory that the structure of the human body is based on information contained in the genes. “As each cell is equipped with identical genes, the genes themselves would have to know by themselves on the basis of information how, where and what differentiation should occur, in each split second, in every part of the organism,

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during the whole of organism’s life” [18, p. 16]. Based on this, he suggests the “form of the organism differentiates under biodynamic forces, not chemical-genetic information” [18, p. 18]. This does not mean that genes do not have a role in creating a form; it just means that they are not the only force at work. “The genetic substrate is itself a dynamic structure and functions as a co-participating member in an organic whole” [19. p. 7]. Environmental factors also have a role in molding forms both positively and negatively, as we know from congenital disabilities. Although it would be interesting to know how the biodynamic forces, genes, and environmental forces interact, what interests us here are the biodynamic forces mentioned by Blechschmidt [18]. a) Biodynamic forces:

In accordance with my assumptions, I suggest that these biodynamic forces can be considered an expression of one overriding Higher Intelligence. This Intelligent Awareness probably organizes itself into different forces to govern its creation. In Indian philosophy, this primary force or Intelligence is seen as dividing itself into three main forces: creation, maintenance and destruction; popularly known as Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. In Biology, we talk of anabolism, metabolism and catabolism. It is these forces that are behind the development, maintenance, and destruction of the material or physical body of living organisms, including cells; all of which are in a state of dynamic flux [19].

2) Morphological ontology of the human embryo:

Van der Wal [14] is one of the few embryologists who see the morphological ontology of the human embryo as consisted of four distinct phases, the mineral, plant, animal and a fourth human phase. What concerns us here is on day 17, when the heart primordium starts pulsating, the

plant phase is over and one can behold how instead of growing upward, the heart tube doubles and moves toward the interior of the organism. At the beginning of this phase, intangible pulsation becomes tangible. Without pulsation, there would be neither a dynamic universe unfolding Itself in time through ‘matter’, nor an individual being or soul unfolding itself in time through ‘matter’.2 Van der Wal [15] identifies this as the animal phase and during it the structural development of the organism as represented by cardio morphology and the formation of the vertebral column, recapitulates the evolutionary history from worms to fish to reptiles to mammals, and invertebrate to vertebrate forms; an evolution that occurred over millions of years [20], [4].

Curiously the human embryo at this stage first resembles that of a worm with its flexible notochord; then it grows pharyngeal arches, which later disappear.

On approximately day 30-33, the human embryo begins to grow a tail which consists of five or six extra somite pairs. Between day 40 to 44, these somites then disappear. The corresponding development of the heart at the onset of this phase is said to resemble that of reptiles and amphibians [19].

At an estimated postfertilization age of approximately 49 days, the embryo now has a more human-like appearance where the anatomical-morphological development of the human embryo permits it to unfold.

The ability to come upright permits the center of gravity in humans to be inside the body. In contrast to animals and primates, this allows humans to experience a center inside of themselves. This is also reflected in the concept of self [15].

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2 “Pulsation is the underlying core principle and property of universal existence, cosmic existence, and local existence [Arka in 3 pp. 87]. Regarding the relationship between the Self, soul and pulsation see [3].

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a) The Fourth Human Phase:

Although humans and animals share some characteristics with animals such as ‘innerness’, ontologically van der Wal [15] identifies a fourth human phase. For him, it is the capacity to become upright or vertical that distinguishes humans from animals.

In humans, at the end of the 4th week, a new impulse starts with the elongation of the brain, which is accompanied by certain characteristics including the appearance of the neck as the head grows cranially away from the trunk. The balance of the head on the trunk is “balanced in turn by the lower extremities” [15, p. 49] which shifts the center of gravity, which is on the outside in animals to the inside in humans. This allows the human to move in a unique way, which is not shared by other animals such as penguins and kangaroos, Even though the center of gravity in apes inclines slightly to the front and to the back in marsupials; essentially the center of gravity of animals is outside and draws the animal toward the environment and earth [15]. For van der Wal, one of the characteristics of the human being is that the anatomical-morphological formation is also reflected in the organization of our selfconcept, ‘I am.’

When we look at the center of gravity (COG) a little closer, we find it is a “hypothetical point at which all the mass appears to be concentrated (and from which) gravitational forces appear to act on the entire body from this specific point” [21, p. 152]. The anatomical center of gravity (COG) in a standing human being is located anterior to the second sacral vertebra on the midline [22] with slight variations between males and females. Although this author has not found reference to this by embryologists, the absorption of the extra somites on between day 40 and 44 which developed in the human embryo round about day 30-33 and formed a tail, would be one of the factors which helps

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the human to adopt an upright position where the anatomical center of gravity is inside. However, it not the only condition for uprightness in humans to occur for other species like the great apes also do not have a tail. b) Primal streak and notochord:

In reptilian avian and mammals, the primal streak is a structure that forms in the blastula stage and creates the leftright and future cranial-caudal body axis which is situated on the dorsal (back) face of the developing embryo [23]. The primal streak also has a relationship with the notochord [24] which starts to form on day 17, the same day as the heart primordium starts pulsating. The notochord is a rodlike structure and is the progenitor of the backbone or vertebral column, and like the heart, it is made of mesoderm or “inner” tissue. During a process known at neurulation, the notochord influences the ectoderm first to form the neural plate, which then folds in on itself to form the neural tube [24]. Closing of the neural tube proceeds in a zip-up action from day 20 to day 25 when the anterior neuropore closes” [25, p. 13]. The tail fold takes place later than the head fold and results from the dorsal and caudal growth of the neural tube [26, para. 2]. On day 26-28 the caudal neural tube now closes at the level of somite 31 or where the second sacral segment will differentiate [24, p. 13]. As pointed out earlier, in humans, 42-44 somite pairs are formed along the neural tube, ranging from the cranial region to the embryo’s tail. These are described as mesoderm blocks or balls. Several caudal somites pairs are then reabsorbed which is why only 35-37 somite pairs can be counted in the end.

3) The Problem of the Serpents tail:

The connection between the reabsorption of the somites or ‘tail’, which initially grew when the heart morphology

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in the human embryo resembled that of reptiles and amphibians and the kundalini system is a mystery that needs to be solved.

The absorption of the somites suggests that there might be a physiological basis for the kundalini system, at least from the perspective of Einsteinian science where all matter is really energy. As energy cannot be destroyed, the disappearance of the tail does not mean a disappearance of the energy of which it was composed. However how the reabsorbed tail is associated with a primordial energy or power that is said to rise for enlightenment to occur needs an explanation a) The electrical basis of the body ‘plan’: Based on the work of Harold Saxon Burr in the early nineteen thirties in Yale University, it seems there is an electrical basis to the body plan in animals. Burr established that salamander eggs showed differing voltage around the “equator of the egg relative to the vegetal or south pole of the egg” [27, p. 58]. Using microsurgical instruments, Burr was also able to demonstrate that the point of maximum voltage in the unfertilized egg would, after fertilization, correspond with the salamander´s head and the place of minimum voltage would develop into the salamander´s tail. This voltage increases steadily after fertilization and throughout the development of the embryo. It seems that the “bioelectric field found in the unfertilized egg can be seen as a blueprint for a future location in the space of a polar relationship between the cranial and caudal end of the physical body of the future organism” [4, p. 70]. Working with Hovland, Burr [28] extended his investigations to frogs and chicks and came to the conclusion that electro-dynamic fields provide the missing irreducible relational factor required to account for the organization of the physical-chemical constituents of living organisms where the “potential gradients also are associated with the development and differentiation of the

nervous system” [28, p. 255]. b) The Stored Potential or Power at the Base of the Spine:

Although this author has not found references by embryologists, it seems there is a relationship between the primal streak and the later developments briefly described here and the metaphysical electrical force discovered by Burr [3].

As the voltage between the cranial and caudal extremities accompany and even precede the organism’s biochemistry and patterns of organization, it appears we can talk of an unseen, metaphysical or primal force that guides the formation of the body plan. Holding that Burr´s findings in other species apply to the human ovule, after fertilization the voltage between the cranial and caudal extremities would also increase in voltage as the embryo develops.

Now the absorption of the tail takes on new relevance. We have a system that, according to Burr’s findings is increasing in voltage as it matures. This voltage is linked to the head-tail relationship. Yet in the human embryo, the tail, which corresponds to an earlier developmental phase, disappears about ten days later. However, energetically this does not mean that the increased energy that occurred as the organism matures, disappears. This suggests that the energy corresponding to the increase in voltage that is now not accompanied by its physical manifestation, forms a stored potential or power at the base of the spine, just like that is described in the spiritual literature of India. c) Membrane Potential:

It is not only in the ovule that there is a difference in potential, but biological cells show a difference in potential between the interior and exterior of the cell, which is known as the membrane potential. This potential varies between cells but for resting cells is about -70mV. When an active stimulus is applied, if a certain threshold is

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obtained, depolarization occurs where the membrane potential can rise to + 30 mV. This then drops again during the repolarization passing the resting membrane voltage phase resulting in hyperpolarization from which it returns to the resting stage [29].

As there is a difference in potential between the interiors and exteriors of every living cell, their summation would increase the overall voltage of the living being as it grows. This summation would be registered as a negative quantity in normal resting organisms. In the resting state, the negative pole of each cell would need to correspond to the direction of the negative pole found at the caudal or tail end of the organism otherwise charges between cells would cancel each other out. d) Batteries, potential and living organism:

Burr’s findings suggest an interesting analogy between the bodies of living organisms and a battery.

The term ‘voltage’ in a battery refers to the difference in electric potential between the positive and negative terminals of a battery (where) a greater difference in potential results in a greater voltage. Electric potential means the difference in charge between two points--in this case, the two terminals of a battery. One is positively charged, and the other is negatively charged. A negative charge simply means that there is an excess of negatively charged particles, or electrons, on the terminal, while a positively charged terminal has a lack of those electrons. Physical separation of the two terminals prevents the electrons from traveling from the negatively charged terminal to the positively charged one. Once the two terminals are connected, via a circuit, for example, the electrons are free to travel along the path of the circuit, moving from the negative electrode to the positive one. This motion of electrons is called electric current, which is measured in amperes, or amps” [30, para. Physics and Terminology].

I shall come back to this analogy in our discussion, as it is relevant to what happens in spiritual awakening.

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B. Light, Kundalini, Cosmic Consciousness,

Energy and Science

To understand the connection between the kundalini system and light, I give a brief overview of how light is perceived in some spiritual traditions and how kundalini energy is described by some people. I also clarify who undertakes the spiritual journey, and I give an account of an experience of spiritual awakening and what distinguishes transient and lasting experiences of illumination based on a suggestion by Krishna [31]. I then turn to consider two components of Universal energy, where I bring in insights from Quantum Physics.

1) Spiritual traditions and Light:

The metaphor for Brahman/God/Divinity in many spiritual traditions is light. The process leading to cosmic union is also often referred to as ‘enlightenment’. Light is used literally to refer to the perception of light as well as metaphorically when it refers to an increase in our understanding of consciousness. In the Bhagavad Gita of the Indian tradition it says “That ultimate truth is declared as the illuminator of all that illuminates, beyond the darkness of ignorance, residing within the heart of everyone, it is comprehensible by the wisdom gained from realization by the knowledge of direct experience” [32, chap 13, verse 18]. In the New Testament John [10, 1:5] says: “God is light.” Goethe’s insight that the physical eye had evolved “so light could see and not the reverse. Light is what gives us our sense of luminous reality, a cosmos whose divine purpose is made visible” [Goethe in 33, p.xix] seems to illustrate this last idea well. Sometimes the light is referred to in a more cryptic or esoteric fashion such as the “burning bush” in the Jewish tradition when Moses ascended Mount Sinai. Equally, the famous Sufi poet Rumi asks, “We live in the night’s ocean, where are those lights?”

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[33, p.xviii] The phrase of Jesus “if thine eye be single, thy whole body shall be filled with light” [34, 6:22] also seems to have an esoteric meaning, which points to the nondual cosmic experience sometimes referred to as Christ Consciousness or Cosmic Consciousness although some traditions distinguish between the two terms [35]. a) Kundalini and psycho-spiritual energy:

Kundalini is conceived of as psychospiritual energy, which is said to rise from the base of the spine as a man or woman begins to evolve his or her consciousness.

This invisible energy is vital and intrinsic to all life, and it can be used for procreation, or it can rise up the spine giving personal insights into his or her nature. “Kundalini is a microcosmic manifestation of the primordial Energy or Shakti. It is the Universal Power as it is connected with the body-mind” [36, p.

264].

According to Krishna [31] once awakened this process is continuous, although most people are probably not even aware of it. Different people describe the system differently as not all people start the journey with the same level of conscious understanding about their nature [31].

Some people connect the chakra system with the kundalini system. The idea of the chakra system entered India´s sacred texts between 1800 and 800 B.C” [37, p. 30].

However, not all saints, sages, yogis, and philosophers talk of the chakra system, but they do recognize an increase in their way of understanding as they progress on their inner journey. It appears that unless the person overcomes the limitations of his or her own consciousness, the energy does not continue up the spine. More information about the chakra system is not presented here, as it is marginal to the overall perspective adopted in this paper.

“Kundalini has been described as liquid fire and liquid light and is an aspect of Shakti,

the divine female energy and consort of Shiva. The ultimate outcome of kundalini is the union of Will (shakti-kundalini), Knowledge (prana-kundalini) and Action (para-kundalini). The inner fire is the most potent of all forces, for it knows no limits and penetrates the fabric of space, matter and time” [5, abstract]. b) Who undertakes the journey to Cosmic Consciousness?

Before we can understand the full extent of expanded cosmic awareness, we also need to clarify who undertakes the journey.

Arka [38; 2] identifies the part of the individual who undertakes the inner journey as the “I awareness,” “I ego conscious awareness,” or “I ego awareness” [38]. The “I awareness” is the pivot of the memories which form into a personality. We recognize this as a consistent personality from the day we become aware of our presence. “With the development of ‘I ego awareness’, a time arises when we want to touch the origin of consciousness expressing itself through the human body” [Arka personal communication in 4, p. 147]. In the journey to Self-realization, Arka [3] talks about the need of the person to reverse all that has happened to him or her. c) Cosmic Consciousness and the kundalini:

The connection with the light and spiritual awakening is exemplified by Gopi Krishna´s introduction to the kundalini that he describes as a totally unexpected event where he nevertheless still managed to keep his mind on the point of concentration.

I felt the point of consciousness that was myself growing wider surrounded by waves of light. It grew wider and wider, spreading outward while the body, normally the immediate object of its perception, appeared to have receded into the distance until I became entirely unconscious of it. I was now all consciousness without any outline, without any idea of corporeal appendage, without any feeling or sensation coming from the senses, immersed in

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a sea of light simultaneously conscious and aware at every point, spread out, as it were, in all directions without any barrier or material obstruction. I was no longer myself, or to be more accurate, no longer as I knew myself to be, a small point of awareness confined to a body, but instead was a vast circle of consciousness in which the body was but a point, bathed in light and in a state of exultation and happiness impossible to describe. [13, p. 4]

This experience of Krishna’s was not the end of his journey but the start and he continued to undergo a process that enabled Spirit to take up residence in his body more fully. This can be highly traumatic for the person who is often not aware of what is happening although he or she is fully conscious. In Krishna’s case, he conceived of this energy as an intelligent force over which he had little control and which was responsible for the evolution of the consciousness in humans. Based on his experiences, he felt that this force, once awakened, needed to reorganize and transform the nervous system, hence his emphasis on the brain and nervous system in his writings [13], [31], [39]. He believed that his experience began a process where his nervous system as a whole was slowly being reorganized and transformed by the Kundalini energy.

From reading other accounts, I feel this force will also reorganize and transform each person’s body according to his or her past patterns. In Krishna’s case, it was nerves that needed reorganizing, whereas, in Swami Muktananda [40], his spiritual experiences were initially related to changes in his physical body. Changes certainly take place, but I do not think the specific changes can be generalized from person to person.

In general, it seems that changes take place not only in the consciousness of the person but in his or her physical body, including the brain. Many saints and sages also talk about the activation of the genitals during kundalini experiences.

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as Samadhi, the breathless state, and it is during this state that the person is able to experience the all-knowing Cosmic Intelligence that is pervading and ruling every atom. The mystical experience or Samadhi denotes the entry to another dimension where the intellect is inoperative, and the object world dissolves into an ocean of being [39, p. 21]. The conscious experiences reported by people who have undergone a near-death experience share several characteristics with the Samadhi state [41]. d) Transient and Lasting Experiences:

The experiences of lasting ecstasy accompanied by various clearly defined characteristics seem to be what distinguishes the transient experiences from the fully enlightened state. Indian authorities agree on the following list. However, it is in their interpretation that there are variations between traditions and philosophies.

• • • • • • • •

inner music and light, a feeling of expansion in which consciousness assumes a cosmic proportion, spontaneous happiness, welling up from within, a sense of kinship to or identity with an infinite sovereign entity, beyond comprehension, the mirage-like appearance of the objective world, conviction of immortality, a sense of highly extended knowledge, extrasensory experiences and the rest. [39, p.

71]

2) Universal Energy:

In the ultimate, both (organic and inorganic) spring from and are two aspects of the unmanifested Creator. At the time of the manifestation, duality comes into being.

Universal Consciousness and Universal Energy. Universal Energy is subdivided into two parts, the living prana, i.e., Shakti or life energy, and the mechanical matter.

Universal Consciousness always remains unaffected and unchanged. The individual

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soul is a tiny reflection of it, like the reflection of the sun in a dewdrop. By the power of higher prana sent up by Kundalini, this reflection becomes brighter, and then the man or woman is illuminated. [31, p. 30] Some people from different philosophies and traditions might not agree on the terms used by Krishna in this account. It would also not be agreed on by biologists who have discarded the idea of life energy in their models. However, it provides us with a working hypothesis regarding the nature of reality. It also gives us a visible image of how Krishna views the relationship of the soul to the sun after the cosmic experience has been obtained. It is in this latter aspect where people of different philosophies might also differ in their interpretations, but that is beyond the scope of this discussion.

3) Universal, Cosmic and individual levels:

I propose we look more seriously into the suggestion of Krishna [30] about the nature of reality consisting of Universal Consciousness and Universal Energy where Universal Energy is “subdivided into two parts, the living prana, i.e., Shakti or life energy, and the mechanical matter [31, p.

30]. This division of Universal energy into two can also be seen as holding on the individual level. Normal healthy human beings are able to experience their individual consciousness, and they take their thinking mind conscious as being the only consciousness that exists, ignoring the fact that there might be other levels. Arka [3], in his theory of the Six Main Levels of Consciousness, identifies Pure Consciousness as corresponding with the sixth level. Many people also identify themselves with their material body. Some traditions consider we are really souls living in a body, but we are not the body. This suggests that we might really be cosmic beings and as such, our consciousness also corresponds to that realm. It is here that there are differences between traditions

that recognize the existence of a soul or self and those that do not. However true spiritual searchers want to go beyond what is believed and what others say so they can discover and experience their true nature for themselves. a) Matter, vibrational energy and quantum physics:

As we have seen Universal or Cosmic Energy can be divided into life or living energy and matter.

In the light of quantum physics, we do know something of the world of matter, at least at its microcosmic level. On this level, it seems that atoms, which make up “matter”, can be seen as consisting of largely empty space where the atom is comprised of smaller building blocks and more empty space permeated by fields. In this field of empty space, the atom continuously absorbs and emits the light or vibrational energy. According to Planck, this vibrational energy operates in a completely different way to the old mechanical view for in the microscopic world, changes are seen as being discrete, i.e., “quantized,” rather than continuous [42]. This was found to apply to electromagnetic energy, light, energy, and changes in orbits of electrons. So, from Krishna´s hypothesis, it does seem at least at its most basic microscopic level, the matter may be considered as a small part of Universal energy.

b) Life energy or living energy and spiritual awakening:

By dividing Universal Energy into two, Krishna [31] opens the possibility that life energy might operate in different ways to the vibrational energy associated with the microscopic world of matter. It is also possible that these two “energies” have different functions.

Kundalini energy falls under Krishna’s category of Life force or living energy and it seems it has various functions and

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can operate differently under different circumstances. c) Functions of kundalini energy:

The following points make up a tentative list of some of its possible functions: • •

•

•

• • • •

From spiritual literature, it appears that under normal circumstances, life energy is responsible for procreation.

Life energy is considered to be associated with our psycho-spiritual development, and as such, it can be seen as being related to the evolution of our consciousness.

When ‘awakened,’ this energy can be turned around and rise up the central channel. Under certain circumstances, this energy can ascend up one of the side channels, but that also is beyond the scope of this paper.

As the spiritual path is said to reverse of all that has happened to the person, this energy may transform all in its wake until this spiritual cosmic energy is able to more fully express itself in the body It may transform the nervous system and brain and possibly other physiological aspects of the individual.

In some people, spiritual awakening is accompanied by psychic abilities and other paranormal abilities.

When awakened it may lead the practitioner to the experience of Cosmic Consciousness.

Through the action of this energy, which can either be short or prolonged over the years, transient awakening experiences may be transformed into lasting ecstasy accompanied by various clearly defined characteristics of the fully enlightened state.

d) Speculation on how kundalini energy operates:

It is in considering how this energy might function the analogy of the body as a battery takes on a new meaning. In the human body (and other organisms as well) the caudal end of the body is negatively charged and the cranial end is positively charged. Like with a battery, a negative charge simply means

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that there is an excess of negatively charged particles or electrons on the terminal, while a positively charged terminal has a lack of those electrons.

As pointed out, on activation by a stimulus scientists have found that cells within the body change from a negative to positive charge provided the stimulus is above a certain threshold. Activated cells then return to a negative resting state after going through a hyperpolarization phase. It seems possible that collectively the human body might act in a similar way to a stimulus as a single cell. In other words on stimulation, it might go from a resting state of negative potential to a positive depolarization phase and then back to the resting phase after going through hyperpolarization state.

Provided of course the stimulus is high enough.

However, in the case of the human being the absorption of the tail adds a new dynamic to the picture, as we have energy that exists as a potential. It seems that under certain circumstances, this potential enables a connection between the negative and positive terminals of the battery, which then allows the energy to flow from the negative caudal pole to the positive cranial pole.

If the energy goes straight up, it gives the person a transient enlightening awaking experience like Krishna had. However, for more lasting experiences and full illumination, this energy needs to continue to operate over time and undertake some of the previously mentioned functions.

Krishna states that once started, it does not stop, although it may bring the person “back to a normal state until the system is able to maintain the flow of prana to the brain continuously” [30, p. 48]. Based on his own experience and what he has read in books, Krishna maintains this energy also needs “feeding” - in the literature it says the person needs to eat a “light meal every

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three hours” [12, p. 21] He also suggests that in men, the kundalini system uses the life energy found in the person’s semen to help in the transformation process [12, p. 36]. We can only presume women´s ovules play a similar role. Obviously, all these points need to be researched to fully understand the necessary conditions for the energy to keep flowing continuously.

Based on these insights, the following hypothesis seems to follow naturally: It is hypothesised that as in a battery, under certain circumstances the potential at the base of the spine can be activated which enable a current to run between the negative caudal pole to the positive pole in spite of the two poles being separated by a distance.

Under certain circumstances, this current can operate in a permanent way.

Fundamental to this analogy of a battery is that a battery needs a “source of energy” for it to function. Likewise, a body needs a “source of energy” for it to function. “Universal prana (living energy) is beyond the imagination of human beings.

In its original state, it is a living substance of tremendous power. Humans live as it were, on the fringe of universal prana. That is, they are pervaded only by a slender beam of Universal prana. In the awakened man or woman, this beam becomes a little stronger.

[30, p. 29].

is referred to as the sacred or burning bone. The person experiences experiences of tremendous heat with an awakened kundalini, but how these factors fit together is another mystery that still needs to be explored. Suffice to say; this topic might touch on the interrelationship between energy mass and gravity. These terms and their interrelationship are also baffling to scientists in spite of them having equations which have been proven to work.

e) Other factors related to the kundalini system:

This exploration into the biological basis of the religious impulse has led us down different pathways where the disappearance of the serpent’s tail during our embryonic development plays a key role in helping us realize there is an energetic underpinning to matter. On absorption of the tail, it seems that some of this imminent energy converts into a potential, just like the ‘coiled by serpent’ described in the spiritual literature of India. It is this potential that seems to be behind the religious urge in people to find the truth about their existence.

According to van der Wal [14], the ability of humans to come upright is what distinguishes them from other animals. This ability is related to having the anatomical center of gravity inside which is anterior to the second sacral vertebra. The sacrum vertebras fuse to form the sacrum when the person is about 18 years old. As pointed out earlier, the caudal neural tube closed at the level of somite 31 or where the second sacral segment will differentiate, and the sacrum

f) Methods for spiritual awakening:

I shall not say much about different methods here but just reiterate that there are many different spiritual methods to reach the enlightened state where no emphasis is placed on activating the kundalini system per se. It can be also active spontaneously, without the person using any method.

Krishna [13] lists “concentration, breathing exercises, postures, prayers, fasting, asceticism and the like” as some of the methods used from “time immemorial for gaining visionary experience or super sensory perception” [13, p. 45]. To this, we can also add being enraptured with the object of one’s attention. The latter can either give rise to the saint or the man or woman of genius, as Krishna [13] suggests in his writings.

Summing Up

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This biological urge can also be seen as being present in scientists as they too actively engage themselves in a search for the truth regardless of the faith they might or might not profess. Whereas they rely on using their senses or extensions of them, they too have a method. However, their findings are limited to information obtained through their rational minds and there is no way they can irrevocably confirm their explorations. In spite of these limitations, quantum physicists have come to realize that at its most fundamental level, the object world of matter dissolves into an ocean of being – “where the field is the only reality” [Einstein in 43, p. 319].

Mystics also have an urge to search for the truth, but instead of looking for it outside in matter, they search for it inside, using their own body as an instrument.

From accounts of mystics, saints and sages throughout the ages both in the East and the West, it seems Nature has not only blessed humans with the capacity to know the truth, but experience it as well. The successful searcher is gifted with an experience known as Cosmic Consciousness whereby they able to experience an expanded state of awareness which allows the person “to gain access to both the trans-temporal and the trans-spatial plane, imperceptible to the normal mind [39, p. 25].

In this article, I have applied the analogy of a battery to the body, which requires that the negative and positive terminals need to connect for the current to run between the two poles. At the bodily level, this might be a good analogy for not only is the kundalini energy said to rise in the body, but also practitioners claim they are able to experience it ascending the spine. However, this analogy does not explain the conscious experiences of awakening. For this, we need to turn to levels of mind where the person undergoes an inner process, which includes ever-changing conscious experiences

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involving new insights and understandings.

In some, this search eventually leads to the experience of union with their Cosmic origin beyond the time-bound material world of matter. Without going into any detail here, in commentaries on the Vedas there are three different accepted philosophical understandings regarding this state: Advaita, Dvaita and Visishadvaita. However, in spite of these understandings being different, there is a great degree of tolerance and respect between people holding these varying positions [44].

Although we all have the potential to experience the higher states, we do not all have the same level of conscious awareness.

The work of raising our conscious awareness is up to each and every one of us, depending on how we choose to live our lives.

Selfishness, egoism, greed, vanity, pride, jealousy and anger constrict the heart and thus prevent the energy from rising higher in the body. The highest ethical standards also need to be maintained for success on this inner journey. In the end, we can only work at transforming ourselves instead of trying to transform others. Rather than arguing about which religion is the best or even which Saint or sage is more important, it is suggested here that each one of us unfold the potential we all have and work in raising our conscious awareness as much as we can while we are still alive. All true traditions lead to the same goal.

When scientists realize that the urge that impels them to look for the truth is the same as that which impels the mystic, they might also feel inspired to not only know the truth but also experience it for themselves.

When this happens I, among others, am sure science will progress at a much greater rate than it has up to now. Hopefully, this will also have an impact on the followers of the different religions as once they realize there is an underlying potential in each of us to search for a higher truth regardless of

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the faith one might or might not profess, each one can honor their own faith without trying to impose it on others. In this regard, we can learn from scientists where people of different faiths work hand in hand to discover the truth as they see it.

Although I have not talked about spiritual methods here, the easiest path is the path of Bhakti or love. The path to the mystical union is not a purely physical undertaking. It needs our full engagement and this is easier when our emotions are involved. Love is based on respect and without respect for oneself and for the self of others the spiritual path cannot unfold. Without love we cannot weave the world into a garland of oneness– a united field where each living being is fundamental to the whole; the cosmic vision made manifest on the earthly plane.

Acknowledgment I am very grateful to the many people who have aided my understanding concerning this topic, especially to the philosopher and yogi Srinivas Arka who inspired and encouraged me to think, feel, and see things in their true perspective, through science, logic, and intuitive experience. This article builds on a section of my PhD. thesis in the field of Consciousness Studies at the University of Professional Studies, Hawaii.

References [1]

[2]

Ernst Fürlinger. Search of the North Star: Rediscovering “Metaphysical Anthropology” in An Age Of Uncertainty.

In Casopis za Psihologijo in Filozofijo ter za Sodelovanje Humanisticnih Ved. Vol. 48 Issue 3/4. p. 9-22, 2016. Retrieved from http:// www.anthropos.si/anthropos/2016/3-4/01_ Furlinger.pdf Tina Lindhard. “Consciousness from the Outside-In and Inside-Out Perspective.”

Journal of Conscious Exploration &

Research, Vol. 10, Issue 3, pp. 136-150, 2019.

Srinivas Arka. Arka Dhyana Intuitive Meditation. An enlightening journey into your inner realms initiated by your breath, sound and touch. Middlesex: Coppersun Books, 2013 [4] Tina Lindhard. “Unlocking the secrets of the heart through meditating on the Self”. PhD diss., University of Professional Studies, 2016. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16952.96008 [5] Jana Dixon. Biology of Kundalini. 2018.

Retrieved from https://vyzupy.ga/r_doxe_ da.pdf [6] Marc Haberman. “Kundalini.” In Urban Dictionary, 2005 Retrieved from https:// www.urbandictionary.com/define. php?term=kundalini [7] Linda Schele & David Freidel. A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya.

New York: Willian Morrow, ISBN 0-68807456-1. OCLC 21295769. 1990.

[8] M. Lowenthal. Alchemy of the soul: The Eros & Psyche myth as a guide to transformation.

Berwick, ME: Nicolas-Hays, Inc. 2004.

[9] T. Semko. The three states of kundalini? In KundaliniAwakeningProcess.com : Dr. Glenn J. Morris’s Improved Kundalini Awakening Process (K.A.P.). 2014. Retrieved from https://kundaliniawakeningprocess.com/ blog/article-the-three-states-of-kundalini/ [10] John, Gospel of John of the New Testament.

New International Version (n.d.)

[11] Trevor Ling. “Buddhist Mysticism.” In Religious Studies. Cambridge University Press. Vol. 1.No. 2. pp. 163­–185, 1996 [12] Carl G. Jung. The Psychology of Kundalini Yoga - Notes of the Seminar Given in 1932

by C. G. Jung. Ed. Soni Shamdasani, N.J. Princeton University Press, 1996.

[13] Gopi Krishna. Kundalini the evolutionary energy in man. London: Stuart and Watkins, 1970.

[14] M. Velmans. “How to define consciousnessand how not to define consciousness.”

Journal of Consciousness Studies, 16(5), 139– 156. 2009.

[15] Jaap van der Wal, J.C. “Dynamic morphology and embryology.” In: Guus van der 619 [3]

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Bie (Ed), Foundations of Anthroposophical Medicine, Edinburgh: Floris Books, 2003/2014. Retrieved from http://www. embryo.nl/upload/documents/artikelenembryosofie/Dynamic%20Morphology%20 and%20Embryology%202014%20A4%20 EN%20chapter.pdf [16] J: A: Shapiro. Evolution: A view from the 21st Century. Upper Saddle River. NJ: FT Press.

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[17] Bhakti Niskama Shanta.

Vedāntic view of life: Reply to Gustavo Caetano-Anollés, Communicative & Integrative Biology, 9:2, 2016, DOI: 10.1080/19420889.2016.1160191 [18] E. Blechschmidt. The Ontogenetic Basis of Human Anatomy: A Biodynamic Approach to Development from Conception to Birth.

Trans. B. Freeman. Berkley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2004.

[19] Bhakti Niskama Shanta.

Life and consciousness – The Vedāntic view.

Communicative & Integrative Biology, 8:5, 2015.

DOI: 10.1080/19420889.2015.1085138 [20] F. Corno, M. J., Kocica & F. Torrent-Guasp.

The helical ventricular myocardial band of Torrent-Guasp: Potential implications in congenital heart defects. European Journal of Cardiothoracic Surgery, 29(1), 561–569.

2006 [21] A.M. Adler & R.R. Carlton. Introduction to Radiologic and Imaging Sciences and Patient Care Missouri: Elsevier Saunders. 2015.

[22] W.C. Whiting. Dynamic Human Anatomy (2nd ed). USA: Human Kinetics, 2019.

[23] [K. M. Downs. (2009). “The enigmatic primitive streak: prevailing notions and challenges concerning the body axis of mammals”. BioEssays. 31 (8): 892­902.

2009. doi:10.1002/ bies.200900038. PMC 2949267. PMID 19609969.

G. Moscoso. Early embryonic development of the brain. In Levene, M. I. & Chervenak, F. A. (Eds.), Fetal and neonatal neurology and neurosurgery. pp. 13–21. Atlanta, GA: Elsevier Health Sciences 2009.

[25] R. Ladher & G. C. Schoenwolf. Neurulation. In G. Lemke (Ed.). Developmental neurobiology

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(p.3–9). New York: Academic Press, 2005.

Embryonic Folding and Flexion of the Embryo. In LifeMap Discovery, section 25, n.d. Retrieved from https://discovery. lifemapsc.com/library/review-of-medicalembryology/chapter-26-embryonic-foldingand-flexion-of-the-embryo [27] R. E. Matthews. Harold Burr’s biofields: Measuring the electromagnetics of life.

Subtle Energies & Energy Medicine, 18(2), 55–61. 2007 Retrieved from http://www. energymed.org/hbank/handouts/harold_ burr_biofields.htm [28] H. S. Burr & C. I.Hoveland. Bioelectric potential gradients in the chick. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 9(3), 247–258, 1937.

[29] Barbara E. Goodman. Channels active in the excitability of nerves and skeletal muscles across the neuromuscular junction: basic function and pathophysiology. In Advances [26]

in Physiology Education, 2007. Retrieved from https:// www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/advan.00091.2007

W. Donat. What is the voltage of a battery?

In Sciencing, 2017. Retrieved from https:// sciencing.com/voltage-battery-5058989. html [31] Gopi Krishna. A kundalini catechism. USA. The Kundalini Research Foundation Ltd. 1995 [32] The Individual Consciousness and The Ultimate Consciousness. In Bhagadvad Gita Retrieved from http://www.bhagavad-gita. org/Gita/verse-13-12.html [33] Authur Stein & Andrew Vidich. Let there be Light – Experiencing inner light across the World’s sacred traditions. USA: Integral Horizons, 2016 [34] Mathew. Gospel of Mathew of the New Testament. King James Version.

[35] Prashamsa Yogananda, Levels of Consciousness — Paramahansa Yogananda Best Quotes. In Yogananda, n.d. http:// yogananda.com.au/gurus/yogananda_ quotes36consciousness.html [36] retrieved from http://yogananda.com.au/ gurus/yogananda_quotes36consciousness. html) [37] George Feuerstein, Yoga: The Technology of Ecstasy. J.P. Tarcher, 1989 [30]

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R. Beshara. The chakra system as a bio-sociopsycho-spiritual model of consciousness: Anahata as heart centered consciousness.

International Journal of Yoga – Philosophy, Psychology and Parapsychology, 1(1), 29–33, 2013.

[39] Srinivas Arka. Arka Dhyana. An adventure of Self-discovery through the practice of intuitive meditation. Middlesex, UK: Coppersun Books, 2009.

[40] Gopi Krishna. Ancient Secrets of Kundalini.

New Delhi: UBS Publishers’ Distributors Ltd. 1997 [41] Swami Muktananda. Play of Consciousness.

USA: Syda Foundation, 1971 reprint 1994.

[42] B. Greyson. Near Death Experiences and the Physio-Kundalini Syndrome. Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 32 (4), pp. 277–290, 1993.

[43] L. Mastin. Quanta and Wave-Particle Duality. In The Physics of the Universe.

2009. Retrieved from https://www. physicsoftheuniverse.com/topics_ quantum_quanta.html [44] M. Capek. The Philosophical Impact of Contemporary Physics. Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand, 1961.

[45] Srinivas Arka. Wellbeing: Through the Lens of Indian Traditional Conceptualisations.

International Journal of Social Work and Human Services Practice,6. No. 3. pp. 101– 105, 2018.

[38]

Peace Through Heart-Based Meditation on the Self”; “Emotions Including Anger, Bodily Sensations and the ‘Living Matrix’”. The name of her thesis is “Unlocking The Secrets of the Heart Through Meditating on the Self.” Her research interests involve finding out about the connection between the heart and different levels of Consciousness. Her research papers are available on Research Gate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tina_ Lindhard/research Dr Lindhard is currently president of the nonprofit organization CCASpain and also chair of Consciousness Research of CICA, an international scientific organization. http://tinalindhard.org https://cicainternational.net

Biography Tina Lindhard was born in Cape Town, South Africa. She earned her PhD from the International University of Professional Studies in Consciousness Studies and her MA in Transpersonal Psychology from Sofia University (ITP).

She is an academic mentor at IUPS and also a qualified teacher in the Intuitive Meditation method also known as Arka Dhyana. She has also acted as a cranial sacral therapist for many years.

She has many publications including “Experiencing

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The relevance of Acts 2,42 for the religious dialog – an introduction Assoc.prof habil. Nicolae Mosoiu, PhD

Faculty of Orthodox Theology „Andrei Șaguna”, University „Lucian Blaga” Sibiu, Romania

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 01 June 2019 Received in revised form 17 June 2019 Accepted 20 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.2

Keywords: ecumenical ethos; ecumenical openness; religious dialog; Crete Holy Synod; koinonia; breaking of the bread – the Mystery of Church unity and of the creation; prayer for others; responsibility; open sobornicity (conciliarity);

From Acts 2,42 we learn that the first Christians „devoted themselves to the apostles` teaching (te didache ton Apostolon, doctrina Apostolorum) and the fellowship (te koinonia, communicatione), to the breaking of bread (te klasei tou artou, fractionis panis), and the prayers (tais proseuchais, orationibus)”.The joint confession of the teaching of the Apostles, the full living of fellowship (koinonia), the communion from the same chalice and prayers for “the union of all” form a unity that expresses the identity and the integrity of the Church, and also underline the responsibility for the other human beings and for all of the creation. In relation with this biblical text, Father Stăniloae[i] used the concept open sobornicity/conciliarity in a moment when the churches which were involved in the ecumenical movement and especially in the bilateral theological dialogue, were centered on their own models of unity proposed for the defense of their confessional identity. This defensive “contraction” led to confessionalism, proselytism, anti-ecumenism. Father Stăniloae encouraged through all possible means the dialog not only between churches but also between Christians and persons of other faiths and worldviews. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. INTRODUCTION

„God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them” (Genesis1:27) “The Holy Spirit is in all human beings.”

Saint Maximus the Confessor [1] From an Orthodox perspective, it can be stated that despite all the difficulties which appeared in the ecumenical movement, there

is no alternative to the dialogue and mutual understanding among Christians. This is especially true if we really seek visible unity among us. The dialog between Christians and persons of other faiths and worldviews is very important too. There was great enthusiasm after the founding of the World Council of Churches (Amsterdam, 1948).

This enthusiasm was augmented after the lifting of anathemas between Constantinople and Rome, the Second Vatican Council, the bilateral dialogues, and many ecumenical

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conferences. Unfortunately in the early 90s, Orthodox began to express reservations.

In the Message adopted by the Primates of the Orthodox Churches, after the meeting in Phanar (March 15, 1992), it is stated that the Orthodox Church does not approve a trend that would undermine the original aim of the ecumenical movement. Also, some recent developments were strongly disapproved in the ecumenical context, such as the ordination of women to the priesthood and the use of inclusive language for the reference to God. These were seen as serious obstacles to the restoration of visible unity.

The Message from Patmos (February 1995), of the Primates of the Orthodox Churches, also refers to the recent crisis and deviations. All these imposed to Orthodox Churches a duty to resist these deviations and promote the authentic tradition of the Church. Some of these deviations are identified: the ordination of women, inclusive language referring to God, homosexuality, and lesbianism described as moral sexual orientation [2].

Although some of the Orthodox Churches’ grievances were resolved through Special Commission [3] created at the eighth General Assembly of the World Council of Churches (Harare, 1998) and proselytizing was officially condemned [4], there remain some very serious issues [5]. The Central Committee of the World Council of Churches elaborates and publishes different resolutions, but the most important ones would be those concerning the faith and the moral life. We must not forget the words of our Lord Jesus Christ: “You are the salt of the earth, but if salt has lost its taste, how shall its saltiness be restored?

It is no longer good for anything, except to be thrown out and trampled under people’s feet” (Mt 5:13).

But, in order to remain in a constructive and optimistic tone, while attempting to exclude any tendency to relativism of the truth of faith and moral life, we have to refer first to the document “Called to be the One

Church”; i.e. the message of the ninth WCC General Assembly (Porto Alegre, 2006). There it is clearly stated that „Each church is asked to articulate the judgments that shape and even qualify, its relationship to the others. The honest sharing of commonalities, divergences, and differences will help all churches to pursue the things that make for peace and build up the common life”[6].

We have to refer to the Crete Holy Synod (2016) too, especially to the document entitled: „Relations of the Orthodox Church with the rest of the Christian world”. Here the determination of the Orthodox Churches for the continuation of the ecumenical dialog is underlined [7]. In the document entitled: „The mission of the Orthodox Church in Today’s World” it is emphasized „the human person’s unique dignity, which stems from being created in the image and likeness of God and from our role in God’s plan for humanity and the world”. That is why „on this basis, it is essential to develop inter-Christian cooperation in every direction for the protection of human dignity and of course for the good of peace, so that the peace-keeping efforts of all Christians without exception may acquire greater weight and significance”[8].

II. The Biblical basis of the church life

After recounting the founding of the Church, Saint Luke says about the first Christians: „And they devoted themselves to the apostles` teaching (te didache ton Apostolon, doctrina Apostolorum) and the fellowship (te koinonia, communicatione), to the breaking of bread (te klasei tou artou, fractionis panis), and the prayers (tais proseuchais, orationibus)” (Acts 2: 42).

The joint confession of the teaching of the Apostles, the full living of fellowship (koinonia), the communion from the same chalice and prayers for “the union of all” form a unity that expresses the identity and the integrity of the Church. These are also the fundamental

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prerequisites for any theological conclusion resulting from the ecumenical dialogues.

The order of these four elements is of great relevance for the Holy Liturgy too. There we first confess that we are in the communion of faith and love, then we receive the Holy Eucharist from the same chalice, and thus we leave “in peace” for celebrating “the liturgy after the Liturgy” [9], which is the service for the world in prayer and good deeds.

A. The teaching of the Apostles – infinitus

progressus in idem

The phrase “the teaching of the Apostles” refers to the historical, dynamical reality of the Christian faith. It was revealed by the Savior Himself, settled by the normative confession of the Holy Scripture and by the Holy Tradition, explained, transmitted and proclaimed into and by the Church, under the assistance of the Holy Spirit. In fact, “the living dialogue of the Church with Christ is done mainly through the Holy Scripture and the Holy Tradition”[10]. The latter is the permanent aspect of this dialogue [11].. The Orthodox Church is known as the Church of Tradition because it faithfully kept the content of the apostolic kerygma and the sacramental apostolic practice in its entirety [12]. Commenting on “Scripture and Tradition” [13]. Father Stăniloae [14] shows that the authors, Protestant and Anglican theologians, reduce the diversity of the present church traditions to the diversity of traditions that exist even in the Holy Scripture. Therefore “the search for unity between different traditions of the Church will have to acquire the unity of the Gospel, as it is reflected in the plurality of different biblical avowals” [15].

Moreover, it is considered that “the variety of thinking inside the Holy Scripture reflects the diversity of God’s actions in different historical circumstances and the diversity of human responses to God’s actions”, therefore it is important not to be attached to a single biblical thought even if it seems to be of central importance. This would only lead to a

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misunderstanding of this variety and richness [16].

Unilateral reading was a feature present in early Christianity. Heresy is the somewhat random choice of a single aspect of the complex or dialectic unity of two or more aspects and denying the rest, thus simplifying the rich and complex theological realities [17]. Next, Father Stăniloae deems it necessary to present the Orthodox spirit which is not characterized by the tendency to confront [18], but by the embracing of the teaching as a whole. Hence “in their thirst for complex knowledge and Christian life”, western Christians discover Orthodoxy, many thinking that “the unity of Christianity cannot be achieved outside Orthodoxy, but only through Orthodoxy, in reverting to the initial plenitude” [19].

Due to this assertion, the author cannot be blamed of elitism or of idealizing reality, because he immediately criticizes the way Orthodox values are brought in the lives of the faithful. He insisted then in favor of enriching the Orthodox ethos with the values discovered by western Christianity. Father Stăniloae even finds the stressing of the unity in Catholicism forgivable, since in the East one had not fully lived the Christian unity in the superior form of the universal communion within the local churches. On the other hand, a juridicalcentral assertion of the unity of Christianity prompted Orthodox Christians to underline the independence of their own local Church.

This was instead of finding ways to maintain their unity – and thus leading to embarrassing situations like that of the calendar. And after the emergence of Reformation, Orthodoxy has put into practice a kind of Catholic antiReform. This reform stresses Tradition more than the Holy Scripture and the importance of objective acts of the Sacraments/Mysteries and of hierarchy, more than the personal living and the communion of the relationship with God”[20].

This lucid analysis must be taken as an

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encouragement for Orthodox Christians to truly do deeds of faith, Orthodoxy also being orthopraxy. In the same time, the others must reanalyze the aspects of the faith that no longer recall the primary period.

Moreover, in Father Stăniloae’s thinking, there are openings to dialogue by refusing a priori judgments and the will to value the tendencies of coming close to the authentic teaching of the Church, manifested by theologians of different denominations.

B. Let us bring forth what unites us...

In order to shed light on the way in which this desire was transferred into the doctrinal field by Father Stăniloae, we consider it important to analyze first a study [21] published when Father Stăniloae was turning 80. From the very beginning, the author shows that the Orthodox Dogmatic textbooks present the Lutheran justification as an act through which man is assured his sins are forgiven. These sins are not erased (simul justus et peccator), or without affecting a change in his being (actus forensis).

In spite of these, recent Protestant studies, and even texts from Luther’s work, on which those studies rely, show that: “Luther frequently understands justification as an act that produces a new life in the human being” [22]. The study quotes Peter Stuhmacher who claims that: “Justitia Dei means for Luther the creating and effective act of the grace of God that justifies, and not one of God’s attributes” [23].. This new life that Luther speaks of is, according to the above mentioned theologian, the result of the synthesis between the two conceptions about God’s justice related to man: “justice as God’s attribute, manifested towards man according to man’s behavior, and the justice that forgives man and produces in him a new life through His mercy or His grace”[24]. In conclusion “Luther strongly regards justification as a creating act which forecloses any possibility to conceive faith, and therefore justification, as man’s act as

well” [25].. Therefore, says Father Stăniloae, “it is a joy for us to see that in this assertion, even faith is implicitly considered as a power produced in man by God, and not something that does not bring any change in man’s life” [26]..

Father Stăniloae then quotes the work of Barsanuphius, a 6th century Gaza hermit, and surprisingly says that: “in this fragment, the meaning of imitation amazingly coincides with what Barth says”, even if Barsanuphius is more straightforward and concrete. The parallel continues with Moltmann and Barsanuphius.

Where the former declares that, according to Luther, “humility is the way to God” [27]., Barsanuphius says: “God has always chosen the meek (1Co 1:27). Be humble and God will come to your help” [28]. “So, one can say that the Eastern Fathers, the same as Luther did, understood that meekness does not mean we do not have any role in our own salvation, but the fact that this meekness is the conscience that if we can do any good at all, it is because it comes from the power given to us by God” [29]..

However, “the merging of God’s gift and its active use by us, are also expressed in all prayers and chants of the Lutheran worship” [30]; several quotes show the following: - the possibility and the necessity of repenting; - even if it becomes active with the help of God, this help does not preclude man’s effort; - the justified man is no longer considered to be burdened with sins, God being unable to forgive them as it is told in “our school Dogmatic handbooks”. On the contrary, man himself asks for forgiveness for the sins committed but that could not have been committed; - the necessity to manifest faith through good deeds: “a man is known through his deeds” (“an Werken wird erkannt ein Mann”); - the use of “cover our sins” cannot mean that they might remain untouched, on the

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contrary, it is the faith that Christ takes them and bears them Himself; - the new life of the justified man, manifested through good deeds, cannot be understood as only having God as subject and man as a mere spectator since that would imply the admission of “an irreconcilable dualism inside man and in his relationship with the others”[31] ; consequently, the faithful could no longer ask from God to get rid of despair and be filled with joy, love for others, and to be cured of everything improper in one’s acts and a strengthening of power”[32] .

However, Father Stăniloae criticizes the tendency to pay sometimes exclusive attention to the word, not to the connection between the word and the Mysteries, as it is emphasized by Saint Luke: “Now when they heard this, they were cut to the heart, and said to Peter and the rest of the apostles, `Brothers, what shall we do? And Peter said to them,` Repent and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins, and you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit” (Acts 2:37-38).

Father Stăniloae did not ignore the tendency to approach the Orthodox teaching manifested by some Roman-Catholic theologians either. In a conference[33], he remarked with great satisfaction the positive step was taken in J.M. Garrigues’s paper which had come to consider Bolotov’s assertion as acceptable for the RomanCatholic Church: “the Holy Spirit proceeds from the One Father since He gives birth to the One Son”[34]. Garrigues modifies: “the Spirit Who proceeds from the Father and the Son” (qui ex Patre Filioque procedit) and proposes: “the Spirit Who proceeds from the Father and out of the Son” (qui ex Patre et a Filio procedit). He thus states a distinction between the Father and the Son in the act of proceeding the Holy Spirit, while the doctrine of Filioque leads to confusing the Father and the Son in the common substance. According

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to the interpretation of Anselm of Canterbury and Thomas Aquinas: the Spirit comes from the Father and from the Son, as from one principle (tamquam ex uno principio).

The same attempt can be found in connection with the teaching about the uncreated divine energies. In the past, Saint Gregory Palamas was one of the Eastern personalities most misunderstood by Catholic theologians. But, more recently, as Father Stăniloae shows, “especially following V. Lossky’s strong support in favor of the doctrine of the uncreated divine energies[35] and J.Meyendorff’s contribution [36] (as well as Father Stăniloae’s own very valuable and widely known contribution), Orthodox theologians were not the only ones to use the doctrine of the uncreated divine energies on multiple levels. Even Catholic theologians are more positive towards it. In an editorial of Istina [37], the author states: “For certain Catholic theologians, Palamism offers even today the basic principle of an unscholastic theology, so much searched for”. Such an attitude which finds support among the most prominent Catholic theologians, was remarkably synthesized by Father Halleux in Palamisme et scholastique [38] which takes the Meyendorff `s thesis as an indisputable and authoritative prerequisite: “The stand according to which the patristic doctrine of the deification of the Christian, implies that the palamitic distinction between the essence and the divine energies is more and more evident” [39].

The author also points out the fact that “a Catholic theologian, Georg Koepgen, best emphasized the Trinitarian basis of Christian spirituality and simultaneously sustains the fact that this spirituality was best kept in the Eastern Church. This was possible because it is the only one to have kept the biblical teaching about the Holy Trinity and its centrality in Christian piety most pure” [40].

The Second Vatican Council, a historic event for the Roman-Catholic Church, was

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also central in Father Stăniloae’s studies. Even though he was unable to attend it or sign the articles about Vatican II with his real name, because it was soon after he was released from the communist prison. He instead published under the pseudonym Pr. Barbu Gr. Ionescu [41].

It might seem superfluous to mention the satisfaction in the father’s notes on: “the possibility to reconcile dogmatically the Orthodox and the Old Eastern Churches (Oriental Orthodox Churches)” [42]. In the study we mentioned, he states from the very beginning: “the split between the Old Oriental Churches from the Church in the 5th century was caused by a terminological misunderstanding of the doctrine about Jesus Christ’s Person. On one hand, it was caused by the national, political, and social tensions between the Byzantine Empire and the people in its East. On the other hand, it is an event to be regretted for its unfortunate consequences on the entire Eastern Christianity. One must signal with great satisfaction that this split did not deepened further, but it remained superficial to this day, a simple misunderstanding of terms and not a division of faith”[43].

The Romanian Orthodox Church, Father Stăniloae writes, recognized the Orthodoxy of the Armenian people. The Bucharest Council, held on 15th May 1891, considered the charges of monophysitism brought by Euthymios Zigaben against them in the 12th century as inventions generated by hatred [44]. Romanian theologians such as Dimitrie Dan, Ioan Ramureanu, Nicolae Chitescu, or Liviu Stan, who also defended the Old Oriental Orthodoxy from different perspectives in spite of almost negligible differences are also mentioned [45]. Moreover, the Romanian Orthodox Church has always had friendly relations with the Armenian Church, and many Armenians have lived for centuries in Romania.

Father Stăniloae then discusses the council held at Aarhus (Denmark, August 1964) where “with more arguments and in a larger

consensus,” a statement was given that the main dogmatic divergence, the Christological one, stems in fact from a terminological issue.

John Meyendorff emphasized in his paper: “We also believe that uniting [the Orthodox and the pre-Chalcedonians] is possible since we agree that both in the distant past as well as in the more recent one, the difference between us was more of terminology than of faith itself”[46]. This opinion was also shared

by J. Karmiris and I. Romanides. Unfortunately, the same council witnessed some of the preChalcedonian theologians” opinions about the Orthodox Church, which had the appearance of being Nestorian.

Father Stăniloae’s hoped-for the possibility of doctrinal closeness, which may open the door for Eucharist communion (since there are no issues of koinonia between the members of the two families), were right since the dialogue bore fruit.

For instance, the mixed Commission for theological dialogue between the Orthodox and the Oriental Churches (held at Anba Bishoi Monastery, Egypt, September 1990) adopted a common declaration referring to the Orthodox Christology in which both families condemned the Eutychian heresy, the Nestorian heresy and the crypto-Nestorianism of Theodoret of Cyrus, and agreed: „that the Hypostasis of the Logos became composite (synthetos) by uniting to His divine uncreated nature with its natural will and energy, which He has in common with the Father and the Holy Spirit, created human nature, which He assumed at the Incarnation and made His own, with its natural will and energy” ; „ that the natures with their proper energies and wills are united hypostatically and naturally without confusion, without change, without division and separation, and that they are distinguished in thought alone (theoria mone)”; that „He Who wills and acts is always the one Hypostasis of the Logos incarnate”; that „all the anathemas and condemnations of the past which now divide us should be

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lifted by the Churches in order that the last obstacle to the full unity and communion of our two families can be removed by the grace and power of God”. Both families agree that the lifting of anathemas and condemnations will be consummated on the basis that the Councils and Fathers previously anathematized or condemned are not heretical” [47].

The mixed Commission met again in November 1993, at Chambesy, to recommend a procedure to restore the full communion between the Churches.

Father Stăniloae was also deeply concerned with the relationship between the Orthodox and the Anglicans [48]. The discussions between the delegations of the Romanian Orthodox Church and that of the Anglican Church in 1935 were held with the purpose of recognizing the Ordination of the latter. This recognition had been granted by the Patriarchate of Constantinople as early as 1922 and a year later, by the Patriarchate of Jerusalem and then by the Orthodox Church of Cyprus. The Romanian Orthodox Church showed a certain caution from the very beginning, in 1925, by asking “the Anglican Church itself to clarify its position towards the Mysteries/Sacraments, especially about Ordination: do they consider it a Mystery/ Sacrament or not?” [49]. This reluctance which has come to be known as “the Romanian stand” was right, not only keeping in mind the current situation in the Anglican Church, but also considering the pre-eminence of the doctrine. The ordination could not have been recognized without knowing the teaching about it. The Romanian delegation present at the Conference of the Anglican Episcopate in Lambeth (where they sought to answer the Romanian theologians in order to obtain the recognition of the Ordination from all Orthodox Churches, even a sacramental communion) was consistent in their stand and insisted that the Anglican Church would answer in more depth regarding the doctrine,

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a stand supported by the entire Orthodox delegation led by the Patriarch of Alexandria, Makarios. The recognition of the Ordination was limited since it could not have meant in any way inter-communion, unless a full unity of faith had been achieved, for which – Father Stăniloae noted – „a favorable evolution inside the Anglican Church was necessary for the sense of uniting this spirit of all trends still at work, some of which are very close to Reformation.

Unfortunately, this evolution did not take place, on the contrary, in November 1992, the deliberative synods approved the ordination of women which in turn led to a stalling of the dialogue even if the very good prior relations had a positive impact (for example, grants and scholarships like the Michael Ramsey grant, in the memory of one of the greatest supporters of good relations with the Orthodox Church, student exchange, etc.).

III. The full Church

Father Stăniloae cannot agree with the Russian Metropolitan Platon, who considered that all denominations are equal compartments of the same unique Church.

He says though, that “these (denominations) have taken form in a certain union with the full Church and co-exist in a certain connection with it, but they do not partake in the light and absolute power of Christ, the Sun. Thus, somehow the Church comprises all the denominations which had separated from it, because they could not fully separate from the inherent Tradition of the Church. Otherwise the Church, in its full meaning of the word, is only the Orthodox Church. Somehow the whole creation is objectively included in the divine light of the same pre-incarnated Logos, actually the stage of the Church before Christ, designed to become the Church of Christ. Objectively and subjectively, the entire humanity in its various faiths comprehends to a certain extent the pre-incarnated Logos (…). Nowadays a certain Church continues to exist outside Christianity because there are

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still ontological bonds between the human forces and God, the Logos”[50], “given their connection in faith with Christ, the incarnated Logos, and given their partly common faith in Christ with the Orthodox Church, the full Church, the more this Church exists in other Christian denominations”[51].

Although the other Christian denominations are named “non-full churches”[52], some being closer to perfection, others farther from it, the term “church” is still used due to their faith which is partly common with the full Church[53].

Moreover, when asking whether the other denominations can offer the perspective of salvation, given their status of non-full churches, Father Stăniloae answers: „Various Christian denominations have many believers who did not reduce their Christian life to the official doctrinal formulas of their denominations. The old Christian Tradition was stronger than the innovations of doctrine brought by their founders and officially supported by those formations and their theologians until today. In the Roman-Catholic Church, for example, the Sacraments have been practiced until today with the faithful’ belief that by doing this they intimately and directly unite with Christ and that Christ works inside the Church. Although the theological theory states that Christ has got a substitute and the redemption brought

by Christ is enacted simply by the satisfaction given to God by Him on the Golgotha, or it states that the grace of the Sacraments is a created grace and not a work of uncreated divine origin coming from Christ, and as an extension of it in the being of the faithful”.

Nevertheless, although: “the believers of various Christian denominations found themselves without their will belonging to those denominations which believe in a Christ who is not present there in all His redeeming efficiency. Their non-full participation in Christ, mostly without their guilt, can have as a consequence their non-full participation in Him

and in the afterlife, according to the words: `In My Father’s house there are many dwellingplaces` (Jn14:2). The essential guilt belongs to the heretics who did not go deeper into the meaning of their inherited faith, but being driven by the sin of pride have contributed to the demonical work of ripping Christianity apart”[54].

Here, Father Stăniloae underlines the importance of sensus fidelium, which is the believers’ role in preserving the apostolic tradition. He also makes a clear cut distinction between those who were born in families belonging to various denominations and the heretics and common believers who abdicated from the true Church because of various interests or maybe out of ignorance. He also considers that the Ecumenical Movement, in its attempt to re-establish the visible unity of the Christians (not of the Church who is one!), “must target Christ’s most intimate and whole presence among believers in the Church. But the highest level of Christ’s most intimate working presence inside it is confessed by the Orthodox Church which preserved the life tradition of the early Church”.

A. Koinonia – a primary characteristic of the

Church

Koinonia has been a very important concept in the Ecumenical Movement. His Eminence Metropolitan Ioannis Zizioulas affirms that koinonia is a theme “deeply rooted in all Christian traditions” [55].. Koinonia derives not from sociological experience, nor from ethics, but from faith. We are not called to koinonia because it is “good” for us and for the Church, but because we believe in a God who is in his very being koinonia [56]. The koinonial relationships character of the Trinitarian life is the paradigm and the source of the church koinonia. Koinonia is neither a Christological, nor a Pneumatological reality only. It is of a Trinitarian nature and basis, pointing to the quality of our common life in the Triune God and with each other. The life of the Triune God

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is the prototype and source of it. The Church is, in fact, the icon of the inter-Trinitarian koinonia. Its being, life, and mission are rooted in and sustained by the communion of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. It is by virtue of this koinonia with God that we have unity among human beings, the bond of our fellowship with the Father being the Christ Himself through the Holy Spirit [57]. A wonderful image of what the apophatic interTrinitarian perfect koinonia is, offers the icon of the Trinity painted around 1410 by Andrei Rublev.

“Ecclesiology must be based on the Trinitarian theology if it is to be an ecclesiology of communion” [58]. At New Delhi (1961) the basis of the World Council of Churches was broadened to include the reference to the Holy Trinity. The Faith and Order world conference in Montreal (1963), in its report of section I, stressed that our understanding of the Church should not be derived only from Christology but from the Trinitarian understanding of God [59]. .In an important article [60] Najeeb G. Awad states that Saint Gregory teaches about a “Perichoretic Godhead” ontology.

He also underlined that the discourse about the koinonial nature of the Godhead and a radical construal of the perichoresis of the three Hypostases in terms of being, not only in terms of operations, can be readily found in Saint Gregory’s writings. The Son and the Spirit, therefore, are on the same level as the Father [61]. The Father and the Son and the Spirit are not for Saint Gregory “of the same substance”, but are together “one substance”; hence the oneness and unity of the Godhead is adored just as the three Hypostases are equally adored and confessed in the one Godhead [62].

For His Eminence Metropolitan Ioannis Zizioulas, the relational character is the most important, because the identity of the Church is relational. His Eminence also states that the structure of the Church is relational, authority in the Church is relational and mission in

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the Church is relational [63]. The Canberra Assembly, in its major statement on Church unity, described unity as koinonia and the theme of the Fifth World Conference on Faith and Order (Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 1993) was: “Towards Koinonia in Faith, Life, and Witness” [64].

His Holiness Aram Keshishian underlined that koinonia belongs to the esse of the Church, that it is the true nature of the Church, sancta communion [65] (communio is the Latin word for koinonia). The word koinonia comes from koinos meaning “common”, and koinoo meaning “to put together”, “to share”. Often in contrast to what is “private” (Greek idios), koinonia and the words related to it went through an amazing broad series of applications from the seventh-century on, in “public” life, community, the state, business partnerships, marriage as a life-association, and society. Koinonia could refer to all sorts of relationships, but it frequently meant “having a share” in something and thus “participation”; more rarely in the classical world, “giving a share” of something and thus “imparting” [66]. The very fact that in the Fifth World Conference on Faith and Order the original Greek variant was chosen, this indicated some uneasiness with the common use of “communion” or “fellowship”, koinonia bearing a specific meaning which should be taken into account in its application to ecclesiology[67].

Rooted in the Old Testament, the link between God and His people was the expression of mutual commitment (Jeremiah 24:7). In the New Testament, koinonia is fundamental for understanding the reality of the Church, teaching different basic concepts like life together (Acts 2:44,47), being of one heart and one soul (4:32), sharing everything (2:44) etc. Koinonia refers to “the body of Christ” (1Co12) and to the communion with the Holy Trinity (Jn14:20,23). Other images of the Church as “God’s people”, “temple” of the Holy Spirit and “bride” are various expressions

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of koinonia [68] . Thus, koinonia means both the participation of God’s people to the life of the Holy Trinity and the communion inside the people that constitutes koinonia . Next, several characteristics of koinonia should be restated: - koinonia is not only a Christological or a pneumatological reality, but the life in the communion of the Holy Trinity is its prototype and its source. In fact, the Church is the icon of the Trinitarian koinonia.

- koinonia is not a human accomplishment, it is a gift of the Holy Spirit. It is the “communion (koinonia) of the Holy Spirit” (2Co13:13). Koinonia with Christ is the koinonia in the Holy Spirit. Koinonia is a reality gifted into Christ, once and for all, a reality lived in the body of Christ.

Koinonia is established through Baptism which is the foundation of koinonia and the source of its unity. Through Baptism, people are incorporated into the koinonia of the Holy Trinity (Rm 6:4-11). Baptism is union “unto Christ” (Rm 6:8), incorporation “in Christ” (Gal 3:27) and existence “in Christ” (1Pt 5:14). Through Baptism, Christians are united with Christ, with one another and with the Church of all times and places. Baptism has an ecclesiological significance because it creates and sustains koinonia.

- koinonia is sustained through the Eucharist. The Eucharist is the supreme manifestation of koinonia. Through Eucharist, the Church becomes koinonia.

As a concept, koinonia gathers the vertical, the Godly source, and the horizontal, the material gathering of the people of God. - koinonia is never partial or incomplete but it embraces the plenitude of the Church in all its aspects, dimensions and manifestations.

It implies integrality, fullness and catholicity.

A local church is not part of koinonia, it is its full manifestation in a given place. In the local church, there is the One church, holy, catholic, apostolic. Koinonia’s catholicity does not refer

only to its geographical aspect, but to the diversity of local churches also, and to their participation in the one koinonia.

- koinonia means integrality and fidelity to an ecumenical tradition that belongs to all in a diversity of expressions [69].

- koinonia is a concrete reality. The church is a koinonia in each and in all times and places.

It is manifested both locally and universally.

The Church is a conciliatory koinonia of local churches, without a geographical or administrative center.

- even if it is a reality present here and now, koinonia also has an eschatological dimension, as only in eshaton (1Co 9:23) will it be fully realized. Therefore, koinonia is a reality that is continuously growing [70].

Contemporary theology refers to koinonia when using “the ecclesiology of communion” which is a central theme and an almost irreversible approach to any ecclesiology [71]. It was one of the corrections in the Second Vatican Council for a “pyramidal” understanding of the Church and it is a basic ecumenical perspective in the bilateral dialogues. After crossing various stages like “call to unity”, “seeking unity”, “models of unity”, “natures of unity”, “taking steps into unity”. The 7th General Assembly of the World Council of Churches gathered in Canberra, declared: “the unity of the Church that we are called for is a koinonia”[72] and expanded it into: “koinonia is given and expressed in the joint confession of the apostolic faith; in a common sacramental life inaugurated by one Baptism and celebrated together by one Eucharistic communion; in the life of the community where the faithful and those who do service recognize each other and are one in peace; and in one common mission confessing the Gospel of God’s gift for all people and serving the entire creation”[73] .

In the study mentioned, the author speaks next of the koinonia of faith, Eucharistic koinonia, conciliatory koinonia, a local church maintaining its ecclesiastic and catholic nature

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in conciliatory relation with the other local churches. Communio ecclesiarum expresses the real nature of the Church. In fact, the universal Church is not a world organization, but a koinonia of local churches united in a real way.

B. The breaking of the bread – the Mystery of

Church unity

The Holy Eucharist was from the very beginning the center of the Christian worship, the real presence of Jesus Christ, as seen in the founding words: “This is My Body”, “This is My Blood”. At the Last Supper, Jesus mystically anticipated His Sacrifice of the next day. The Apostles received the Holy Communion than for the first time; this continued to be the perfect union with Christ.

The two disciples were going to Emmaus with the resurrected Jesus but, even though He spoke with them, and explained the meaning of Messianic ministry, they failed to recognize Him until after the breaking of bread: “He took bread, and blessed it, and broke it, and gave it to them. And their eyes were opened, and they recognized him; and he vanished out of their sight” (Lk 24:30-31).

The two were searching for the historical Jesus when instead, the Eucharistic One was discovered.

Father Stăniloae affirmed that the reason why bread exists is to become body [74] through metabolism; and for the transformation of the bread into the Body of Christ we use the Greek noun metabole, meaning change. This affirmation helps us a lot, because we realize that the mystery of the Eucharist has somehow a parallel in the daily life…!

The anamnetical, sacrificial and sacramental characters of the Eucharist have been clear from the very beginning, as it is said in Saint Paul’s words : “For as often as you eat this bread, and drink this cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death

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until He comes. Whoever therefore eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will be guilty concerning the body and blood of the Lord. Let a person examine himself, then, and so eat of the bread and drink of the cup. For anyone who eats and drinks without discerning the body eats and drinks judgment on himself. That is why many of you are weak and ill, and some have died.

But if we judged ourselves truly, we would not be judged” (1Co11:26-31).

In conclusion, we can approach the meaning of Holy Communion from the perspective of the hypostatical union. The Lord’s Body and Blood, His human nature which He took from the Holy Virgin and that He deified by Incarnation, by His life of submission, His passions, crucifixion, death, resurrection, and ascension. But at the moment of Incarnation, when the Virgin said fiat, His divine nature was united with the human one in an undivided, unseparated, unmixed and unchanged way, therefore His divine nature will never be separated from the human one. (however?)

On the contrary, He ascended with His human nature in which He virtually enclosed all, as the New Adam (eschatos Adam,1Cor15), and since the two natures cannot be separated, they have the same Person, that of the Son of God, therefore it is called the Divine Eucharist.

The two natures cannot be separated from His divine Person, that is why, we confess that we are united with Jesus Christ, and through Him with the Father and the Holy Spirit, the Holy Trinity. In Saint Peter’s words we „may become partakers of the divine nature (ghenesthe theias koinonoi physeos, efficiamini divinae consortes naturae), having escaped from the corruption that is in the world because of sinful desire” (2Pt1:3-4) [75].

C. “Inter-communion” and “Eucharistic

hospitality”

The Eucharist is a manifestation of koinonia.

The basis of our koinonia in the Holy Tradition is the common confession of the Apostles’

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faith, Eucharistic koinonia being based in the koinonia of faith. Only the baptized who share the same faith as members of the same Eucharistic gathering, are invited to take part together in the Lord’s Table. In the early Church, the Eucharist was not considered as a restorative means of the broken unity, but the sign of a real unity of faith [76].

Thus we can explain why “intercommunion” and “Eucharistic hospitality” were concepts unknown to the early Church, so it would be impossible to find any meaning in them.

Unfortunately, there are still serious obstacles on the way to full koinonia. For many churches, Eucharistic koinonia is the expression of supreme unity in faith while for others it is possible when there already is a “partial communion” or a theological agreement. There are also churches that encourage “interim Eucharistic communion”, “progressive communion”, “Eucharistic hospitality” as a means to prepare the faithful for full Eucharistic communion [77].

The expression “Eucharistic hospitality” appeared in the context of the modern ecumenical movement to mean the possibility of participation to God’s Supper in the existing division between Christians. Many believe that this is possible either in itself or as an intermediary measure, which leads to full unity [78].

Discussing “Eucharistic hospitality”, the Metropolitan Paulos Mar Gregorios showed that for an Orthodox there are two questions.

Who is this very hospitable host? What and to whom does he offer? [79] In fact, the Holy Eucharist is a thanking sacrifice offered to God by the Church for the entire creation; therefore the problem of hospitality is not even present.

Offering communion to those who are not in communion would mean that the Holy Eucharist is a Church feast to which one can invite extra guests. But the Church offers itself to God through Christ’s Body, therefore one

cannot talk of hospitality in administering the Holy Mysteries/Sacraments. Moreover, this term “hospitality” even becomes offensive since the churches that do not offer this kind of hospitality can be labeled “inhospitable”.

Orthodoxy can only apply the principle of oikonomia that allows the canonical authorities to make pastoral and missionary exceptions.

But neither “Eucharistic hospitality”, nor “inter-communion” has any relevance for an Orthodox [80].

In conclusion, we can say that given these present tensions created by irreconcilable doctrinal dissensions, communion from the same Chalice which means sacramental communication with the confessed Word.

It cannot become a means to restore the visible unity but remains a great aspiration that will only be fulfilled after the unity of faith and fellowship have been achieved. On the papal visit to Bucharest, in May 1999, the two leaders of Churches offered one another an empty chalice as a sign of hope in a future communion in the same Chalice.

In this sense Fr. Professor Ion Bria underlined that: “In the context of a growing common Christian intercession, witness, service and theological convergence, and in the face of a revival of ancient denominationalism, Christians must remember that the Eucharist is the cornerstone of their life together as members of one universal Church. One test of ecumenical life is to renew the effort to overcome the obstacles to full concelebrated Eucharist. This is an essential condition for the credibility of our ecumenical movement; while it is not there, the whole building of ecumenical witness is unsure”[81].

D. Prayers for unity: a prophetic perspective

“I exhort therefore, that, first of all, supplications, prayers, intercessions, and giving of thanks, be made for all men” (1 Tim 2:1; cf.Acts1:14).

Praying has a “great unifying role” [82].

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In a study [83], Father Stăniloae beautifully states that sobornicity (conciliarity) is the “opposite of solitude” [84]. Hence the great theme of responsibility by which “a person experiences the link with another person, a link which is neither dependent on his will nor on the other’s, but on the dialogic structure imprinted in every person” [85]. The responsibility of the faithful towards his fellow man, the answer to the demand is obligatory due to the answer to God’s demand: “Whoever shall refuse to answer God as long as one lives on Earth, will answer to God’s judgment in the afterlife for his fellow man for which he refused to answer in his life and sought to escape the responsibility towards God as well”[86].

Our fellow is any person, all the more when one is a Christian. The scandal that Christians provoked was not because of “unity in diversity”, maybe not even because of dissensions between themselves, but because of the hatred manifested (cf.1Jn 4: 20-21).

The link in dialogue between persons or the responsibility of one towards another before God, must be manifested in prayers and good deeds [87].

In order to be open and available for the dialogue with “the others”, similar to Father Stăniloae, we could say that in prayer and good deeds all faithful Christians meet. They will pray together [88] especially for unity; such gatherings are often organized. Lukas Vischer highlighted that the local dimension of praying for intercession constitutes the basis of our preparation for solidarity. It would be unfair to pray for churches in general, if we do not refer first to those who are next to us [89]. Christians can do good deeds together and there are various foundations and associations with charitable purposes, where Orthodox Christians are involved along with Christians belonging to other denominations.

Therefore, they can unite locally in an effort to alleviate all kinds of sufferings. This is a certain type of communion, a good basis for

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mutual knowledge and respect, a prophetical ecclesial experience, in a movement towards an open unity. Surely, this practical interconfessional collaboration must not be taken for ecumenism, which is the theological dialogue to restore the visible unity between Christians from a historical, doctrinal, canonical and sacramental perspective.

The common public Christian confession only creates an atmosphere for theological dialogue. The Orthodox Churches reacted against an exclusive, socio-political version of ecumenism.

If we were to resume the term open sobornicity (conciliarity), this could mean: knowledge, understanding, livingexperiencing, confessing, valuing and actualizing the Apostolic faith in its entirety to which all Christians are called – united according to their common nature but different in person, family, kin, tradition, caught in the dialogic texture between themselves and God - in communion (koinonia) which can become more emphasized as their life tends to be “according to the whole”, to the plenitude (kata holon) [90] . Moreover, Father Stăniloae also mentions that for the sharing in this plenitude, a full communion with the ecclesial body must be maintained: “The Church is an organic whole, an organism or a spiritual body, a plenitude that has everything and this whole, this plenitude is present and effective in every member, every act, every part. This meaning of the term Church refers to its meaning of “body” of Christ (...).The Church has Christ wholly [totus Christus], with all His redeeming and deifying gifts and every local church and every faithful person has Him fully, only because he remains in the “entirety” of His body. As the whole body exists in every cell of it, in the same way is in every member or part of it, the whole Church and through this Christ wholly, but only as long as the respective member remains in the Church.

The members are not made uniform in this, but are complementary due to the fact that the life of the whole body or Christ Himself

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through the Holy Spirit is actively present in all”[91] .

Conclusion The sobornicity is open to all but it is only shared to those who renounce the excessive and almost exclusive emphasis of some parts of the Apostles” faith, and wish to live “according to the whole” in the full Church, the Orthodox Church. This is possible because “one tradition cannot last permanently when it is incomplete, insufficient, because the next generations realize this incompleteness and seek to overcome or at least complete it by a more complex understanding, a way of life without the previous incompleteness”[92] . As a confirmation of this affirmation, it is worth to mention here the conversion to Orthodoxy of some important theologians: Placide Deseille (former Roman-catholic), Gabriel Bunge (former Roman-catholic), Kallistos Ware (former Anglican), Jaroslav Pelikan [93] (former Lutheran) and Karl Christian Felmy (former Lutheran).

It is important to underline that the ecumenical openness cannot lead to a relativisation of faith. This is because „ecumenism does not mean transgressing doctrinal differences or their elimination or minimization, because the vital law of Christianity in general is preserving the unity and integrity in doctrine”, and open sobornicity does not mean in any way “open Dogmatics”[94] .

It must also be said that the Orthodox Church is not a confession between many others, since it is not based on a confession of faith later than the Apostles` era, but it is Una Sancta Catholica et Apostolica [95]. Therefore, Orthodox theology cannot be a confessional theology either, but an ecumenical one as it can transmit something to every confession while having kept the whole treasury of the apostolic faith as the full Church.

This fullness will be felt by “others” and they will be attracted to it (there are, as we have

already mentioned, cases of many theologians or simple believers who, by study and spiritual life, have received God’s gift and have embraced Orthodoxy) more to the extent that the Orthodox will know, comprehend, live-experience and confess this ecumenical flow of faith, following the Saints and not only in declaration, formally, sometimes even hypocritically. Open sobornicity (conciliarity) has also a prophetic perspective since it insists on the importance of unity of all Christians for the reconciliation of the world.

This will be possible as far as the resurrected Christ passes into human life under “the form of the Church” [96], because in Him there is “neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is no male and female: for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal 3:28).

Endnotes [1] St. Maximus the Confessor, Quaestiones ad Thalassium, 15, Corpus Christianorum Series Graeca (CCSG-PB), C. Laga, C. Steel (eds.) 1980 [2] Pr. Prof. Ion Bria, Tratat de Teologie Dogmatică şi Ecumenică, (Treaty of Dogmatic and Ecumenic Theology) Sibiu, 2009, vol. II, 68-69 [3] https://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/ documents/assembly/2006-porto-alegre/3-preparatoryand-background-documents/final-report-of-thespecial-commission-on-orthodox-participation-in-thewcc [4] See the document: “Towards Common Witness: A Call to Adopt Responsible Relationships in Mission and to Renounce Proselytism”, in “You are the light of the world”. Statements on Mission by the World Council of Churches 1980-2005, WCC Publications, Geneva 2005, 39-58; http://www.ecum.ro/infoecum/Ro/dokumente/pecalea-spre-marturia-comuna?month=9&year=2011.

The document presents unequivocally, the uncompromising position of the Council of Churches on proselytism. It is imperative that all the churches shall comply with the regulations contained herein. We realize once again the importance of a forum that includes all churches and Christian communities, because only so taken with decisions that can then be observed strictly.

“The objectives of this statement are: churches and Christians to realize the harsh reality of proselytism today;

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to guide those involved in proselytism to recognize its disastrous effects on church unity, on relations between Christians and credibility of the Gospel and thus not to do so, to encourage churches and mission agencies to avoid all forms of competition in mission and to dedicate the new witness in unity”.

[5] Ibidem.

[6] See also: Aurel Pavel, Ciprian Iulian Toroczkai, Adevăratul şi falsul ecumenism, Ed. Andreiana, Sibiu, 2010.

[7] http://www.oikoumene.org/resources/documents/ assembly/porto-alegre-2006/1-statements-documentsadopted/christian-unity-and-message-to-the-churches/ called-to-be-the-one-church-as-adopted.html.

[8] https://www.holycouncil.org/-/rest-of-christianworld [9]https://www.holycouncil.org/-/mission-orthodoxchurch-todays-world [10]See: Ion Bria, The Liturgy after the Liturgy.

Mission and witness from an Orthodox Persepective.

Geneva: WCC Publications, 1996.

[11]Pr. Prof. Dr.Dumitru Stăniloae, Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă- pentru Institutele Teologice, (The Dogmatic Orthodox Theology, for Theological Institutes) [TDO 1]. vol. I, Bucureşti, 1978, 53.

[12] Ibidem, 58 [13] Pr. Prof. Dr.Dumitru Stăniloae , “Concepţia ortodoxă despre Tradiţie şi despre dezvoltarea doctrinei” (Orthodox view on Tradition and on the development of the doctrine), în Ortodoxia, nr. 1, (1975), 5.

[14]A document issued by the Faith and Order Commission of the World Council of Churches In: Nouveaute dans l’oecumenisme, Les Presses de Taise, 1970.

[15] His Dogmatic Theology was published in English in 6 vol.: The Experience of God: Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, Holy Cross Orthodox Press, Vol.1, Revelation and Knowledge of the Triune God,(Brookline, 2005); Vol.2, The World: Creation and Deification (Brookline, 2005); Vol.3, The Person of Jesus Christ as God and Savior (Brookline, 2011);Vol.4, The Church: Communion in the Holy Spirit (Brookline, 2012); Vol.5, The Sanctifying Mysteries (Brookline, 2012); Vol.6, The Fulfillment of Creation (Brookline, 2013); for other English translations from his works: see:https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumitru_St%C4%83niloae) [16]Pr. Prof. Dumitru Stăniloae, “Sobornicitate deschisă” (Open sobornicity/conciliarity), Ortodoxia, nr.

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2, (1971), 165 [17] Ibidem.

[18] Ibidem, 167.

[19]ÎPS Kallistos Ware wrote: “This is an author who treats the West, be it Christian or not, with no aggressiveness or fear. Even if his critique of RomanCatholicism, proselytism or even radical theology may seem at times antagonical or simplistic, beyond that structure, there are good intentions”. In the preface to: Dumitru Stăniloae, The Experience of God, translated and edited by Ioan Ioniţă and Robert Barringer, Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 1989, XXIV. [20]Pr. Prof. D. Stăniloae, “Sobornicitate deschisă” (Open sobornicity/conciliarity), op. cit.,171.

[21]Ibidem.

[22] Pr. Prof. D. Stăniloae, “Doctrina luterană despre justificare şi cuvânt şi câteva reflecţii ortodoxe”, (The Lutheran Doctrine about Justification and Word and Some Orthodox Thoughts), Ortodoxia, nr. 4, (1983), 495-508.

[23]Ibidem, 495.

[24] “Justitia Dei bezeichnet fur Luther also das schopferischwirksame Ereignis der rechfertigenden Gnade Gottes und nicht eine gottliche Eigenschaft”, Peter Stuhmacher, Gerechtigkeit Gottes bei Paulus, Gottingen, 1966, 20.

[25] Ibidem, 18, “Keiner der Vater ist darauf aufmerksam geworden, dass Paulus selbst Rechtfertigung und Schopfungssgen ineinander interpretiert zuordnet. Das Miteinander zu gewahren und von daher justitia als das Gottes Werk zu interpretieren ist Luthers Eigentliche exegetische Leitstung”, at Pr. Prof. D. Stăniloae, “Doctrina luterană (…)”(The Lutheran Doctrine...), op. cit., 495.

[26] Ibidem, 21, “(…) Luther an der Rechtfertigung als einem Schopfungsvorgang fasthalt und so jede Moglicheit verlegt wird, den Glauben als Leistung des Menschen und damit die Rechtfertigung als Werk des Menschen aufzufassen”, at Pr. Prof. D. Stăniloae, “Doctrina luterană (…)”(The Lutheran Doctrine, op. cit., 496.

[27] Ibidem, 496.

[28] J. Moltmann, “Therese von Avila und Martin Luther“, în Stimmen der Zeit, Heft 7, (1982), 457.

[29] Biblos Barsanouphiou kai Ioannou,Thessalonique, 1974, Ep. 665, 311.

[30] Pr. Prof. D Stăniloae, “Doctrina luterană (…)”, op. cit., 501.

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[31]Ibidem, 504.

[32] Ibidem, 505.

[33] Ibidem, 504-506.

[34] Pr. Prof. Dumitru Stăniloae, “Purcederea Duhului Sfânt de la Tatăl şi relaţia lui cu Fiul, ca temei al îndumnezeirii şi înfierii noastre”, Klingenthal, 1979, (The Proceeding of the Holy Spirit from the Father and its Connection with the Son, as a Basis of our Deification and Adoption, conference which took place at the second ecumenical reunion in Klingenthal, having the theme of “Filioque”), Ortodoxia, nr. 3-4, (1979),583-592.

[35] J.M. Garrigues, These uber das Filioque, în Internationale kirchliche Zeitschrift, 1895, at Pr. Prof.

D. Stăniloae, “Purcederea Duhului Sfânt (...) , [The Proceeding of the Holy Spirit]”, 583.

[36]V. Lossky, Essai sur la Theologie mystique de l’Eglise orientale Paris, Aubier, 1944.

[37]J.Meyendorff, A Study of Gregory Palamas London, 1964.

[38] Istina, nr. 3, (1974).

[39] Revue theologique de Louvain, III, (1973), 409-442.

[40] Filocalia 7, Bucuresti,(1977), 216-217.

[41] Ascetica şi mistica ortodoxă, (The Orthodox Mysticism and Asceticism) (Ed. Deisis, Sibiu) 1993, vol.

I, 35.

[42] “Conciliul II Vatican- Dezbaterile şi hotărârile primei sesiuni”, (“Council II Vatican – Deliberations and Outcomes from the First Session”), Ortodoxia, nr. 1, (1964), about the issue of “sister Churches” expression employed for the first time by the Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras in a letter in 1962 to Cardinal Bea of the Vatican Secretariat for the Promotion of Christian Unity; but by 2002, the Polish-Catholic theologian Waclaw Hryniewicz said “This term … has now fallen into disgrace”- see: Will Cohen, “The Concept of Sister Churches in Orthodox-Catholic relations in the 12th and 21st centuries”, SaintVladimir’s Theological Quarterly, 53:4, (2009), 375.

[43] In: Ortodoxia, nr. 1, (1965), 5-27.

[44] Ibidem, 5.

[45] Monitorul Oficial (Official Gazette of Romania), nr.

11/1891, 2939, in Pr. Prof. D. Stăniloae, “Posibilitatea reconcilierii dogmatice între Biserica Ortodoxă şi Vechile Biserici Orientale”, (The Possibility of Dogmatic Reconciliation between the Orthodox Church and the Old Oriental Churches), Ortodoxia, nr. 1, (1965), 5-6.

[46] Pr. Prof. D. Stăniloae, “Posibilitatea reconcilierii dogmatice între Biserica Ortodoxă şi Vechile Biserici

Orientale”, (The Possibility of Dogmatic Reconciliation between the Orthodox Church and the Old Oriental Churches), Ortodoxia, nr. 1, (1965), 6.

[47]Ibidem, 7, [48] https://orthodoxjointcommission.wordpress.com/ category/official-statements/page/3/ [49] Pr. Pr. Prof. D. Stăniloae, “Tratativele dintre Biserica Ortodoxă Română şi Anglicană privite sub raport dogmatic” (The treaties of the Anglican and Romanian Orthodox Churches Viewed Dogmatically), Ortodoxia, nr. 2, (1958),236-251.

[50] Ibidem, 236.

[51]Pr. Prof. Dumitru Stăniloae, Teologia Dogmatica Ortodoxă (Orthodox Dogmatic Theology), Bucureşti, (Bucharest), 1978, vol. 2, 267-268.

[52]Cf. Pr. Prof. Dumitru Stăniloae, “Câteva trăsături caracteristice ale Ortodoxiei”, (Some Characteristic Traits of Orthodoxy), Mitropolia Olteniei, nr. 7-8, Craiova, (1970), 730-742.

[53]Pr. Prof. Dumitru Stăniloae, Teologia Dogmatica Ortodoxă (Orthodox Dogmatic Theology), 1978, vol. 2, 267.

[54] Ibidem, 269-270.

[55] Metropolitan John of Pergamon, “The Church as Communion: A Presentation on the World Conference Theme”, in the vol.: On the Way to Fuller Koinonia: Official Report of the Fifth World Conference on Faith and Order (Faith and Order Paper), Geneva, 1994, 100 [56] Ibidem,104.

[57] Aram Keshishian, „Growing together towards a full koinonia”, in vol. Orthodox visions of ecumenismstatements, messages and reports on the ecumenical movement 1902-1992, compiled by Gennadios Limouris, WCC Publications, Geneva, 1994, 236.

[58] Ibidem. 237 [59] Ibidem.

[60] Najeeb G. Awad, “Between Subordination and Koinonia: Toward A New Reading of the Cappadocian Theology”, Modern Theology 23:2 April, 2007,182.

[61] Ibidem, 184 [62] Saint Gregory of Nazianzus, Orations, 25.17, Catholic University of America Pres, 2003 [63] Ibidem, 104-109.

[64] The official report of the conference: On the Way to Fuller Koinonia: Official Report of the Fifth World Conference on Faith and Order (Faith and Order Paper no. 166), Geneva, 1994.

[65] Aram Keshishian, „Growing together”, 236.

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[66] John Reumann, “Koinonia in Scripture: Survey of biblical texts”, in: On the Way to Fuller Koinonia: Official Report of the Fifth World Conference on Faith and Order (Faith and Order Paper no. 166), Geneva, 1994, 39; [67] Metropolitan John of Pergamon,104.

[68] Ibidem,236.

[69] v.: Ion Bria, The Sense of Ecumenical Tradition, Geneva: WCC Publications, 1991, 60-73.

[70] A. Keshishian, „Growing together”, 236-238.

[71] See Pr. Prof. Ion Bria, “Ecclesiologia comuniunii” (The Ecclesiology of Communion), Studii Teologice (Theological Studies), 9-10, (1968), 669-681; J.M.R. Tillard, Eglise d’Eglises - L’ecclesiologie de communion, Ed. Du Cerf, Paris, 1987; Idem, Chair de l’Eglise, Chair du Christ- Aux sources de l’ecclesiologie de communion, Ed. Du Cerf, Paris, 1992; Idem, L’Eglise locale- ecclesiologie de communion et catholicite, Ed. Du Cerf, Paris, 1995 [72] Signs of the Spirit, official report of WCC seventh assembly, Canberra, ed. M. Kinnamon, Geneva, WCC, and Grand Rapids, USA, Eerdmans,1991, 173 [73] Ibidem, [74] Pr. Prof. Dr. Dumitru Stăniloae, Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă, (The Orthodox Dogmatic Theology) vol. 3, Bucuresti, 1978, 69.

[75] See: James M.Starr, Sharers in Divine Nature.

2 Peter 1, 4. Its Hellenistic Context, Coniectanea Biblica, New Testament Series 33, Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm, 2000; Norman Russell, “Theosis and Gregory Palamas: Continuity or Doctrinal Change?”, SaintVladimir’s Theological Quarterly, 50:4, 2006,357-79.

[76] A. Keshishian, „Growing together”, 238.

[77] Ibidem, 239.

[78] Robert G. Stephanopoulos, “Eucharistic Hospitality: Implications for the Ecumenical Movement”, in Orthodox Visions of Ecumenism”, ,263.

[79] Paulos Mar Gregorios, “Eucharistic Hospitality: Not a Question of Hospitality”, in Orthodox Visions of Ecumenism”, 231.

[80] Ibidem.

[81] Ion Bria, Liturgy after the Liturgy. Mission and Witness from an Orthodox Perspective, WCC publications, Geneva, 1996, p. 40.

[82]Pr.prof.D Stăniloae, Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă, (The Orthodox Dogmatic Theology) vol. 2, București, 1978, 208.

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[83] Pr.prof.D Stăniloae, „Rugăciunea pentru alții și sobornicitatea Bisericii” („Prayer for others and the sobornicity (conciliarity) of the Church”, in Studii Teologice, nr. 1-2, (1970).

[84] Ibidem, 29 [85] Ibidem.

[86] Idem, “Responsabilitatea creştină”, (“The Christian Responibility”), Ortodoxia, nr. 2, (1970), 186.

[87] Idem, “Rugăciunile pentru alţii” („Prayer for others”), 30.

[88] A shining example is the monastic community of Bose, Italy where monks and nuns that do not belong to the same church seek God together in prayer, poverty, virginity and obedience; see Enzo Bianchi, Cuvânt şi rugăciune, introducere în lectura duhovnicească a Scripturii, (Word and Prayer, Introduction to the Spiritual Reading of the Holy Scripture) preface Metropolitan Serafim, Ed. Deisis, Sibiu, 1996.

[89] Lukas Vischer, “A Growing Fellowship of Mutual Intercessio”, The Ecumenical Movement. An Anthology of Key Texts and Voices, ed. by Michael Kinnamon and Brian E.Cope, WCC Publications, Geneva, 1997, 513.

[90] The term catholic comes from the Greek, kata – according to and holon –whole, (in Latin, secundum totum), and expresses a totality which is neither geographical, nor horizontal, quantitative, and opposed to any fragmentation of dogma. Where Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic (whole, full) Church. (St. Igantie, Smyrn, 8,2) It shows this unity or wholeness which does not depend in any way upon historical space or quantitative conditions (Paul Evdokimov – Ortodoxia, Bucureşti, 1996, p. 171). It must be said that, because of the translation, we no longer confess in the Creed the catholicity of the Church (katholiken ekklesian in the Greek original). In the Russian Orthodox Church, the term sobornaya, adjective of sobornost, replaced the Greek one after the Russians rejected the Council of Ferrara/ Florence, but it does not cover the original fully. Father Staniloae covers the two terms and shows that wholeness (catholicity) is not in itself, but it is an experience of the ecclesial body (Pr. Prof. Dr. Dumitru Stăniloae, Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă, vol. 2, p.

284). See also the very clear terminological explanation of catholic, orthodox, ecumenical in Ioan I. Ică jr, Canonul Ortodoxiei, I. Canonul apostolic al primelor secole(The Apostolic Canon, I. The Apostolic Canon of the first centuries) , Deisis/Stavropoleos, 2008, 6, where the author proposes writing the term in Romanian with

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th ( catholic) to avoid confusion in Romanian with the term Romano-Catolic.

[91] Pr. Prof. D. Stăniloae, Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă, vol. 2, București, 1978, 284.

[92] Idem, “Unitate şi diversitate în Tradiţia Ortodoxă”, (Unity and Diversity in Orthodox Tradition), 333.

[93] Maybe the most relevant is the conversion to Orthodoxy of Jaroslav Pelikan (1923-2006), at the age of 75! (http://jaroslavpelikan.blogspot.com/ - George, Timothy (Summer 2006). “Delighted by doctrine”.

Christian History & Biography (Christianity Today International) (91): 43–45, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Jaroslav_Pelikan.

[94] Pr. Prof. Univ. Dr. Petru Rezuş, Teologia ortodoxă contemporană, (Contemporary Orthodox Theology), Editura Mitropoliei Banatului, 1989, 423.

[95] See: Pr. Prof. Dr. Ion Bria, “Biserica-Una Sancta. De la convergenţele teologice ecumenice spre “comunitate conciliară”, (The Una Sancta Church. From Theological Ecumenical Convergences towards “Conciliary Community”), Revista Teologică (Sibiu), nr. 3, 1997.

[96] Pr. Prof. D. Stăniloae, Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă, (The Dogmatic Orthodox Theology) vol. 1, București, 1978, 61; Teologia Dogmatică Ortodoxă, (The Dogmatic Orthodox Theology) vol. 2, București, 1978, 206; and Pr.Nicolae Moșoiu, „The Form of the Church – Father Dumitru Staniloae’s Mystical Vision on Ecclesiology , în vol. Ecclesiology, Baptism, Eucharisty A Selection of Papers Presented in a World Council of Churches Pilot Project for Orthodox Theological Schools, Edited by Daniel Buda, Virgo eBooks Publishing, August 2014,75-99.

Biography Nicolae Moșoiu is an Orthodox priest and associate professor of Dogmatic Theology at the „Saint Andrei Șaguna” Faculty of Orthodox Theology, University „Lucian Blaga” of Sibiu, Romania. He studied Theology in Cluj-Napoca, Sibiu, and Oxford and, for short periods of time, he undertook research in Paris, Cambridge, Geneva, Oslo and Göttingen. In 2017 received his Habilitation in Theology, at the University of Bucharest.

He published numerous articles (mainly in Romanian but also in English) and several books: Taina prezenţei lui Dumnezeu în viaţa umană. Viziunea creatoare a Părintelui Profesor Dumitru Stăniloae (The Mystery of God’s Presence in Human Life. Dumitru Stăniloae’s

creative vision), Paralela 45 Publishing House, 2002, 323 p.; Cunoaştere, participare, iubire (Epistemology, Participation, Love), “Lucian Blaga” Univesity Publishing House, Sibiu, 2006, 215p.; Hermeneutica ortodoxă ca dezvoltare teologică în Tradiţie (Orthodox Hermeneutics as Theological Development within Tradition), Astra Museum Publishing House, Sibiu, 2013,586p; Orthodox faith witnessed in today’s world – doctrinal themes in the context of postmodernism and globalization, Ed. Astra Museum, Sibiu, 2015, 421p; Darul filiaţiei adoptive baptismale - πνευ̃μα υίοθεσία, spiritum adoptionis filiorum (Rm8,15) (The Gift of Baptismal Adoptive Sonship - πνευ̃μα υίοθεσία, spiritum adoptionis filiorum (Rm8:15), Astra Museum Publishing House, Sibiu, 2016, 324p.

He is the editor of Elemente de istorie, doctrină şi practică misionară- o perspectivă ecumenică (Elements of History, Doctrine, and Missionary Practice – an Ecumenical Perspective), “Lucian Blaga” Univesity Publishing House, Sibiu, 2006, 621p.; Relevanţa operei parintelui profesor Ion Bria pentru viaţa bisericească şi socială actuală. Directii noi de cercetare in domeniul doctrinei, misiunii şi unităţii Bisericii (Contemporary Relevance of Revd Professor Ion Bria’s Work for Church and Social Life. New Directions of Research in Doctrine, Mission and Church Unity), “Lucian Blaga” Univesity Publishing House, Sibiu, 2010, 682p.; Biserica Ortodoxă în dialogul ecumenic. Documente oficiale, (The Orthodox Church in Ecumenical Dialogue.

Official Documents), vol.I (1902-1986, 544p.), vol.

II (1987-2006, 515p.) Cluj University Press, 2014 (coedited with Professor Stefan Tobler); Darul unității Bisericii și a lumii – implicații teologico-dogmatice și culturale. Al VI-lea Colocviu Național de Teologie Dogmatică Ortodoxă, Sibiu, 13-14 mai 2014, Editura Astra Museum, Sibiu, 2015, and Mărturisire și dăruire, celui între dacăli, părintelui nostru Iona Ică.sr., Editura Andreiana, Editura Astra Museum, Sibiu, 2017 (924 p.)

(Co-edited with Pr. Lect Vasile Birzu and Pr. Lect.dr.

Stelian Manolache) Revd Nicolae Moșoiu attended over 100 conferences and ecumenical meetings. As a representative of the Romanian Orthodox Church at the World Council of Churches, he was a member of: the Central Committee; the Commission on World Mission and Evangelism and, from 2015, the Commission on Faith and Order.

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This paper was presented in the

Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, (DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW)

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held online, on the Journal’s website, from MAY 19 - 26, 2019

journal homepage: http://dialogo-conf.com

The topicality and the necessity of the inter-religious dialogue in a world full of conflict and violence The role of the person in the mediation of conflict and violence Assoc.prof Stelian Manolache, PhD Faculty of Orthodox Theology Ovidius University of Constanța, Romania

article info Article history: Received 08 April 2019 Received in revised form 21 June 2019 Accepted 25 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.3

Keywords: post-modernity; person; Christian ontology; inter-religious dialogue;

abstract

Organized under the aegis of Dialogo, the international symposium Inter-religious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, occasions discussions and presentations related to the ambivalent dialogue feature of the religions, which is, on the one hand, the aggressiveness/violence and, on the other hand, the moral/spiritual values [1]. Difficult questions were related to the mechanisms that trigger the aggressiveness and the violence of religions and to the possibility of the institutionalized religions to bring to date their ontological and social vocation of absorbing the violence. These are also the main themes we are addressing in our paper, starting from 1. The topicality and the necessity of the inter-religious dialogue; 2. A possible answer to the problem of the origins of conflict and violence and their diagnosis, from a Christian ontological perspective; 3. The role of the Person, as the image and likeness to God (Genesis 1:2627), in the mediation of conflicts and violence worldwide. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

The topicality, the necessity and the nature of the dialogue in a world full of conflict and violence I.

In a new multi-religious world and a postmodern culture[1], the worldwide community became more restricted and divided. This mutation led to the disorder, the decay of the social cohesion, the fragmentation of cultures, the

explosion of social and religious inequity, poverty and unemployment, many times bursting in violence and terrorism. In the geopolitical context of chaos[2], the interreligious and Christian inter-confessional represents not only an internal, didactic and pastoral necessity, but also a catechetic and missionary obligation of the entire Orthodox Church[3]. The Orthodox Church addresses its message to the believers, who

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were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body(1 Corinthians 12:13), and also to those called and searching for God in many places(Hebrews 1:1).

The Church urges its members to watch themselves (Galatians 6:1), showing the danger of losing the grace and salvation (Galatians 5:4). For those searching for God outside the Church, the Church tells them to progress by discovering the Natural Revelation and the Holy Spirit, “who is present in all of us…, who is not absent in any being, especially in any man. He supports each existence…We can find out that many Barbarians and Nomads are doing the good deeds and rejecting the wild laws that once were their master”[4]. The Church urges the non-believers to find the Truth (John 16:3) and to fight the idols that cast a shadow on God’s presence in the world, inside and outside the man (1Corinthians 8:4). Because the noun dialogue is not in the Gospel, some believe that the Judeo-Christian dialogue lacks a biblical authority[5]. Still, the connection of God with His chosen people, especially the real relations and obligations implied in His commitment to Noah and Abraham, the writings of the prophets and part of the Psalms in the New Testament, and also the dialogue between the Saviour and Nicodemus, the Samaritan woman and other people, are all forms of dialogue and not a monologue[6].

The manner, in which the Truth is revealed, understood and shared through and in Jesus Christ show that the constructive dialogue of the real faith must be found through love, in a peaceful spirit, inside the personal relationship with God and with other people, including those belonging to non-Christian religions. Under these conditions, the new way of life proclaimed

by Jesus Christ to the world starts from the dialogue Person-Person. The interpersonal dialogue, including that related to the doctrine, is a problem of sincerity, listening

(John 5:24-26) and understanding other’s faith, and, in the same time, a confession of the Gospel. This doctrine dialogue is mirrored not only in love but also in reciprocal ministry[7]. The possibility offered us by Jesus Christ[8] represents a search and a common effort of two people of different religion, respecting the religious option of the other and giving a chance to the progress in the direction of finding the Truth[9]. The faith of the Christian in Jesus Christ, the Son of God – incarnated in the name of all people, as the true light that gives light to everyone was coming into the world (John 1:9), the Word as flesh, full of grace and truth(John 1:14), in whom God was reconciling the world to himself, (2Corinthians 5:19) – must stimulate us to search common spiritual resources to restore the real community in and through Jesus Christ as Love[10].

He requires a permanent dialogue in communion, where the other, belonging to other faith, agrees to listen and where we are willing to listen, too, as people listened to Christ and He also listened to those in pain, for he himself is our peace, who has made the two groups one and has destroyed the barrier, the dividing wall of hostility (Ephesians 2:14). This experience of communicating with God and with another from another religion starts from a spiritual state of love and sacrifice that drives us to a sincere dialogue, in communion with people from other religions[11]. This is the only way of living for a Christian, confessing the Incarnation of Jesus Christ in the world for our salvation. The dialogue will be efficient only when it will help the rediscovery of the authentic religious sense, helping those in dialogue to lose the sensation of being lost and isolated religiously, while fed by false self-confidence and self-fulfillment[12].

Through the permanent dialogue of love, Me-You-Him will be helped to rediscover the religious sense in the postmodern world contaminated by the anti-religious forces of aggression, conflict, and violence. The chance

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to resist efficiently to the nihilist collapse of the last man is to explain and articulate reciprocally the implicit divine-human, transcendent-immanent and individualcommunity ontology implied by the ideal model of the faith and by the confession of the Christian Church[13].

On the other hand, if the Christians discuss a dialogue of faith and mission, based on the Love of all people, they must also admit that they, as the people of different religions, have their own beliefs and missions; the reciprocal confession of the teachings cannot be avoided. To present exactly the relation between Christianity and other religions, the Romanian Orthodox theologians approached the dialogic interreligious relation from the perspective of the divine economy, manifested in the two actions of the divine Will: a general action, including the entire humanity, and a unique action, for welcoming Jesus Christ. The desire of God for salvation acts clearly on all the people (I Timothy 2:4), by the calling Grace, offering to all the possibility to be saved[14]. We must underline that the action of God’s Will in the world, although continuous through the general and special act of the Grace[15], is discontinuous in intensity[16]. The Christian religion, although new about other religions, is fundamentally different in the manner in which it approaches the connection between nature and Grace[17], starting from the divine love. The Orthodox theologians observe that, as a result of the fall of the protoparents after the original sin, human nature did not degrade in totality and the Image of God in man was not destroyed. The fallen man is longing for God and is searching for God[18]. The non-Christian religions represent for the Orthodoxy the desire of humanity for salvation, during the search for God. There is a relation of convergence and synthesis between human nature aspiring to be saved and the Divine Grace[19].

The relation between the Christian faith

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and the non-Christian religions is conditioned by the degree of participation to the action of the Grace in the divine economy in the context of salvation[20]. In this context, we highlight the fact that we do not need that much a revision of the theological understanding of the dialogue relates to the dimension of the mission in the context of religious pluralism[21], but we need the courage to develop this dialogue with sincerity and love for other people, discovering for them the nearness or the distance to the Christian value[22]. We need a specific way of living – tropos and a mentality of relational opening. We do not need that much a legislation of the dialogue, but we do need an out-of-the-ghetto culture of dialogue, in a communion of the calling[23].

In a multi-religious and multicultural society, the dialogue – inside faith communities and between different communities – does not ignore the controversies but does not highlight them either. The dialogue is accepted as a way of normal dialogic relation between people of different beliefs, with their integrity, diversity in the unity of the Creation. The Christian confession[24] should not represent a danger for the dialogue; it has its personal reasons in explaining and preaching the faith that was given forever to the Saints, to all the faithful people and also to those preparing to embrace the faith. The Encyclical of the Holy and Great Council of the Orthodox Church from 2016 states: “the Church translates the divine economy into concrete actions using all means at her disposal to give a trustworthy witness to the truth, in the precision of the apostolic faith. In this spirit of recognition of the need for witness and offering, the Orthodox Church has always attached great importance to dialogue, and especially to that with non-Orthodox Christians. Through this dialogue, the rest of the Christian world is now more familiar with Orthodoxy and the authenticity of its tradition. It also knows that the Orthodox Church has never accepted theological minimalism or permitted its

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dogmatic tradition and evangelical ethos to be called into question. Inter-Christian dialogues have provided Orthodoxy with the opportunity to display her respect for the teaching of the Fathers and to bear a trustworthy witness to the true tradition of the one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church.

The multilateral dialogues undertaken by the Orthodox Church have never signified, and do not signify, nor will they ever signify, any compromise in matters of faith. These dialogues are a witness to Orthodoxy, grounded on the Gospel message “come and see” (John 1:46), see, namely, that “God is love” (1 John 4:8)”[25].

II. Origins, delimitations, and diagnosis

on the concept of aggression /violence from an Orthodox perspective

The biblical verses of Genesis 1:26-27 remind us that the man created in the image of God is called to the dialogue divinity-ManCosmos. The man is called in this dialogue to the likeness to God, starting from a common work on the Good, the Beauty and the Truth, beginning from the freedom of the man for working on his given ontological image, by enhancing the achievement of the triad of feeling, will and reason, which makes him the image of the Image of God in the History.

The disobedience of the proto-parents hides something more profound – the inclination of the first man to eternalize his own fall, to use his option of autonomous choice not in order to make his theonomous being eternal, starting the Tree of Life from the start, but in order to be able to justify all the studies of corruption in his being. The eternity was not forbidden by God to Adam; Adam inclined to become eternal individually, not in communion that was forbidden[26].

Adam did not start from the orientation to a sacred center and a perfect organization in the Spirit of peace and divine kindness; he started from an orientation that leads to a

dialectic conflict, from antinomies that lead to aggression culminating in violence and death. This antinomical dialectic[27], operating with or-or[28], is characterized many times by disorder and the ruin of the Image of God in the man.

The techonomic dialogue of the communion, operating with and-and, from the Garden of Eden, unlike the autonomous/ selfish monologue of Adam, starts from the biblical Truth that God is a permanent intrapersonal communion between three divine Persons, a supreme structure of love[29]. Inside this structure of love, each Person is unique and particular, and there is a complete unity of dialogue with the other two Persons and with the world of the creation[30]. Starting from the original experience of being thrown in an unknown world, an apparently unlimited and threatening environment, our proto-parents will create, as compensation, various new ways of religious and political orientation, because they were not able to survive in vertigo provoked by the disorientation of the disobedience to the Centre of the sacrality. It is not an accident that they started to create new types of orientation starting from two ontological given: 1. The vertical position inherited from the Garden of Eden; 2. The experience of the oriented space organized through the labor and painful toil of the hands(Genesis 5:29) and developed around a Centre, in four directions that are to be found in all the cultures and civilizations of the world[31].

The new ways of orientation – versus the Divinity from the Garden of Eden – will make the Creation to deny the man as its leader. These types of orientation will be dominated by the particular opinions of the autonomous individual and will be experienced in a Utopia given by excesses and debauchery, endless violence, where some people lack the bread and others the freedom[32]. This new type of dominant,

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aggressive behavior will be determined by various situations in which the fallen man tries to survive in a world that is subject to the terror of history. The contradiction between the ideal of the lost Self and the real Self will generate frustration, growing the deep roots of aggression and violence, which are to be identified on one hand in the difficulty to conjugate the religious Truth with the Religious Freedom of the person, and, on the other hand, in the difficulty to initiate different dynamics for the recovery of the diversity in the unity of the lost identity, by accepting it as a possible value for dialogue and peace. Unfortunately, this religious Truth came to the point of possessing an idolatrous dimension by the acceptance of the expression, in the historical Absoluteness, of the Revelation of God in one’s own belief, and by the acceptance of one’s own unique civilisation and culture, visions that were later extended to the universal dimensions of the absolutist and fundamentalist violence of the world[33].

III. The person, image and likeness to God, a new connection point in the interreligious dialogue in a world full of conflict and violence

We observe that the reason for Adam’s interdiction to return to Paradise is meant to confirm/satisfy Adam’s immaturity of choice, his ontological sloth. The goal was to engage Adam in a divine-human work of gaining the Kingdom of God when longing for God and the divine Love[34]. Discussing the restoration of the dialogue between man and Divinity, we discuss in fact the restoration of the “manin statu naturae lapse,” because the origin sin is the fundamental given, the starting point for all spiritual-religious anthropology. The orientation must lead to the regaining of the possibility to be opened to You in a total relation, starting from the dialogue of Us. This orientation is a gift/given

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from God, offered to all the people able to be illuminated, purified, and transfigured, winning over the lack of attention, cleansing, completing, and purifying the soul. Thus, the soul becomes able to confess the faith[35] in and through Jesus Christ, the Way, the Truth and the Life (John 14:8).

The message brought by Our Saviour Jesus Christ to a world full of conflict and violence is a message of restoration and calling to a new life in the Spirit of peace. He is the messenger of a revolution of the spirit, when, for the first time in history, life has priority over death and peace over aggression and conflict. For the first time in the history, the binomial formed by the autonomous organisational political power of the fallen man and the religious false truth of the world is criticised and demystified, from a perspective of freedom in and through the Person of Jesus Christ, proclaiming not the division, but the unity, through a dialogue of listening, for a theosis of the man. This dialogue is a permanent union with the existence without a beginning or an end. It is achieved under the form of a Me-You-Him dialogue in a united Church of the sacramental body of Christ. In this context, the Church embodying the unity of the Creation through the communion of the peace dialogue, will overcome any biological, economic, political and social differences and will free from aggression and violence the History of the human destiny.

Unlike the vision from Athens, which gave the concept of the individual, and that from the ancient Rome, who gave the idea of citizen, Jesus Christ brings, through Jerusalem, the new dimension of the concept of Person[36]. The believers will live in a continuous connection between the divine alterity and the unity of the Creation.

The person will live with the other and through the other for the other, by offering love and listening. In these conditions, the

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human being is more than an autonomous individual, characterized by division and distance. The person is a being in connection with other beings created in His image and likeness, in a dialogical existence.

Through the theology of the Person, the Christology founded by the Holy Father of Cappadocia aims to offer to the man the state of peacefulness instead of aggression. The unilateral life conceptions of the individual are possible to be overcome by the new paradigm of the Person, where all the parts of the ensemble co-operate to establish a connection between the inner and the outer world of the man.

Conclusion The main conclusion of our work is that, in the new context of religious dialogue, we need a unique manner to relate to the human being and to History, through a new theological experience centered on the real problems of the world, starting from the meaning of the existence. We do not need that much ethics, a program, and legislation, which are in general good, for solving the conflicts and the violence.

We strongly need an ethos characterised by a culture based on a dialogue of Love[37], starting from the beneficial explanation of the divine-human ontology, mirrored in the ideal image of the Christian Church during the first centuries. Therefore, the Church must refuse, in the context of an aggressive/ violent postmodernity, to lower itself to the level of a simple folkloric survival of the past. The Church must militate for a permanent conciliation, the aim of fraternity and a universal way of living, through: 1. The assimilation and the overcome from the inside of the global postmodernity; 2. The creation and the theological assumption of a new human spiritual way of living, highlighting the Orthodoxy as the real nature of the man[38].

Bibliography 1. Holy Bible, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 2002 2. Achimescu, Pr. prof. dr. Nicolae, Religii în dialog, EdituraTrinitas, Iaşi, 2006 3. Bobrinskoy, Pr. prof. univ. dr. Boris, Le royaume des cieux se prend par violence, în volumul simpozionului internaţional Violenţa ’’în numele lui Dumnezeu’’. Un răspuns creştin, Ed. Reîntregirea, Alba Iulia, 2002 4. Bria, Pr. prof. Ion, Credinţa pe care o mărturisim, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 1987 5. Eliade, Mircea, Istoria credinţelor şi ideilor religioase. De la epoca de piatră la misterele din Eleusis, trad. de Cezar Baltag, Editura Ştiinţifică şi enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1981, vol 1 6. Florovsky, Georges, Creştinism şi Cultură, Ed. Nordland, Belmount, 1974 7. Fotiou, Pr. Stavros, Biserica în lumea modernă/ L’eglise dans le monde moderne, Ed.CERF, Paris, 2008, 8. Ică jr., Diac. Ioan I. şi Germano Marani., Gândirea Socială a Bisericii. Fundamente, documente, analize, perspective, Ed. Deisis, Sibiu, 2002 9. Manolache, Stelian, Dualismul gnostic şi maniheic din perspectivă teologică, Editura Universităţii Transilvania, Braşov, 1999 10. Nouss, Alexis, Modernitatea, colecţia Deschideri, seria Universitas, Ed.Paralela 45, Braşov, 2000, 11. Revista Interval nr. 3/1990, 12. Rotaru, Ioan-Gheorghe, Religious Freedom and the Spirit in Which it Should Be Defended, Liberty Today – Trends & Attitudes, Bern, Switzerland, nr.1, 2014 – nr.2, 2015.

13. Rotaru, Ioan-Gheorghe, Aspecte ale secularizării şi ale omului secularizat,Studia Universitatis BabeşBolyai, Theologia Orthodoxa, (2006), L-LI, nr.1, Cluj University Press, Cluj-Napoca.

14. Schwager, Raymund Banished from Eden: Original sin and Evolutionary theory in the drama of Salvation, Ed. Gracewing, 2006; 15. Sf. Maxim Mărturisitorul, Răspunsuri către Talasie, 15, FR, 3, 16. 14. Stăniloaie, Pr. acad. dr. Dumitru, Sfânta Treime.

Structura supremei iubiri, în rev. Studii Teologice, 1970, nr.5-6, 17. Tia, Pr. lect. dr. univ. Teofil Absorbţia violenţei: responsabilitate esenţială a eticii religioase, în volumul

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simpozionului internaţional Violenţa ’’în numele lui Dumnezeu’’. Un răspuns creştin, Ed. Reîntregirea, Alba Iulia, 2002 18. Vasilescu, Diacon Prof. Emilian, Istoria Religiilor, Manual pentru Institutele teologice ale Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 1978, 19. ***,Îndatorirea religiilor de a colabora între ele pentru binele şi propăşirea omenirii rev. Ortodoxia, Nr. 3, 1964; 20. ***, Cadrul şi perspectivele dialogului interreligios, în rev. Ortodoxia, nr. 1, 1971 21. Webbster F.C., Antinomical Tipologies for an Orthodox Christian Social Ethnic for the World, Greek Orthodox Review 29, 1983 22. Ziziaoulis, Ioannis, Creaţia ca euharistie, Ed. Bizantină, Bucureşti, 1999

Endnotes [1]

[2]

Raymund Schwager, Banished from Eden: Original sin and Evolutionary theoriy in the drama of Salvation, Herefordshire/Anglia, Ed. Gracewing, 2006; Diacon Prof. Emilian Vasilescu, Istoria Religiilor, Manual pentru Institutele teologice ale Bisericii Ortodoxe Române (The History of Religions, Manual for the Theological Institutes of the Romanian Orthodox Church), Bucureşti, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, 1978; *** Îndatorirea religiilor de a colabora între ele pentru binele şi propăşirea omenirii (Dedicating religions to work together for the good and prosperity of mankind ), rev. Ortodoxia, Nr. 3, 1964; ***, Cadrul şi perspectivele dialogului interreligios (Framework and perspectives of interreligious dialogue), in “Ortodoxia”, nr.

1, 1971;Pr. lect. dr. univ. Teofil Tia, Absorbţia violenţei: responsabilitate esenţială a eticii religioase (Absorption of Violence: The Essential Responsibility of Religious Ethics), in Violenţa ’’în numele lui Dumnezeu’’. Un răspuns creştin, Alba Iulia, Ed. Reîntregirea, 2002.

Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, “Aspecte ale secularizării şi ale omului secularizat” ( Aspects of the secularisation and of the seculeraised man),Studia Universitatis

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[3]

[4]

Babeş-Bolyai, Theologia Orthodoxa, (2006), L-LI, nr.1, Cluj University Press, ClujNapoca, pp. 251-266.

Diac. Ioan I. Ică jr, Germano Marani, Gândirea Socială a Bisericii. Fundamente, documente, analize, perspective (Social Thinking of the Church. Fundamentals, documents, analyzes, perspectives) Sibiu, Ed. Deisis, 2002, p. 482.

Tudor Cosmin Ciocan, ”A new version of religion, the megalopolitan one. How the overcrowding society interact with traditional local religion. Secularization, the new messiah,” in DIALOGO (DIALOGOCONF 2018 ORI), vol. 4, issue 2: Overpopulation and Religion’s Involvement, DOI: 10.18638/dialogo.2018.4.2.11, ISBN: 978-80-554-1408-9 ISSN: 2393-1744, pp.

95-104, 2018;

Sf. Maxim Mărturisitorul, Răspunsuri către Talasie 8 (Answers to Talasie), 15, FR, 3, p. 48; Pr. prof. dr. Nicolae Achimescu, Religii în dialog (Religions in dialogue), Iaşi, EdituraTrinitas, 2006 p. 73.

[6] Pr. prof. dr. Nicolae Achimescu, Religii în dialog (Religions in dialogue), p. 14.

[7] Ibidem, p. 14.

[8] Ibidem, p.89.

[9] Ibidem, p.14.

[10] Ibidem, p.18.

[11] Ibidem, p.19.

[12] Pr. prof. dr. Nicolae Achimescu, Religii în dialog (Religions in dialogue), p.20.

[13] Ibidem, pp.20-21.

[14] Diac. IoanI.Ică jr, Gândirea socială a Bisericii (Social thinking of the Church), p. 700.

[15] Pr. prof. dr. Nicolae Achimescu, Religii în dialog (Religions in dialogue), p.77.

[16] Ibidem, p. 78.

[17] Ibidem, p. 78.

[18] Pr. prof. dr. Nicolae Achimescu, Religii în dialog (Religions in dialogue), p. 78.

[19] Ibidem, p. 78.

[20] Ibidem, p. 79.

[21] Ibidem, p. 80.

[22] Ibidem, p. 25.

[23] Ibidem, p. 80.

[5]

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Ibidem, p. 74; Georges Florovsky, Creştinism şi Cultură (Christianity and culture), Belmount, Ed. Nordland, 1974.

[25] Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, “Religious Freedom and the Spirit in Which it Should Be Defended”, Liberty Today – Trends & Attitudes, Bern, Switzerland, nr.1, 2014 – nr.2, 2015, pp.61-63.

[26] Pr. prof. dr. Nicoale Achimescu, Religii în dialog (Religions in dialogue), p. 14.

[27] Revista Interval (Interval Magazine) nr.

3/1990, p. 20.

[28] Webbster F.C., Antinomical Tipologies for an Orthodox Christian Social Ethnic for the World, Greek Orthodox Review 29, 1983 [29] Stelian Manolache, Dualismul gnostic şi maniheic din perspectivă teologică (Gnostic and Manichean Dualism from a theological perspective), Braşov, Editura Universităţii Transilvania, 1999.

[30] Pr. acad. dr. Dumitru Stăniloaie, Sfânta Treime. Structura supremei iubri (The Holy Trinity. The structure of supreme love), în rev.

Studii Teologice, 1970, nr.5-6, pp. 333-355.

[31] Pr. Stavros Fotiou, Biserica în lumea modernă/L’eglise dans le monde moderne (The Church in the modern world), Paris, Ed.CERF, 2008, p. 55.

[32] Mircea Eliade, Istoria credinţelor şi ideilor religioase. De la epoca de piatră la misterele din Eleusis (The History of Religious Beliefs and Ideas. From the Stone Age to the Mysteries of Eleusis), trad. de Cezar Baltag, Bucureşti, Editura Ştiinţifică şi enciclopedică, 1981, vol 1, p. 8 [33] Alexis Nouss, Modernitatea (Modernity), colecţia Deschideri, seria Universitas, Braşov, Ed. Paralela 45, 2000, p.33.

[34] Pr. lect. dr. univ. Teofil Tia, Absorbţia violenţei: responsabilitate esenţială a eticii religioase, in Violenţa„în numele lui Dumnezeu”. Un răspuns creştin, (Absorption of Violence: The Essential Responsibility of Religious Ethics), p. 322.

[35] Pr. prof. univ. dr. Boris Bobrinskoy, Le royaume des cieux se prend par violence, [24]

in Violenţa„în numele lui Dumnezeu”. Un răspuns creştin, Alba Iulia, Ed. Reîntregirea, 2002, p. 18.

[36] Pr. prof. Ion Bria, Credinţa pe care o mărturisim (The Faith We Believe), Bucureşti, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, Bucureşti, 1987.

[37] Ioannis Ziziaoulis, Creaţia ca euharistie (Creation as Eucharist),Bucureşti, Ed. Bizantină, Bucureşti, 1999, p.24.

[38] Pr. Georges Florovsky, Creştinism şi Cultură (Christianity and Culture).

[39] Diac. Ioan I.Ică jr, Gândirea Socială a Bisericii. (Social thinking of the Church), p.493.

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Molecular Sociology: Micro-Environmental Approaching of Evil Ahed J Alkhatib, PhD

Department of Legal Medicine, Toxicology of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Science and Technology Jordan article info Article history: Received 01 June 2019 Received in revised form 10 June 2019 Accepted 15 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.4

Keywords: evil; devil; philosophy; microbes; micro-environment;

Oleg Ju. Latyshev, PhD

International Mariinskaya Academy, M.D. Shapovalenko, , Moscow Russia

abstract

This study continues our previous studies addressing molecular sociology. The idea of evil has been argued from philosophical and religious dimensions. Evil may refer to moral concepts and ethics in philosophy, and it is opposite to good. In religions, the idea of a devil is thought to be the driving motives for evil. In this study, we introduce a new concept of evil and devil based on our previous studies and that of others, taking into consideration that we may have conflicts with philosophical and religious explanations of evil. Evil has been described as supernatural forces deviating the behaviors. We think that evil may be perceived as cognition abnormality, which, in turn, is affected by micro-environmental factors. Environment and gene create a behavior. Our microenvironment has various elements made of microbes, heavy metals from the external environment, and absent certain essential chemicals that interfere with the nervous system, including vitamins such as Vitamin D, and Vitamin B12.

Several studies, including ours, have demonstrated that deficiency of testosterone was one of the predisposing factors leading to severe depression and addiction. Other studies showed an association between Vitamin D deficiency and depression and suicidal ideas.

We demonstrated that mothers exposed to lead (pb+2) during pregnancy gave mentally retarded babies. These cases were diagnosed as mentally retarded by inheritance.

We also demonstrated that prisoners had higher levels of lead (pb+2) compared with the control group. Those exposed to heavy metals are more irritable and have a low threshold to violence. Microbes have new roles rather than being infectious agents and interfere with behaviors, including Toxoplasma gondii. We found that the interactions of microbes with the host are more important than we thought before. Microbes may be involved in obesity and diabetes, which has behavioral impacts.

From the previous context, evil and devil can be perceived from a new approach which may change our perception for the motives of evil and devil may also be perceived as chemicals and microbes circulating in our blood and shape the way by which we look Š 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

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I. Introduction

We have started the idea of establishing a new branch of sociology; I called it “Molecular Sociology”. Two articles have been published so far. In the first article, we gave a working definition of what is meant by molecular sociology as it is used to describe how behaviors of humans and /or animals can be explained. We showed the biological basis to explain behaviors.

As an example, some chronic diseases may lead to stress and cognitive disturbances.

Diabetes is an example through which we demonstrated some functional alteration in white matter due to excessive expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in white matter of brain. These changes led me to explain diabetic neuropathy and diabetic behaviors such as nervousness and stressful. We also investigated the impacts of environment on behaviors such as the exposure to heavy metals including lead (Pb+2) through studying a group of prisoners compared with a control group.

Prisoners were shown to have significantly less blood counts compared with control group (p<0.05). This is plausible to explain the intolerance and impatience which are associated with aggressiveness and violent behaviors. If these findings are combined with lead (Pb+2) of the same prisoners, we can explain the tendency to develop crimes. We also reported the association between the exposure to lead (Pb+2) and mental retardation. In another report, we showed that there is a strong association between depression and addiction.

Furthermore, addictive patients exhibited low levels of vitamin D. We also reported that the infection with Toxoplasma gondii is associated with crimes [1-4].

The second study expanded the horizon of the previous works. We added a new dimension related to microbial impacts on religiosity, in which microbes manipulate brains to create better conditions for their

existence. This is referred to “biomeme hypothesis” [5].

II. Philosophical perspectives of evil

Various forms of evil are encountered including violation of moral actions, unnecessarily suffers of body and soul, violation of law and personal relations, engagement in evil actions, the exposure to violence, and others. Because of having numerous experiences of evil, it is difficult to approach evil in one frame [6].

Evil can be understood using different concepts, among which a broad concept and narrow concept are more popular.

The broad concept implies the existence of bad state affairs, wrong actions, etc.

Examples of broad concepts of evil are widely experienced such as toothache pains and white lie is another example. Evil can be divided into two categories as natural and moral evil. Natural evils include bad states of affairs in which no intentions are beyond the events, as well as no negligence of moral issues, are involved. Examples of these natural evils are varied such as storms and toothaches. On the other hand, moral evils involve either the intentions or negligence of moral agents such as murder and lying [7].

III. Our philosophical approaching of

evil

The evil in its broad level includes natural and moral aspects of evil. The discussion of both types of evil was accounted from theology and philosophy points of view.

In this context, we would like to say that natural evil can be understood from physical, chemical and biological aspects in nature. It is not a desire of God to expose people to natural evil. With the advances made by science, nature has become more understandable and controllable. From the

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medical points of view, I would give some examples to illustrate this perspective.

There are several diseases that participated in killing millions of people in history such as smallpox and rinderpest. With the advances made by medicine through vaccination, these diseases have become forgotten or limited nowadays [8-10]. Nature can be predictable through understanding its physical forces. Earthquake is an example [11-13]. Natural evil can be avoidable as we understand more. Moral evil is more important in this discussion because it is created by us against ourselves. It may be involved in our metabolic system, genes, and biochemistry through two initiatives, the enjoyment and the desire to live permanently (eternity). These initiatives make the animal part of our internal structure (animalism) to predominate over the humanitarian part [14].

From the previous context, we would like to express our views on how some microbes impact our internal structure and reformulate the chemistry of our brain to be ready for criminal behaviors. In this regard, we studied one thousand prisoners in Jordan who committed crimes. We postulated that the pathogen Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) affects the brain chemistry and overtime the infected persons are more likely to exhibit some deviations and evil episodes.

We studied road traffic accidents in light of the fact that they make important problems internationally and locally and lead to economic and social impacts. We aimed from this study to evaluate the frequency of T. gondii IgG levels in the drivers involved in road traffic accidents and to examine the possible association between latent toxoplasmosis and the involvement of road traffic accidents. Study findings showed that prevalence of T. gondii IgG was 15.4% in study group and 12% in control group. The association of seroprevalence of T. gondii IgG between study and control groups was

Session 1. Religions in dialogue

lacked (p = 0.828). On the other hand, there was a significant association between level of IgM and IgG in both study and control groups (p = 0.009). As a conclusion, The results of this study did not show a significant relationship between the seroprevalence of T. gondii IgG and the involvement of road traffic accidents whereas the level of T. gondii IgM was varied significantly between study and control group (p = 0.009) [15].

We conducted another study about toxoplasmosis in the light of the fact that latent toxoplasmosis was reported to be in an association with some neurological conditions such as encephalitis, behavioral disturbances leading to physical violent actions that may reach extremities such as committing suicide. The main objectives were to identify the frequency of seropositivity of IgG and IgM of T. gondii in prisoners with physical violence and to correlate, if possible, toxoplasmosis with study variables. The results of the study revealed significant relationships between the level of T. gondii between study and control groups (p=0.003). No significant associations were observed between either T. gondii IgG with other study variables [16].

We also studied the social impacts of infectious diseases on personality. Latent toxoplasmosis is considered an excellent example linking personality disorders with infectious diseases. We aimed to identify the frequency of seropositivity of IgG and IgM of T. gondii among inmates who did murder actions and to evaluate the possible association between toxoplasmosis and demographic variables. Study findings revealed that the frequency of T. gondii was about 21% . A significant association in the level T. gondii IgG between study and control groups was observed (p = 0.010). Taken together, study findings showed a social impact of infection by latent toxoplasmosis on violent behaviors [17].

Several researchers have addressed

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the idea of having impacts of microbes on religiosity. It implies the action of some microbes on the human brain that may induce some religious rituals to facilitate their existence [18]. This mechanism is referred to as “biomeme hypothesis”, and it proposes that microbes are not likely to induce religiosity but rather predispose individuals into particular religious rituals [5].

Several studies have pointed to the presence of a “microbiome-brain axis” which can give some clues for a possible role of microbes in a human religious behavior [19-20]. An illustrating example is the germ-free mice which exhibit less anxiety and fear, two factors that potentially might be important driving forces of human religiosity [21].

I have recently found two important aspects in relation with the impacts of microbes with host cells. In the first study, we found that there are similar functions common between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, although their structures are different. We found that Candida albicans expresses estrogen receptor when exposed to estrogen and this explains pathogenicity of Candida albicans. The study objectives were to investigate the expression of estrogen receptor and BCL2 in Candida albicans. Study findings showed that both ER and BCL2 proteins were localized in C. albicans. By the conclusion, our results showed that microbes act and exchange with host cells similar proteins, and this effect is deeper than it was thought [22].

In the second study, we found that viruses talk with cellular element to determine the type of lymphoma [23].

towards enjoyment and feelings of eternity.

We think that human biology and microenvironment work together to influence the evil tendency through playing roles of microbes that impact cellular processes and religiosity. Our studies indicated to the possibility of treating evil in the future, but further studies are required.

References: [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

Conclusion: The present study put focus on approaching evil from philosophy, theology, and micro-environment. We showed through literature and our studies that evil can be explained from the human tendency

[8]

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Ahed J Alkhatib. Perspectives Towards Molecular Sociology: An Approximation of Molecular Biology and Sociology. British Biomedical Bulletin, 2015, 3 (2): 263-267.

Ahed Al-khatib. Co-expression of iNOS and HSP70 in diabetes type 1 makes a rational hypothesis to explain the diabetic neuropathy.

European Scientific Journal, 2013, 9 (3): 145156.

Ahmad Boran, Nabil Al-Bashir, Ahed AlKhatib, IlhamQattan, Saud Alanazi, Adna Massadeh. Investigating the relationship between mental retardation and lead intoxication. European Scientific Journal, 2013, 9 (6): 62-76.

Ahed Alkhatib, Haitham Mohammad Alta’any, Qasem Mohammad Abdelal. Lead exposure and possible association with violent crimes: a field study in two Jordanian prisons.

European Scientific Journal, 2014, 10 (3): 1-8.

Ahed J Alkhatib. Molecular Sociology: Further insights from biological and environmental aspects. Dialogo, 2015, 2 (1): 169 – 172.

Christoph Schwöbel. The many faces of evil: philosophical and theological conversations on the experience of evil. International Journal of Philosophy and Theology, 2017, 78 (4-5): 334347, DOI: 10.1080/21692327.2017.132683.

Calder, Todd. The Concept of Evil. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), https:// plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/ concept-evil.

Greenwood, B. The contribution of vaccination to global health: past, present and future. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2014, 369(1645), 20130433. http://doi.org/10.1098/

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rstb.2013.0433.

Scavone, C., Rafaniello, C., Brusco, S., Bertini, M., Menditto, E., Orlando, V., Capuano, A. Did the New Italian Law on Mandatory Vaccines Affect Adverse Event Following Immunization’s Reporting? A Pharmacovigilance Study in Southern Italy.

Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2018, 9, 1003. http://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.01003.

[10] Palleria C., Leporini C., Chimirri S., Marrazzo G., Sacchetta S., Bruno L., et al. Limitations and obstacles of the spontaneous adverse drugs reactions reporting: two “challenging” case reports. J. Pharmacol. Pharmacother., 2013, 4 S66–S72. 10.4103/0976-500X.120955.

[11] Moushtakim Billah, Mofizul Islam, Rubieyat Bin Ali. Earthquake Vs. Moonquake: A Review. WSN 100, 2018, 1-15.

[12] Z. Umar, B. Pradhan, A. Ahmad, M. N. Jebur and M. S. Tehrany, Earthquake induced landslide susceptibility mapping using an integrated ensemble frequency ratio and logistic regression models in West Sumatera Province, Indonesia. Catena, 2014, 118, 124– 135.

[13] J. Douglas and B. Edwards, Recent and future developments in earthquake ground motion estimation. Earth-Science Reviews, 2016, 160, 203-219.

[14] Blatti, Stephan. Animalism, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), https:// plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/ animalism.

[15] Ali Shotar, Sukaina A. Alzyoud, Ahed J. AlKhatib. Latent Toxoplasmosis and the Involvement in Road Traffic Accidents among a Sample of Jordanian Drivers. Research Journal of Medical Sciences, 2016, 10: 194198. DOI: 10.3923/rjmsci.2016.194.198.

[16] Ali Shotar, Sukaina A. Alzyoud, Ahed J. Al Khatib. The Impacts of Latent Toxoplasmosis on Physical Violent Actions among a Sample of Jordanian Inmates. Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 2015, 10: 72-77. DOI: 10.3923/rjbsci.2015.72.77.

[17] Ali Shotar, Sukaina A. Alzyoud, Ahed J. AlKhatib. Social Impacts of Infectious Diseases: Latent Toxoplasmosis and Crime.

[9]

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The Social Sciences, 2015, 10: 1677-1681.

DOI: 10.3923/sscience.2015.1677.1681.

[18] Panchin AY, Tuzhikov AI, Panchin YV. Midichlorians - the biomeme hypothesis: is there a microbial component to religious rituals? Biol Direct, 2014, 9(1:14.

[19] Cryan JF and O’Mahony SM. The microbiomegut-brain axis: from bowel to behavior. Neurogastroenterol Motil, 2011, 23(3): 187–192.

[20] Foster JA and McVey Neufeld KA. Gut-brain axis: how the microbiome influences anxiety and depression. Trends Neurosci, 2013, 36(5): 305– 312.

[21] Yee BK, Zhu SW, Mohammed AH, Feldon J (2007). Levels of neurotrophic factors in the hippocampus and amygdala correlate with anxietyand fear-related behaviour in C57BL6 mice. J Neural Transm, 2007, 114(4): 431– 444.

[22] Ahed J Alkhatib. The Expression of Estrogen Receptor and Bcl2 in Candida albicans May Represent Removal of Functional Barriers among Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells. EC Microbiology, 2017, SI.01: 20-23.

[23] Ahed J Alkhatib. Does Epstein - Barr Virus Cross Talks with Sex Hormone Receptors on Lymphoid Cells Differently to Produce Lymphoma? Int J Pharm, 2018; 8(1): 56-57.

Biographies:

Dr. Ahed Alkhatib has finished his PhD from Campbell State University in 2011. I am currently working as a clinical researcher at faculty of medicine, Jordan University of Science and technology. Over the time, I have published more than 200 articles in various

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medical fields including neurosciences, pharmacology, and diabetes. My approaches in research include the involvement of philosophy of science in research which gives looking, and thinking in depth. I have developed several hypotheses in medicine such as the role of white matter in initiating diseases such as diabetes. In microbiology, I have demonstrated that prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are similar in producing cell cycle proteins which can participate in autoimmunity diseases. For the time being, I am more interested in setting more medical hypotheses, and writing book in different fields, of which two books have already been written and distributed in the world market. I am working to establish a new science “molecular sociology”, and published two articles in this field and working to write a new book in this field to put its fundamentals. I have recently joined International Mariinskaya Academy.

Scientific and Advisory Committee (ISAC) at the Innovations and Sustainability Academy (ISA), Honored Worker of Science, Technics and Education, member of expert councils and editorial boards of 21 International scientific journals, scientific supervisor and director of Mariinsky Gallery named after M.D. Shapovalenko, Russia, Moscow, expert of ‘ Information for All’, member of Science and Democracy Network (SDN) at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government in Cambridge, MA. http://sts.hks.harvard.edu/about/sdn.htmlhttp://sts.hks. harvard.edu/sdn

Oleg Ju. Latyshev

President of International Mariinskaya Academy n.a. M.D. Shapovalenko, Moscow, Russia. https:// www.researchgate.net/lab/INTERNATIONALMARIINSKAYA-ACADEMY-named-after-MDS H A P O VA L E N K O - O l e g - Yu r e v i c h - L a t y s h e v Professor and member of expert council of Russian Academy of natural history, Doctor of Science, Honoris Causa of International Academy of natural history (ScD h.c. IANH), Candidate of philological sciences (PhD), Academician of International Academies of social technologies (IAST), natural history (UANH), youth tourism and local history (IAYTLH), Corresponding member of International Academy of psychological sciences (IAPS), Emeritus member of the International

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Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, (DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW)

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In the Country of the One-Eyed Giant, the Two-Eyed Man is in Danger: Conflicts, Nationality and Religion in James Joyce’s Ulysses (“Nestor” and “Cyclops”) Nicoleta Stanca, PhD

Ovidius University of Constanța, Romania

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 20 February 2019 Received in revised form 14 August Accepted 20 October 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.5

Two chapters of James Joyce’s novel Ulysses, “Nestor” and “Cyclops”, could be read as illustrative of the idea of violence and conflicts which are opposed by broader perspectives on life involving faith as well. In “Nestor”, the background is Mr. Deasy’s school, Deasy, the headmaster overtly showing his anti-Semitic and colonial historical attitude, countered by Stephen’s more comprehensive vision of history and manifestations of divinity. In “Cyclops”, in Barney Kiernan’s pub, through the use of the technique of gigantism [1], the Citizen is depicted as domineering in attitude, exposing his hatred against foreigners and Jews, only with Leopold Bloom contradicting him, preaching love – the basic tenet of any religious belief- and standing up for his Irishness and Jewishness.

Keywords: violence; religion; identity; Irishness; Jewishness; tolerance;

© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. INTRODUCTION

Joyce wrote Ulysses abroad during the Great War. It appeared in 1922, published

by Sylvia Beach’s Shakespeare & Company publishing house in Paris on the writer’s fortieth anniversary. The book was banned in the US until 1934 and in England until 1936 [2]. In the Paris of the 1920s, it was the “interior monologue”, on which Ulysses heavily relies, that gave Joyce a salient position in the European avant-garde; T.S.

Eliot confirmed his importance for the Anglo-American modernists when he wrote (in 1923) that the use of the “mythical method” in Ulysses has the importance of a scientific discovery “making the modern world possible for art” [3]. Also, for a wide readership, Joyce’s art was associated with the psychoanalytical movement of Freud and Jung, because of the focus on the sexual instinct as the center of human life and the interest in mental processes.

The plot of the famous novel is very

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simple: it deals with the events of a single day in Dublin, Thursday 16 June 1904, from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m. and follows, though 18 episodes, the adventures of a middle-aged Irish Jew, Leopold Bloom, an ad agent, and Stephen Dedalus, a history teacher, lately back from Paris; in the last episode, we drop in on the thoughts of Bloom’s wife, Marion (Molly) Bloom (born Tweedy), a soprano. Though there are no one-to-one parallels between Ulysses and Homer’s Odyssey, many correspondences could be worked out throughout the novel, including the characters; thus, Leopold Bloom corresponds to Ulysses, Stephen Dedalus to Telemachus and Molly Bloom to Penelope. Though the Homeric titles or the chapter numbers never appeared in the novel, we could still use the famous diagram (containing Homeric title, scene, hour, organ, art, colour, symbol, technique correspondences) in the 1930 Stuart Gilbert edition of the novel, which benefitted the collaboration of the author [4].

II. Part I (Telemachia)

“Telemachus” (8 a.m.) – Telemachus feels dispossessed by his mother’s suitors and sets out in search of lost Ulysses; similarly, Stephen feels pushed out of the Martello Tower by Buck Mulligan, a medical student, and Haines, an Englishman. The day begins with a parody of the Mass performed

by Buck, who is shaving. Buck disapproves of Stephen’s having refused to pray at his mother’s deathbed – this memory will haunt Stephen throughout the whole day. Stephen feels like a servant of three masters, the British state, the Roman Catholic Church, and the poor old Ireland. “Nestor” (10 a.m.) – Telemachus first seeks news of his father from wise Nestor and hears of the siege of Troy; Stephen’s encounter with his headmaster at the school where he teaches history reflects this episode ironically to be detailed later in this article.

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“Proteus” (11 a.m.) – when Telemachus visits Menelaus, he learns how the latter trapped Proteus, the slippery god of the sea, and managed to obtain some information about Ulysses’s wanderings. Stephen is trying to pin down a Proteus of the intellect while walking on the Sandymount Strand.

His mind is troubled by the changing face of the world. He closes his eyes to experience the exclusion of visibility. Opening his eyes again, he sees two midwives and ponders on the network of navel-chords linking all humanity together back to Eve imagined like a phone system connecting all men to the central exchange. His thoughts move from Eve’s womb to that of his mother and the moment of his conception. Then, he sees the carcass of a dog and a boat sunk in the sand and considers the history of invasions by sea; he is distracted by two cockle-pickers, and he relieves himself into the water. Ironically, this is meant to be a reintegration into the Protean flux of the sea.

III. Part II (Odyssey)

“Calypso” (8 a.m.) – with Homer the goddess Calypso holds Ulysses prisoner for seven years until ordered to release him; similarly, Leopold Bloom will leave the house where he is held in amorous captivity by his wife. Leopold Bloom is in the kitchen of his home, 7 Eccles Street, preparing his wife’s breakfast; she is still in bed. He finds the morning mail on the floor – a letter for him from Milly, his daughter, a card from Milly for his wife and a letter from Boylan, her agent and lover, who announces his visit in the afternoon to bring the tour program.

Bloom takes her breakfast in bed and explains to her the word “metempsychosis” she has found in the cheap erotic novel she was reading. Bloom rescues the kidney he was cooking for him for breakfast from burning. After breakfast, he goes to the lavatory, and while seated, he reads an in an old issue of “Titbits” a heroic epic, ironical

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under the circumstances.

“Lotus-eaters” (10 a.m.) – in the Odyssey Ulysses’s followers are given the lotus to eat when they land among the lotus-eaters; the effect of the drug is to make them forgetful and to want to stay where they are; Ulysses drags them aboard against their will until the effect wears off. In Ulysses, Bloom is walking in the city, and his impressions induce a mood of drugged surrender. He stops before the window of the Belfast and Oriental Tea Company in Westland Row, which brings an oriental reverie. He goes to the Westland Row Post Office and collects, under a false name ‘Henry Flower’ his letter from Martha, which he is impatient to read but is prevented by M’Coy, whom he meets in the street and who keeps talking. He finally opens pen-pal’s letter; it proposes a meeting, which Leopold rejects. Next, he goes into All Hallows Church, reflects on the cozy togetherness the Catholic Church induces and, as an outsider, on the efficiency of the Roman Catholic organization. He misreads the words on the cross; images of the wine communion and Guinness, the two drugs of Dubliners, merge. Outside, he stops at the chemist’s to order a lotion for Molly and buys a lemony-scented soap.

Then, he meets another acquaintance, Bantom Lyons, who is given the newspaper as he was going to throw it away, but this will cost Bloom as the man thought it was a betting tip for a horse named Throwaway.

“Hades” (11 a.m.) – Bloom’s attendance at Glasnevin Cemetry for Paddy Dignam’s funeral parallels Odysseus’s visit to Hades. We are outside Dignam’s house, 9 Newbridge Avenue, Sandymount. Martin Cunnigham, Mr. Power, Simon Dedalus, and Leopold Bloom enter the same carriage to be taken to the cemetery. Bloom sees Stephen and points out to Simon, who gives a tirade against Mulligan’s bad influence on his son; Bloom thinks of Rudy, his dead infant. They carriage stops at the Grand Canal, which

corresponds to the rivers of Hades (there will be four waterways). Passing the funeral of an illegitimate child, they start discussing the sin of suicide and Leopold reflects on Irish Catholic mercilessness on suicide (his father’s) and infanticide. Images of death and gloom accumulate; the Catholic funeral ceremony is seen through Bloom’s eyes, and he understands neither its significance nor its vocabulary. He is concerned with the breaking-down of the heart’s pumping system, which means death. He thinks of the impossibility of remembering the dead and of immortalizing one’s friends’ voices on records.

“Aeolus” (12 noon) – in Homer’s work, Aeolus helps Ulysses on his way back by giving him the winds unfavorable to him tied in a bag; his men open the bag and release the winds. Thus, the ship is blown back. The correspondence is with Bloom’s unsuccessful deal with the editor of the daily newspaper. Bloom’s failure could be transferred at the larger national scale, the destinies of the Irish and Jewish nations.

Bloom wants to arrange for a new addition (a paragraph and a new design) for a business of keys (the Keyes); he is rejected in general. Stephen is also there taking Mr. Deasy’s letter to be printed; Stephen is well liked and the editor encourages him to write something strong.

“Lestrygonians” (1 p.m.) – the cannibalistic habits of the Lestrygonians put Ulysses in danger. Bloom is disgusted by the eating habits of the men in the Bourton and leaves the place. It is one o’clock and Bloom wanders through Dublin, food in his mind. A YMCA gives him a leaflet, which he crumbles to fool the seagulls; he reflects on the profits of mass evangelism by advertising religion; he buys two cakes and feeds the gulls over the Liffey. Then, he considers advertising; for instance, the inefficiency of Wisdom Hely’s to use sandwich-board-men.

Bloom calculates the costs and benefits

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of a welfare system, based on taxation, to ensure a painless birth and a small sum for each child to encourage saving; he also laments the lack of public conveniences for women. Hungry, he opens the door of the Bourton, but repelled by the sight of the wolfing men, leaves the place and considers vegetarianism. He goes to Davy Byrne’s; he orders a glass of burgundy, a cheese sandwich and a cold salad. He muses, over his meal, at Molly kissing him on Howth Hill and passing seedcake from her mouth to his.

“Scylla and Charybdis” (2 p.m.) – in the Homeric story, Ulysses passes unnoticed between the whirlpool Charybdis and the many-headed monster Scylla; in Ulyssses the two dangers are not real but oratorical.

Stephen talks to a group of scholars in the National Library. The discussion is on Hamlet initially but tackles many related literary and cultural issues.

“Wandering Rocks” (3 p.m.) – it is the middle episode, composed of 19 short bits; it is a small-scale labyrinth within which most of the characters in Ulysses appear, moving about Dublin, between 3 and 4 p.m.; crossreference to the other sections abound.

Joyce seems to have written the section map in hand, calculating to the minute the time necessary for his characters to cover the respective distance.

“Sirens” (4 p.m.) – in the Odyssey, Ulysses and his men manage to sail past the sirens, with their luring songs; the men have wax in their years and Ulysses is tied to the mast.

Joyce’s episode contains two charming sirens barmaids (Miss Douce and Miss Kennedy) and much song; also, the style is an attempt to imitate music in words. The action takes place in the bar of the Ormond Hotel. There are several characters playing the piano, among them Simon Dedalus, who is appreciated. Bloom gets in and orders liver and bacon. He muses about Molly and plans what to write to Martha. Boylan heads

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towards Molly’s.

“Cyclops” (5 p.m.) – the Homeric parallel is Ulysses’s encounter with the gigantic oneeyed Cyclops, Polyphemus; Ulysses escapes from Polyphemus’s cave by blinding him.

The citizen in this episode represents the Cyclops because through his fanatical nationalism, symbolically, he has got only one eye, whereas Bloom is two-eyed, being tolerant, pacific and capable of seeing two sides of a question. The action takes place in Barney Kiernan’s, where men are gathered and drink and the more they drink the more violent they become.

“Nausicaa” (8 p.m.) – in the Odyssey Nausicaa, the daughter of Alcinous, king of Phaecia, comes to the beach with her maids to wash the linen; they play and laugh until they see Odysseus worn-out and naked; Nausicaa cleans and clothes him ant takes him home. Similarly, Bloom finds him comfort on the Sandymount shore after from his violent departure from Barney Kiernan’s.

Gerty McDowell (Nausicaa), accompanied by two other girls, has taken the children out to the beach. In the background there is the sound of the religious service coming from the church dedicated to Our Lady as Star of the Sea, showing the working in parallel of the sacred and the profane. The style of the chapter imitates women’s magazine style, according to the readings of the protagonist.

Gerty and Bloom flirt just by looking at each other and Bloom is aroused seeing Gerty’s stockings, legs and knickers, as she bends to look at the fireworks. When she stands and moves, Bloom is shocked to see that she is lame. That makes him muse on women’s illnesses in general. Then, he sees Howth Hill and remembers Molly’s kissing him; he dismisses the thought they may find passion again there. The cuckoo clock he hears is a reminder that he has been cuckolded by that hour.

“Oxen of the Sun” (10 p.m.) – Ulysses and his followers’ visit the Isle of the Sun, where

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they commit the sin of killing the sacred oxen of the Sun for food; Ulysses’s boat is struck by thunderbolt and his men are killed.

The correspondence is that the riotous students at the Maternity Hospital commit a kind of sacrilege against the women giving birth there. Only Bloom remains sober. The theme of embryonic growth is paralleled by a series of parodies of the development of the English prose style from Anglo-Saxon to the 20th century. Bloom asks nurse Callan about Mrs. Purefoy, who is still in labor after 3 days. The medical students are drinking, talking and singing in a room in the hospital; from time to time the nurse enters and asks them to quiet down for the woman’s sake.

Bloom remains for Stephen, though he disapproves of the young men’s behavior.

After the child’s birth, they all go out, then to Burke’s and drink absinthe at Stephen’s expense. Stephen takes the train to the night-town; Bloom follows him.

“Circe” (12 midnight) – Circe entertains Ulysses’s followers, drugs them and turns them into swine; Ulysses is helped by Hermes, who gives him a drug that immunizes him against Circe’s enchantments; his men are restored and Ulysses is taken to Circe’s bed.

The withdrawal of the rational element in homer is paralleled in Joyce’s episode. Its nightmare quality is appropriate to the hour and condition of Stephen, who had mixed drinks. What passes in the mind is expressed in dramatic form in a constant shift between reality and fantasy. We are in the nighttown, Dublin’s brothel area, and there is an air of illicit encounters. Cheap whores call obscenely from doors and corners. Bloom’s doings during the day are reenacted in a grotesque show dominated by the themes of guilt and isolation. Bloom goes in and finds Stephen. Stephen’s obsessions appear materialized as well. Bloom sees that Stephen is in the end safe out of that area.

IV. Part III (Nostos)

“Eumaeus” (1 a.m.) – back to Ithaca, Odysseus comes in disguise to the hut of the swineherd Eumaeus and when Telemachus arrives he reveals himself and father and son are united. The shelter near Butt Bridge corresponds to Eumaeus’s hut and the selfrevealing of Stephen and Bloom to each other parallels Telemachus’s reunion with Odysseus. Bloom helps Stephen recompose himself and they go to the cabman’s shelter near Butt Bridge. Bloom gives advice on the subjects of drink and whoring and the bad influence of Buck Mulligan. Bloom tells Stephen of the experience with the fanatical nationalist in Barney Kiernan’s and then looks at the report of the funeral in the newspaper (full of mistakes and misprints).

They leave towards Bloom’s house.

“Ithaca” (2 a.m.) – in Homer’s Odyssey, the two, father and son destroy the suitors; in Joyce’s book there is no violence and Bloom’s victory over his rivals is a moral one. As Stephen and Bloom reach 7 Eccles St, Bloom finds that he has forgotten the key in his other trousers and climbs over the railings and gets into the house through the scullery door, then lets Stephen in. Bloom makes cocoa and shows his courtesy to the guest. Bloom and Stephen find their past links. Various differences between the two are considered, such as age (38 and 22), educated vs. semi-educated. Bloom offers Stephen a room for the night, to help Molly with her Italian (make her forget about Boylan) and maybe a union with Milly.

Stephen declines the invitation. Bloom gets depressed that so many obstacle prevent people being happy; Stephen offers as an explanation man as rational being. They go out and relieve themselves; Stephen leaves and the bells at St. George’s church bring back to Stephen the memory of his mother.

Bloom goes in, starts undressing, dreaming of another house and reviewing the events of the day. He accepts Molly’s adultery

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and when he gets in bed Molly wants to know what he has been doing all day; he recapitulates the day skipping some details.

Then, he goes to bed, in a foetal posture, head to feet with Molly.

“Penelope” – Molly Bloom’s soliloquy, made up of 8 sentences; apparently, Bloom asked Molly to cook breakfast for him and this brings memories of the beginning of their relationship. She thinks he must have come somewhere as he was hungry and suspects a prostitute. This reminds Molly of their last servant girl she fired; she considers the disadvantages of being a woman and offering all pleasure to men. She recalls various moments spent with Boylan and in general his aggressive behavior; this may be contrasted to her memories of Bloom, the first days of his courting her and his gentleness in general. Molly would like to be able to spend freely; she considers the beauty of female exposure; she remembers her adolescence in Gibraltar and a list of 25 men; she rejects the painful memory of her dead son but recalls the moment of the conception; she ponders on Bloom’s oddities and on her desire to be embraced and loved. She is planning to give Bloom another chance (after 16 years) and changes in the house and she would like many flowers around and her last words bring back the memory of Howth Hill and her answer ‘Yes’ to Bloom.

V. Anti-Semitic Deasy and the

Nightmare of History

At 10 a.m. Stephen, who is a history teacher, is giving a lesson on Pyrrhus, another hero who suffered from usurpation like Moses or Parnell. Pyrrhus (or Neoptolemus) was king of Epirus and son of Achilles. When he reached Troja he proved to be even crueler than his father in fighting the Trojans. Then, he safely reached home, to Epirus, traveling on land but here,

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though married to Hermione, he fell in love with Andromaca, Hector’s widow, who bore him three children, triggering Hermione’s jealousy. Thus, Pyrrhus is killed by Orestes, Hermione’s ex-fiancée [5]. Moses, the Hebrew prophet, delivered his people from the Egyptian slavery [6]. Parnell was an Irish nationalist leader, an MP who tried to obtain Home Rule for Ireland at the end of the nineteenth century, but he failed because he lost the support of his colleagues, the church and a part of the Irish society [7].

The three heroic figures tried to lead their peoples towards freedom and they were all deserted by those that they wanted to help.

Stephen’s thoughts move consequently to the violence of the present seen as a progress of history. His encounter with Deasy, the headmaster of the Dalky school, is one more in a series of interviews with failed authority. A good educational system would be one in which there is a permanent exchange between generations, but Stephen rather sees himself as a humble learner, confronted with arrogant Deasy.

Stephen recalls Aristotle he read from when he was in Paris in a library and, as a student is reading from Milton, Stephen thinks about God and Christ walking on water and the divided loyalties of the Irish people, God, on the one hand, and the authorities, on the other.

Then, it’s time for hockey and the schoolboys go out. Stephen helps a boy with his sums for the Maths class, while considering his ugliness and the mother’s fondness of the boy in spite of it – Stephen wonders whether the mother’s life in not the only reality in life. From the image of the ghost of his own mother, who was extremely pious, Stephen’s thoughts go back to Columbanus, a 6th century Irish saint who, like Pyrrhus, fought for the assertion of the Celtic Church and the values of the Celtic civilization in Europe [8].

In Mr. Deasy’s office, Stephen notices

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the symbols of the Establishment, both civil and religious, a collection of Stuart coins and twelve Apostolic spoons. Mr. Deasy turned the school into a museum, with his collections and he is a convinced imperialist, considering that history has reached its end through the consummation of the British Empire. The principle pays Stephen’s wages (£3 12s.) and gives him advice about the care of money and the need to save; the success of the English is to be associated, in his opinion, with the concern not to run into debts, which could hardly be conceived in Stephen’s case. The history teacher is tempted to retell in the pub at night the joke he told the baffled pupils that a pier is a disappointed bridge, but he refrains as he does not want to play the stereotypical role of the Irish jester at the English court.

This is why he went to Paris, where no such expectations oppressed the Irish young man.

Then Deasy asks Stephen to take his letter (full of clichés) about the course of action in the case of the foot-and-mouth cattle disease to the press for publication, relying on Stephen’s acquaintance with Dublin literary circles. Deasy blames Jews for the corruption and intrigue, which does not allow him to express his view. He sees them as sinners against the light, with the darkness in their eyes, and they are doomed to be wanderers, which announces the introduction of the character Leopold Bloom in the fourth chapter in the novel: Mark my words, Mr. Dedalus, he said. England is in the hands of the jews. In all the highest places: her finance, her press. And they are the sign of a nation’s decay. Wherever they gather they eat up the nation’s vital strength.

I have seen it these years. As sure as we are standing here the jew merchants are already at their work of destruction. Old England is dying [9].

Stephen disagrees; for him, merchants,

jews or gentiles, are the same. He remembers the Jews on the steps of the Stock Exchange in Paris and thinks that time scatters all wealth.

Stephen’s conclusion at this point deplores history: “History, Stephen said, is a nightmare from which I am trying to awake” [10]. For Deasy, history was a movement towards the manifestation of God. It was difficult for the Irish people to see life as a train moving towards a definite point – evolutionary perfection. They had seen extreme poverty and starvation for centuries, while in England railways were being built and the Crystal Palace exhibition in the 19th century celebrated English science and industry. “For writers like Joyce and Yeats, history would appear more as a circle of recurring traumas than as a straight, progressive, purposeful line. [...] The divine plan must, like the form of a poem or epic, take its shape from everyday experience, or else not at all” [11]. For Stephen, God is represented by the shout of the boys in the street. Deasy continues to blame Jews and women as temptresses, who brought men down, for committing sins, and he considers that he is funny telling a joke, why Ireland never persecuted Jews, “because she never let them in” [12]. At the turn of the 20th century, when Joyce was writing Ulysses, the war was raging in Europe, being made possible by the narrow-mindedness of authorities, symbolized by people like Deasy.

VI. Scapegoats of Irish Radical Nationalism: Foreigners, Jews, Women

The episode “Cyclops” (5 p.m.)/ “Barney Kiernan’s” opposes the Citizen, a modern Polyphemus, and Leopold Bloom. The giant Polyphemus, the Cyclops in Odysseus’ story, cruelly devours Ulysses’ companions until the hero blinds him and the rest of them manage to leave the cave where they

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were held prisoners, tied to the bellies of the muttons in Polyphemus’ flock of sheep [13]. Thus, Ulysses’ mind beats the gigantic force of the Cyclops. In Joyce’s text, the barbaric, aggressive, nationalist fanatical, one-eyed Citizen with his inflated ego and exaggerated reactions, arrogance, cruelty and stupidity is opposed by the gentle, pacific, charitable Bloom.

The scene takes place in Barney Kiernan’s pub, where men are gathered to drink to the memory of their acquaintance that had been buried that day, Patrick Dignam, and whose funeral Bloom had attended: the Citizen with his dog, Joe Hynes, Alf Bergan, Bob Doran. It is an almost all male place, a place of aggression and hysteria, in which it seems that men looked for consolation, just as women did in the local churches. Bloom comes looking for Martin Cunningham to help Dignam’s widow with the insurance of their estate. The men discuss hanging, with Bloom criticizing capital punishment. Then, they praise revolutionaries and martyrs. The politics of the Irish revolution is debated and the Citizen drinks to the memory of their martyrs becoming more hostile; so is his dog, which finished the biscuit tin.

The nationalism of Ireland appears as nonEnglishness: Gaelic sports vs. soccer or hockey, the kilt vs. trousers, the Dáil vs. the Parliament. Leopold refuses the drink praising the activity of the anti-treating league in order to solve the drink problem.

Politicians and their involvement in the case of the mouth-and-foot cattle disease is then tackled. More men arrive: J.J. O’Molloy and Ned Lambert. They mock Bloom on account of Molly’s affair with Boylan and the Breens, as Mr. Breen was obsessed with legal action against an unknown author of a joke targeting him.

Then, the citizen starts his attack by insulting strangers in Ireland; like Deasy, he blames women for bringing foreigners in the country. This is the national republican

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vocabulary employed by W.B. Yeats in his play Cathleen Ni Houlihan (1902), with the poor Old Woman deploring the fate of her four beautiful fields taken by srangers. Two more men come in, John Wyse Nolan and Lenehan with news about a Council meeting about the Irish language. The fury against England, a country with no music, no art, no literature, and the English language mounts: “Any civilization they have they stole from us” [14]. The Citizen blames England for depopulating Ireland, destroying its ancient arts and causing deforestation. More drinks and more violence. The Citizen remembers the poverty, starvation and depopulation after the Potato Famine, an episode in the Irish history in mid-19th century which killed one about one million people and sent another million in exile, and Nolan says the Irish spilled blood for other nations (French, German, Spanish) only to be betrayed when they needed help.

Bloom protests against persecution and national hatred: “Persecution, says he, all the history of the world is full of it. Perpetuating national hatred among nations” [15].

They ask Bloom what his nation is and his answer “a nation is the same people living in the same place” “or also living in different places” [16] causes their laughter. Bloom clearly identifies himself as Irish “I was born here. Ireland” [17]. But he also remembers his Jewishness as a story of an ethnicity that has always been persecuted: “Robbed, he said, Plundered. Insulted. Persecuted. Taking what belongs to us by right.” [18] and he preaches the opposite of hatred, love. Then, he goes out to look for Cunningham but the men wrongly assume he went to collect his money from the horse racing bettings (the horse Throwaway has won the race).

Three more men enter the pub, Martin Cunningham, looking for Bloom, Jack Power and an Orangeman. The Citizen mocks Jewish Bloom: “That’s the new Messiah for Ireland! says the citizen. Island of saint and

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sages!” [19] and the talk continues about Jewish fathers waiting for a Messiah son and Bloom had been waiting for his son, Rudy, eleven years before, displaying a feminine attitude, according to the men in the pub.

Bloom returns and Martin and Jack hurry him to the car sensing the hostility in the air: “Three cheers for Israel!” [20]. Bloom, attacked by the Citizen with the biscuit box and by the dog, escapes in Cunningham’s car after shouting a long list of Jews, including Jesus: Mendelssohn was a jew and Karl Marx and Mercadante and Spinoza. And the Saviour was a jew and his father was a jew.

Your God. [...] Christ was a jew like me” [21].

The Citizen says he will crucify Bloom and the episode ends humorously, in Joyce’s style, with Biblical references, Bloom-Elijah is seen in his car/ chariot ascending to heaven among angels hearing the divine voice: “An they beheld Him even Him, ben Bloom Elijah, amid clouds of angels ascend the glory of the brightness at an angle of forty-five degrees over Donohoe’s in Little Green Street like a shot off a shovel” [22].

Conclusion Ulysses should be reconnected to the everyday lives of ordinary people, Irish or Jewish; Joyce uses the interior monologue to show how complex and lovable the mind of an ordinary citizen may be, how the familiar may astonish and how city routines should not be reduced to mere banality.

Though the book is one of subjectivities and privacies, a large number of scenes take place in public spaces – libraries, museums, bars, cemeteries and most of all the streets, thus ordinary places.

Ulysses is an epic of the bourgeoisie [23], with no negative connotations; the bourgeois saw that even a modest income involved social obligations, towards one’s neighbours, fellow citizens, and one’s nation. Accordingly, Bloom is involved in the establishing of a fund for the Dingams, he

would like to improve the transport system in Dublin and to combat cruelty to animals; he is practical, whereas Stephen is engulfed in theory, yet Stephen is also open-minded.

It all explains Stephen comprehensive understanding and Bloom’s welcoming and all embracing attitude in deep contrast with Mr. Deasy and the Citizen’s bigotry.

Bloom also challenges the Irish men’s neurotic determinism, as for them Irishness must oppose Englishness, just as masculinity opposes femininity, or as Jewishness must oppose Christianity, which is far from clear in Leopold’s case: He is neither completely masculine not completely feminine, but pan-sexual. His life is an illustration of the truth that a businessman is not necessarily the opposite of a bohemian [...]. So also in the zone of religious practice he is a non-Jewish Jew who has been baptized by both Catholics and Protestants. [24] The men in the pub call him a “Jewman”, faced with the insecurity of not being able to pin down his identity. For the Dubliners in the pub, categories must be kept distinct, especially under the influence of drink, which is why Bloom poses a challenge to them with his reconciliation of theory and practice: “In the kingdom of the one-eyed, the two-eyed man is in mortal danger” [25]. Thus, the attitudes of the two main characters in the novel, Lopold Bloom and Stephen Dedalus depict an essentially non-conflictual attitude, irrespective of differences in faith and ethnicity (Irishness, Englishness and Jewishness; Catholicism and Judaism).

References [1] Karl, Frederick R., and Marvin Magalaner.

A Reader’s Guide to Great TwentiethCentury English Novels. New York: the Noonday Press, 1959.

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[2] Stanca, Nicoleta. The Harp and the Pen (Tradition and Novelty in Modern Irish Writing). București: Editura Universitară, 2003. 59-88.

[3] Stewart, Bruce. “James Joyce”. The Cambridge Companion to the Irish Novel. Ed. John Wilson Foster. Cambridge University Press, 2006. 133-152.

[4] Stanca, Nicoleta. The Harp and the Pen (Tradition and Novelty in Modern Irish Writing). București: Editura Universitară, 2003. 59-88.

[5] Balaci, Anca. Mic dicționar mitologic grecoroman. București: Editura Mondero, 1997.

[6] https://www.britannica.com/biography/MosesHebrew-prophet.

[7] Connolly, S.J.ed., Oxford Companion to Irish History. Oxford University Press, 2007.

[8] Blamires, Harry. The New Bloomsday Book: A Guide through Ulysses. London and New York: Routledge, 2008. 10-13.

[9] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: Penguin, 2000.

41.

[10] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: Penguin, 2000. 42.

[11] Kiberd, Declan. Ulysses and Us. London: Faber and Faber, 2009. 60.

[12] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: Penguin, 2000. 42.

[13] Balaci, Anca. Mic dicționar mitologic grecoroman. București: Editura Mondero, 1997.

[14] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: Penguin, 2000. 421.

[15] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: Penguin, 2000. 430.

[16] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: Penguin, 2000. 430.

[17] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: Penguin, 2000. 430.

[18] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: Penguin, 2000. 432.

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[19] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: 2000. 438.

[20] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: 2000. 444.

[21] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: 2000. 444-445.

[22] Joyce, James. Ulysses. London: 2000. 449.

[23] Kiberd, Declan. Ulysses and Us. Faber and Faber, 2009. 12.

[24] Kiberd, Declan. Ulysses and Us. Faber and Faber, 2009. 189.

[25] Kiberd, Declan. Ulysses and Us. Faber and Faber, 2009. 192.

Penguin, Penguin, Penguin, Penguin, London: London: London:

Biography: Nicoleta Stanca is Associate Professor at Ovidius University Constanta. She has published three book-length studies: Mapping Ireland (Essays on Space and Place in Contemporary Irish Poetry), (2014), The Harp and the Pen (Tradition and Novelty in Modern Irish Writing) (2013), Duality of Vision in Seamus Heaney’s Writings (2009), articles in academic journals and book chapters on IrishAmerican identity, literary studies and popular culture. She has been a co-editor of conference volumes, the most recent being: National and Transnational Challenges to the American Imaginary (2018). She is Vice-President of the Romanian Association for American Studies and alumna of the Multinational Institute of American Studies, New York University (NYU).

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This paper was presented in the

Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, (DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW) held online, on the Journal’s website, from MAY 19 - 26, 2019

journal homepage: http://dialogo-conf.com

The Vision of the Apostol John in the Book of Revelation, Constructed Around the Tension Between the Present and the Future, in the Vision of Jacques B. Doukhan Assoc. Prof. Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, PhD

‘Timotheus’ Brethren Theological Institute of Bucharest, Romania.

Head of Academic Research Center

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 20 February 2019 Received in revised form 14 April Accepted 1 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.6

The prophecies of the Book of Revelation were revealed to the Apostle John in a vision as he was exiled to Patmos island, a small rocky island in the Aegean Sea, he arrived there as exiled because of the Christian faith. The vision of the Book of Revelation was built around the tension between the present and the future, so the message sent to the seven churches that were contemporary with the Apostle John must also be read in a prophetic key. Thus the letters to the seven churches of John’s time must be seen and understood as a message for future churches. The prophecies from the vision revealed in the Book of John’s Revelation are proof that God takes care of His people. The followers of the Lord, in faith, must not forget that they are not alone when they go through various attempts of faith. The same Lord Jesus who has given words of encouragement and hope to the old disciple John, who was facing a difficult situation of persecution, is alongside His followers, throughout history, when they go through various life endeavors.

Keywords: Vision; message; tension; churches; trials; Revelation;

© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. INTRODUCTION

The prophecies of the Book of Revelation were revealed to the disciple John in a vision while he was exiled to Patmos Island, a small rocky island in the Aegean Sea, he was exiled there because of his faith, his testimony of the Gospel of the Lord Jesus

Christ. The island was used by the Roman authorities as a place of detention for the biggest offenders but also for correction of political prisoners. It is possible that the disciple John also endured the hardships of Roman imprisonment, being put in chains, fed badly and put to work under the harsh

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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928

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Roman authority. The Lord, however, gave John an overview of the history of the church through a series of visions, as well as the experiences through which the followers of the Lord would go through while waiting for His return. Since the beginning of the book, the author has made it clear that they were to be read in the church aloud. Thus, from the very beginning, a message of blessing and happiness is transmitted to the reader and to those who would listen to them, but the true blessing of happiness was not only to be read and heard but also to keep them.

[1]: “Blessed is he that readeth, and they that hear the words of this prophecy and keep those things which are written therein!“ (Revelation 1,3). “Behold, I come quickly: blessed is he that keepeth the sayings of the prophecy of this book!” (Revelation 22,7).

It is believed that John’s Book of Revelation was written around 97 AD, a book that was then copied and spread throughout the Christian churches of that time. In 140 AD, less than 50 years after its writing, the Book of Revelation is quoted by Saint Justin the Martyr and the Philosopher in his work Dialogue with the Judean Tryphon [2], around the year 177 by Saint Irenaeus and around the year 200 by Tertullian, followed by other Church Fathers and Writers. Saint Irenaeus places the Apostle John’s exile on Patmos Island “almost in our days,” namely at the end of Emperor Domitian’s reign. While Saint Jerome and Eusebius also confirm this testimony, stating that John’s exile took place in the 14th year of Domitian’s reign, namely 95 AD [4] The prophecies in John’s Book of Revelation are proof that God takes care of His people. These speak of the shortness and fragility of our lives, the possibility of salvation through Jesus Christ, and the call to spread the good news of salvation, the Gospel. Thus Biblical prophecies resemble a light that shines in a dark place. Their role is to provide guidance for the present life

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and hope for the future, and people will need them until the return of Christ and the establishing of His eternal Kingdom [5] From the beginning, we find out that the title of the book is “The Revelation of Jesus Christ” (Rev. 1: 1). [6] and the Book of Revelation is but a revelation of Jesus Christ, coming from Him, who speaks of Himself as well. The book tells us that Jesus is its subject, revealing to believers that He cares for them.

Jesus presented in the Book of Revelation is the same as the Jesus presented in the four Gospels, and Revelation is a continuation of the description of the person and the work of Jesus revealed in the Gospels, presenting different aspects of His ministry, and the starting point corresponds to the end of the Gospels, more precisely with the resurrection and ascension of the Lord to heaven, with the aim of assuring that no matter what surprises the future holds for us, God has absolute control and that Jesus Christ is with His people throughout history.

[7] II. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SYMBOLIC

LANGUAGE

The prophecies found in John’s Book of Revelation will be analyzed according to the historical method, a method according to which prophecy follows the course of historical events from Antiquity and until the finalization of the history of our world.

The Book of Revelation is divided into three major parts. The first part (Revelation 1.93.22) deals specifically with the state of the churches from the time of the Apostle John; a message addressed to the church from various periods of history. Referring to symbols, the second part (Revelation 4: 1-11, 18) takes over the history of the church from John’s time to the end of the history of the earth. The third part (Revelation 11: 19-22, 5) is particularly concerned with the time of the end. The interpretation of the

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prophecies in the Book of Revelation must be Christocentric because the symbols in the book find their supreme significance only in Jesus Christ. [8] From the very beginning of the Book of Revelation, it is made clear to us: “The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his servants’ things that must come shortly to pass; and he sent it and signaled it by his angel to his servant John.”[9] The phrase made known to them, renders the Greek term semaino, which has the meaning of symbolizing, representing by symbols.[10] In the introductory part of the vision of the seven churches, we are led into the middle of the seven candlesticks. The idea was meant to be understood in the sense that although the Roman soldiers took the candlestick from the Temple of Jerusalem on the occasion of its destruction in 70 AD, a fact witnessed by its existence in the basrelief of the General Titus’ Arc of Triumph, a monument commemorating his conquest of Jerusalem. Although the temple was demolished and the candlestick has reached the Roman treasury, God sends the message that the end of the temple and the taking of the candlestick did not mean that His relationship with mankind ended, but on the contrary God is presented as walking in the midst of them, symbolized by the seven candlesticks being thus present in the seven churches, assuring them that He is with them and that He does not leave them alone. [11] “I was in the Spirit on the Lord’s day, and heard behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet,Saying, I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last: and, What thou seest, write in a book, and send it unto the seven churches which are in Asia; unto Ephesus, and unto Smyrna, and unto Pergamos, and unto Thyatira, and unto Sardis, and unto Philadelphia, and unto Laodicea. And I turned to see the voice that spake with me. And being turned, I saw seven golden

candlesticks; And in the midst of the seven candlesticks one like unto the Son of man, clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt about the paps with a golden girdle.

His head and his hairs were white like wool, as white as snow; and his eyes were as a flame of fire; And his feet like unto fine brass, as if they burned in a furnace; and his voice as the sound of many waters.” (Revelation 1,10-15).

The Apostle John sees Jesus dressed in a long priestly coat, and His walk among the candlesticks, symbols of the churches, signifies that He would always be with His followers, before leading them into His everlasting kingdom. The representation of Jesus as the priest was taken from the Jewish practice at the Temple of Jerusalem, where a priest was tasked every day with the care of the candlesticks that they were always kept lit. The priest’s duty was to inspect every candlestick, clean it, change the burned wicks, pour fresh oil and light them up. Thus, represented by the image of a priest, the Lord knew very well the status of each candlestick, that is to say, the churches of John’s time, and of any time in history. [12] To His people Israel, in ancient times, God sent them the message that He is with them: “And I will walk among you, and will be your God, and ye shall be my people” (Leviticus 26,12). The same assurance of protection, the fact that they will not be forgotten, and that the Lord will be with them, we find it also expressed in the words of Jesus Christ: “I am with you always, even unto the end of the world” (Matthew 28,20). Thus the presence of God (şekina) should also be seen in the pillar of fire and the cloud that accompanied the people. The burning bush seen by Moses transmitted the same message, that God did not forget them, but was with them: “And the angel of the LORD appeared unto him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush: and he looked,

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and, behold, the bush burned with fire, and the bush was not consumed. And Moses said, I will now turn aside, and see this great sight, why the bush is not burnt. And when the LORD saw that he turned aside to see, God called unto him out of the midst of the bush, and said, Moses, Moses. And he said, Here am I. And he said, Draw not nigh hither: put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground. Moreover, he said, I am the God of thy father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob. And Moses hid his face; for he was afraid to look upon God.”(Exodus 3,2-6).

John, in the Book of Revelation, presents the Son of Man in a similar way, in the sense that the Lord is presented with His eyes, His face and His feet, compared to the flame of fire, the heated and burning brass, and the sun shining in all its power to show that the Lord keeps lit the light of the seven candlesticks, and that He guides the destiny of men: “... and his eyes were as a flame of fire... and his feet like unto fine brass, as if they burned in a furnace...and his countenance was as the sun shineth in his strength.” (Rev.1,14,15,16).[13] The vision of the Son of Man, clothed in gold, melts in the extraordinary splendor of the seven candlesticks, in a glimpse which makes a reference to the glory of the future gold Jerusalem [14]: “And the building of the wall of it was of jasper: and the city was pure gold, like unto clear glass” (Revelation 21,18).

After the Lord’s Day, the Book of Revelation presents the Passover message, referring to the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Revelation 1:18), Easter being the first feast in the annual Jewish calendar (Leviticus 23, 4-14.), not only commemorating the exodus from Egypt, but also remembering the Messianic hope. The sacrifice of the lamb symbolized the pessa, the fact that the angel of the Lord „passed

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by” the houses marked with blood, and the idea of the coming of the Savior, of the Messiah, is presented from the beginning “Behold, he cometh with clouds; and every eye shall see him, and they also which pierced him” (Revelation 1,7). Even the use of unleavened bread (Exodus 12, 8), mața, reminds us of the origins of a nomadic people whose hope was the Promised Land.

[15] III. TITLES USED BY THE LORD IN THE

BOOK OF REVELATION

In his own right, Jesus uses the titles of God, the First and the Last, as they are also used by the prophet Isaiah: “Thus saith the LORD the King of Israel, and his redeemer the LORD of hosts; I am the first, and I am the last; and beside me there is no God” (Isaiah 44,6.); “Hearken unto me, O Jacob and Israel, my called; I am he; I am the first, I also am the last” (Isaiah 48,12.).

For the Greek word the last, the term eschatos is used, the term from which the word eschatology comes from, meaning the end time. The use of the expression the Last wishes to recall the fact that Jesus is present in all events of history, including the final ones, where He has the final say. The Lord is the Living One and is presented as He who holds the keys of death and the Realm of the dead. (Revelation 1:18.) Keys are a symbol of authority and power. Through this title, the Lord encourages His followers to have full confidence in Him that even the dead are in His care, as Matthew also wrote about the Lord in his Gospel: “I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob? God is not the God of the dead, but of the living. (Matthew 22,32) [16]

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IV. THE GENERAL MESSAGE TO THE

SEVEN CHURCHES

The vision of the Book of Revelation

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was built around the tension between the present and the future so that the message sent to the seven churches that were contemporaries of the Apostle John must be read in a prophetic key. [17]. Thus the letters to the seven churches of John’s time must be seen and understood as a message for future churches. [18] The text of the book must be read in such a prophetic key because the seven churches, with their rulers, are symbolized by the seven stars that the Son of Man holds in His right hand: “And he had in his right hand seven stars...” (Revelation 1,16), along with seven candlesticks: “The mystery of the seven stars which thou sawest in my right hand, and the seven golden candlesticks.

The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches: and the seven candlesticks which thou sawest are the seven churches.” [19] In ancient times people were superstitious and thought the stars were leading people’s destinies, for that reason astrology was so strongly anchored in their minds. Especially in Mesopotamia astrology was in great demand due to the people’s desire to predict their future. The authors of the Holy Scriptures, in their turn, were aware of such beliefs, as illustrated in the Book of Job: “Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season? or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons? Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven? canst thou set the dominion thereof in the earth? ” [20] Such a belief about stars is also found in the late Judaism, where each person was thought to have a celestial body, mazzal, that is, a certain star, a star that watched his destiny. [21] The fact that God is presented in the Book of Revelation as holding the stars symbolizes the fact that God has in his hand the destinies of the people he controls.

Daniel, speaking to the king, also says that astrologers could not know the future, but

only God the Creator: “Daniel answered in the presence of the king, and said, The secret which the king hath demanded cannot the wise men, the astrologers, the magicians, the soothsayers, shew unto the king; But there is a God in heaven that revealeth secrets, and maketh known to the king Nebuchadnezzar what shall be in the latter days... Thou, O king, art a king of kings: for the God of heaven hath given thee a kingdom, power, and strength, and glory...

And in the days of these kings, shall the God of heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed: and the kingdom shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand for ever. Forasmuch as thou sawest that the stone was cut out of the mountain without hands, and that it brake in pieces the iron, the brass, the clay, the silver, and the gold; the great God hath made known to the king what shall come to pass hereafter: and the dream is certain, and the interpretation thereof sure.” [22] Number 7 had a symbolic value from the earliest times. The Sumerians, the Babylonians, the Canaanites, and the Israelites considered number 7 as a symbol of perfection and the whole. Of the total of 88 times the number 7 appears in the New Testament, 56 are only in the Book of Revelation alone, where it appears as seven candlesticks, seven stars, seven seals, seven spirits, seven angels, seven plagues, seven horns, seven mountains, seven kings [23].

Thus, the seven churches in Revelation’s message should not be interpreted only at the strictly literal level, because number seven does not reflect the total number of Christian churches in Asia Minor. Even though we do not know the names of all Christian churches existing at the time of writing, we still know that two churches, that of Colose and Hierapolis, churches mentioned in the New Testament [24] do not appear in the Revelation’s message. The seven churches in the Book of Revelation

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represent the church in its totality, an interpretation that is confirmed by a manuscript from the 3rd century AD [25] Ending each letter with the text: “He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches” (Rev.2,29), gives the impression that a wider audience is targeted. The message in the seven letters is addressed to all churches and anyone can benefit from listening to their content, as explicitly found in the letter to Thiatira, which contains in its contents the phrase „all churches.” The choice of the seven churches was made not only because the prophet had visited them and knew them, but also for their symbolic meaning. [26] There was a certain practice in Israel, namely that at the base of a prophecy must be a geographic location. For example, the Prophet Micah binds his entire vision of the future around the names of the Palestinian cities [27]: “Declare ye it not at Gath, weep ye not at all: in the house of Aphrah roll thyself in the dust. Pass ye away, thou inhabitant of Saphir, having thy shame naked: the inhabitant of Zaanan came not forth in the mourning of Bethezel; he shall receive of you his standing. For the inhabitant of Maroth waited carefully for good: but evil came down from the LORD unto the gate of Jerusalem. O thou inhabitant of Lachish, bind the chariot to the swift beast: she is the beginning of the sin to the daughter of Zion: for the transgressions of Israel were found in thee.Therefore shalt thou give presents to Moreshethgath: the houses of Achzib shall be a lie to the kings of Israel.Yet will I bring an heir unto thee, O inhabitant of Mareshah: he shall come unto Adullam the glory of Israel” (Micah 1,10-15).

The Prophet Daniel also uses in his book (Daniel 11) the geographical and strategic location of the north and the south for the purpose of presenting the prophetic vision.

For John, in the Book of Revelation, the order in which the seven churches appear, follows

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a certain geographical order, that is, they appear on the route of the ordinary traveler.

Each letter of the seven has a spiritual and clerical message, as well as prophetic connotations. [28] V. LETTER TO THE CHURCH OF EFES

Starting the trip from Patmos Island, the first stop is at Ephesus, one of the major ports of the time, the capital of Asia, being the largest city in that Roman province, with a geographical location on major commercial routes, being also an important cultural, religious and commercial center, holding a lot of public buildings and institutions; temples, gymnasiums, theaters, public baths, along with lots of brothels. Ephesus has come to be known, not just for trade and culture, but also for practicing immorality, practicing magic and superstitions of the people. Ephesus is the first church, the first candlestick, the occasion with which John will begin his cycle of letters, making an allusion to the tree of life in the Garden of Eden [29]: “To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God.” (Revelation 2,7).

The name of the Ephesian church in Greek means lacking. The Church of the Apostles, the church of the first converts of the nations, that is to say, of the pagans, who had to remember where they came from and not return to the deeds of the pagan world. The church in Ephesus faced the loss of the missionary zeal and their desire for God. [30] The Christians of the church in Ephesus, in the first part of their existence, were recognized for their faithfulness and love, as the Apostle Paul acknowledges: “Wherefore I also, after I heard of your faith in the Lord Jesus, and love unto all the saints, Cease not to give thanks for you, making mention of you in my prayers” (Ephesians 1, 15-16). Even if they were subjected to pressure either from within or from the

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outside, they remained steadfast in faith, characterized by missionary zeal and sound teaching, intolerant of false teachings and teachers. However, as they focused on learning and healthy behavior, their love for the Savior and their brethren of faith began to diminish, becoming unswerving in faith, but without love, and their deeds became cold and legalistic. The spiritual state of the church in Ephesus is a correspondent of the general situation of the Christian church of the first century, characterized by love and faithfulness to the requirements of the Gospel, yet by the end of the first century the church began to lose its zeal of the first love and departed from the purity and simplicity of the Holy Gospel. [31] Like the prophets who called for repentance, the expression „and repent, and do the first works” (Revelation 2.5), first acts, which were a clear reference to tesuva the call to repentance addressed by the prophets to the people. The call to repentance is also combined with the warning “or else I will come unto thee quickly, and will remove thy candlestick out of his place, except thou repent.”(Revelation 2,5)[32] The spiritual cleansing of the first church could not be a guarantee that it would not lose its missionary zeal and the light of the word received, and the fact that a church was founded by God does not absolve it of its subsequent deeds. Using the symbolic terminology, the church can hinder its spiritual path, perhaps even fall and overthrow the candlestick, and perhaps even turn off the light. The risk of error always remains a present reality, and there is no sign of equality between God and the church. Despite all the mistakes it has, yet the church in Ephesus still has some spiritual integrity, because it disregards the works of the Nicolaites [33], an attitude shared by God. According to an early Christian tradition, the Nicolaites were considered to be Nicholas’ followers. [34] Regardless of who they were, according to the church fathers’ view,

the Nicolaites were renowned for their depraved behavior. They based their beliefs on the dualistic conception, which was also found in the Gnostic Christians of that time.

According to this conception, the matter was bad, including the body of man being matter was evil and he could be disposed of in anyway, only the soul (spirit) was pure and had a connection with grace. They believed that by the grace of Jesus Christ they were freed from the prescriptions of the law, the Torah, and as such, rejecting the moral requirements of the law, came to practice and promote immorality. [35] Taking into account the contents of the first letter, we can conclude that the first fruits of apostasy and decay have arisen due to the disregard of the material Creation and the Law, the Torah. Ending the letter with the promise, “To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God.” (Revelation 2,7), emphasizes, on the one hand, the physical act of eating, referring to Creation and, on the other hand, to the tree of life, referring to the law, to the Torah. [36] VI. LETTER TO THE CHURCH OF SMYRNA

The City of Smyrna was located about 65 km from Ephesus, being known as a commercial citadel with a striking beauty.

The city was built in 1000 BC. by the Greeks, was destroyed in 600 BC. by the Lydians and was rebuilt in 200 BC. by Lysimach, one of Alexander the Great’s generals, getting reborn from ruins. The author of the letter to Smirna is presented as being “which was dead, and is alive.” (Revelation 2,8) The city’s name smyrna (myrrh) was associated with the substance that was used in the embalming process of the dead.

The letter refers to suffering and death to be experienced by those in Smyrna who, besides persecution, death and all sorts of threats, also struggled with poverty. [37]

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The believers in the church in Smyrna were suspected of the most hideous crimes, because the pagans, observing the ceremony of communion, accused them of cannibalism, believing that they were drinking blood and eating human flesh. The Christians’ agape (meetings and fellowship meals) were interpreted as occasions of orgies. Since the Christians’ God was not visible, Christians were accused of atheism.

State authorities suspected and persecuted them because they did not accept the emperor’s cult of worship by recognizing him as (Dominus et Deus) Lord and God, while some accused them of predicting the end of the world through fire destruction, a fact that was also used by Nero, to blame the Christians. Christians were not regarded well by the Jewish community either, and the behavior of Saul in Tarsus is conclusive. The letter to Smyrna reprimands the Jews for their attitude of hostility towards Christians, doubting the authenticity of their Judaism: “I know thy works, and tribulation, and poverty, (but thou art rich) and I know the blasphemy of them which say they are Jews, and are not, but are the synagogue of Satan.” [38] Initially, the persecutions against Christians were local (we refer to the persecutions during the Roman emperors: Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Anthony the Pious, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, Septimius Severus, Maximus the Thrace), following that between 249-251 AD to be declared the general persecution of Christians by a great persecutor of Christians, namely Emperor Decius, who wanted the final destruction of Christianity as a religion. Emperor Decius gave in 249 AD an edict of persecution, an edict requiring all Christians, regardless of their age or social condition, to appear before a High Commission in order to make a confession to renounce the Christian faith, i.e. to make a confession of apostasy by offering a sacrifice in the pagan temples and receiving a confirmation certificate in this Session 2. Society and Religion relationship

respect [39]. In the situation where some Christians would have fled from home, their possessions would be confiscated, and on their return they would be killed, although it would have been preferred to give up their faith rather than be killed. [40] Thus, the “ten-day tribulation,” which appears in the letter to the church of Smyrna [41], fits the post-apostolic period between 303 and 313 AD. Harsh persecutions against Christians took place between 303 and 313 AD, under the reign of Emperor Diocletian, until Constantine the Great’s Edict of Milan [42] provided religious freedom for Christians. In the Diocletian Edict of 303 AD, Christian churches were to be dissolved, buildings to be demolished, and Christian cult books to be burned. [43] The number ten has become a symbol of the trial, of the test. In the Scripture we have examples in this respect: In Babylon, Daniel and the three young men were tested for ten days. [44] In the Jews, the Feast of the Trumpets was separated from the Day of Atonement, with a special ten-day self-study of each person. The same language is used

by Mishna, who concludes that the number ten is a symbol of test, trial, and endeavor.

[45] The passage is interesting by saying “be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life” (Revelation 2,10). Even though the descendants of the Lord were to be persecuted in many ways, tortured, killed, yet they were promised the crown of life, [46] the crown of victory, which was also found on the tombs of the GrecoRoman antiquity period as a symbol of victory on death. [47] The letter to Smyrna ends with the promise that no matter what the followers of the Lord would suffer, He has news of them and will reward them with eternal life, symbolized by the crown of life.

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VII. LETTER TO THE CHURCH OF

PERGAMUM

The period of fierce persecution against the Christians had passed, they were now enjoying tranquility, unhindered for the practice of their religion, since the days of trouble passed, being appreciated for their determination in the faith, receiving from the Lord the message: “I know thy works, and where thou dwellest, even where Satan’s seat is: and thou holdest fast my name, and hast not denied my faith, even in those days wherein Antipas was my faithful martyr, who was slain among you, where Satan dwelleth.” (Revelation 2,13). In the Letter to Pergamum, a certain religious practice is condemned: “But I have a few things against thee because thou hast there them that hold the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balac to cast a stumblingblock before the children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit fornication.”

(Revelation 2,14).

Balaam was the prophet responsible for the moral decay of the people of Israel in his time, who, through the advice is given, did more harm than persecution or death. Balaam’s name means “to devour the people,” and by his advice to make a compromise between the children of God and the pagan cultures of that time, he even “devoured” the Lord’s people, because compromise with evil is more dangerous than open confrontation with it. This is how the church of Pergamum was confronted with the situation of a mixture of truth and paganism and errors. The Nicolaites also competed in the compromise of truth, and the church, to strengthen its political status, adopted a policy of openness, compromise, and elasticity regarding the spiritual values given by the word of God. The Lord’s urge for the church is that of repentance. [48] The promise to those obedient to God is the hidden manna and the white stone:”To him that overcometh will I give to eat of

the hidden manna, and will give him a white stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no man knoweth saving he that receiveth it.” (Revelation 2,17).

The hidden manna was a reference to the judgment because the manna vessel was laid in the ark, a vessel that according to a Jewish tradition, on the occasion of the Temple’s destruction in the sixth century BC, would have been taken by the prophet Jeremiah and hidden, and the Jews believed that in the time of the end, in Messiah’s time, manna could be consumed again, being thus a promise to the saved, a promise that God would take care of them and give them the Promised Land. The white stone on which a new name is engraved makes a reference to Roman judicial proceedings, in which the verdict was publicly revealed by a white or black stone. The white stone meant acquittal, and the black stone meant condemnation. Thus who are victorious in Pergamum are promised a white stone, that is, they are first told they would be forgiven and absolved of guilt, acquitted, and the new name is the sign of a new beginning with God, of a new life with the Creator. This kind of experience was had by Abraham [49] and Jacob. [50] The followers of the Lord are called to be the Lord’s representatives on Earth, to be the visible sign of the Unseen One. The name Antipas, which means the father’s representative, refers to this type of representation because during the Pergamum church, it loses its mission of representing and bearing the name of the Lord. [51] CONCLUSIONS The followers of the Lord should not forget that they are not alone when they pass through various attempts of faith.

The same Jesus, the Lord, Who has given words of encouragement and hope to the old disciple John, who was facing a difficult situation of persecution, has been, is and

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will be alongside His followers throughout history when passing through various attempts of life. [52] REFERENCES: Ranko Stefanovic, Jon Paulien, Cartea Apocalipsa (The Book of Revelation), trad. Loredana Sîrbu, Pantelimon, Editura Viață și Sănătate, 2018, pp.14,21,36.

[2] Apologeţi de limbă greacă (Greek apologists), Trans, introd, notes T.Bodogae, Olimp Căciulă, D.Fecioru, Bucureşti, Ed. Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al BOR, 1997, pp. 27-28.

[3] Domitian, was a Roman Emperor from the Flavian Dynasty, between 81 and 96 AD. [4] [4]Jean Vuilleumier, Apocalipsul (The Revelation), trad. D.Florea și Șt.Demetescu, Bucureşti, “Graiul literar“ S.A., Institut de Arte Grafice și Editură, f.a., p.9.

[5] Ranko Stefanovic, Jon Paulien, Cartea Apocalipsa (The Book of Revelation)..., p.21.

[6] Revelation 1,1. The word discovery is the translation of the Greek word apokalupsis = to reveal, to discover [7] Ranko Stefanovic, Jon Paulien, Cartea Apocalipsa (The Book of Revelation)...,pp.22-23.

[8] Ibidem, p.15.

[9] Revelation 1,1. KJB [10] Tudor Cosmin Ciocan, “Ludic role of religious rituals. The use of play for religious ceremony”. In „DIALOGO”, Zilina: EDIS - Publishing Institution of the University of Zilina, Slovak Republic.

ISSN-L 2392 – 9928, vol. 2.1 „The 2nd Virtual International Conference on the Dialogue between Science and Theology.

[1]

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Dialogo Conf 2015”, ISBN: 978-80-5541131-6, DOI: 10.18638/dialogo.2015.2.1 (ERIH+, BDI), pp 120-128; [11] Revelation 1,10-15, KJB. Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation), trad. Christian Sălcianu, Pantelimon, Editura Viață și Sănătate, 2013, p. 227.

[12] Ranko Stefanovic, Jon Paulien, Cartea Apocalipsa (The Book of Revelation)..., pp.38-39.

[13] Revelation 1, 14, KJB. Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)…, p. 227.

[14] Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)…, pp. 227-228.

[15] Exodus 12, 11, KJB. Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.228.

[16] Matei 22,32, KJB. Ranko Stefanovic, Jon Paulien, Cartea Apocalipsa (The Book of Revelation)..., p.39.

[17] Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.228.

[18] The preterist interpretation claims that the message in the letters is only for those churches contemporary with John. The idealist or symbolic interpretation claims that the message is addressed to anyone who “has ears to hear what the Spirit says to the churches.”

[19] Revelation 1,16,20, KJB. Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.228.

[20] Iob 38,31-33, KJB. Jacques B. Doukhan,

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Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,pp.228-229.

[21] Talmudul babilonian, Șabbat 53b, în Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)…, p.229.

[22] Daniel 2, 27-28,37,44-45, KJB. Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.229.

[23] Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.229. The 7 Days of Creation. Genesis 1-2; the Feast of Unleavened Bread - for 7 days, Exodus 34,18, KJB; sacrifices for 7 days, Lev.23,36, KJB; seven lambs as sacrifices, Numbers 28,11,19,27, KJB. [24] Colosians 1,2; 4,13, KJB. [25] Samuel P. Tregelles (ed.), Canon Muratorianus, The Earliest Catalogue of the Books of tne New Testament, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1867, pp. 19,45.

[26] Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.229.

[27] Ibidem, p.230.

[28] Ibidem, p.230.

[29] Ibidem, pp.230-231; Ranko Stefanovic, Jon Paulien, Cartea Apocalipsa (The Book of Revelation)…, p.41.

[30] Ranko Stefanovic, Jon Paulien, Cartea Apocalipsa (The Book of Revelation)...,pp.41-42 [31] Ibidem. See also Stelian Manolache, Provocările Gnosei şi gnosticismului în câteva lucrări filosofico-teologice în primele secole creştine, Braşov, Editura Universităţii Transilvania, 2014.

Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.231.

[33] Ibidem.

[34] “And the saying pleased the whole multitude: and they chose Stephen, a man full of faith and of the Holy Ghost, and Philip, and Prochorus, and Nicanor, and Timon, and Parmenas, and Nicolas a proselyte of Antioch: Whom they set before the apostles: and when they had prayed, they laid their hands on them.”

Acts 6, 5-6, KJB. [35] Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,pp.231-232.

See also Stelian Manolache, Dualismul gnostic şi maniheic din perspecivă teologică, Braşov, Editura Universităţii Transilvania, 2000.

[36] Ibidem, p. 232.

[37] Ibidem, pp. 232-233.

[38] Revelation 2, 9, KJB. Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.233. It is believed that Nero set fire on Rome on the night of 18/19 July in 64 AD. considering Rome as a city that had to be totally rebuild, wanting to build a new city to bare his name, Neropolis.

[39] h t t p : / / z i a r u l l u m i n a . r o / p e r s e c u t i a imparatului-decius-asupracrestinilor-79798.html ; Accesed February 12, 2019.

[40] [ 4 0 ] h t t p s : / / r o . o r t h o d o x w i k i . o r g / Persecuții_împotriva_creștinilor_(epoca_ antică) ; Accesed February 12, 2019.

[41] Revelation 2,10, KJB. [42] The edict was a normative act, a law passed by the Emperor or a high-level [32]

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magistrate with general applicability throughout the empire, while the rescript, which was given by the local governors, had local applicability.

[43] Donald Kagan, Steven E.Ozment, Frank M.Turner, The Western Heritage, ed. a 3-a, New York, Macmillan,1987, pp.191192.

[44] Daniel 1, 14-15, KJB. [45] Mișna, Aboth, 5,1-9, în Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa(The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.234.

[46] Revelation 2, 10, KJB. [47] Franz Cumont, Etudes syriennes, Paris, A Picard, 1917, p. 63, ș.u., în Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,p.234.

[48] Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,pp.235-236.

[49] Ibidem, pp.236-237.

[50] Avram = Avraam; Iacov = Israel. See and Cosmin-Tudor CIOCAN, “God’s immanency in Abraham’s response to revelation: from providence to omnipresence”, in „DIALOGO”, Zilina: EDIS - Publishing Institution of the University of Zilina, Slovak Republic, April 2016. ISSN-L 2392 – 9928, vol.

2.2 „The concepts of “transcendence” and “immanence” in Philosophy and Theology. Dialogo Conf 2016 TIPT”, ISBN: 978-80-554-1208-5, DOI: 10.18638/dialogo.2015.2.2.15 (ISI Proceedings), pp 174-182; [51] Jacques B. Doukhan, Enigmele Bibliei – Daniel și Apocalipsa (The Bible Enigmas - Daniel and Revelation)...,pp.237.

[52] Ranko Stefanovic, Jon Paulien, Cartea

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Apocalipsa (The Book of Revelation)..., p.37.

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New Philosophical Approach in Understanding the Context Through Application of Theory of Probabilities in Construction of the Meaning Ahed J Alkhatib, PhD

Department of Legal Medicine, Toxicology of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Science and Technology Jordan

Oleg Ju. Latyshev, PhD

International Mariinskaya Academy, M.D. Shapovalenko, , Moscow Russia

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 1 June 2019 Received in revised form 09 May Accepted 11 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.7

The present study tries to philosophically approach the context through the application of the concept of probability in the construction of the meaning. Actually, the semantic stimulates many meanings depending on the general awareness level of the receiver.

In this area, we may wonder if the receiver can exactly understand the real semantic as meant by the sender. We may ask a philosophical question here, “is it possible to transfer the meaning or the semantic objectively?” My suggestion is that when the semantic, as a signal here, has been detected by our brains, it is going to be filtered and reformed again. We may argue that this is the real meaning, or this is our perception.

Within our minds, we create our perceptions, and awareness levels are generated accordingly. In this context, we would like to include the concept of probability to formulate the meaning. In other words, in the mental space, there are large numbers of entities that have relative importance in our minds. This importance is characterized by being not constant among persons, and varied even for the same person based on his psychological state, educational level, and life experience.

We would like to put focus on the concept of ambivalence. I think personally that the ambivalence is hypothesized within the mental space more than being a reality.

The probabilities by which the meaning rotates around the axis of semantics would determine for what extent we are going to form our perception. This understanding defines our philosophy in judging things.

In this study, we think that ambivalence is not necessarily available and can be understood as different entities in our mental spaces. I believe that we can have a better understanding of religious books because the text stimulates many entities in the mental area of the reader. The probabilities of constructing the meanings are widely occurring, which may lead to ambivalences depending on how the receiver can understand or formulate his mental space. Accordingly, implementing this approach will make the text alive.

Keywords: philosophy; meaning; construction; mental space; probability; theory; text;

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I. Mean construction as stimulated by

II. Ambivalence from philosophy and

Human language has a broad scope of cognition through the process of combination of words to create a large number of newly complicated expression [1]. Our brains mediate the process of mean construction through two mechanisms: evaluating the resulting mean of different words when combined together, and to recover the abstract beyond the resulting expressions. In this context, these processes identified the aspects of linguistics, such as semantics and syntax. Semantic composition implies the resulting expressions from combinations of words [2]. On the other hand, syntactic computations are concerned with the implementation of principles underlying the formation of the architecture of the abstract of the expressions [3].

From a neurolinguistic point of view, trials have been input to employ semantic composition and syntactic computations within the context of full sentences [4].

Semantic composition can be examined through various approaches such as changing the semantic load within the sentences based on the use of real or pseudowords to lower the information of semantics [5-7], through induction of changes in semantic complexity in order to create semantic complexity to compare short sentences with longer sentences or narratives [7-9], or through the assessment of semantic reason within a specific context [10-12].

Several studies have argued that syntactic computations are mainly examined through comparing sentences to word lists that have no syntactic information [5-9], [13], through comparing various levels of syntactic complexity [14, 15], by focusing on syntactic errors [16, 17].

Ambivalence is considered as a psychological state that is experienced by people. As a concept, ambivalence is a wellknown concept that lacks its clarity, and it is in hypothesis concerning with social aspects. It is thought that ambivalence may be caused by the following initiatives or reasons: the existence of active forms of positivity and negativity, the presence of attitudes with conflicting nature, the existence of conflicting values with common constraints, and the presence of conflicting reference groups [18].

Ambivalence is experience and interpreted by people as a result of judging objects or events with internal conflicts or mixed feelings [18]. However, ambivalence has been defined as “resulting from the conflicting positive and negative thoughts and feelings that a person holds toward an object” [19]. Ambivalence can also be defined as “a psychological state caused by contrasting evaluative orientations toward an object, which influences an individual’s decision-making or behaviors” [18-23].

The possibility of having a relationship between intra-personal ambivalence and interpersonal conflicts has been investigated

by Priester and Petty [19], who found that a high level of intra-personal ambivalence could result from a gap between the perception of an individual and the perception of individuals about the perception of others regarding an object. From another point of view, other researchers associated social aspects of ambivalence with inter-attitudinal inconsistency [24-25].

From a language point of view, ambivalence may emerge to present the various engagements of life. However, it is a concept that we may derive in our minds to reflect opposite functions of language [26].

semantics

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language perspectives

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III. Our philosophical perspectives

We think that there is a semantic space that has been created as an experience abstracted from life from one side and as a consequence of accumulative knowledge, cultural aspects, education, and situations that may leave symbolic stimuli. All these aspects have their existence in our minds and interact to make infinite numbers of pictures. We think that our daily living experiences can be presented as individual entities in our mental space. One semantic may stimulate a large number of these entities. All semantic entities exist in mental space as a near and far approach. In other words, according to some conditions such as psychological states, educational level, and current circumstances, there is a substantial probability that the nearest entities are going to compete to create the pictures and make the meaning. As an example, the word “car” will make many competing entities to make pictures and meaning. A person may look to a car as a vehicle, and the function of the car is more important than the market of the car. In the mind of another person, a good car is important. A large number of probabilities will arise by just saying the word “car”.

In the brain, the semantics are regulated as main folder with associated subfolders.

These folders can follow linear patterns and functional patterns in which can interact with other semantic patterns, which are related according to certain conditions. As an illustrating example, when I say “teacher X”, there are many probabilities to form related pictures. Personally speaking, this teacher is a good teacher, with good scientific capabilities, can distinguish good from bad students, based on the consideration that I am a good student. For another student, the same teacher is not good, he has an ego, and he is not a tolerable teacher. This is a perspective of bad student. What will happen of both of us will judge that teacher?

from common shared experience; we may look for pragmatic perspectives in which a picture will be acquired from both semantic fields to make a moderate picture about our teacher. It is obvious that ambivalence is a probability that is temporarily formulated and can be changed.

The matters can be more complicated when the semantic cannot have a picture. May words in this context can be understood without having signs associated with them. As an example, there is no sign associated definitely with bravery, generosity, stinginess, etc. This type of words has been conceptualized in the mind as special entities. Many pictures are going to be made in our minds when the word “bravery” is mentioned based on the individualized experience of the person.

Ambivalence is likely to be encountered accordingly. Again, I would like to make a focus that ambivalence is a matter of conception rather than logic. At a certain point, you may describe a person as bravery because he is ready to fight until achieving a goal, although he pays a high price for that from his life!! From another perspective, the bravery may be stupidity if the goal is not worthy. It is a matter of probability to select from your mental space a field of probabilities and to judge according to your perception.

From a theology point of view, all religions have made pictures of “God.” God in the mental space has different meanings, including “Creator, giver, thinker, father, etc.” I think that we do not know the reality of our God and this picture is formulated according to our psychological state if we are in need, we want the God to be a giver, and so on.

It is worth to mention that holy texts in many situations have open sentences that permit continuous explanations over time. We think that the semantic space is expanded as the humanity increases its

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knowledge and literature, which implies that the religions may compete with increased humanitarian awareness and promotes the religious objectives such as keeping internal peace through good relationship with God. Conclusion The present study tries to philosophically approach the context through the application of the concept of probability in the construction of the meaning. We showed our perception that the semantic space has many pictures of words that can be formulated to construct the meaning.

The context determines the meaning rather than the words. We also showed that ambivalence is almost a concept rather than a reality. The psychological state gives a preference to make a probability more living existence in our minds than other minor probabilities.

References [1]

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Marianne Schell, Emiliano Zaccarella, Angela D. Friederici. Differential cortical contribution of syntax and semantics: An fMRI study on two-word phrasal processing. Cortex, 2017, 96, 105-120.

Hauser, M. D., Chomsky, N., Fitch, W. T. The faculty of language: What is it, who has it, and how did it evolve? Science, 2002, 298(5598), 1569-1579. https://doi.org/10.1126/ science.298.5598.1569.

Chomsky, N. The minimalist program.

Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 1995.

Friederici, A. D. The brain basis of language processing from structure to function.

Physiological Reviews, 2011. 91, 1357-1392.

Humphries, C., Binder, J. R., Medler, D. A., Liebenthal, E. Syntactic and semantic modulation of neural activity during auditory sentence comprehension. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2006, 18(4), 665-679. https:// doi.org/10.1162/ jocn.2006.18.4.665.

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Mazoyer, B. M., Tzourio, N., Frak, V., Syrota, A., Murayama, N., Levrier, O., et al. (1993).

The cortical representation of speech. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 5(4), 467e479. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1993.5.4.467.

[7] Pallier, C., Devauchelle, A. D., Dehaene, S. (2011). Cortical representation of the constituent structure of sentences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2011, 108(6), 2522e2527. https://doi.org/10.1073/ pnas.

1018711108.

[8] Stowe, L. A., Broere, C. A., Paans, A. M., Wijers, A. A., Mulder, G., Vaalburg, W., et al. Localizing components of a complex task: Sentence processing and working memory.

NeuroReport, 1998, 9(13), 2995-2999. https:// doi.org/10.1097/ 00001756-19980914000014.

[9] Xu, J., Kemeny, S., Park, G., Frattali, C., Braun, A. Language in context: Emergent features of word, sentence, and narrative comprehension.

NeuroImage, 2005; 25(3), 1002-1015. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.12.013.

[10] Newman, S. D., Ikuta, T., Burns, T., Jr. The effect of semantic relatedness on syntactic analysis: An fMRI study. Brain and Language, 2010, 113(2), 51-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.bandl.2010.02.001.

[11] Zhu, Z., Feng, G., Zhang, J. X., Li, G., Li, H., Wang, S. The role of the left prefrontal cortex in sentence-level semantic integration.

NeuroImage, 2013; 76, 325-331. https://doi. org/10.1016/ j.neuroimage.2013.02.060.

[12] Zhu, Z., Zhang, J. X., Wang, S., Xiao, Z., Huang, J., Chen, H. C. Involvement of left inferior frontal gyrus in sentencelevel semantic integration. NeuroImage, 2009, 47(2), 756-763. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j. neuroimage.2009.04.086.

[13] Friederici, A. D., Meyer, M., Von Cramon, D. Y. Auditory language comprehension: An event-related fMRI study on the processing of syntactic and lexical information. Brain and Language, 2000, 74(2), 289-300. https://doi. org/10.1006/ brln.2000.2438.

[14] Bornkessel, I., Zysset, S., Friederici, A. D., von Cramon, D. Y., Schlesewsky, M. Who did what to whom? The neural basis of argument hierarchies during language comprehension.

[6]

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NeuroImage, 2005, 26(1), 221-233. https:// doi.org/ 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.01.032.

[15] Makuuchi, M., Bahlmann, J., Anwander, A., & Friederici, A. D.. Segregating the core computational faculty of human language from working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2009, 106(20), 8362-8367. https://doi.org/ 10.1073/ pnas.0810928106.

[16] Friederici, A. D., Ruschemeyer, S. A., Hahne, A., & Fiebach, C. J. The role of left inferior frontal and superior temporal cortex in sentence comprehension: Localizing syntactic and semantic processes. Cerebral Cortex, 2003, 13(2), 170-177. https:// doi. org/10.1093/cercor/13.2.170.

[17] Vandenberghe, R., Nobre, A. C., & Price, C. J. The response of left temporal cortex to sentences. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2002, 14(4), 550-560. https://doi.org/10.1162/ 08989290260045800.

[18] Young Min Baek. An integrative model of ambivalence. The Social Science Journal, 2010, 47, 609–629.

[19] Priester, J. R., Petty, R. E. (2001). Extending the bases of subjective attitudinal ambivalence: Interpersonal and intrapersonal antecedents of evaluative tension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2001, 80(1): 19–34.

[20] Converse, P. E.. The nature of belief systems in mass publics. In D. E. Apter (Ed.), Ideology and discontent (pp. 206–261). New York, NY: Free Press, 1964.

[21] Kaplan, K. J. On the ambivalence-indifference problem in attitude theory and measurement: A suggested modificajtion of the semantic differential technique. Psychological Bulletin, 1972, 77(5), 361–372.

[22] Merton, R. K. Sociological ambivalence and other essays. New York: The Free Press, 1976.

[23] Zaller, J. R. The nature and origins of mass opinion. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

[24] Huckfeldt, R., Mendez, J. M., Osborn, T. Disagreement, ambivalence, and engagement: The political consequences of heterogeneous networks. Political Psychology, 2004; 25(1), 65–95.

[25] Mutz, D. C. Hearing the other side: deliberative

versus participatory democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

[26] Hili Razinsky. A Live Language: Concreteness, Openness, Ambivalence. Croatian Journal of Philosophy, 2015, XV (43), 51-65.

Biographies:

Dr. Ahed Alkhatib has finished his PhD from Campbell State University in 2011. I am currently working as a clinical researcher at faculty of medicine, Jordan University of Science and technology. Over the time, I have published more than 200 articles in various medical fields including neurosciences, pharmacology, and diabetes. My approaches in research include the involvement of philosophy of science in research which gives looking, and thinking in depth. I have developed several hypotheses in medicine such as the role of white matter in initiating diseases such as diabetes. In microbiology, I have demonstrated that prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are similar in producing cell cycle proteins which can participate in autoimmunity diseases. For the time being, I am more interested in setting more medical hypotheses, and writing book in different fields, of which two books have already been written and distributed in the world market. I am working to establish a new science “molecular sociology”, and published two articles in this field and working to write a new book in this field to put its fundamentals. I have recently joined International Mariinskaya Academy.

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Oleg Ju. Latyshev President of International Mariinskaya Academy n.a. M.D. Shapovalenko, Moscow, Russia. https:// www.researchgate.net/lab/INTERNATIONALMARIINSKAYA-ACADEMY-named-after-MDS H A P O VA L E N K O - O l e g - Yu r e v i c h - L a t y s h e v Professor and member of expert council of Russian Academy of natural history, Doctor of Science, Honoris Causa of International Academy of natural history (ScD h.c. IANH), Candidate of philological sciences (PhD), Academician of International Academies of social technologies (IAST), natural history (UANH), youth tourism and local history (IAYTLH), Corresponding member of International Academy of psychological sciences (IAPS), Emeritus member of the International Scientific and Advisory Committee (ISAC) at the Innovations and Sustainability Academy (ISA), Honored Worker of Science, Technics and Education, member of expert councils and editorial boards of 21 International scientific journals, scientific supervisor and director of Mariinsky Gallery named after M.D. Shapovalenko, Russia, Moscow, expert of ‘ Information for All’, member of Science and Democracy Network (SDN) at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government in Cambridge, MA. http://sts.hks.harvard.edu/about/sdn.htmlhttp://sts.hks. harvard.edu/sdn

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Section 3

Religious violence

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DIALOGO JOURNAL 5 : 2 (2019) 103 - 112

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This paper was presented in the

Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, (DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW)

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The Theological Trap Prof. Bruno Marchal, PhD Université Libre de Bruxelles Belgium

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 03 June 2019 Received in revised form 8 May Accepted 10 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.8

I explain why theology and the spiritual research are always near a fatal trap which is intrinsic to their subject matter, and why religion can easily lead to pseudo-science and pseudo-religion, leading itself toward hate, war, and misery.

I suggest how we might be able to prevent this. I have to warn that such prevention can, of course, be misused by dishonest or excessively naïve people with motivations usually unrelated to religion, but related to empowering themselves.

Warning: I might wander very near that theological trap. Serious religion is, by its very nature, a voyage near death, or near inconsistency.

Keywords: racism; antisemitism; theological trap; blasphemy; illumination; universal machine’s theology; human’s theology; Gödel-Löb-Solovay’s provability logics G and G*; belief; knowledge; faith;

© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. Incomprehensible misdeeds

Why is religion sometimes source, at least in appearance, of conflicts and wars?

Many religions, both on the Aristotelian (materialist) side and on the Platonician side, seem to assume that God is Good.

This leads to the problem of Evil, which is a very complicated problem. But it also leads more strikingly so, to the issue of the evil which is apparently *due* to the religion(s), like in the many conflicts which have existed between Catholics and Protestants, or between the Islamic Sunnites and Shiites,

etc.

How is it possible that some leaders in some institutionalized religion can fail their disciples by very grave misdoing, going from justifying murder, like with the Iranian Mollah, or hiding acts of harassment and pedophilia, like with the Catholic Clergy, or like in some Masonic Lodges?

In this short paper, I will argue that the problem is due to the subtle relation between science and faith, leading to fake religion, or fake religious attitude. I will explain that the problem is due mainly by

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the lack of dialog between science and religion, if not coming from the historical separation of science and theology, and confusion between science and its subject.

In 529, Justinian’s closure of Plato Academy has seen the beginning of the oppression of the pagan or laïc theologians, mainly of the neoplatonicians who will take refuge in the Middle-East, where Neoplatonism will lead the Jews and Muslims to an Enlightened period. But, unfortunately, Islam will itself succumbs to authoritarianism when, in 1248, Al Ghazali “won” his debate against Averroès.

Averroès defended the principle according to which we have to submit the (Sacred) Text(s) to Reason, and Al Ghazali defended the idea that Reason must be submitted to the Text.

That has driven Islam from the light to the darkness, except for a minority of schools, like the Maʿtazilites, who defended rationalism as well as a logical reading of the Quran, with a constant interest in the problem of the source of Evil, or the Bektashi Muslims (13th century), also closer to the rationalist, which will influence the Shia Muslims. I learned recently that the Muslim Bektashi has saved all the jews of Albania (200) during WW II, as well as many Jews and homosexuals refugees, confirming my present thesis that the Evil, when coming by a self-called religious group, comes from the separation of Reason from theology.

How could someone who claims to believe in God, lack so much trust in God’s mean to get imbued with the idea that they need to convert the others by force, violence, and authoritative argument? Those who use argument per violence surely does not really believe in God’s power, as they would trust Him/It/Her for the advertising, it seems to me.

How could the ancestral religious tradition, based on the mystical experiences and its promotions, become forbidden Session 3. Religious violence

by so much religious clerics (explicitly or implicitly)?

How could religion, which should be the noblest part of the human activity, slips into a witch hunt, and into hate of the others?

How could anyone separate Reason and Faith, if not by a feeling that they oppose themselves, like if God and Truth were not on the same side?

Did the Jews felt in the trap? From Moses to Maimonides? Maimonides is close, intellectually to Averroès, that he discovered in its old age, mentioning it favorably in its Guide (see 4). This probably helped the Jews not to fell in the trap of authoritarianism. Orthodox Jews still get involved in normative, per-authority, commands, but at least they apply it to their community, with few willing to impose such norms universally.

How could religious people call, in the name of their religion, for the murders, including the murders of Kids and Mothers?

To take a strikingly hot example, how could the religious world be silent on the Nazi foundation of the “Palestinian movement,” when all the documents show that two notorious Nazis created it; Himmler and Al Husseini, the great mufti of Jerusalem? How and why was not Al Husseini be judged at Nuremberg?

The conflict in the Middle East is not a war against Muslims, nor against Arabs, but obviously a war against Nazis, a continuation of WW II, directly related to the germane nazis, but taking some fuel from the literal interpretation of the second part of the Quran.

How could any religious person not informed itself and others, and try by all means to prevent such horror to happen again? How could antisemitism come back, in 2019, after the Shoah and Rwanda?

How could anyone defend the Prohibition of Medication, to consider another insidious

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form of ‘fake religion” when all the information which is easily available today (mixed with many lies too, alas) shows that it was due to a collision of Racism (against Mexican, in the US) and the private interest of some corporations, perhaps allied with the pseudo-religious fear of the psychotropic experience, if not of all mystic experiences, which we have been habitude by 1500 years of dogma in theology?

All those misdeeds around religion, which should perhaps better named with the term “pseudo-religion,” have given rise to the idea that religion is only an opium for people, which surely can be when Reason is separated from faith.

To separate faith and reason seems to be an invitation to blind faith, which is easily exploited by the unscrupulous liars, exploiters of fears and other manipulators.

Then there is atheism, which I would describe, undiplomatically, as the worst religion possible, at least in its strong, non agnostic version. They defend the same conception of God as the most naïve and the most literalist Christians if only to deny its existence (which is rather strange), and they take for granted the “second god” of Aristotle: a primary material physical universe. In Europa, they can even become more clerical than the Church, in the frame of some Masonic lodges, copying the Christian rituals, and above all, threatening their members for any show of skepticism or critics, using defamation and moral harassment as the main technics.

Worst, they claim that their position is the only one available from science. In fact, they are at the origin of the label “scientific materialism”. Needless to say, at least for those who know a bit of the theology of the machine, that is not a scientific attitude.

No scientist would ever use the ”scientific” label to describe any position: it is *the* basic symptom of the pseudo-science.

Their position comes from a confusion

between the physical science and the physicalist position in metaphysics/ theology. This confusion comes from the fact that we are naturally inclined to taking very seriously our physical environment if only to distinguish the prey and the predators, and so to enhance our chance of surviving. But it makes a tabula rasa of a millennium of Platonic doubt/science, from Pythagoras (about -500) to Damascus (about +500), from which the physical science and mathematics were born.

To be sure, Pythagoras will anticipate the whole thing: from the deep relation between scientific theology and mathematics to the superstitions, dogmas, and elitism, even to the secret societies. Unfortunately, we don’t have enough documents to analyze this further at this stage.

Einstein has clearly encountered those dogmatic atheists, as he illustrated once (see 3): <<I was barked at by numerous dogs who are earning their food guarding ignorance and superstition for the benefit of those who profit from it. Then there are the fanatical atheists whose intolerance is of the same kind as the intolerance of the religious fanatics and comes from the same source. They are like slaves who are still feeling the weight of their chain which they have thrown off after hard struggle. They are creatures who – in their grudge against the traditional “opium for people” – can not bear the music of the spheres. The Wonder of nature does not become smaller because one cannot measure it by the standards of human moral and humans aims.>> Einstein is a rare physicist aware that physicalism is a religious position that he adopted. He was wrong, concerning the mechanism, as the existence of the appearance of the universe is fully explained by the theology of the universal machine, that both Einstein and Gödel missed. But he was just honest, I mean rigorous, enough to

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acknowledge its ignorance.

But physicalism and materialism is a “recent intellectual metaphysical position.

At the time of Plato, about two centuries after Pythagoras, a Mathematician was a metaphysician doubting that reality should necessarily be what we see/observe/ measure. Of course, Platonism is the very idea that what we see/observe/measure is only the border, or the projection of a more profound, yet more straightforward, reality, like the Pythagoreans and the Neopythagoreans as well as the NeoPlatonicians intuited well.

In fact, the current debate God/no-God, like so much discussed in today’s social media, seems really like a fake debate among Aristotelian Materialist made to hide the original debate which was about the primitive nature, or not primitive nature, of the Physical Universe. Originally, when used by scientists, the term “god,” among theologian (Plato coined the term “theology”) was for denoting the ultimate truth that we search, with an understanding that it is above us, transcendental, reminding us to stay modest.

In that way, atheism is an ally to the authoritarianism of the (pseudo) religions.

By mocking and insulting the idea to come back to using Reason, and its implied Modesty, in theology, they defend a sort of status quo, and they leave what should be, by definition, the most fundamental science, the study or reality, and its nature, in the hand of the con men.

They are obviously not aware of the internal debate between the Christian theologian, and of the fact that, like with the USSR dissidents, some theologian fight against that authorianism from inside the institution, sometimes just by writing excellent book on Neoplatonism, like Jean Trouillard, in which I discover and get the taste for Plato, Plotinus, and Proclus (see 7), to name just one.

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Atheism is also in large part responsible of the Post-Modern Relativisme, and its political correctness, with the idea that we have the right to believe what we want, and that everybody is true, as there is no more any absolute truth, when we take such position.

This lead to the problem of tolerance, see 1 for a relevant paper in our setting). This lead notably to the tolerance of intolerance, like when some people defend the right of using the veil by Muslim women, without realizing that some interpret this Muslims as a right to impose the veil to women.

I have often asked Muslim women to unveil themselves one day each week, to assure us that it is indeed a right and not an obligation, but with no avail, and the message has never gone through, and be listened, or only as a sort of joke. Yet, the veil has really appeared only after Iran becomes an Islamic Republic. It is not typically Muslims. The Quran requires some decency, but the veil, and its obligation only came recently and has become a subtle vindication for the tolerance of a form of intolerance, notably a sort of vindication of male superiority with respect to woman. It looks like all our fight for freedom is thrown away by the “freedom of killing freedom”, and our developed societies seems to be sawing the branch on which we are sitting.

Tolerance seems good. Keeping a secret under torture seems virtuous. Not harassing your neighbors for his thought seems good.

But who would, when traveling by air, tolerate pilot who believes that clouds are elephants?

Do we have really the right to believe what we want to believe?

Now, I think that all this, i.e. pseudoreligion, pseudo-science, and atheism, results mainly from the separation of theology from science. It does not come from the institutionalization of a religion per se, nor from the community of believers, but from the tolerance of authoritative

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arguments in the field.

Somehow, Alan Watts (see 8) gave a hint toward the solution, when he said that a preacher can say what he wants to say, as long as he is able to blink. Illustration of humor, and the ability to not taking oneself too much seriously, and to take some distance with literal interpretations, searching the deep meaning in the allegories and parabola, inviting the audience to questioning and personal research, can only help.

Nevertheless, that is not simple, and paradoxically, the more a member of a cult is enlightened, the more the task becomes complex. In Zen Buddhism, it is said that the first nine steps toward illumination is easy, compared to the last step, which is the coming back in the Village.

There can be a sincere will to transmit the serine divine joy of the religious experience, to share the inconceivable freedom that such an experience offers, which indeed, should make anyone dubious of any selfdeclared authority. And this can lead the more or less enlightened person to some frustration.

And this is even more true, for weak enlightenment, which is only an invitation to go further, well beyond the bound of the ego and its immediate environment, and if the audience is no spiritually mature, some of its members might get the enthusiasm, but transmit only the shadow of what it meant.

Then will come the parrots who repeat without understanding, and eventually, the Dogma, which announces the hate for those who doubt, or interprets texts and the experience reports differently. Once the dogma is there, eventually the experiences and the personal research are forbidden, and the religion becomes only the shadow of what it was there for.

I have already explained how the selfreferentially correct machine, which can be seen as a mathematical idealization,

solves, habit drastically, the problem. The enlighten machine just remains mute on all the personal revelations.

She knows that the truth found “there” becomes lies when asserted “here”. But that solution is at the opposite of a perceived goal of religion, which escapes theology as such, which is to help the others to go “there”, or to develop some trust in what is “there”. Here, the solution might be in following, as much as possible the following ideas: - bring back theology to science - improve as much as possible Education, especially of the fundamentals: arithmetic, history (including the history of religion), geography, and some essential classical language(s). (Latin, or Greek, or Sanskrit, of Classical Chinese, or Hebrew, Arab, etc.), for a good humanistic base.

- allow all types of nonviolent communities, as long as it does not force people to believe anything, - this one will be controversial: allow any (safe) technic to be used to get a mystical experience (like the Tabernanthe iboga initiation in the (syncretist) Christian Bwiti religion, or the Mazatec Ska Pastora, i.e.

Salvia divinorum, which made possible to encounter the “Virgin Mary”, according to their vocabulary used after their syncretist “Christianisation”), or by the use of logic and the study of machine theology (a branch of mathematical logic, even historically (see 2).

- teach, perhaps, the ABC of the universal machine theology (of course, without ever asserting that it is true or that it applies to us). This could help to understand that some truth goes *only* without saying.

In the appendix which follows, I link, for the mathematically included reader with the theology of the machine, which has inspired the text above.

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II. Appendix, or the mathematical

sources

A. The theology of the arithmetically sound

universal machine, and the logical reason of the theological trap.

In my papers (see 5, 6 and references therein), I explain in details how the universal machine is already aware of a possible theological trap. The frontier between Enlightenment and Blasphemy is fragile, making almost obvious why half-illuminated beings can slip into an authoritarian attitude, especially through the misunderstanding by the possible disciples or followers of the message conveyed.

Let me sum up a bit of the theology of machine. It is a Neoplatonist type of theology, where from our vantage “outsider position”, when we study the rich, but already Löbian, machine. A “Löbian machine” is a universal machine ware of its universality, like any machine willing to accept the Peano Arithmetic axioms (PA) or the axioms of Zermelo-Fraenkel Set Theory (ZF).

I say that a machine, or some number describing it in arithmetic, believes a proposition p if the machine asserts p. We can say that PA, or ZF, believes “2+2=4”, for example.

I limit myself to machine which believes in sufficiently many arithmetical propositions, and whose set of beliefs is closed for the modus ponies rule, and which believes in the induction axioms, i.e. all proposition asserting that if some predicate P (definable in the machine’s language) is verified by 0, and if it is verified that for all number n we have P(n) -> P(n+1), then it is verified by all numbers. It has been shown that such machine, as long as they remain sound (or just consistent) will obey to the theology of the machine, that is: the modal logic G and

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G*. Those are typical Löbian Machines.

G axiomatises what the machine can prove about the logic of its provability predicate, and G* axiomatises what is true about that predicate, including what is not provable. G* extends G. G can be seen as the scientifically communicable part of the theology, which I identify with science, G* is the theology itself, and G* minus G is the proper divine non rationally justifiable part, that all enough rich and sound machine can “scientifically” attribute to simple sound machines, but, importantly, can never attribute to itself in any normative way. This is consistent thanks to the fact that no consistent or sound machine can prove or even assert (or take as an axiom) its own consistency, still less its own soundness (which is not even definable by the machine).

Incompleteness entails that the machine is unable to prove its consistency—the non provability of the false, that is, with the modal notations: ~[]f, i.e. []f -> f. Nor can the sound Löbian machine proves []p -> <>p, etc. This makes possible to define, actually “meta-define” new modal boxes, as illustrated below. They are literally imposed by the incompleteness phenomenon.

Let me give first the four main neopythagorean/neoplatonician “hypostases”, but their split is a precision given by the universal machine already.

Those hypostases are modes of the selfreference implied by incompleteness.

1) THE ONE, 2) & 3) THE TERRESTRIAL INTELLIGIBLE and THE DIVINE INTELLIGIBLE 4) THE SOUL, and the four “material” hypostases: 5) & 6) THE TERRESTRIAL INTELLIGIBLE MATTER, and the DIVINE TERRESTRIAL MATTER 7) & 8) THE TERRESTRIAL SENSIBLE

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MATTER, and the DIVINE SENSIBLE MATTER. We will not be concerned with the material hypostases here. In the theology, or better, the meta-theology of the sound machine, the ONE, also called God, or the “Outer-God” is played by the notion of Truth. The machine cannot describe such self-encompassing truth in its language, by a theorem of Tarski. The machine can describe many approximations of it, but cannot name or define it in any way which would encompass all the truth about itself (in whatever mode of the self). Once named, the machine becomes inconsistent, or it becomes a new machine, with a new richer conception of truth, which remains still nondefinable, and the same G* theology applies.

This is inherited by consciousness, both the mundane terrestrial consciousness and a fortiori for the mystical, or altered and dissociative form of consciousness.

The TERRESTRIAL INTELLIGIBLE is what Plotinus called the discursive reasoner.

It is the one doing the whole discourse.

It is Plotinus “man”, and it is played here by the machine itself, or its probability (arithmetical) predicate, i.e. the Gödel famous “beweisbar” predicate. The DIVINE INTELLIGIBLE is Plato’s Noùs, I.e. the world of ideas. It extends the discursive reasoner with a set of true but non-provable/ assertable proposition. “Divine” here is simply “true”, like in Hirchberger’s short summary of Plato’s notion of God. The arithmetical definition, written using the modal abbreviations is, with p an arbitrary arithmetical proposition: 1) p (the assertative truth of p) 2) & 3) []p 3) []p & p (cf Theaetetus) 4) & 5) []p & <>t 6) and 7) []p & <>t & p

“<>t” is an abbreviation for consistency of “1 = 1”,, or of a constant truth t (and f is the constant false), (self)-consistency is <>t = ~[]~t = ~[]f. Typically G does not prove <>t, but G* proves it (the consistent machine cannot prove its own consistency, note that G proves <>t -> ~[]<>t, so the machine somehow proves the consistency of the lies ([]f) conditionalized by its consistency: if I am consistent then I cannot prove my consistency. This is mainly the formalization of Gödel’s second incompleteness theorem).

The hypostases 2), 4) and 6) split in two because the logic G* differentiate them. For example, []t & <>t is undoubtedly true (as we limit ourself to sound machines), but is not provable by the machine itself, so “[] t & <>t” (the “observable truth”) is not rationally justifiable. p’s arithmetical interpretation will be limited to the sigma_1 propositions, which asserts the existence of some number having a verifiable/testable/provable property (ExP(x) with P decidable). This will make it possible to restrict ourself to the machine’s Mechanist theology, as I will explain below.

B. The theological trap and the falling souls

The theological trap is also the explanation of why machines sin and why their soul falls in the trap, and this can also explain the reason why the soul will generate the illusion of matter and the genuinely real suffering, but all this can also provide some possible means to reduce the suffering and develop a sort of love for the others.

From the abstract realm of the immaterial machine, where we truly live (assuming Mechanism) comes very concrete ethics, modesty, and harm reduction.

As I said, the trap is when the machine says something true, but not assertable. We have just seen an example. If a consistent

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machine asserts its own consistency, it becomes inconsistent, and this is true for all proposition in G* \ G (G* minus G).

The theology above is the machine’s general theology of the machine, this one being mechanist or not. But the machine says more on the theology of the mechanist machine, I.e. the machine which guess (or hope, or fear) that she is a machine. In that case, I have argued with much details that we have to limit the arithmetical interpretation of the self-reference modal logic on the sigma_1 arithmetical proposition.

Those propositions mainly assert the existence of numbers having a decidable property. They are equivalent to sentences having the shape “ExP(x)” with P an arithmetical decidable predicate. For such sigma_1 “p”, the machine which has enough induction axioms can prove “p -> []p”, a formula which I call “1”. Those sentences capture the idea of partial computability: if they are true they are provable, akin to the fact that if a machine stops, we can know that, sooner or later (comfortably installed in Plato Heaven, of course). Albert Visser has extends the arithmetical completeness theorem of Solovay on such arithmetical restriction. This provides the “mechanist” science G1 and theology G1*, obtained from G and G* with the axiom “p->[]p added.

In fact any theory for which p -> []p is true for all sigma_1 p is Turing universal, and when a machine is “rich enough” (in induction power) to prove this for any (sigma_1) p, she knows that she is universal, and knows its theology, yet “meta”-conditionalised on its personal consistency or its soundness.

The beauty is that G1* proves the equivalence of all modes. i.e.: G1* proves p <-> []p <-> ([]p & p) <-> ([]p & <>t) <-> ([]p & <>t & p),

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G1 does only prove a few of them. For an important example, , the machine can prove p -> []p (if the machine concerned has enough induction power, like Peano arithmetic, Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, etc.), but such machine, nor any of its consistent extensions, can ever prove the reciprocal []p -> p, for arbitrary sigma_1 p. In fact, the limited omniscience of the universal machine, endowed in p -> []p, is limited by the fact the machine cannot know its own soundness.

With this, the fundamental “sin” is captured by the equivalence p <-> []p (always with p sigma_1). It is basically a selfidentification with God or the One. The One (assuming mechanism!) knows that this is true, but it belongs to the surrational corona G1* \ G1, and cannot be asserted (neither as a theorem nor as an axiom). Now, the enlightenment experience suggests that equivalence strongly, but if said, it becomes a lie, and it is the beginning of pavement toward concrete inconsistency, and plausibly of suffering. In the case of this ideally sound machine, the theological discourse becomes empty or mute, despite the truth itself is nonempty (as we know by incompleteness). Is the machine obliged to stay empty on this? Not necessarily, as the ideas here can be conveyed by Art, humor, etc., or by conditionalizing the discourse with some meta-hypothesis, with all the well due to precaution. It is that precaution which is thrown away by the tyrants when they want to exploit the religious feeling to impose their ways and to steal the money of the people (and their soul in passing).

Would the coming back of theology in the University prevent this sinful mistake?

Certainly not, as we know that universities and academies are not always immune to the authoritative argument, but it would lighten the problem, and gives the possibility of error recovery and improvement.

We see here that God has in his plan given

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already the means of a dialog between “mechanist science”, G1, and the mechanist theology G1*, by allowing science (reason, G1) to derive the necessary surrational corona, in between the rational (rationally justifiable, provable) and the irrational: G1* \ G1, for simpler machine than itself.

What the machine cannot do is to lift that necessity for itself, and that is why Mechanism has to be a theology, either in the shape of hope, or fear, but not as an axiom, only as a meta-hypothesis, with some acknowledgment that nobody can present that lifting as a necessity.

I sum up Mechanism (Digital Mechanism) often by “YD + CT”, which are for “I say Yes to the digitalist Doctor + the Church-Turing Thesis. The ethic of mechanism is then given by the entire right to say “No” to the doctor, and the obligation to promote the dialogs and to listen to the non-mechanist people, as long as they do not impose their non-mechanist view to others.

Today, atheism has conjuncted materialism and mechanism, and, as I have shown, that leads to either a contradiction or to the elimination of consciousness, conscience, free-will and eventually of the person. What is said here, is that even when we do not have that confusion, the temptation to distort science and especially the theological science, either by asserting falsity on Gods or worst, the truth about God, remains eternally present. It makes the inevitability of the dialog and the critics playing a sort of guardian role to Reason, to keep the human ways toward the divine intact, and free the people of lies and sins on the path of conversion.

Much more could be said, notably that all this makes theology very close to the negative theology of the Greco-Muslim philosophers, and of Maïmonides, and of course of the Neopythagoreans and the neoplatonicians. We just cannot dismiss what has been a millennium of deep and

sincere fundamental inquiries.

Conclusion When we have separated theology from science, we have also separated the human science from the exact science, making not only the human science inexact, and the exact science inhuman, but also making the exact science inexact and the human science inhuman.

If we assume the mechanist hypothesis in cognitive science, which I recall makes both consciousness and matter into essentially non computable realities, we can explain easily where the mistake can easily be made. We are told that it is always fair to tell the truth, and we slip into the idea that saying the truth is always a good idea.

But the theology of the machine explains that this is not the case. A big amount of true propositions cannot be asserted, and the deepest blasphemy comes, not from the lies (which are always bad, and morally condemnable), but from the assertion of genuine truth, which just cannot be asserted, not even taken as hypothesis, like all the arithmetical interpretation of the modal proposition belonging to the surrational part.

The solution is in the coming back of the rational part of theology in science, and the exposition of the danger to assert, at least without much caution and modesty, the proposition belonging to the surrational part of theology, which are given mathematically by the difference between G* and G, or its mechanist version G1* and G1.

Note that the theology of the universal machine is both a branch of pure mathematics, even of Arithmetic, but is also derivable logically from Mechanism, and testable experimentally, because it contains the entire theoretical physics. I predicted quantum physics from it 35 years ago, and concluded that Mechanism is false, before

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realising the physicists were already there.

Nature confirms Mechanism, and refutes physicalism, or the Aristotelian theologies/ metaphysics. This is not always well understood, due to the quasi-unconscious prejudices in this domain, themselves coming from that insidious separation of theology and modesty/science.

In the theology of the universal machine, the religious attitude is the same as the scientific attitude: extreme modesty and humility, the absence of any claim of truth, the extreme open-mindedness, limited by the necessity of the intolerance of the intolerance and of authoritative arguments, yet, conditioned by a faith in the absolute, although this one cannot be named or described, and is mainly first person (singular or plural) private.

Bibliography [1]

[2]

[3] [4] [5]

[6]

[7] [8]

Ciocan, C. T., “Can Tolerance be a valid Premise for Interfaith Dialogue?”, Dialogo Journal, 2018, Vol. 5, pp. 229-234.

Cohen, D. J., Equations from God, Pure Mathematics and Victorian Faith, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2007.

Jammer, M., Einstein and Religion, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1999.

Maïmonide M., Le Guide des Egarés, Editions Verdier, Paris, 1979.

Marchal, B., “The East, the West and the universal machine”, Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology, 2017, Vol. 131, pp.

251-260.

Marchal, B., “Religion, science and theology, similarity and differences”, Dialogo Journal, 2018,, Vol. 5, pp. 205-218.

Trouillard, J., L’Un et l’Âme selon Proclos, Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 1972.

Watts A., The Wisdom of Insecurity, Pantheon Books, a Division of Random House, Inc, 1951.

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Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, (DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW)

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The book of Joshua.

An Orthodox perspective on war Assoc. Prof. Adrian Vasile, PhD Ovidius University of Constanţa Faculty of Orthodox Theology Romania

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 10 April 2019 Received in revised form 2 May Accepted 10 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.9

In the Old Testament, we do not always find texts or histories lacking in violence or war, perhaps because ancient Israel did not enjoy peaceful times. Israel actively participated in various conflicts with neighboring peoples and theologized about that war. Israel, on the other hand, suffered from the war and considered this suffering as directly related to Yahweh’s plans. Israel has grown and developed as a culture and nation in the context of empires whose domination strategies have certainly included war. That is why the Old Testament texts contain the whole range of attitudes and experiences related to war. The Book of Joshua does not transmit historical information, but rather a theological message that God protects the chosen people and provides the guarantee of a fulfilled life, and the condition of fulfilling these promises is linked to absolute fidelity to Yahweh.

Keywords: war; holy war; violent; Canaan; symbol; Joshua; pagan peoples;

© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. INTRODUCTION

The Book of Joshua has an important role for the Jewish tradition, but also inherent typological value in the tradition of the Orthodox Church. From a spiritual perspective, this is a very complex text and difficult to understand for the contemporary man. The Book of Joshua presents a God who urges the faithful Jewish people to war, a God who is angry because of disobedience and who punishes by stoning, a God who orders the mass murder of all the inhabitants of a country to give to those who are faithful to

him. At first glance, The Book of Joshua can be cataloged by the contemporary man as a scenario or activity of an extremist group.

However, the book of Joshua is the bearer of a theological message, of a message that the Christian Church knew how to identify and offer to its faithful believers as spiritual good. Even though God is described as a fearsome warrior, he is nothing more than the protector of his people in a world where war is a continuous reality, so that this protection cannot be perceived otherwise than by the warlike character of divinity.

Similarly, the book of Joshua teaches that

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only the fidelity and responsibility of man in regard to the duties borne before God, that is, his covenant with God, is the measure of knowing God’s fidelity to His promises before man. In this way, far from presenting a tyrannical God who wants to punish his subjects, the Book of Joshua reveals a God who has a partnership with man, whose goodness and fulfillment are desires of God Himself.

In the book of Joshua, God is neither the warrior nor the Canaanite murderer, but the God faithful to the promises made to his people and his guide to the fulfillment of the highest good: to offer an existential space in the shape of a rich country to ensure the survival of the people. The Book of Joshua offers the image of a faithful God and, in the person of Joshua, the typology of the ideal leader of the people.

II. WAR AND VIOLENCE IN THE BOOK OF

JOSHUA

The most troublesome issue of the Israeli war, from the theological perspective, is the literary description of the wars waged by Joshua. The book refers to the unfolding of Israel’s military events in Canaan. Joshua, the military commander of Israel, organizes fight after fight to conquer the country of Canaan in order for it to take possession of the Jewish people. The narrative about this conquest includes elements such as the divine sanction (Joshua 10, 8), divine participation in war (for example, chapter 10), and the consecration of the warriors in the service of Yahweh. Moreover, Joshua’s military strategies include adhering to the Israeli concept of hereman the total banishment (Deuteronomy 7: 16-26). By this principle, a victorious Israel has destroyed everything that breathes, a true genocide of the Canaanite peoples.

Some Bible scholars use the term of holy war when referring to the conquest

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described in Joshua. The holy war presupposes that war itself is sacred and that the choice of war is a divine call and mission. They suggest that this sacred, cultural cult of war emerged only as a subsequent theological reflection on the war or even simply as a literary construction [1]. Indeed, the conquests presented in the book of Joshua must be carefully considered [2]. This is all the more useful because some historical and archaeological research questions its historical precision [3]. Yet it seems that the way of the war in ancient Israel did not follow the scheme of holy war.

Indeed, Israel probably did not practice the holy war on the scale the book of Joshua book implies.

Instead of the term of holy war, many scholars talked about Israel’s dominant attitude toward war, a „Yahweled War”, which also involved an aspect of Yahweh’s power. The power of Yahweh in war seems to have been present in at least three ways.

First, before the battle, certain promises were made, making statements such as: „With the three hundred who have shouted, I will deliver you, and I will give the Midianites into your hands” (Judges 7, 7). Second, the Israelites experienced divine power during the battles. For example, in Judges 7, Ghedeon attacks the enemy with a small number of deliberate Israeli soldiers, which is why he reveals the power of the Lord in victory. Thirdly, the Israelites praised God after the war and attributed Yahweh victory most of the time. In each of these three aspects, the Israelites invoked Yahweh’s name to justify military conflicts. No matter how people act, battles are won and lost according to the power and will of Yahweh.

Thus, we can see that the Old Testament generally presents war scenes, and especially that the book of Joshua is marked by violence. We must mention that the Israelites have orally passed on all these events until they were written, and also many voices

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influenced Israel’s religious traditions. The Old Testament, on the other hand, has also antithetic texts as to the theology of the book of Joshua. For example, Isaiah’s call (Isaiah 2, 4) and Micheia (Micaiah 4, 3) to lay down weapons is the opposite of Joshua’s triumphal militancy.

Biblical critics have seen in Joshua as an example of how people can claim divine sanction for national interests. Indeed, the book describes a nation and its claim to a challenging ground. But they see in the action of Joshua an invocation of land, a slaughter of the Canaanite people, and they also see how religion can forget about the moral law.

The reading of the Old Testament is made by understanding the society at that time in all its aspects. On the other hand, some researchers that ignored these aspects that we are going to refer to as follows have called this type of event recorded in the Scripture as „unholy to the scripture” [5] or „texts of terror” [6 ]. If we ignored the difficulty of the Old Testament texts, we could say that we do not find any kind of religious piety in the book of Joshua. To read the text only in the paradigm of mistakes and violence, we could escape the theological aspect of the Old Testament text.

The Book of Joshua does not simply translate a simple and historical documentary of the installation of the Jews in Canaan. „The significance of the book of Joshua is less to show the deeds of Jesus, the son of Navi than to describe the mysteries of Jesus our Lord. He is the one who guides the army and struggles against Amalek, and what is unimaginable in the mountain, he fulfills by lifting his hands, stripping the princes and powers, overcoming them by the Cross (Col. 2:15). “[7] The war led by Joshua is commanded directly by Yahweh through a direct revelation to the ruler chosen by Him. Both Moses and Joshua received direct messages

from God about His will and plans, even if these plans included the decision to carry on wars. Thus, the war of Joshua is justifiable to the extent to which it was part of Yahweh’s plan to give the chosen people a territory as an inheritance and a reward for his faith.

On the other hand, God not only declares war but also actively engages in battle, wonderfully. [8] Yahweh struggles alongside the Jewish people miraculously bringing his victory over the Canaanites.

The Israelite people go to battle with Yahweh, the Israelites ring their trumpets, cry out, and especially, watch carefully and wonderfully any commandment given by God. Many times the Israelites have shown mercy to their enemies and opponents.

The Book of Joshua mentions the mercy of Israel’s „enemies.” First, Rahav, the woman presented in Joshua 2 is Israel’s first contact with the „enemy.” This is said to be an outrageous woman, but there is also the opinion that she was a priestess of a pagan deity. [9] However, the Israelites show mercy to Rahab, for his confession of faith in the God of Israel meant that he was no longer an enemy. Israel is sparing her and her „house,” and then Rahav is embedded in Israel and eventually becomes part of the Savior’s genealogy. Also, the Gibeonites in Joshua 9-10. Out of fear, they deceived Joshua by making a covenant, which Joshua and God honor. Though it was a hasty act, Israel is not punished but lives the greatest miracle in the book of Joshua when the sun and the moon stop in the sky for Israel to keep its word and defend the new allies.

And last but not least, in the great reading of the law of Joshua 8, the author speaks of „all Israel” as being composed of „Jewish beings” and „stranger.” The command to eliminate the Canaanites seems to have been an exception because the Israelites did not kill those who have shown respect for Yahweh.

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Fighting is often the answer to Canaanite aggression. [10] After the battles of Jericho and Ai, the Book of Joshua describes the wars of Israel in Canaan in response to the Canaanite aggression. In Chapter 9, 1, we read that when the Canaanites heard what God had done, they gathered together, joined their armies, and prepared to annihilate the Israelites. The book presents these conspiracies not only as military resistance against Israel but as a rejection of Yahweh’s presence in Canaan, in total opposition to the confession of faith, in the case of Rahav.

The holy war waged by Joshua is not against Canaan as a whole or the Canaanites.

Except for the very general texts, we do not find any specific action in Joshua describing an Israeli assault on the inhabitants of rural Canaan. In the central part of the country, Ephraim and Manasseh, there was no struggle, Israel moving here without having to resort to weapons. All combat narratives call the town’s kings as main enemies.

These rulers were appointed by Egypt to economically and militarily exploit Canaan for the benefit of the Pharaoh. The mission of Joshua seems to have been to destroy the network of rulers of the cities that controlled Canaan, to stop the exploitation of Canaan by Egypt on the one hand, and to defy Pharaoh’s claims to be God. Exposing the struggles culminates in Joshua 12 with a list of defeated kings, a list of killed tyrants rather than annihilated population groups or destroyed cities.

The Book of Joshua combines the expositions of miraculous victories with the exhortations of being faithful to the law of God. The reader is not called upon to follow the warlike dimension of the book, but to extract from the stories of struggle the courage and the determination to obey the will of God, to which in fact all the victories are due. The fundamental requirement of the law is to love the Lord with all one’s

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heart. This involves His memory, the commemoration of his mighty deeds, the celebration of His feasts, the kindness of his earth, the care of the stranger, and the protection of the missing and the helpless.

In other words, readers are told stories of war, but these stories explicitly illustrate a definite scriptural spirituality of love for God, respect for others and all creation. It can be said that, apparently, we are dealing with a book devoted to the subject of „holy war” which is actually directed to show God’s holy love for His people and the divine fidelity to the promises made to Him. III. ORTHODOX INTERPRETATION OF THE

BOOK OF JOSHUA

A big problem with the exegesis of the book of Joshua is the legitimacy of violence in the name of God. This is manifested in the war of conquest of the land of Canaan, as well as in the mass killing of the inhabitants there, both executed at the command of God. Violence in the name of God has stirred up both Jewish and Christian commentators.

The Christian commentators used the typological and allegorical interpretation of these texts, generally identifying the Canaanites of the country with the spiritual enemies of the people of God: the passions and sins of the people, which he is called to destroy. On the other hand, neither Church Fathers nor Rabbis denied the literal-narrative level of biblical text. The Talmud wise men sought more justification for the actions of God / Joshua against the Canaanites of the country, of which the chief is the moral misery of Canaanites, and their idolatry.

God decided to destroy the Canaanites not simply because they were the inhabitants of the land promised to His people, but because they served the idols, relying on morally abominable facts. Without going into the details of such a dialectics, we will

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limit ourselves to pointing out that none of the “traditional explanations” satisfactorily explain this controversial issue. Can God be the author of such “crimes” against his own creation? It must be emphasized that the modern reader, unlike the ancient man, starts from a holistic-universalist vision of both religion and creation. The God of the Hebrews is God - the Creator of the world and hence of the Canaanites, and their location outside the mosaic revelation does not justify the religious-moral accusations brought to them.

It was also the question of whether the problematic events existed. It is a fact that neither the Book of Judges nor the Book of Kings knows the “reason” of the Canaanite population being destroyed. Also, these books describe a secular cohabitation between Israelites and Canaanites, often troubled by bloody conflicts, but disappearing in royal times by assimilating Canaanite ethnic groups by the new Israeli society. The question arises as to whether it is really necessary for the Orthodox biblical exegesis to consider the descriptions offered by the book of Joshua as historical events, according to the modern understanding of the concept of historiography.

Regarding the literal level of the book of Joshua, the events found in the book should be positively evaluated as part of a formative, programmatic discourse of both biblical monotheism and the history of the people of Israel, understood as a history of salvation, to the detriment of a historical, which many authors attempt, sometimes in vain, to harmonize it with both other data of the Holy Scriptures and the results of modern research. The bellicose character and violent actions somehow accepted by God must be analyzed and understood in the context in which the book of Joshua receives its outline, namely in the context of the violent assault of the East Semitic powers on the Israeli kingdoms.

The book of Joshua has always raised great problems. As far as origin is concerned, Joshua’s history has given rise to a genuine interest for the Church Fathers because they have identified a messianic linguistic rapprochement of Joshua to Christ. In Hebrew and Greek, the name has the same meaning, and in the Septuagint, the book of Joshua is titled the book of Jesus. [12] The nominal relationship between Joshua and Jesus is found for the first time at Origen.

“The role of the book of Joshua is to make us know less of the works of Jesus, the son of Navi, but rather, he describes us the mysteries of Jesus our Savior.”[13].

But the question arises as to how such a resemblance can be accepted. There is the temptation to say that symbolically the book of Joshua speaks of a struggle against the wickedness of man’s sins. This perspective is shown by some patristic exegesis of the sunrise. “If we now appeal to the following remarks on the book of Joshua, those of Theodoret and Procopius are precise because they refer to the substance of a tradition; they are often - especially Procopius – Origen’s copy or abstract summary (...). The problem posed by these comments is the source of passages that are not found at Origen, but there is nothing new about Joshua. Later, Theodor Prodromos (Byzantine poet who lived during the reign of John II Comnenus 1118-1143) composes verses versed in the book of Joshua. All these testimonies have an interest in confirming the information and persistence of the Oriental tradition, and at the same time to show Origen’s direct influence.” [14] If we do thorough research into patristic literature in the Western world, we find the same thing: the typology of Joshua is the message of the book of Joshua.

This is remarked by Blessed Hieronymus, Blessed Augustine, and Ambrose of the Mediolanum.

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According to the patristic exegesis, the Book of Joshua represents the spiritual or spiritual struggle that the Christian brings to the earth to gain salvation. The two realms, Canaan and Egypt, represent the path of life and virtue and the path of death or sin, and Jerusalem the heavenly eschatological earth.

Concerning the synonym of milk and honey in the land of Canaan, in a very short text attributed to Hyppolitus, it is stated that “this earth (the Canaan) is the body of our Lord that is fertilized that is fertile, for it is the one from which it flows milk and honey.”

[15] Also, the struggle of Joshua for Canaan is the typology of the text in the Epistle to Hebrews 3, 7-4, 11, that is, spiritually the endeavor to enter into the land of promised rest, the eschatological sabbathization, as the purpose of history.

The Orthodox teaching saw in the genocide of Joshua the unseen spiritual war and did not transfer the battle from the ascetic plan to the social plane, and the interpretation of the episode of violence is a symbolic one. “Let’s look at the meaning of the text in the following: and they killed them so that none of them escaped (Joshua 8:23). By reading this passage, the Jews become cruel and avid of human blood, for they think there is a ground of true piety to give such blows to the inhabitants of Ai in a way not to escape any of them( Joshua 8:23).

They do not understand that in these texts the Mysteries are prefigured; the meaning that is understood is more quickly that we do not have to live like any of these demons living in the dark and marveling darkness, but we must kill them until the last. If we kill the demons, it does not mean that we have not taken note of their existence, but all their work consists in pushing people to sin, which makes them live as evildoers. The murderers of Joshua 8, 23 are the saints who kill the inhabitants of Ai, destroy them, and let none escape them.”[16]

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Christians have interpreted the book of Joshua each time spiritually. For example, “in the ordinary view of the Homilies to Joshua, Christian life is solemnly inaugurated in the Jordan. The promised land where the wars are unfolding clearly represents the Christian soul who must turn its eyes to the Earth containing Jerusalem from above, there is the object of its hope.“ [17] From a patristic perspective, the book of Joshua is a prediction of the typology of Jesus. For example, Eusebius of Caesarea gives great importance to the name of Jesus in the Holy Scriptures, [18] Gregory of Nyssa recommends that Christians spiritually cross the Jordan River, using allegory [19], and John Chrysostom alludes to the typology of Jesus referring to the repentance of Rahav [20].

The history of the harbored Rahav (Joshua 2, 1) is well known, and the Rahav Orthodox doctrine preaches the Church of Christ. After some rabbis, this chapter was incorporated much later in the book of Joshua because Chapter 1 ends with Joshua’s speech which says: “After three days you will pass over this Jordan (Joshua 1: 11), and these three days are again remembered at the beginning of chapter 3 (Joshua 3, 2). Thus, it is deduced that Chapter 2 is interposed between Chapters 1 and 3, interrupting the action of the events. [21] It is interesting here that Rahab, a Canadian, so an enemy of Israel, protected the Joshua’s spies in front of the servants of the King of Jericho, thus making a confession of faith for the first time (Joshua 2, 9 -13) of the God of Israel: I know that the Lord has given you this land.

Spies have not spied on anything. After returning to Joshua, they did nothing more than repeating the words of the Canaenean woman.

After chapter 2, the occupation of Jericho appears as the work of Rahav as a result of his attitude. If she had not spoken these words, Joshua would not have

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entered Jericho. A strange foreign woman intervened, a questionable profession, to make possible the installation of the Israelites in her country. On the other hand, Jericho symbolizes the image of this world.

If we want to draw a conclusion about violence in the book of Joshua in particular, we must reflect on our own way of reading the Bible. The Bible is not read the same in all ages and in all regions of the world. We need to be aware, for example, that David’s revenge psalms seem quite shocking at first reading, for some people are desperate for others rebellion. The Bible does not have a reading grid. If it also contains texts about violence, it denotes that violence is part of our everyday lives and that we need to know how to handle it. Of course, today everyone is against violence, and it is normal to be so in view of the countless atrocities that happen in the world. It is necessary to see why violence arises and find ways to combat it, never justifying our violence against certain texts in Holy Scripture.

CONCLUZII From the Orthodox perspective, there is only one idea in the Book of Joshua that passes through the whole text, namely that the Lord God is one, the people must be faithful, respect the covenant, and not worship other gods. At least until the actual entry into the Promised Land, God gives the impression that he is fighting with the people. God is also the One Who sets the ways of conquering the cities. He punishes those who, by appropriating the conquered goods, bathe their body and soul. The destruction of Canaanite people suggests and symbolizes that pagan idols should remember nothing. God even thinks of the widow and the orphan, the last to be considered among the Jewish people.

He is even interested in those who mistakenly mislead by killing special

cities for their shelter. The book contains circumstances in which, besides the divine attribute of righteousness, He also shows mercy. Yahweh is the God who ends the promise made, even if the people are so faithless and turn to the idols of pagan peoples.

Joshua becomes the image of Jesus leading the new people, that is, His Church to salvation. The transfer of the political power from Moses to Joshua is the symbolism of the transition from the Old Testament to the Gospel of Christ. Entrance to the Promised Land through the passage of the Jordan is a symbol for entering the Church through the Holy Sacrament of Baptism. The conquest of the city of Jericho and the other cities of Canaan is a picture of victory over evil by the resurrection. Rahav, the pagan woman who saved the two messengers of Joshua, is a symbol for the entrance of pagans into the Church.

The war outlined in the Old Testament books in general and in the book of Joshua, in particular, is nothing new. Today there are riots, invasions, forced exiles, state oppression, and farmers taking swords.

Unfortunately, the role of religion in today’s wars continues to be important. The Old Testament is as present and relevant as it has not been before. Therefore, reading all Scriptural texts, including the places where certain wars are presented, gives us the hope that Christians can generate mature strategies and moral capabilities important for confronting a world where war is a natural manifestation in some parts of it.

REFERENCES [1]

Norman K. Gottwald, “Holy War,” in The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, Supplementary Volume, Edited by Keith Crim, Nashville: Abingdon, 1976, p.

942

[2] Lori Rowlett, Joshua and the Rhetoric of Violence:

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Bible/Old Testament Studies), Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996 [3] Neil Asher Silberman; Israel Finkelstein, The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, New York: Free Press, 2001, p. 73 [4] Millard C. Lind, Iahve Is A Warrior: The Theology of Warfare in Ancient Israel (Christian Peace Shelf), Huntington: Herald Press, 2001 [5] Gerd Lüdemann, The Unholy in Holy Scripture: The Dark Side of the Bible, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1997 [6] Phyllis Trible, Texts of Terror: Literary-feminist Readings of Biblical Narratives, Minneapolis, Minnesota: Fortress Press, 1984 [7] Origen, Omilii la Cartea Iosua, trad. T. Bodogae, Bucureşti: Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al BOR, 1981, p. 246 [8] Adrian Curtis, Joshua, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998, p. 76 [9] Boling, Robert G.: „Joshua”, în Anchor Bible Series (1981), vol. 6, pp. 144-145.

[10] Jerome F. D. Creach, Joshua, Loisville: John Knox Press, 2003, p. 17 [11] Nur Masalha, “Reading the Bible with the Eyes of the Canaanites: Neo-Zionism, Political Theology and the Land Traditions of the Bible (1967 to Gaza 2009)”, Holy Land Studies, 8.1 (2009), p. 55 [12] Septuaginta. Id est vetus testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes adidit Alfred Rahlfs, Editio monor. Duo volumina in uno, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1935, p. 354 [13] Origen, Homiliae in Jesu Nave (I), Sources Chrétiennes, Paris: Cerf, 2000, p. 101 [14] Annie Jaubert, Origène. Homélies sur Josué.

Introduction, traduction et notes, Sources Chrétiennes, Paris : Cerf, 2000, p. 59 [15] Annie Jaubert, op.cit, p. 33 [16] Origen, Homiliae in Jesu Nave (I), p. 236 [17] Annie Jaubert, op.cit, p. 50 [18] Eusèbe de Césarée, Démonstration évangélique, IV, 17, 1; GCS, 23, 195-196. H E, I, 3, 3-4.

[19] Grégoire de Nysse, De Baptismo, P. G. 46, 420 C-421.

[20] Jean Chrysostome, De Poenitentia hominum, 7, 5, P. G. 49, 330-331.

[21] Zev Farber, Images of Joshua in the Bible and

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Their Reception, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH, p. 225.

Section 4

Diversity and Pluralism

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Ecumenical Movement and Interreligious Dialogue Fr. Lect. Cosmin Tudor Ciocan, PhD Ovidius University of Constanţa Faculty of Orthodox Theology Romania

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 28 March 2019 Received in revised form 1 May Accepted 10 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.10

For me, as a teacher in a theological faculty, the discussion about ecumenical movement and interfaith usually crosses roads with colleagues or students. There is no occasion in which these two are not placed under the same roof, overlaid or confused.

That is why the sudden preoccupation to settle this topic as clear as I can so that it can stand for a groundwork when researching about this relationship. Their overlapping is probably the most common hindrance and at the same time indictment for the DIR (abbr., interreligious dialogue) movement of its “least-connoisseurs”, namely that DIR is a new figment of promoting ecumenical globalization. After I myself faced in classroom students with these assumptions, I thought it is appropriate to add this chapter and explain why DIR is nothing of what the ecumenical movement wanted to be.

Keywords: interfaith; movement; ecumenicity; dialogue; overlapping; Christianity; Islam; Mosaism; religions; acceptance; harmony; fusion; unity;

© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. Introduction on the Ecumenical

Movement

The ecumenical movement, which appeared in the religious landscape of the 20th century (1910)[1], has as many partisans as fierce enemies. Its purpose refers to the efforts towards the visible and organic unity of the various Christian denominations in a certain form. The “Christian” dimension is not, however, the only delimitation besides DIR as it was mentioned on various occasions when the overlapping of terms was desired. This is because the idea of the

expansion of the globalizing goal beyond the boundaries of Christianity through a possible “interreligious ecumenism”[2] has been propagated as well. This new desideratum that is postulated by the nowadays quasi-pluralist coexistence, by the widening of the space of dialogue, from within Christianity towards all other religions and religious movements, has created the impression (wrongly, for our concerns) ​​that the ecumenical movement has turned into a movement of interreligious dialogue.[3] We will return to this immutable supposition immediately.

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A. The Unity of faith

The ideal of a unity of faith that the Ecumenical Movement displays has supporters who say they are pursuing a common biblical creed and a singular divine precept. The unity of the Church has often been a controversial subject. It is certain that all Scriptures are infused with this belief as desideratum, which again signifies the idealism of the idea instead of the reality of its historical existence. Among the reasons why “the Church” must fight for unity, there are also the New Testament teaching passages that teach us specifically that the Church should be or it will be One: the prayer of Jesus (John 17: 20-23). This divine desideratum expressed in the desire of Christ should have led to His ecclesial heritage. Instead, many Pauline epistles resume the same theme and try to impose or propose it as a stimulant to communities in the Apostolic Age. Paul urges the Ephesians to “Make every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit through the bond of peace” (Ephesians 4.3) reminding them that “you have been called to the one hope of your calling” (verses 4-6). The unity of the Church is a recurring theme in the Pauline exhortations and at the same time considered natural whenever its analogy with the divine uniqueness is made. “There is only one Lord, one faith, one baptism. There is one God and Father of all, who is above all, who works through all, and in all” (verse 5-6).

Due to the insistence on this theme/ analogy between divine uniqueness and unity of faith, otherwise unspecified and unclarified nowhere, we understand that it has never been possible to realize and that the individualism of receiving the unique Word has never led to an inexpressive conformism; on the contrary. The image of the Church as the body of Christ is another capital argument in favor of the unity of faith and it is omnipresent in the theological writings of gender. “Just as the body,

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though one, has many members, and as all the members of the body, though there are many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For we were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body ...” (1 Corinthians 12: 12-13).

Stig Hanson comments on the passage: “One Body refers to the Church as the Body of Christ, this is the opinion of most who are studying the Bible positively. This Body must be one because Christ is one and Christ cannot be divided.”[ 4] It is only from these recurrent and apostrophic appeals of Paul to the present day that the divine hope and the ideal of prayer dominated the pragmatic historical reality “in the field,” which leads to a diverse palette of given interpretations of this unity. First historical, then judicial, until the conciliar, organic and even spiritual unity[5] that shows how focused and great was and still is the concern that the unity manifests itself through a genuine organic union.

B. The organic unity and the autonomy of

the congregations

Definitely this conception of unity of the Church(s) is even more utopian when it comes to a globalizing[6], merging of separate identities into a single, unique and parent organization, where all the differences are abandoned. We are not talking here of the inter-confessional dialogue meetings of the ecumenical missionary associations (CEB 1948, NCCC, ACCC 1941, ICCC, etc.), but about the organisms actually formed on missionary principles out of the bodies of other denominations.[ 7] “Membership and ordination are common. When denominations unite in this way, there is often also a merging of local congregations.

A first example of the organizing unity is the United Church of Canada, a singular denomination formed in 1925 by the union of Methodists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists. Another example is the Church of South India.”[ 8] Practically,

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this ecumenical vision of organic unity aims ultimately to combining all Christian, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant churches into a universal Church of Christ (UCC).

As explained by various theologians,[9] this organic unity must, however, take account of some local autonomy, to avoid falling into an extreme dictatorship.

What does it refer to and how could this maintaining of the differences in a principle of fusion and merger of the individual be done?

“Unanimous opinion is directed towards allowing differences in practice and that the unity must be based on the lowest common denominator.”[ 10] One thing that everyone agrees with is that this unity does not mean uniformity. It does not mean that all Christians should simply become Southern Baptists, Roman Catholics, Greek Orthodox, or whatever - and that this unity should allow a variety of worship styles, devotions, organizations, etc.[ 11] Any form this organic unity would adopt - of merging various denominations into an evolving organism, of associating groups that essentially have the same confessional standard, of separating from a denomination to form another group with a tradition and liturgy similar in essence, or, finally, even of the schism phenomenon can be referred to it should nevertheless allow the preservation of elements of particularism beyond the aspects of uniformity. This preservation of particular elements refers to the public service in the present case, in addition to the common homogeneous core, based on which the organic merger was merged, the fusion of the particular denominations.

The issue of the autonomy of congregations merged[12] on various issues (usually theological terms or customized practice of the divine public service) has also been raised, but as the purpose of the merger is accurately established and the realization of this union in the unity of

the Word of God is soaked, we realize the inconsistency of such claims of autonomy of local churches to the paternal ecclesial authority. But this aspect has its limitations too, because the proclivity towards schism is very great, and the autonomy - in any way it would be – “is condemned to lead to self-empowerment.”[13] That is why, on many occasions, the greatest enemy of this movement were even the congregational churches stationed against the organic union and declared to be rather in favor of “continuing the Congregationalist movement” to choose independence.[ 14] C. Ecumenism - for what purpose?

It is important to carefully outline the objectives of this Congregationalist fellowship, because such a movement, which is desirable to be of a global scale, universalist in the Christian Church, cannot only aim at uniting for the sake of union.

“It is difficult to justify dedicating time, human and financial resources to activities that do not contribute, at least indirectly, to evangelism.”[ 15] Therefore, beyond the declared “loud and clear” purpose of Christian unity, as a response to the desire expressed by Christ in the final prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane, that “all may be one, Father, just as you and I, are one… so that they may be brought to complete unity” (John 17:20, 22, 23), there are other strategic goals to be provided at each stage of “union.” In other words, our goal should be a return to the original objectives of the ecumenical movement, because not everyone saying “Lord, Lord” is truly one of His (Math. 7:21).

The issues raised by such union are at hand to be noticed and understood, especially when, as an experiment, you put together some representatives of local congregations without ecumenical experience or subliminal interests. The dialogue between them will fail either in

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theological, ecclesiological, methodological or teleological issues. For anyone who has reservations about the ecumenical movement, the first field of thought is theology. This is because the separation of denominations originally occurred precisely because of theological differences. So, with regard to the theological basis, all members or non-members of ecumenism are reconciled with the idea that theology is the smallest common denominator of the movement. That is because all the other revised or intuited issues are just sub-points of the theological issue. These “obstacles” over which everybody proposes to overlook, but no one is willing to renounce his peculiarity, have always led in fact to the failure of the ecumenical movement and to the utopian character of all these perpetual attempts.

The ecclesial significance of the nature of Christianity suffers from the definition of the term church. Does it first apply to a local congregation of believers, a denomination or an alliance between denominations?

Then there are methodological problems, of determining the hierarchical leadership structure and the ultimate value of its decisions towards the concerned communities, as well as other problems attributable to the purpose and strategy of the Church, the character and degree of social and political involvement, and the relationship between the State and the Church. But the least, the teleological problem[16], raises the real question: what is the ultimate goal of the ecumenical movement? Is it the organic fusion of all denominations in one mega Church?

Would this one singularity be beneficial to anyone, and how could it actually be done for theologians, leaders, but especially for simple believers? New centrifugal movements have often occurred because of the inertia of believers to keep their original creed and not to drift the “conversion plan” edited by their religious leaders. It is obvious Session 4. Diversity and Pluralism

to everyone the utopia of this desideratum, a complete and globalist fusion that seems to have only unfortunate consequences. The affiliation to a certain church would become meaningless, and “organic unity with particularities” would allow and legitimize the “interconfessional pilgrimage” also favored by the inexpressive and useless use of the term “heretics.” On the other hand, “an additional problem such a mega-Church raises is that it would be considered the exclusive tenure of Christianity. Believers would be forced to believe that no one can be a Christian outside the visible Church.

What then happens to someone who is in the position of a dissident or nonconformist?

A monolithic structure would exclude the system of inspections and balances that is equally necessary in a church as it is in secular politics.”[ 17] Some dialogues and movements prefer to work towards short-term goals, such as mutual understanding on specific topics or working together for charity and justice.

“Probably the most relevant question raised by the conservative evangelicals was whether the ecumenical movement did not focus its energies too much on social and international issues, neglecting the primordial task of missionary and evangelization.”[ 18] All of these are good, but they are just a part of the general picture.

And so it is assumed that the movement of the interreligious dialogue was initiated.

II. Inter-religious Dialogue and the

Ecumenical Movement

It is certain that overlapping the utopia of the ecumenical movement - with which it was often confused to or put into its continuity -, DIR was also easily enveloped by the feelings with which ecumenism was received. It inherits thus its disadvantages, circumspection, and reservations of the audience. If the central purpose of the MEC

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is to form a “unity in diversity” through the merging of particular congregations, this “fear” has also been inoculated to those invited to interreligious dialogue, namely that the ultimate goal of these new, venturesome attempts will be also the “Corruption” of the particular creeds and trying to attract participants to another, diverse or new faith. But things are not that way. Apart from the fact that DIR has nothing to do with MEC, it is neither a descendant, nor a follower, nor a reediting; it is a new movement with its own foundations, purposes, and methods.

Still, if the two movements are not necessarily antagonistic [however, they are not incompatible in all respects], but only distinct, separate, then what is their true relationship and especially why is it not necessary to overlap them? This overlap was sometimes made even by the partisans of the new movement, both by their lack of tact and an own method, as well as their naive desire to help the audience making a mental connection with something previously debated and already active. Occasionally, this overlap was also the effect of combinatorial formulations, of making some (real or sometimes artificial) relationships or common notes between the candidates at the DIR, which correspond subsequently the pretexts necessary for the formation of bridges between the participants in the DIR. A good example in this regard was the quasi-used phrase of the “religions of the book” (referring to the Mosaic and Christian religions, and sometimes to Islam[19]), or “Abrahamic religions” or “monotheistic” (referring to the Mosaic, Christian, and Islamic religions and others).

These syntaxes and correspondences, despite their real, substantial existence, show a lack of methodical depth and inopportunity in the overall vision of the DIR. This is because any correspondence

would be found or formulated between the partners of a particular DIR, they will always overlap that specific DIR with the ecumenical movement, transferring its utopia and its vices of substance, that is, exclusivity, bias and indulgence for other religions, effects that have nothing to do with the correspondences enunciated at that particular dialogical table. In other words, methodologically speaking, it is counterproductive and dangerous to say “we, the people gathered at this interreligious dialogue table, are all ... (something that has in common)”, remarking a particularly common feature, whatever that is (except maybe the adulators of “the same” God); for example. Evangelists, Christians, monotheists, liberals, that we share revelation, priesthood, baptism, we use the same formulas, liturgical vessels, the same evangelistic mission, etc. Any particularity is highlighted, it restricts the group of those who can participate in that dialogue around that feature, excluding all others who remain strangers both in the case in question and in the particular DIR. It would be similar to saying that American, African or Australian researchers are welcome to attend a summit of European researchers. It is nonsense trying to incorporate heterogeneous elements towards a declared unitary content around a certain feature that directs the attention exclusively to certain elements which possess that feature. And this happens despite the fact that the phrase “bearers of universality” [transcendental and transhistorical] is inserted on the MEC frontispiece, offering instead a very narrow range of possible participants around the most elective “only one” formulation[20].

Interreligious dialogue, unlike the ecumenical movement, is not about what we have in common, but about what we have differently, which makes us remarkable, what are our special peculiarities. And that is precisely because the purpose of the DIR is altogether different from that of ecumenism.

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If the later is in search of correspondence to create a common desideratum and it exaggerates the importance of union, DIR antithetic promotes the divergence, heterogeneity, individuality, singularity of participants precisely because it wants to create an infinite open, unlimited by any particular determination. The aim is no longer, technically speaking, to formulate a common element, but to establish principles of mutual recognition and interrelation between the various religious traditions, namely for the acceptance of their diversity, without subsequently transforming them into a composite, but on the contrary to valorize them individuality and preserves the particular reality. Otherwise, if a common cause is to be found, the DIR will always have to apply to private cases, for nonantagonistic religious groups, seeking and establishing egalitarian relations, and not inhomogeneous interference.

Many initiators of DIR indulge this kind of dialogue precisely because of their inadequacy of DIR principles and its general objective, which makes their initiative perpetuate the MEC’s results and amplify the circumspections and reservations of the audience exactly as I said. DIR is not looking for separatist mixes and systemic distributions of „n taken by k” religious expressions, but wishes to bring into dialogue as many as possible without establishing anything in common, but precisely to value their particularities and celebrate the diversity of forms of expression their religiosity by bringing together all forms at a common table of dialogue, mutual recognition and acceptance.

Conclusion If we assign ecumenism with the mathematical function of L.C.M. (the Lowest Common Multiple) because of his endeavor to recognize in his followers common things, DIR is exactly the opposite, i.e. G.C.F. (the Session 4. Diversity and Pluralism

Greatest Common Factor) due to inclusivism on which it is based and which corroborates all the particular formulas in an elaborate and all-encompassing encyclopedia of religious phenomena. The first simplifies all the elements involved until it reaches a common trait to cling to the subsequent merger, the other attracts and valorizes all the non-communal features to amplify the richness of human and religious diversity.

The first seeks for equivalences as the basis of interrelation between participants, the other deepens pluralism and develops the vision of the “other” religious as the basis for stimulating interpersonal experiences.

“Interreligious dialogue allows us to applaud the differences and, at the same time, to clarify what we share.”[ 21] The MEC, therefore, seeks the unity of those who share a common belief, while DIR seeks to join as many religious formations as possible; the first is addressed to small groups, particular cases called upon to give up individual accidents and emphasize only common features, while the other brings together the fullness of the religious phenomena in their entirety and without leaving anything aside while entering into dialogue.

I have exaggerated this antagonism between MEC and DIR out of the desire to clarify once and for all the discrepancy between their purposes, and the methods that should be used by the partisans of each movement, so as not to confuse them and thus bring disadvantages one to another.

The first one searches for similar entities; the other celebrates diversity. Thus none can be declared vicious or malicious (at least for the sake of diversity).

The present world is indubitable pluralistic, and the interaction between individuals belonging to the various religious traditions is impossible to dispute and obstruct – than only to the detriment of the one who is trying this occlusion nowadays.

“However, the truth is that most of us know

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very little about religions beyond our own traditions. This deficiency of knowledge can easily lead to a lack of communication between those of different beliefs. Due to this lack of connection in a pluralistic world, the need for interreligious dialogue has become an indisputable necessity. Only through interaction will we get to better understand one another. Collaboration through interreligious dialogue allows our world not only to embrace our likenesses but also to celebrate our differences. “[22] The “path” of the interreligious dialogue was born out of more than the failure of the utopia of ecumenism - from the desire of religious leaders and the civil requirement of peace in the whole religious “field”. This “harmonization” has nothing to do with the merging of missionary ecumenism, it is simply the aspiration of peaceful, harmonious coexistence among the adepts of all religious beliefs, not trying to circumscribe each other, but to understand and subsequently accept each other for what they already are, and not for something that could become.

This is the DIR creed manifestation and the principles in which the DIR movement is organized and lead into action, as well as my creed of making theology.

decades.

In 2013 I started a multidisciplinary program aiming to engage scholars from different files into friendly and academic debates with theology and in the same year a Research Center was founded in Ovidius University with researchers from 11 fields.

In less than one year, I manage to gather people from around the globe around this idea, and so we have started Dialogo Conferences project. In 2014 I received a Fulbright scholarship, and I spent the summer California and 4 other States in the USA, gathering data and understanding how religious pluralism is possible at a high level of involvement; at the same time I made friends from many different countries and religions that are now involved in this project or another, helping in his endeavor.

I have taught and professed interfaith ever since in many visiting professorships I was involved or invited to engage abroad or within Romania.

References [1]

Biography Ciocan Tudor Cosmin, born in Constanta/ Romania in 1977, I have attended several theological and psychological schools (BA, MB, Ph.D.), obtained my Ph.D. in Missiology and Doctrinal Theology in 2010. I was ordained as an Orthodox priest in 2002. A high-school teacher from 1998, then Professor assistant and Lecturer from 2012, I have written more than 30 papers on theology and psychology, along with four single-author books in the past two

[2]

[3]

[4]

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Cf. Millard J. Erickson, Teologia creștină (Eng., Christian Theology), Oradea: Ed. Cartea Creștină, 2004, 977. Also see S. Wesley Ariarajah, „Dictionary of the Ecumenical Movement article on Interfaith Dialogue”, in WCC, 2002. Retrieved from https://www. oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wccprogrammes/interreligious-dialogue-andcooperation/interreligious-trust-and-respect/ ecumenical-dictionary-interfaith-dialogue, accessed at 20.3.2019. He refers to the World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh.

Gheorghe Istodor, Iubirea creştină şi provocările contemporane (Eng., Christian love and contemporary challenges), București: Ed. Sigma, 2006, 245.

Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, “Momente istoricofilosofice în apariţia ecumenismului românesc”, Alma Mater Porolissensis, Universitatea “Vasile Goldiş” Arad, filiala Zalău, (2001), an II, nr. 3, 79-81.

Stig Hanson, The Unity of the Church in the

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New Testament: Colossians and Ephesians, Lexington: American Theological Library Association, 1963, 109-111.

[5] See Millard J. Erickson, Teologia creștină, Oradea: Ed. Cartea Creștină, 2004, 975-976.

[6] Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, “Globalization and its effect on religion”, Journal for Freedom of Conscience (Jurnalul Libertăţii de Conştiinţă), Tome 1, No 1, 2014, 532-542.

[7] For example the United Church of Christ 1957, the United Church of Japan 1941, the Church of South India 1947, the United Reformed Church of Great Britain 1972, the United Church of Canada 1925, the United Church of Christ of the Philippines 1948 and other.

[8] Erickson, Teologia creștină, 976.

[9] For example Erickson, Christian Theology; Albert J.D. Walsh (edit.), United and Uniting: An Ecumenical Ecclesiology for a Church in Crisis, Eugene (Oregon): WIPF & Stock, 2011; …

[10] Erickson, Teologia creștină, 976.

[11] Andrew Boyd, B.A. Theology & Philosophy, University of Notre Dame (2000), „What is the main purpose of ecumenical movements?” in Quara, Retrieved from https://www. quora.com/What-is-the-main-purposeof-ecumenical-movements, accessed at 23.3.2019.

[12] Albert J.D. Walsh (edit.), United and Uniting: An Ecumenical Ecclesiology for a Church in Crisis, Eugene (Oregon), 24-31.

[13] Vezi și Papa Benedikt XVI, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, Church, Ecumenism, and Politics: New Endeavors in Ecclesiology, Ignatius Press, 2011 (Kindle version), cap. 5.

[14] Gerard Mannion, Lewis S. Mudge (edit.), The Routledge Companion to the Christian Church, Routledge, 2008, 222.

[15] Erickson, Teologia creștină, 984.

[16] William R. Estep, Baptist and Christian Unity, Nashville: Broadman, 1966, 185.

[17] Erickson, Teologia creștină, 984.

[18] W.A. Vissert Hooft, „The General Ecumenical Development Since 1948”, in The Ecumenical Advance: A history of the Ecumenical Movement, vol 2, 1948-1968, Harold E. Frey

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(edit.), Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970, 19.

The syntax is originally Islamic, from the Arabic term ′Ahl al-Kitāb, referring to Jews, Christians and Sabians and is sometimes applied to members of other religions such as Zoroastrians. John L. Esposito (ed.), “Ahl al-Kitab”. In The Oxford Dictionary of Islam.

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001.

ISBN 9780195125580. Accessed 2.4.2019.

[20] Marianne Moyaert and Joris Geldhof (editors), Ritual Participation and Interreligious Dialogue. Boundaries, Transgressions and Innovations. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015, 143.

[21] Michael Stephen Kosik, Interreligious Dialogue in Theory and Practice: The Development and Implementation of an Interreligious Retreat. Bringing Together Children of Different Faiths Through Life Experience, online published, May 2017.

Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/ CST_Kosik_ InterreligiousDialogueInTheory [19]

AndPracticeTheDevelopmentAndImplementati, accessed at 27.3.2019.

[22]

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Ibidem, ii.

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Total Daily Life Philosophy (Tdlp): New Conceptual and Fundamentals Ahed J Alkhatib, PhD

Department of Legal Medicine, Toxicology of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Science and Technology Jordan

Oleg Ju. Latyshev, PhD

International Mariinskaya Academy, M.D. Shapovalenko, , Moscow Russia

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 01 June 2019 Received in revised form 5 May Accepted 10 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.11

In this study, we introduce our perspectives about total daily life philosophy (TDLP). From a daily point of view, we experience events and episodes continuously, particularly the heavily aspects of information as received by electronic media.

To cope with this massive stream of information and their data analysis, one needs to develop a philosophical mentality, and one aspect of philosophy is not sufficient.

According to this context, the concept of TDLP has emerged. Philosophy may be the representative expressions of mental activities that cannot be placed in one frame. We need philosophy to be placed in a comprehensive and practical context for two purposes, to treat effectively the emerging experiences, and to expand the horizon of previous experiences and episodes. The second purpose is to make philosophy approaching the larger audience. The term TDLP has come to represent all elements in the previous context.

Keywords: philosophy; total daily life philosophy (TDLP); concept; experience; perspectives; fundamentals; episodes;

Š 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. Introduction A. An overview of the philosophy

Philosophy tries to assess life and the world as a whole through a systemized process. This is based on original principles that explain the underlying causes of all things as their causes and are understood in all experience. Philosophy can be understood as an approach to study problems of life and existence. It can also be seen as a way to understand life problems and existence.

Philosophy may be considered to have

origins in all forms and streams of science and not restricted by any boundaries such as space and time. It can be involved in theology, the physical and biological sciences, psychology, morality and ethics, politics, and economics and sociology.

Philosophy is concerned with possibilities and conditions that make knowledge, from some points such as extent, nature, and value. Philosophy depends on known facts and jumps on them to form facts, so that all phenomena are made and can be logically explained. Philosophy exceeds the limitations of time, the laws of the place,

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but rather it refers to all times, places and conditions [1-10].

B. Philosophy of daily life

Philosophy roots in everyday living activity, by a way or another. The philosophical approach is inspired by the French philosophers such as Gilles Deleuze and Michel Serres. However, the main points to be considered in any philosophy are how we approach life. Because philosophy is a vision of life, awareness is required to create our philosophy. We may go to claim a philosophical form of life [11].

Philosophy for everyday life is a practical philosophy to change the images of our thought. In other words, it is to make thought by life. In this type of philosophy, there is an attempt to exceed some aspects related to truth including beliefs that the truth is certain, unchangeable, and universal [11-19].

C. Total daily life philosophy (TDLP)

In this section, I would like to express my introductory views for TDLP. Based on the consideration that philosophy is a vision of life, TDLP represents a state of awareness for the living experience. In this context, the communication with the universe through different means including language enriches our mental space in which we start understanding the phenomena under observation. TDLP implies a wide scope of life vision in which we interact with the emerging experience from different perspectives. No constant truth from one side and we want to establish a model of truth. The truth is not a linear; it is preferably in a curve form. I want to give an illustrating example: A disease is a form of evil. This phrase looks a linear. The only cause of disease is due to evil (figure 1).

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Figure 1: a linear relationship shows the cause of disease by evil

Using TDLP implies that life vision is expanded and we think that probabilities are numerous to explain the occurrence of diseases. Modern medicine in all its forms represents the life vision. As illustrating in figure 2, there are many causes of diseases including physical harms, chemical harms, microbes, and extra-spaces for possible causes in future. We note the involvement of various sciences to explain the occurrence of phenomenon of diseases. Here, no evil is included because as life vision expands, then the phenomenon is becoming more understandable with high potential to find solutions.

Various dimensions of truth can be found.

As we mentioned previously, truth is not constant, and not linear, in other words, the truth does not flaw in one direction. Instead, multi-facets of truth are always available. We have to explore these faces by establishing the vision and mentality of TDLF.

Figure 2: A representative scheme illustrating various causes of diseases

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Conclusions: TDLP may be a new philosophy to help us in interacting with life experiences, particularly the emerging ones. This can be achieved by expanding the vision of life by transforming our images into thoughts.

We need to develop such a mentality of philosophy to cope with emerging changes in our daily life circumstances.

References: Swami Krishnananda. The philosophy of life. www.swami-krishnananda.org. Retrieved on 19/10/2018.

[2] Bin Song. Three Sacrificial Rituals” (Sanji) and the Practicability of Ruist (Confucian) Philosophy. Spring, 2018, 17 (2): 2- 9.

[3] Allen, Barry. Striking Beauty: A Philosophical Look at the Asian Martial Arts. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015.

[4] Bowman, Paul. Martial Arts Studies: Disrupting Disciplinary Boundaries. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.

[5] Cohen, Kenneth S. The Way of Qigong: The Art and Science of Chinese Healing Energy.

New York: Ballantine Books, 1997.

[6] Cohen, Ken. The Essential Qigong Training Course: 100 Days to Increase Energy, Physical Health, and Spiritual Well-Being. Boulder, CO: Sounds True, 2005.

[7] Flanagan, Owen. The Geography of Morals: Varieties of Moral Possibility. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.

[8] Frank, Adam D. Taijiquan and the Search for the Little Old Chinese Man: Understanding Identity through Martial Arts. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

[9] Garfield, Jay L., and Brian W. Van Norden.

If Philosophy Won’t Diversify, Let’s Call It What It Really Is. The New York Times.

The Stone. May 11, 2016. www.nytimes. com/2016/05/11/opinion/if-philosophywontdiversify-lets-call-it-what-it-really-is. html.

[10] Geisz, Steven. Body Practice and Meditation as Philosophy: Teaching Qigong, Taijiquan, [1]

and Yoga in College Courses. Teaching Philosophy, 2016, 39 (2): 115–35.

[11] Finn Janning. Philosophy for Everyday Life.

Journal of Philosophy of Life, 2015, 5(1): 1-18.

[12] Baudrillard, J. Simulations. MIT Press. 1983.

[13] Deleuze, G. Spinoza: Practical Philosophy.

Translated by R. Hurley. City Lights Books.

1988.

[14] Deleuze, G. Masochism, Coldness and Cruelty. Translated by J. McNeil. Zone Books, 1999.

[15] Deleuze, G. Difference and Repetition.

Translated by P. Patton, 1994. Columbia University Press.

[16] Deleuze, G. The Logic of Sense. Translated

by M. Lester. Continuum, 2004.

[17] Deleuze, G., Guattari, F. (1994). What Is Philosophy? Translated by H. Tomlinson & G. Burchell. Columbia University Press, 1994.

[18] Deleuze, G., Guatarri, F. Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Translated

by R. Hurley, M. Stem and H.R. Lane. The Athlone Press, 2000.

[19] Han, B-C (2010). Müdigkeitsgesellschaft.

Matthess & Seitz Verlag, 2010

Biographies:

Dr. Ahed Alkhatib has finished his PhD from Campbell State University in 2011. I am currently working as a clinical researcher at faculty of medicine, Jordan University of Science and technology. Over the time, I have published more than 200 articles in various

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medical fields including neurosciences, pharmacology, and diabetes. My approaches in research include the involvement of philosophy of science in research which gives looking, and thinking in depth. I have developed several hypotheses in medicine such as the role of white matter in initiating diseases such as diabetes. In microbiology, I have demonstrated that prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are similar in producing cell cycle proteins which can participate in autoimmunity diseases. For the time being, I am more interested in setting more medical hypotheses, and writing book in different fields, of which two books have already been written and distributed in the world market. I am working to establish a new science “molecular sociology”, and published two articles in this field and working to write a new book in this field to put its fundamentals. I have recently joined International Mariinskaya Academy.

sciences (IAPS), Emeritus member of the International Scientific and Advisory Committee (ISAC) at the Innovations and Sustainability Academy (ISA), Honored Worker of Science, Technics and Education, member of expert councils and editorial boards of 21 International scientific journals, scientific supervisor and director of Mariinsky Gallery named after M.D. Shapovalenko, Russia, Moscow, expert of ‘ Information for All’, member of Science and Democracy Network (SDN) at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government in Cambridge, MA. http://sts.hks.harvard.edu/about/sdn.htmlhttp://sts.hks. harvard.edu/sdn

Oleg Ju. Latyshev President of International Mariinskaya Academy n.a. M.D. Shapovalenko, Moscow, Russia. https:// www.researchgate.net/lab/INTERNATIONALMARIINSKAYA-ACADEMY-named-after-MDS H A P O VA L E N K O - O l e g - Yu r e v i c h - L a t y s h e v Professor and member of expert council of Russian Academy of natural history, Doctor of Science, Honoris Causa of International Academy of natural history (ScD h.c. IANH), Candidate of philological sciences (PhD), Academician of International Academies of social technologies (IAST), natural history (UANH), youth tourism and local history (IAYTLH), Corresponding member of International Academy of psychological

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Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, (DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW) held online, on the Journal’s website, from MAY 19 - 26, 2019

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The Impact of Secularism on the Activity of the Church Cristian Marius Munteanu, PhD

Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; The General Conference of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church, the Inter-European Division, Bern, Switzerland, Education and Chaplaincy Director article info

abstract

Article history: Received 14 April 2019 Received in revised form 8 May Accepted 10 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.12

The substantial changes in image and efficiency that the Contemporary Christian Church is undergoing make many, regardless of their level of expertise, seek and investigate the causes of the decline in people’s interest in the Church, as well as the solutions to its recovery. Starting from the premise that the way Christians decode and understand reality is a first vital step towards enhancing the relevance of the Church, the article first provides insight in the history of the term, the different meanings it had in time, and the effects of the coexistence between the Church and culture. Moreover, since the Church cannot justify through practical results the aggressive language and the hostile attitude towards secularism and its exponents, it must keep in mind that secularism has not completely eradicated religious consciousness from the minds of men. As long as the search for the sacred has been inculcated through Creation and defines human nature, one of the most difficult tasks Christians have to fulfill is to present a seemingly outdated message to a world that is continually renewed. The Church must provide adequate and sufficient arguments on the one hand and, on the other hand, make Jesus attractive by a religious experience that goes beyond religious forms or teachings. Confronted to the contemporary invasion of the search for the sacred without the use of appropriate tools and methods, and to a postmodernist secularism that does not accept subordination but is interested in faith, the cult institutions still have a modeling potential. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Secularism; society; church; spirituality; culture;

I. Understanding secularism

Over the past one hundred years, those in charge of leading positions in several Christian denominations have gained a clear and precise idea regarding the fact that the system in which they were living, and which they had been called to serve, had been organized by people, historically determined

and was going through transformations that highlight something, while also having a certain significance.[1] Those who would usually attend ordinary worship services in religious buildings, were less and less present in worship places. Even worse, their interest in achieving spiritual goals was seriously weakened. The rigorous effort made by talented religious leaders, to use

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efficiently all available means to determine the target audience to make decisions in favor of structural, palpable spiritual changes, became noticeably ineffective.

Their long and persuasive perseverance in re-formulating religious goals and turning them into relevant topics no longer had any effect. Therefore, by the end of the century, it could no longer be denied that the social transition from one state to another was so radical, that the institution of Christianity, as a whole, needed both the adjustment of the perception tools to a new situation, as well as the adaptation of objectives and methods to current desires, preferences, and expectations.

Generally speaking, the effort made to achieve religious goals is visibly and worryingly diminishing[2], as people are less and less interested in making Divinity a priority in their daily routine, despite officially declaring their belief in God[3]; they no longer attend religious services[4] or simply ignore the Christian reference elements, a process called secularism by sociologists. For these believers, this approach is not synonymous with atheism, as they retain their religious affiliation, while “denying its power.”[5] Some institutional representations of Christian thinking still dedicatedly leave aside funds and human capital for the public preaching of their specific message, by regularly organizing biblical presentations or other secondary instructional activities on various topics (health, family, administration, parenting, etc.) at least weekly. In spite of the topicality, urgency and seriousness of the subjects, of the quality and competence of the presenters, and the public’s apparent interest in subjects adjoining spirituality, the Church plays a less and less relevant part in the surrounding community and particularly in the life of the general public.[6] Why does the Church no longer succeed in touching and treating the sensitive issues of contemporary mankind? Is this limited

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impact due to the obsolescence of the preaching tools the Church uses, to the lack of interest of the public disinformation or to certain extremely significant changes in today’s culture that have become indifferent to any reference to the Bible?

Since the sixteenth century, due to cultural factors and political schemes, human society has begun to have a more distant attitude or even to actively diminish the role and influence of the Church, through what is called secularization or secularism.

[7] Even though up to that age, the religious dimension of existence, exteriorized by various official variants had been “the ultimate science,” due to the change in the attitude of the Church towards society and vice versa, the place of religion was restricted, and its role was diluted. The basic products of religion - morality, ministry - were no longer considered capable of producing social cohesion and were replaced by civism and political platforms.

How the Church perceives and understands secularism is defining and binding for a proper approach in favor of its mission and progress, especially the believers’ spiritual one. On many occasions, Church people considered secularism to be the main enemy of the Church and braced up using aggressive language and a hostile attitude, struggling to regain its lost ground.

[8] This mobilization of forces has often been justified by biblical, eschatological elements, which, on the one hand, had anticipated the crisis, and on the other hand provided inward motivation for offensive engagement.

However, besides the motivating elements, the understanding of the context in which the Church operates and defining the parameters of the current church activities are also of equal priority. This is the only way to achieve personal spiritual healing, as well as the objectives set for the church by Jesus.

Historians seem to agree that the term “secularization” was launched in

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1648, when during the negotiations of the Westfalia Peace Treaty,[9] it was decided to confiscate the lands of the churches, equal rights were granted to both Catholics and Protestants[10], and the principle Cujus regio, eius religio was canceled.[11] From a historical point of view, when the Church lost its absolute dominance and the secular state began to replace God and to convincingly make up for the role of opinion leaders of the Church’s representatives, it was first attempted to reduce the dimensions of the process and a conciliatory approach. Subsequently, Church people mobilized and used significantly different approaches, noticed by H.R.Niebuhr in some paradigms of the church-society dialogue: Christ vs. Culture - The Church and the world are totally distinct. The Church rejects any dialogue with the world; The Christ of Culture - The Church justifies itself for its separation from the world, on the basis of the efficiency of its mission; Christ above Culture - The Church has the capacity and resources to adjust and improve culture; Christ or culture - the paradox of the Christian who coexists with both and must consequently be sequentially submitted to both and Christ transforms culture - the duty of the Church to engage in the change of culture.[12] However, in this dispute, Christianity has found itself taken over and the culture that it had struggled to influence has become a leader of Christian opinion, even if the Church has invested in the revival of religious forms, even in order to maintain a formal influence on the believers.

The process of secularization, whose expansion could be controlled neither by the state nor by the Church, led the Church away from the possibility of fulfilling its divine mandate. Unfortunately, history proves that the Church, surprised by the loss of its leading position in the medieval social orientation, is stuck in preserving a

good image and a priority status and does not take any action to adapt to the current need, in order to revive and relaunch a renewed formula of its saving message.

The salvific responsibilities of the Church, both the improvement of the present living conditions and the commitment to a higher future, could be exercised neither by daily testimony nor by imposed religious authority. The Church was no longer able to find its way to society through its internal dynamics, whenever its representatives deviated from the biblical line of behavior and abused positions, rights, resources, and beliefs. Failure to meet the public’s expectations has placed the clergy in a shadow of contention, and they have gradually become the target of popular mockery and revolt movements. Charged

by Jesus with the transforming mandate of offering a synthetic image of the spiritual life to society, Church exponents have led “the supreme object of His attention”[13] into public blame. Through the loss of its influence and function as the point of reference, the Church has engaged itself onto a descending path, becoming in the eyes of most a refuge of the ignorant and the uninitiated. Dietrich Bonhoeffer described the image of the Church, deprived of its ultimate mission, saying that “in the context of asserting the autonomy of man and the world, there is no longer a need for God, as a working hypothesis in morality, politics or science.”[14] In the collective consciousness, God has been replaced by superficial reference elements, and man’s reporting to God has mainly become an indifferent one.

What do we think about when we label someone today as being “secularized”?

What is secularism? According to the dictionary, it is “a trend which is specific to the modern age and the current political configuration, which considers human life to be beyond any religious implications.”[15] From a practical point of view, a secularized

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person is any of those who lead their existence without any connection or with a superficial connection to God or religious customs.

Biblical history speaks about a permanent attraction of human beings to evil, mainly justified by the interference of sin in the terrestrial reality, which has gradually led to an unconditional and cooperative subordination of people. This attitude has led to significant cracks in the relationship with God and ruptures, which were sometimes irreversible, in societal dialogue or economic exchanges. Therefore, the biblical definition of secularism could be the unidirectional orientation towards what is earthly and sinful, by abandoning the divine landmarks.

The image that Dumitru Popescu uses in describing this permanent reality is the change of the center of gravity from divine to human, and the replacement of the object of worship with people’s own reason.

[16] Ardelean continues, “the contemporary context reveals inversions of domination, namely economic determinism replaces the theological one, , technology takes control over culture, politics suppress morality, the body prevails over the soul, etc., all of which significantly affect people’s perspective on their existence.”[17] II. Definition attempts

Secularism, as a phenomenon that interferes with most areas of contemporary life, is difficult to define, especially when we feel its strength when it comes to opposing the actions of the church. As a process that causes major changes in culture, social relations and attitude to religion, we cannot appeal to that definition that describes secularism as a regression of religious beliefs.[18] Even if the decline is measured quantitatively (statistics) and qualitatively (loss of personal belief when compared to

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earlier standards), it is also analyzed in terms of diminishing the social impact and cultural influence of religion due to the inevitable influence of rationalism.[19] “Convinced Atheists ... and some liberal Christians believe religion has lost its medieval domination, as modern people are too smart to believe in old superstitions.”[20] Referring to this subject, Russell Staples suggests that secularization is no longer considered uniquely the death of religion in the absolute sense, but it is more readily seen as something that produces a change in the forms of religion.[21] “We are more inclined to regard religion as a universal culture, which fulfills important functions in society and is more prone to undergoing change than to disappearing. Religions are born and die, new elements are added or deleted, disciples can move from one to the other, but proper religion continues.[22] It is now clear that even if secularization seems to restrict God’s access to His world, the new secularization (a mixture of postmodernism[23] and the New Age movement) encourages us to equate God with the universe.[24] Ernan A. Norman states: “It is obvious that a linear decline of religion, with an emphasis on its disappearance in the absolute sense, cannot be an adequate definition of secularization as it is understood today. Knowledge and maturation, which are under development, cannot in themselves explain the decline of religion or define secularization. “[25] However, the human beings’ search for the spiritual and their emotional needs do not disappear with the supremacy of secularization but only go through direction crises, inconsistencies between needs and offers, even though religiosity has diversified its offer. The craving for the sacred was inculcated through Creation and

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has remained a defining element of human nature ever since. Our contemporaries still yearn for love, personal value, spiritual enrichment, transcendent goals, sincere relationships, perennial values, forgiveness, reconciliation with God, sanctification, etc.

All these are found in the original mission to preach by word and deed, entrusted

by Jesus Christ to His followers. If we look into sociological data that refer to religion and secularization[26], we discover that man draws a clear line between ordinary life and spiritual realities, isolating religion to strictly personal concerns.[27] Thomas Luckmann argues that even the individual’s approach to the social order has radically changed, and this has brought about changes in the religious consciousness.[28] “Religion could be and was perceived more and more as the ideology of an institutional system. Its jurisdiction over matters of current importance has been restricted to matters that may only be of importance for private use.

The most important connection of the sacred universe with everyday life has been broken.

Religious institutions have maintained their massive presence in society as very visible institutions, but have suffered a sudden constraint regarding the jurisdiction of their norms. The secular segments of the social structure have developed pragmatic norms, whose current (or assumed) tendency towards “functional rationalism” has justified the liberation of the institutional domains from the values ​​embodied in the sacred traditional universe. “[29] Addressing the social alienation created by the disregard of religion as an authentic option, Olivier Clement claims that “secular society is a society in which silence reigns, more often than not, when it comes to God. In many environments speaking about God has become disrespectful and even

obscene.”[30] For Peter Berger, secularization is the disintegration of the “sacred roof” and the launch of a plurality of life spheres - public and private, secular and spiritual. Or, “...the process through which sectors of society and culture are removed from the domination of religious institutions and symbols. However, when talking about culture and symbols, this implies that secularization is more than a sociocultural process. It affects all of the cultural life and of the way of thinking, and can be noticed in the decline of religious content in art, philosophy, literature and, last but not least, in the launch of science as an autonomous, completely secular perspective on the world. Moreover, this implies that the process of secularization also has a subjective facet. As there is a secularization of society and culture, we also encounter a secularization of consciousness.”[31] In a course entitled “Faith and Mission in a Secularized World,” Gottfried Oosterwal recalled that one of the most difficult tasks the Christian apostles had to accomplish was to present a new and radical message to an outdated world, in contrast to the present mission of the Church, which is to present an obsolete message to a whole new world. And it is this radical novelty that is described by the author using the term secularization.[32] Oosterwal’s remark considers secularization as the most important challenge for the Church, both in the modern world and in the postmodern one. He attributed a certain significance to secularization as an outward manifestation of many dimensions. The characteristics would be (1) the decline of religion as the determinant factor of human life, thinking and behavior; (2) the loss of the sacred character of life; (3) the decline of faith; (4) the shift from a community-oriented

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life to a social system based on pluralism and the private environment, characterized by specialization and differentiation, by an impersonal technological order, rational planning and institutionalism; (5) the development of a specific way of thinking - relativism, pragmatism, positivism, empiricism and existentialism, and (6) compliance with the surrounding world expressed by religious organizations and their representatives’ accepting an adapting to the current cultural and social values.[33] Trying a personal definition Ernan Norman says that: “Secularization is the external manifestation of the process that causes the sacred to lose its unique character in our world. Along with the rational, scientific and industrial upswing, we have started to head towards individualization of the members of society, resulting directly in the removal of religious functions and practices from the cultural and social functions of the institutions, manifested by the increasingly limited trust in faith and God, as shaping factors of the Universe and the terrestrial existence.”[34] Finally, Eugene Zaitsev[35] considers secularism to be a controversial idea that does not seem to be well understood in spite of strenuous efforts to define it, which either lead in the wrong direction or are not serious enough.

III. Postmodernist secularism

Paulien states that in the current period secularism has also embraced a postmodernist garment, distinguishing contemporaries from the traditional exponents of postmodernism through the interest of the former for spirituality.

Their everyday concerns may include communication with God in public or private, and constraint-free dialogue with

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their co-religionists.[36] In spite of these traces of spirituality, their secularism is proven by their “strong aversion to religious forms and institutions.”[37] In their opinion, even a superficial communication with God will never be mediated by any official religious group, disavowing the interference of the group through authoritatively imposed conduct lines, or by requesting financial contributions to be used at a later discretion. “Postmodernists are interested in truth and faith, but they are determined not to subordinate themselves spiritually to anyone.”[38] Thus, by comparing the two styles of secularism (the scientific and the postmodernist one), the representatives of latter seem to be more approachable, even if they consider religious groups to be either a danger or an abuse.

Therefore, in a cultural context mostly defined by rational and utilitarian values, with hardly any focus on religion or the institutions promoting it, and with a lot of focus on individualism rather than on community life, religious institutions still keep their shaping potential. “In the postmodern cultural context, religion has mostly become a means of expressing self and searching for meaning and continuity in life, rather than an arena where aspects of life and death, of admitting and confessing guilt are discussed.”[39] Eugene Zaitsev believes that the secularization of the world and the mind has become a problem for the Postmodern Christianity, as secularism promotes the same virtues that used to be generally known as being reserved for the Church “Libertate, Egalité, Fraternité”[40] (possibility to act according to one’s own will, the recognition of the same rights and the imposition of the same duties, close ties between communities). However, the difference between the way in which these two approached these values ​​lies in the different perceptions about them. For

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postmodernists, freedom means the ability to satisfy any desire without any space-time (now and here), quantitative (everything) or ethical (does anyone suffer because of his freedom?) limitations. For a Christian, freedom has, first of all, a qualitative dimension and it is connected both as a source and as a means of expression to the supreme value called God. Secondly, living a life full of liberty means the ability to overcome ordinary needs, selfish desires and strictly personal character of life.[41] Conclusions This article has created a framework for discussion of the place and role of the Church in contemporary times[42], starting from the obvious disinterest of both believers and of the religiously uninitiated people towards God and the Church, the institution that mainly represents Him. We have tried to conceptually and practically define the phenomenon that highlights this lack of religious concern - secularism, from a bivalent perspective: the point of view of the Church and points of view from the outside the church. Contemporary people have rejected religion as a plausible option, in their desire for development, as they are tributary to current conceptions, knowledge, and mastery of the environment through their own abilities. This trend highlights a resumption of the Devil’s initial intentions of removing the man from credible sources, full of development potential or, in the worst case, his refuge in a religious indifference, induced by the generalization of the alienation from God and searching for a surrogate of communication with the supernatural, strictly personally defined. The gradual loss of the absolute domination of the Church in the religious spectrum, throughout history, has equated with a disorienting approach to society and culture and a deviation from the standard biblical line of conduct. The

Church also suffers a burdensome image deficit, to the extent that it has lost both its influence and its function as a point of reference. By trying to define secularism from different theological, traditional and Protestant perspectives, it is revealed that, fortunately, the religious orientation deficit does not completely inhibit man’s search for the spiritual dimension, love, spiritual development, sincere relationships, sustainable values, etc.

References: [1]

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In June 2010, the Assembly Hall in Edinburgh hosted the World Mission Centenary Conference which had taken place in the same place in 1910. The participants (over 1,000 delegates from around the world) considered this moment to be a suggestive one for those looking for the direction of the Christian mission in the 21st century. Following the organizational model of 1910 when eight (8) study subjects were approached, nine (9) think-tank committees on Christian mission were launched, with a delegation of global diversity representing a variety of institutions and organizations from different Christian traditions: 1. The foundations of the mission; 2. Christian missions among other beliefs; 3.

Mission and postmodernism; 4. Mission and Power; 5. Forms of missionary engagement; 6. Education and theological training; 7.

Christian communities in contemporary contexts; 8. Mission and Unity - Ecclesiology and Mission and 9. Mission, Spirituality and Authentic Disciplement. On the topic of the Christian Mission in Postmodernism, the members of the study group discussed the challenges of the new phenomenon of Postmodernism and their impact on the mission of the Church, distinguishing the common attributes and particularities of the postmodernist phenomenon in different regions of the world, including: 1. The significance of postmodernism and the contexts in which its influence is felt; 2. How Postmodernism affects the basic understanding of the Christian faith and therefore the Christian mission, especially in

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[2]

[3]

[4]

Europe; 3. The relationship between believing and belonging to Christian discipleship; 4. How can biblical truth be presented to those who embrace postmodern relativism and are suspicious of any metanarrations? (http://www.edinburgh2010.org/en/aboutedinburgh-2010.html) accessed on November 5, 2018 According to the World Values S ​​ urvey (WVS), a study conducted at regular intervals at the World level since 1981, so far six sociological assessments have taken place: 1981-1984, 1989-1993, 1994-1999, 1999-2004, 2005 2008 and 2010 - 2014, to which we will also refer. For each of these 6 stages, subjects representing all continents were surveyed. We refer to the European section of the last study, comprising 15 states that were considered relevant in terms of religiosity, spread over a wide areal (from Russia to Spain), with a different economic level (from Armenia to Germany), with different religions (Poland Roman Catholicism, Romania - Orthodoxy, Kazakhstan - Muslim), with an officially declared high level of secularism (Estonia) or religious state (Turkey). In each of these countries, the questionnaire was applied to an average of 1,500 people, using field operators for face-to-face dialogues or telephone calls, the results being nationally representative. We will only use the significant data for the goal of our discussion (Yes / No, For / Against), leaving no reference to the percentage of incomplete answers. In addition, we will only analyze the results from the Christiandeclared countries.(www.worldvaluessurvey. org) accessed on August 4, 2018 Regarding the place God occupies in the personal universe, 82% respondents from countries which are mainly Christian, declare their faith in God, 14% deny faith in God, and 3% refuse to give an answer. The highest percentage of responses comes from Georgia (99.2%), Cyprus (95.9%), followed by Armenia (95.5%) and the lowest from Estonia (43.1%), Slovenia, ) and Germany (62.9%), with the results in Romania being 92% / 4%.

The measure of value that respondents give to the Church is also highlighted by the attendance of worship services. Of all the responses, 3.2% confirm church attendance

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[5] [6]

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more than once a week (4.9% in Georgia and 1.1% in Estonia, 4.4% in Romania), 11.6% say they go to church once a week (46% in Poland and 2.8% in Estonia, 21.5% in Romania), 10.8% say they go to church once a month (22.2% in Armenia and 3.6% in Estonia, 17.2% in Romania), 27.9% attend the church only on high holidays (40.8% in Belarus and 13.2% in Spain, with 28.4% in Romania), 6.9% say they go to church once a year (Estonia 16% and Spain 2.2%, 4.6% in Romania), 10.4 say they visit the church much less often (17.8% % in Romania and 3.7% in Cyprus) and 28% say that they never go to church (53.3% in Spain and 5.2% in Romania).

Adding up the number of those who say they go to church once a month, once a week, or even more often, we have a total of 25.6%, and by adding up the number of those going to church only for big religious holidays once a year, less frequently than once a year or never, we will have a total of 84%. In conclusion, the frequency with which people go to church is not relevant for the respondents’ faith in God. The Bible, 2 Timothy 3:5 If we look at the results of the World Values​​ Survey (WVS) wave 6 (2010-2014), we find that the religious situation at the European level is not uniform, which should keep us from generalizations. Baltic, Scandinavian and former Yugoslavian countries are on top of the list of European states that can hardly be considered religious. At the other extreme, Poland and Romania are among the most religious European states. In general, Orthodox and Catholic countries tend to be more religious than Protestant or mixed ones.

Moreover, ex-communist countries, with the exception of Poland and Romania, have lower religion rates than the European average.

However, when we talk about the level of religiosity in Europe, we have to think about the level of individual perception, religious communities and shared religiosity. Hence, although a majority of the population in most European countries still affirms a high level of respect for God, individual religiosity, which takes a concrete form of expression, is rather low. We could say, therefore, that most of the European population can be simply characterized as secularized and non-religious.

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When analyzing the frequency with which Christians participate in worship, we will find that this is one of the forms of religiosity that has undergone dramatic changes in recent years. The data of the dramatic decline in the believers’ attendance of worship services are the strongest proof for those who claim a secularization of Europe. Referring to the apparently high interest for God and spirituality, compared to the apparent lack of concern for attending the churches, Grace Davie called this phenomenon “believing without belonging.” See Jose Casanova, The Religious Situation in Europe, Hans Joas and Klaus Wiegandt eds., Secularization and the World Religions, Chicago, 2009, pp. 209-227 [7] Still, there are other theologians that consider secularizarion as a positive and usefull enterprise of the civil society, adding enormous benefits to all religions. See about this Ciocan, Tudor Cosmin, ”A new version of religion, the megalopolitan one. How the overcrowding society interact with traditional local religion. Secularization, the new messiah,” in DIALOGO (DIALOGO-CONF 2018 ORI), vol. 4, issue 2: Overpopulation and Religion’s Involvement, DOI: 10.18638/ dialogo.2018.4.2.11, ISBN: 978-80-5541408-9 ISSN: 2393-1744, 2018, pp. 95-104 [8] Ioan Gheorghe-Rotaru, “Aspecte ale secularizării şi ale omului secularizat” (Aspects of secularization and secularized man), Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai, Orthodox Theology, LII, no. 1, Cluj University Press, Cluj-Napoca, 2006, pp. 251-266.

[9] The signing of the Westfalia Peace Treaty in 1648 meant the end of the 30-year war between Catholics and Protestants and the birth of a new Europe with sovereign states.

[10] See Gerhard Benecke, Germany in the Thirty Years War, Edwin Arnold, London, 1978 [11] “Cuius regio, eius religio” is a Latin phrase that literally means “the territory belongs to him, that is religion”, meaning that the ruler’s religion dictates the religion of the subjects https://www.britannica.com/topic/cuiusregio- eius-religio accessed on November 4, 2018 [12] Richard H. Niebuhr, Christ and Culture, Harper & Row, New York, 1951

Ellen G. White, Acts of Apostles, Pacific Press Publishing Association, Mountain View, 1911, p. 17. Full Quote “Throughout the ages of spiritual darkness, the Church of God was like a city set on a mountain. Even if it appears weak and full of defects, it is the only object over which God pours out in a special way, His distinct attention. It is the theater of His grace, in which He delights to reveal His transforming power of hearts. “ [14] Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Letters and Papers from Prison, Fontana Books, Londra, 1968, p.121 https://dexonline.ro/definitie/secularism, accessed on 1 August 2018 [15] The Latin saeculum may mean generation, race, generation, age, but also Zeitgeist.

[16] Dumitru Popescu, Teologie și cultură, Editura Institutului Biblic și de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, București, 1993, p. 68 [17] Ben-Oni Ardelean, Evaluarea spiritualității europene în Postmodernism, Editura Didactică și Pedagogică, București, 2011, p.

43 [18] Christopher B. Kaiser, “From Biblical Secularity to Modern Secularism: Historical Aspects and Stages”, in The Church Between Gospel and Culture: The Emerging Mission In North America, ed. George R. Hunsberger and Craig Van Gelder, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, 1996, p. 81.

[19] Russell Lynn Staples, Transmission of the Faith in a Secular Age, Andrews Society for Religious Studies, New Orleans, 1990, p. 3 [20] Steve Bruce, Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996, p. 37 [21] Russell Lynn Staples, The Transmission of the Faith in a Secular Age, Andrews Society for Religious Studies, New Orleans, 1990, p.

3 [22] Idem [23] See Ciocan Tudor Cosmin, „Postmodernismul ca revoltă împotriva autorităţii revelaţionale” (Postmodernism as revolt against the revelational authority), în „Simpozionul modernism, postmodernism şi religie” (Conference proceedings), Constanţa, Ed. Vasiliana’98, Iaşi, 2005, pp. 297-315.

[24] Kenneth D. Boa & Robert M. Bowman Jr., [13]

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An Unchanging Faith in a Changing World: Understanding and Responding to Critical Issues that Christians Face Today, Thomas Nelson Publishers, Nashville, 1997, p. 88 [25] Ernan A. Norman, A Strategy For Reaching Secular People – The Intentional Church in a Post-Modern World, AuthorHouse, Bloomington, 2007, p. 34 [26] Grace Davie, „Europe: The Exception That Proves the Rule” în The Desecularization of the World. Resurgent Religion and World Politics, P. Berger ed., Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1999, pp. 65 – 83 [27] Jose Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1994, p. 211 [28] Thomas Luckmann, „The Structural Conditions of Religious Consciousness in Modern Societies”, Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 6 (March – June 1979), p.

123 [29] Ibid., p. 133 [30] Olivier Clement, Life from the Heart of Death, Pandora-M Publishing House, Târgovişte, 2001, p. 47 [31] Peter Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion, Anchor, New York, pp. 107-108 [32] Gottfried Oosterwal, “Faith and Mission in a Secularized World”, Department of World Mission, Andrews University Theological Seminary, April 5, 1993 [33] Gottfried Oosterwal, “The Process of Secularization”, in Meeting the Secular Mind: Some Adventist Perspectives, Humberto M. Rasi and Fritz Guy eds., Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, 1985, p. 42 [34] Ernan A. Norman, A Strategy For Reaching Secular People – The Intentional Church in a Post-Modern World, AuthorHouse, Bloomington, 2007, p. 39 [35] Eugene Zaitsev, „Secularism and Postsecularism: Challenges for Evangelical Protestantism in Post-Sovietic Countries” în Revisiting Postmodernism: An Old Debate on a New Era, Bruce Bauer ed., Department of World Mission Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary Andrews University, Berrien Springs, 2013, p. 348

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Jon Paulien, Evanghelia veșnică pentru o lume veșnic în schimbare, Editura Viață și Sănătate, București, 2012, p. 34 [37] Idem [38] Idem [39] Jan-Olav Henriksen, „Multifaced Christianity and the Postmodern Condition: Reflections on its Challenges to Churches in the Northern Hemisphere” în Mission and Postmodernities, Rolv Olsen ed., Regnum Books International, Edinburgh, 2011, pp. 18-19 [40] This motto was rooted in the French Revolution and is now a national motto for the French Republic and for Haiti. See William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989 [41] Zaitsev, pp. 352 - 353 [42] Ioan Gheorghe-Rotaru, “Misiunea Bisericii în societate” (The mission of the Church in society), Timotheus – Incursiuni Teologice Tematice, vol. 4, nr. 2, Editura Universitară, București, 2017, pp. 57-76.

[36]

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This paper was presented in the

Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, (DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW) held online, on the Journal’s website, from MAY 19 - 26, 2019

journal homepage: http://dialogo-conf.com

The Church - Responsibilities and Models of Service Cristian Marius Munteanu, PhD

Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; The General Conference of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church, the Inter-European Division, Bern, Switzerland, Education and Chaplaincy Director article info

abstract

Article history: Received 14 April 2019 Received in revised form 8 May Accepted 10 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.13

The Church was founded by God, constitutes the assembly of believers who assume an identity defined by Jesus built on the sacrifice of the Son of God and is mandated to glorify God and lead people to salvation. With divine origin and universal character, the Church is also vested with the authority to fulfill the original plan of God, which has been formulated in other terms - “make disciples of all nations.” (Matthew 28:19).

The nature of the Church is highlighted by the metaphorical images used in the New Testament: the Body of Christ, the People of God and the Temple of the Holy Spirit.

The major responsibilities of the Church are the permanent disposition to serve and the ability to adapt both their expression and the way they relate to the constant changes. The patterns that the Church should use in ministry are those of the herald, who proclaims as message and servant, who transforms churches into an expression of deaconry.

These issues are the central point of any discussion about the church since it sets the definitions and duties of the church alongside the social and religious postmodernist context to which the church must not only cope with it but must also improve it.

Basically, the significant definitions, functions, models, and responsibilities of the Church must personalize the Church’s offer in such a way as to make it attractive for these times.

Keywords: Church; mission; ministry; deaconry; society; herald; responsibilities; traditional understanding; the history of the church; community;

© 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. The major responsibilities of the

Church

Millard Erickson states[1] that analyzing the functions of the Church is only a way of understanding the purpose of Christ’s creation of this community of faith. The way in which the Church fulfills its salvation mandate is another defining

element of its role, even more necessary, as the society to which it is addressed is in constant change. Therefore, he considers that the permanent disposition to serve and the ability to actively adapt to change are the two basic attributes of the contemporary Church.[2]

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eISSN: 2393-1744, cdISSN: 2392-9928 printISSN: 2457-9297, ISSN-L 2392-9928

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A. Permanent disposition to serve

all who have been sent to save them.[15]

The Christic model, which serves, is irresistible.[3] The church is the community of believers who testify Jesus Christ.[4] Through the Holy Spirit, the Church gives creation the chance to (re) discover God, according to God’s original plan.[5] Church life is a perpetual ministry of God and others.[6] The Church cannot despise everything surrounding it, much less the fact that this world was the unique destination of Jesus, the supreme object of His love, which must be helped to improve.[7] The Christian must have an eschatological vision of the Kingdom of God, to look at it in the vision of his final destination[8], designed by God. The availability to serve is manifested not only through direct benefit, but also through partnerships and interactions with the state, other organizations, and the general public, regardless of their religious orientation.[9] B. Adaptability

The Church, as the “pillar and foundation of Truth” (1 Timothy 3:15), starts from premises different from those of society but has the same recipient - the community[10], following the same Christic model.[11] If secular society[12] instills the public the impression of solutions by itself, the Church must update both its expression and its way of dealing with constant and costly changes. Yes, it is true that the Church can neither overlook nor tolerate the state of things in the context, but is called upon to take over and promote solutions that society cannot create.[13] The mobility and flexibility[14] of the church with regard to the processes used to fulfill its ministry objectives are sine qua non conditions for the success of the mission, in a context in which the recipients of its messages are in constant and uncontrollable change. If the Church understands constantly updating the sense of calling for a single mission, it will create those processes, means, and methods to reach

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II. Models of the Church

In his series of writings on the genesis, Biblicism and functions of the Church, Reinder Bruinsma suggests that the Church should be seen through other images, besides Biblical metaphors, based on the truths of the Scripture - the people of God, the body of Christ, and the temple of the Holy Spirit. Especially when looking for references to understanding the role of the church today, the images must be actual and create impact. Therefore, in order to understand the all-encompassing mandate of the Church, he suggests (1) the Church herald and (2) the Church - servant.[16] A. Church - Herald

This image is complementary to the Protestant idea of proclamation.[17] The herald is sent to deliver a message.[18] Hans Küng in The Church, provokes the traditional understanding of the Church. His basic concept is that the Church is not the determined reality that does not make any progress in time, launched at some point in history, and which demands that the surrounding culture be subordinated to it.

“Too easily the Church became a prisoner of the image it created about itself in a specific period of history.”[19] Building on the concept of the Church - the people of God and the Body of Christ, the author states that “all Christians are instructed, led and supported personally by the Holy Spirit, without intercession, and all must live through the Spirit. The anointing is not offered only to prophets and kings, but to the entire community, each individual being filled with the fullness of God. All believers are called to preach. Every believer can and must, being instructed by God, to teach others; may and must, by receiving the Word of God, be a herald in one form or another.”[20]

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Avery Cardinal Dulles, in his book Models of the Church, offers a view of the Church through five different models: Institution, Mystical Communion, Sacrament, Herald, and Servant.

“The “Herald” model differs from the precedents because it puts the Word first and the sacrament second. He sees the Church as tight and formed around the Word of God. The mission of the Church is to proclaim what it had heard, believed, and was mandated to proclaim.”[21] “This message is kerygmatic because it sees the Church as a Herald - one who receives an official message with the duty to forward it. The basic picture is that of a royal herald or announcer who comes to proclaim a royal decree in a public market.”[22] The strength of this model is the responsibility received through the Great Delivery of Jesus. The author also recognizes the deficiency of this model, “if it focuses almost exclusively on the confession and neglects the action.”[23] B. Church - servant This model turns the Church into a place of refuge, which has the capacity and resources to be an inn or a shelter, a safe haven, a place where people are always welcome for accommodation and food.[24] For the Church to be able to meet this need, so often encountered and expressed in various ways by those who look at the representatives of Christ with anxious expectations, the place that the Lord has mandated must be interested in people, not to win them over but as a way to be.[25] Avery Dulles asserts that this model “assumes that the Church should be regarded as part of a large human family, sharing the same concerns as the rest of the people.”[26] “The Church announces the coming of the Kingdom not only by words, by preaching or proclamation, but much more precisely through action, in the service of reconciliation, wounding, healing ...

And if the Lord was a “man of all,” so the Church must be “the community for others.”[27] In trying to explain and introduce the term “servant” to the Church, Dulles[28] recognizes

that the expression itself is not very clear and may have more meanings. However, he highlights three meanings: 1. the activity that takes place on someone’s order, not an own choice; 2. the activity directed towards the good of others, not for the well-being of the workers; 3. the activity that is humble, even degrading.[29] This church model was also one of the major ecclesiological principles of the Vatican Council II, teaching that the mission of the Church is to serve the human needs. “We can not stand indifferent at the side, savoring wealth and liberties knowing that, anywhere in the world, Lazarus of the 20th century, sits at our door.

In light of Jesus’ parable, wealth and freedom bring special responsibility. Wealth and freedom create a special obligation.”[30] Eight years later, at Xavier University, the Pontifical Sovereign stated: “It is not enough to offer to the disadvantaged of the world crumbs of freedom, chips of truth and crumbs of bread. The Gospel compels us to much more. The parable of the rich man and the poor Lazarus targets the consciousness of mankind ....”[31] The Book of Acts of the Apostles, which summarizes the first activities of the Primary Church and the first acts of glory of the apostles[32], helps us to discover that even deeply rooted theological concepts defining and even feeding Israel’s national superiority have been replaced.[33] In the Old Testament, the “servant of God” was a title of honor, being ambivalent in its meaning[34], indicating both the individual and a group.35 However, this title reaches the culmination of understanding when it is joined, through Jesus, to the concept of the Messiah[36], especially the Messiah who sacrifices Himself.[37] Starting from the Parable of the Emperor’s Son’s Wedding in Matthew 22: 1-14, in which the word servant or bondsman appears obstinately translated as slave (δούλους - doulous), Maxie Dunnam states, “There are two questions that the Church must ask itself: Who are those people different from us who should receive an invitation from us? And are we ready to go to the city and urge the less likely inclined to come and

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join the Lord’s party?”[38] III. Combining patterns Bruinsma[39] writes that when the two herald and servant models are combined, they create a convincing expression of the Biblical notion[40] of the church’s confession such as deaconry.[41] Besides these meanings referring to a general ministry, the Church is called to proclaim and serve a new covenant.[42]

Hermann Beyer says that not all church services are deaconry. For example, benevolence is not a sufficient reason for the Church to emerge, as long as any man might be able to do these activities. The deaconry Jesus Christ exemplified and pleaded for was regarding the Kingdom.[43] “A view of the Church that would only focus on the apostles and their successors and would miss the chance to speak about pastors and teachers would be insufficient in matters of the highest importance. It is the duty of the pastors to listen to the lay members of the church carefully and with an open heart and to engage in a repeated dialogue with them.

Each member of the church has been offered his own gifts and calls and more than ever before; they should be experienced in the daily life of the Church.”[44] The primary mission of Jesus was to serve.45 If the Church understands its purpose, it must wear the Herald Servant’s garment. Because so it must be before anything else.[46] In general, to capture the intrinsic nature of the church, many Biblical images are used.[47] However, despite the many images used, none of them perfectly describes the reality intended by Jesus. But what we have to remember is that the images do not first aim to describe the Church as an institution that exists for itself neither the church members as isolated in their circle.

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Biblical images must reveal the purpose of the Church’s existence - the relationship of dialogue between Christ and His followers and the relationship between them.[48] “As long as the Church affirms about itself that it is a continuation of Jesus’ life and ministry, it must be a shepherd, a worry bearer, a relational constructor, a holy community, a servant.”[49] “Diakonia (deaconry) is both a distinct function of the Church, but at the same time inseparable from all other functions of the Church.”[50] „Since the Church has a visible and social structure as a sign of her unity in Christ, she can and ought to be enriched by the development of human social life, not that there is any lack in the constitution given her

by Christ, but that she can understand it more penetratingly, express it better, and adjust it more successfully to our times. Moreover, she gratefully understands that in her community life no less than in her individual sons, she receives a variety of helps from men of every rank and condition, for whoever promotes the human community at the family level, culturally, in its economic, social and political dimensions, both nationally and internationally, such a one, according to God’s design, is contributing greatly to the Church as well, to the extent that she depends on things outside herself. Indeed, the Church admits that she has greatly profited and still profits from the antagonism of those who oppose or who persecute her.”[51] Among the first aspects that the Church should understand in its ministry is that it has been delegated a territory in which to act and to work with.[52] This mandate, which requires the intensification of bilateral dialogue, cannot be achieved if the followers of Christ are not really interested in the population of the same rank, but with different needs[53]. Even in the apostolic times, there were talks about

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inappropriate dialogues with the world.[54] Later, it was increasingly difficult to see the Church’s distinctive ministry, which, concerned with saving appearances or from a defensive instinct, found itself in a “cold war” with the world.[55] Subsequently, with caution, the Church returned to the world. But even then it entered the arena, sometimes playing the role of a partisan of discipline, sometimes behaved like a teacher, other times as a parent, but never as an equal partner trying to reach common goals with the world.[56]

The dialogue between the two involves “disciplined attention to accepting the content or the exchange and its significance.”57 On behalf of the Church, more than any dialogue partner it would have, it expects not to deviate from the mandate, but to accomplish this by paying the proper attention, by honestly cleansing the approach and valuing the other. “From the answers it provides, it will be clear enough that the People of God and the human race in whose midst it lives, offer their mutual services. Thus, the Church’s mission will reveal its religiosity and precisely through that the superior human character.”58 “By cultivating and offering talk of dialogue, a person stands on the brink of truth and becomes the servant of God.”[59]

„One of the salient features of the modern world is the growing interdependence of men one on the other, a development promoted chiefly by modern technical advances.

Nevertheless, brotherly dialogue among men does not reach its perfection on the level of technical progress, but on the deeper level of interpersonal relationships.”[60] Another document, Perfectae Caritatis distinctly points out when it affirms that church institutions must take into account the need for their members to obtain adequate knowledge of the human condition in its various forms of manifestation, but also the needs of the Church. Because they will be able to help the human race much more efficiently, after

the passion of apostolic zeal and following their ability to discern wisely, in the light of faith, the direction and situations faced by today’s world.[61] Hans Küng affirms that the spiritual gifts that the believers receive from the abundance of the Holy Spirit must all have deaconry as the goal. “In the broadest sense, it is the call of God addressed to the individual given certain specific services within the community, including the ability to perform those services.”[62] As diverse as needs are, so many are the gifts for the ministry.[63] „For the exercise of this apostolate, the Holy Spirit Who sanctifies the people of God…, gives the faithful special gifts also (cf. 1 Cor. 12:7), “allotting them to everyone according as He wills” (1 Cor. 12:11) in order that individuals, administering grace to others just as they have received it, may also be “good stewards of the manifold grace of God” (1 Peter 4:10), to build up the whole body in charity (cf. Eph. 4:16). From the acceptance of these charisms, including those which are more elementary, there arise for each believer the right and duty to use them in the Church and in the world for the good of men and the building up of the Church, in the freedom of the Holy Spirit who “breathes where He wills” (John 3:8). This should be done by the laity in communion with their brothers in Christ, especially with their pastors who must make a judgment about the true nature and proper use of these gifts not to extinguish the Spirit but to test all things and hold for what is good (cf. 1 Thess. 5:12,19,21).”[64] These are a testimony in favor of the herald - servant Church, which does not serve to make proselytes, but because it has the mandate to be and to perform the deaconry. “Such acts of ministry, which are an integral part of the mission, represent a

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respectful response of Christians to what God has done. They are not a kind of bait for those interested. Their only justification must be found in the fact that they are an imitation of Christ’s service to and for the world.”[65] Each of the two models presented proposes different perspectives that are intended to broaden our understanding. In conclusion, Dulles states that, in his opinion, “each model brings some important and necessary points. The kerygmatic model emphasizes the Church’s need to continue to shout the Gospel and to urge people to put their trust in Jesus as Lord and Savior.

The service model highlights the urgency with which the Church must contribute to the transformation of the secular man’s life and impregnate human society as a whole with the values of the Kingdom of God.”[66] Conclusions Any discussion about the church must begin with the goals that God had in mind when creating it. The Christian church was born out of the passion for people, which exclusively defined Divinity and aimed for saving humankind’s’ final destiny. Only by passing from one generation to another, from the Author to the disciples and from them to the contemporaries, the saving passion has also lost its intensity and meaning. To re-establish the love for the eternal good of humankind, the church’s representatives must be reminded of the original goals, so simple yet so incandescent, as neglected yet as strong. The Church must strongly reaffirm its former identity and zeal for the work of God. Only an intellectual recognition of the current critical situation does not automatically bring improvement.

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religious experience, a calibration of the spiritual dynamism and moral physiognomy that enlivens the vision. It is not enough for the church to emphasize the value of knowing the correct doctrine. The neglect of the practical aspects of religion[67] which first transforms the subject’s life and then, by direct influence on those in the context, erodes Christianity to the level of a belieffree theory. As a direct consequence, the church becomes a theological enclave deprived of the joy of initiating dialogues of salvation. The intellectual assumption of this vision does not automatically trigger actions. The Church’s responsibilities and patterns of service are not rationally assumed. Experimenting the truths is the most attractive part of religion. The Christian church was born after a spectacular and transformational personal experience that extended to groups and then to the known world at that time. That is why the task of the present Christian church is to assume the same responsibility of proclamation and ministry, at the mental and spiritual level, which makes the Christian faith vivid and convincing.

References: [1]

[2] [3]

[4]

[5]

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Millard Erickson, Teologie Creștină, Editura Cartea Creștină, Oradea, 1998, p.

247 Idem. „Just as the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.” Matthew 20:28, NIV „And God placed all things under his feet and appointed him to be head over everything for the church, which is his body, the fullness of him who fills everything in every way.” Ephesians 1: 22 – 23, NIV Seventh-day Adventists Believe, An exposition of the fundamental beliefs of the Seventh-day Church, Ministerial Association, Pacific Press Publishing

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Association, Boise, 2006, pp. 74 - 75 „Each of you should use whatever gift you have received to serve others, as faithful stewards of God’s grace in its various forms.” 1 Peter 4:10, NIV [7] Thomas Kemper, „The Missio Dei in Contemporary Context”, International Bulletin of Mission Research, October 2014 [8] Cosmin-Tudor CIOCAN, Iisus Hristos – Plinirea Revelaţiei Dumnezeieşti, (Jesus Christ – The fulfillment of Divine Revelation), Ed. Astra Museum, Sibiu, 2011, pp. 34-35.

[9] Philipp Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity, Oxford University, 2002.

[10] Paulo Candido de Oliveira, „Developing and Interdisciplinary Analysis and Application of Worldview Concepts for Christian Mission”, Andrews University DMin Dissertation, unpublished, 2006, p.

184 [11] „In your relationships with one another, have the same mindset as Christ Jesus: Who, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be used to his own advantage; rather, he made himself nothing by taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness. And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself by becoming obedient to death—even death on a cross!” Philippians 2:5-8, NIV [12] Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, “Aspecte ale secularizării şi ale omului secularizat” (Aspects of secularization and secularized man), Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai, Theologia Orthodoxa, (2006), L-LI, nr.1, Cluj University Press, Cluj-Napoca, pp.

251-266.

[13] Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, “Misiunea Bisericii în societate” (The mission of the Church in society), Timotheus – Incursiuni Teologice Tematice, vol. 4, nr.

2, 2017, Editura Universitară, București, pp. 57-76 [14] Erickson, Teologie Creștină, p. 248 [15] Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, “Biserica lui [6]

Dumnezeu, sursa unui Râu al Vieţii şi al Vindecării” (God’s Church, the Source of a River of Life and Healing), Argeşul ortodox, Curtea de Argeș, an XI, nr.564, 20– 26 sept. 2012, p.5.

[16] Reinder Bruinsma, The Body of Christ, Review and Herald Publishing Association, Hagerstown, MD, 2009, p.

163 [17] Eugen H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language, HavPress, 2002 [18] „We are therefore Christ’s ambassadors, as though God were making his appeal through us. We implore you on Christ’s behalf: Be reconciled to God!” 2 Corinthians 5:20, NIV; „for which I am an ambassador in chains. Pray that I may declare it fearlessly, as I should.”

Ephesians 6:20, NIV [19] Hans Küng, The Church, Sheed and Ward, New York, 1967, p. 19 [20] Ibid, p. 377 [21] Avery Dulles, Models of the Church, Image, New York, 2002, p. 68 [22] Idem [23] Ibid, p. 79 [24] https://www.cye.org/ministries/churchof-refuge accesat în 3 Octombrie 2018 [25] Bruinsma, p. 164 [26] Dulles, p. 84 [27] Idem [28] Dulles, p. 91 [29] „Jesus called them together and said, “You know that those who are regarded as rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wants to be first must be slave of all. For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.” Mark 10: 42-45, NIV [30] John Paul II, Yankee Stadium, October 1979. https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ essays-theology/vatican-ii-themes-

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church-servant, accessed on January 10, 2019 [31] Idem [32] David Peterson, The Acts of the Apostles, Eerdmans, 2009 [33] h t tps ://biblica lstudies.org.uk/pdf/ scripture/15-32_110.pdf accessed on January 10, 2019 [34] Siegfried H. Horn, Seventh-day Adventist Bible Dictionary, Review and Herald Publishing Association, Washington, 1979, p. 1009 [35] „But this is not true of my servant Moses; he is faithful in all my house. With him I speak face to face, clearly and not in riddles; he sees the form of the Lord.”

Numbers 12:7-8, NIV; „Have you considered my servant Job? There is no one on earth like him; he is blameless and upright, a man who fears God and shuns evil.” Job 1:8, NIV; „Praise the Lord, you his servants; praise the name of the Lord!” Psalm 113:1, NIV; „For the sake of Jacob my servant, of Israel my chosen, I summon you by name and bestow on you a title of honor, though you do not acknowledge me.” Isaiah 45:4, NIV. [36] Horn, p. 733 [37] „Here is my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen one in whom I delight; I will put my Spirit on him, and he will bring justice to the nations. He will not shout or cry out, or raise his voice in the streets. A bruised reed he will not break, and a smoldering wick he will not snuff out. In faithfulness he will bring forth justice; he will not falter or be discouraged till he establishes justice on earth. In his teaching the islands will put their hope.” Isaiah 42:1-4, NIV; „After he has suffered, he will see the light of life and be satisfied; by his knowledge my righteous servant will justify many, and he will bear their iniquities. Therefore I will give him a portion among the great, and he will divide the spoils with the strong, because he poured out his life unto death, and was numbered with the transgressors. For he bore the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors.” Isaiah 53:11-12, NIV

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https://www.seedbed.com/the-church-asservant/ accessed on January 10, 2019 [39] Bruinsma, p. 164 [40] δiakonia – serving, to be in service, to wait upon - Jay P. Green, The New Englishman’s Greek Concordance and Lexicon, Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, 1982 [41] „Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant.” Matthew 20:26, NIV; „What, after all, is Apollos? And what is Paul?

Only servants, through whom you came to believe—as the Lord has assigned to each his task.” 1 Corinthians 3:5, NIV [42] „He has made us competent as ministers of a new covenant—not of the letter but of the Spirit; for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life.” 2 Corinthians 3:6, NIV [43] Hermann W. Beyer, „Diakones, Diakonia, Diakonos”, in The Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Gerhard Kittel, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1964, vol.3, pp.

85-86 [44] Council Speeches of Vatican II, ed. Hans Küng, Yves Congar, Daniel O’Hanlon, Glen Rock, New Jersey, 1964, pp. 32-33 [45] „For who is greater, the one who is at the table or the one who serves? Is it not the one who is at the table? But I am among you as one who serves. You are those who have stood by me in my trials.” Luke 22:27, NIV [46] Bruinsma, p. 165 [47] Seventh-day Adventists Believe, pp. 167 171 [48] „The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free.” Luke 4:18, NIV; „For the Son of Man came to seek and to save the lost.”

Luke 19:10, NIV [49] Lumen Gentium – Dogmatic Constitution of the Church, Solemnly Promulgated by His Holiness Pope Paul VI, 21 November 1964, p. 8 http://www.vatican.va/ archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/ [38]

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documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_ lumen-gentium_en.html accessed on January 10, 2019 [50] The Role of the Diakonia of the Church in Contemporary Society, World Council of Churches, Geneva, 1966, p. 19 [51] Gaudium et Spes, Pastorale Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, Promulgated by His Holiness, Pope Paul VI on December 7, 1965, 44 http:// www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ ii_vatican_council/documents/vatii_const_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_ en.html accessed on August 20, 2018 [52] Cosmin-Tudor CIOCAN, “The Religious Leadership”, in The Holistic Society: Multi-Disciplinary Perspectives.

Proceedings of Harvard Square Symposium, Vol. 3, The Scientific Press, Cambridge, MA, 2018, p. 181.

[53] Ibidem.

[54] „Do not be yoked together with unbelievers. For what do righteousness and wickedness have in common? Or what fellowship can light have with darkness?

What harmony is there between Christ and Belial? Or what does a believer have in common with an unbeliever? What agreement is there between the temple of God and idols? For we are the temple of the living God. As God has said: “I will live with them and walk among them, and I will be their God, and they will be my people.” 2 Corinthians 6:14 – 16, NIV [55] P.A. Liege, „Church of the World”, in Discerning the Times, Nikos A. Nesiotes, Philippe Maury, Pierre Andre Liege, Divine World Publications, Techny, 1968, pp. 131-132 [56] Mary Louise Norpel, Diakonia, the Mission of the Church https://www. theway.org.uk/Back/s017Norpel.pdf , accessed on August 10, 2018 [57] Reuel Howe, The Miracle of Dialogue, Seabury Press, New York, 1963, p. 76 [58] Gaudium et Spes, 11 [59] Howe, p. 83 [60] Gaudium et Spes, 23

Decreto Perfectae Caritatis, Sobre la Adecuada Renovation de la Vida Religiosa, 2 http://www.vatican.va/ archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/ documents/vat-ii_decree_19651028_ perfectae-caritatis_sp.html accessed on August 10, 2018 [62] Hans Küng, „The Charismatic Structure of the Church”, în Concilium Vol. 4, 1965, p. 51 [63] „All these are the work of one and the same Spirit, and he distributes them to each one, just as he determines.”

1 Corinthians 12:11, NIV; „God thus confirming our testimony about Christ among you. Therefore you do not lack any spiritual gift as you eagerly wait for our Lord Jesus Christ to be revealed.” 1 Corinthians 1:6.7, NIV; „Now to each one the manifestation of the Spirit is given for the common good.” 1 Corinthians 12:7, NIV. [64] Apostolicum Actuositatem, Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity, Solemnly promulgated by His Holiness Pope Paul VI, on November 18, 1965, 3 http:// www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ ii_vatican_council/documents/vatii_decree_19651118_apostolicamactuositatem_en.html accessed on August 10, 2018 [65] Presbyterorum Ordinis, Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests, promulgated by His Holiness Pope Paul VI, on December 7, 1965, 16 http:// www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ ii_vatican_council/documents/vatii_decree_19651207_presbyterorumordinis_en.html accessed on August 10, 2018 [66] Avery Dulles, p. 68 [67] Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru, “Să ne ferească Domnul de o Biserică lumească și de credincioși lumești” (God Forbid a Wordly Church and Godless believers), Argeşul ortodox, Curtea de Argeș, an XII, nr. 608, sept. 2014, p.6.

[61]

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This paper was presented in the

Interreligious Dialogue in a World full of Conflicts and Violence, (DIALOGO-CONF 2019 IRDW)

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Transylvania – Orthodox and Catholic confluences Emanuel George Oprea

Moscow Pedagogical State University (MPSU) 11999, 1/1 Malaya Pirogovskaya Street Moscow, Russian Federation

article info

abstract

Article history: Received 15 April 2019 Received in revised form 01 June 2019 Accepted 10 June 2019 Available online 30 June 2019 doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.14

Keywords: Schism; Orthodox; Catholic; social politic; ethnics and minorities; Dualism;

Separation of Christianity, the Great Schism of 1054, as a result of the struggle for power between Rome and Constantinople, in Orthodox and Catholic, can be considered the moment when Europe was split up for many years until our days. The Western Europe Church expansion had manifested itself in the Middle Age in Transylvania when after 1437 the Unio Trium Nationum had excluded the Romanian Orthodox from social, political and economic life. The separation of Christian religions between East and West led to severe consequences reflected in the development of the society in Transylvania, which propagated even until present days. © 2014 RCDST. All rights reserved.

I. Introduction

Christianity had appeared more than 2000 years ago in a far province of the Roman Empire in the times when the same Empire was almighty and omnipresent. As already known the process of affirmation of Christianity as a worldwide religion was very difficult. It is considered that the main causes of expansion and success of new religion and faith relied on the following: a) From the very beginning Christians were well organized; b) Message brought by Christianity was more convincing in comparison with the

messages of older religions from the Roman Empire; c) Religious services were simpler and not so complicated as in the case of official religions because these services did not require so much the sight and hearing. A very interesting description is made by Pliny1 in one of his work of how Christians prayed to God in Bithynia2. Early in the morning, 1 Pliny the Young (61 AC, Como, Roman Empire – 113 AC, Bithynia, Antique Rome) – writer, political man, poet, lawyer, historian and military 2 Bithynia – Historical region in Anatolia (Turkey) bordered by Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus in ancient times) and Marmara Sea (Propontis). Bithynia was part

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before sunrise, believers came together and they were singing anthems dedicated to God and Jesus Christ, vowing not to sin, steal, kill, to not commit adultery and to respect the given word; d) In contrast to other religions Christianity was not making differences between poor and rich, men and women, free peoples and slaves; d) Christianity was the first and unique religion where the Son of God - The Saint Word of God – becomes a man, Jesus Christ, who came in our world for our Salvation. This is considered the main reason why Christianity has spread in the Roman Empire and after all over the world [1, 2].

Starting from great and straightforward ideas enumerated above and fundamental principle of loving your neighbor, Christianity, from a Jewish sect in Judea quickly spread through the Roman Empire despite early persecutions3. Moreover, Christianity became state religion in Armenia in 301 years (or 314), Ethiopia in 325, Georgia in 337 and finally Roman Empire in 391 [3].

of Thrace, a province of Persian and Roman Empire.

3 Early Christians were subject of various persecutions for their faith. Persecutions have not started because somebody was a Christian. The main cause was related to the fact that old and ancient official religions were losing fast their believers and became Christians and they refused further to worship to Roman Emperor.

Persecutions at a large scale were firstly started by Roman authorities in the year 64 when Nero Emperor blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome.

Figure 1. Pliny the Young. Duomo di Como. Sculpture of the main façade [5]

II. OFFICIAL CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS.

STATES AND SEPARATIONS

In Roman Empire the practice of the Christians became official for the first time,in April 311 by the edict of Galerius 4.

In 313 Constantine the Great (the First)5 and Licinius6 declared the toleration of Christianity by Edict of Milan7. Furthermore, Constantine was the first Christian Emperor.

In 391 year, under Theodosius, Christian Religion became the state religion of Rome.

4 Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus (250 - 5 May 311) –was an eminent soldier of Roman Army. In time of Diocletian Emperor Galerius received the rank of Caesar. Later, he married with Valeria, daughter of Diocletian. As Caesar he took over Illyria. Due to Galerius, as army leader, Roman Empire had the largest territory after the victories against Persian Empire.

From 305 up to his dead in 311 Galerius was also Emperor of Roman Empire.

5 Constantine the Great (27 February 272 – 22 May 337) – Wellknown and brilliant general and Roman Emperor. Constantine was chosen Byzantium (now Istanbul, Turkey) as capital of the whole Roman Empire.

Later, Constantine changed the name of Byzantium into Constantinople which means “City of Constantine” in Greek. Constantine was also one of the most important founders of the Eastern Orthodox Church religion.

6 Flavius Galerius Valerius Licinianus Licinius (250 – 325 AD) – Licinius was a very good friend of Galerius Emperor. In 308 AD, Galerius declared Licinius as honorific Emperor of the West of Roman Empire.

From 308 to 324 was Emperor. Licinius married with Julia Constantia, the half - sister of future Emperor Constantine. Later, in 324 Constantine became the ruler of Western part of Empire by defeating Licinius and one year later, in 325 Constantine had killed Licinius by accusing him of conspiracy with barbarians.

7 Edict of Milan was a document signed by Constantine and Licinius, as Roman Emperor in February 313 AD, which stipulated the religious toleration in Roman Empire. This document has stopped the persecutions against Christian Church in time of Diocletian Emperor.

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When Christianity was officially legalized, then the Church had used the structure of territorial administration of the Empire calling them dioceses [4].

When Christianity became an official religion, then it was necessary to deal not only with clerical spiritual issues but also with absolutely worldly ones like politics and economics, wars and negotiations, social problems and others. In 395 AD the Roman Empire was divided into Western and Eastern Roman Empire. This important event was not a long time before the falling of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD and was another step in the increasing of the distance between the Western and Eastern Church. Before these dates, theological controversies like Trinitarian8, Christological9 , and other issues have already divided Christian Church [6,7].

The separation between Western and Eastern Christian Churches irreversibly10 8 Trinitarian questions are related to Trinitarian Doctrine of Christianity, of how to make the sign of cross and the precession of Holy Spirit.

9 Christological problems were first mentioned in IV century and are concerning the nature of Jesus Christ.

Some priests like Arie from Alexandria sustained that Jesus is not the same as Holy God because is only a creation of Holy Father like any other man without any divine sides. Christological ideas were not accepted and in 325 AD, in Nicaea the First Ecumenical Council had clarified that Jesus Christ is the same with Holy Father and Holy Spirit, in accordance with Trinitarian Doctrine, forming The Holy Trinity. Starting from the ideas of Arie an important deviation from Trinitarian Doctrine with bad consequences on Christianity is Monophysitism. In opposition with Arie statements, monophysitism has considered that Jesus Christ has only divine nature considering His human body only apparently.

10 Theodosius the Great (11 January 347, Coca, Spain – 17 January 395, Milano, Italy) – Name at birth, Flavius Theodosius. Theodosius was a senator and Counselor of the Roman Empire. Emperor of Eastern Roman Empire from 19 January 379 until 17 January 395).

Theodosius was a remarkable organizer. He stabilized

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took place in 1054, and this major event is known as The Great Schism. This major event was caused by many decades of the fight for supremacy between Rome and Constantinople in Christian world related to iconoclasm and other religious and ideological contradictions together with a discussion on dominations of different territories situated at the common Eastern and Western borders of Roman Empire.

The Great Schism had divided the Christian Church into West and East, in Catholic and Orthodox Churches, respectively [8].

Eastern Orthodox Church is an ecclesiastic institution like the Catholic Church, and both appeared and developed at the same time in the Roman Empire.

During the time, differences between these two churches are enlarging. The Orthodox rite is Greek, and the religious services were done in Greek. In Catholic rite the religious services are realized mainly in the Latin Language. Orthodox Church, in the period of existence of the Eastern Roman Empire (later Byzantium), was always the second state power in the Empire and directly subordinated to the Emperor. This was a subject of the struggle to the fight for many centuries between Emperor and Orthodox institutions. In comparison, after the falling of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the Western Christian Church was the only authority for many people from Western Europe in the black centuries belonging to the period of migration. From the point of view of Western societies and Church, the AD 476 year is not the date of falling of the Roman Empire. This date is considered a crucial starting moment of profound transformations of Western Civilizations as a continuation of inheritance of the Roman Empire. Both religions, Orthodox and Catholics, in the period of black centuries and Middle Age have enormous and the borders of Empire and provided a series of reforms for reinforcing the Empire. Theodosius reunified for the last time Western and Eastern Roman Empires.

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decisive contributions in the spreading and maintaining of Christian Faith in Europe and Asia which are imprinted in the foundation of moral values of the modern democratic societies [9]. Another interesting aspect is that both Christian Churches were involved not only in the spiritual concurrence of gaining more proselytes. These religious institutions were active parts in the leading of kingdoms, empires, and regions. Moreover, in modern terms, it is possible to affirm that both churches have a multinational influence not only in spiritual ideologies but also in political, economical, social and military aspects. Of course, these influences were very necessary for many reasons like Islam expansion in Europe as an example, but they were also a source of controversies and conflicts especially on the border of separation between Eastern and Western Roman Empires which can be observed in our days [10, 11].

Figure 2. Constantine the Great. Head of Bronze Sculpture from the Fourth Century. Capitoline Museum, Rome [12]

III. CONTROVERSIES AND RELIGIOUS

RITES

Transylvania is a multicultural region in the West side of Romania where from centuries Romanians as majority ethnicity live together with Hungarians, Germans, Jews, Slovaks, Szekely, Gypsies, Czechs, etc. According to the census from 2011 in Transylvania from a

total population of 4 960 937, Romanians were 3 291 065 and Hungarians 1 125 965.

In terms of percentages, it means that in Transylvania Hungarians ethnics are less than 23%. In Romania, considering the whole country at a total population of 20 121 641 citizens, Romanian ethnics are 16 792 868, Hungarians as 1 227 623 represent about 6.1% of Hungarians ethnics of the entire population [13]. More or less, during the centuries the real ratio between Hungarian and Romanian ethnics in Transylvania has oscillated around 23% - 30% considering the population movements, border changing due to different historical events and several economic, social, cultural and religious aspects.

Around the year 900, Gesta Hungaricum11 Chronicles attested that Hungarian tribes in their migration arrived in Transylvania and they settled in Pannonia12. In these regions, Hungarians have met Slavic and Romanian – Latin populations which were living peacefully together [14]. Due to the expansion of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) in Bulgaria, Hungarian king Geza13 decided for him and Hungarians to 11 Gesta Hungarorum is a chronicle of early history of Hungarians written by Magister P (or Anonymous) around 1200 year. Anonymous was a notary at the court of King of Hungary, Bela the Third (1173-1196). Until now there are many controversies to who Anonymous was notary). In Gesta Hungarorum are mentioned for the first time Romanian and Slaves dukes and rulers from the territory of Transylvania and Pannonia. In the present days, the manuscript of Gesta Hungarorum can be find at Szechenyi National Library (Orszgos Szechenyi Konybtar) from Budapest.

12 Pannonia is situated in the Eastern side of the Central Europe on the territory of Hungary, Eastern Austria, Western of Romania and Northern side of Serbia and Croatia. Around year 35 BC the Romans have conquered the mentioned territories from Panon Celtics tribes and after they founded the province Panonia.

13 Geza (940 or 945 - 997) – leader of Hungarians from 990 to 997. Father of Steven, the first King of Hungary.

In 972 Geza, at his request to Otto the First, German

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become a Christian to be well integrated into Europe and to realize useful alliances.

His politics and actions are continued by his son Steven14 (Stefan in Romanian, Istvan in Hungarian) which will become in 996 the King of Hungary. It is considered that in the year 1000, the Hungarian Kingdom was born. Both Geza and Steven were converted to Christianity. King Steven had organized the Kingdom taking the organization of Carol the Great, and he has contributed essentially in the spreading of Christian teachings [15].

The conquest of Transylvania and submission of Romanian and Slaves peoples last almost 300 years was very difficult.

This process was conditioned for many reasons. Some of them are the following: a) geographical condition of Transylvania, the presence of forests, mountains, and rivers which made hard conditions for access, transportation, and circulation; b) Hungarians often were implied in many European conflicts; c) and last but not least the Tatar Mongol invasions. Even the name of Transylvania, which in Latin means The Land Beyond Forests, suggests the mentioned difficulties. Moreover, even after the conquest of Transylvania, many Romanian Dukes (Voivods) were formally vassals to Hungarians [14].

After the Great Schism of 1054 Hungarian Kingdom gradually in time became Catholic but Romanian people from Transylvania and other Romanian Voevodates (Moldavia and Wallachia) had remained faithful to Christian Church of Constantinople. In Transylvania, this crucial event separated Romanian Emperor, was baptized by Benedictine monk Bruno de Sankt Gallen in Hungary. Geza was a member of Hungarian Arpadian Dinasty.

14 King Steven (969 Esztergom (Strigonium in Latin), Hungary – 1038 Szekesfehervar (Alba Regia in Latin) Hungary) – member of Arpadian Dinasty. First King of Hungary from 997 to 1038. It was canonized by Church and is considered Saint in Catholic and Orthodox rites.

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population by Hungarian, and other ethnics moved in Transylvania from Western Europe.

Hungarian elites started to remove step by step Orthodox peoples from the economic, social, and political life of Transylvania. For example, in 1366, King of Hungary, Ludovic the First of Anjou15, stated that the main to be part of nobility is to be a Catholic. In the XIII century, it was clear already that if to be part of the elite in Transylvania, to access in politics, to have economic advantages and to advance social hierarchy, first of all, you must be a Catholic. Many of the Romanian nobles had lost their position and wealth because they did not want to be converted to the Catholic rite [14]. These facts were a source of many social movements, revolts, and uprisings during the time.

One of the most important people revolts was the Uprising of Bobalna16 in 1437. Mainly the uprising was caused by unexpected increasing of the taxes applied to new social states including Hungarian and Romanian gentry (members of low nobility). At the uprising participated Romanian and Hungarian peasantry together with gentry’s members and they were against Catholic Bishopric and abuses of Transylvania’s officials. The Bobalna Uprising has started in June and defeated

by Hungarians in January 1438. For the first time in the history of Transylvania the rebels, Romanian and Hungarian rebels, members of peasantry and gentry, wanted to create a new social category (state) in Transylvania where Romanians and Hungarians are equal and free named “The State of Hungarians 15 Ludovic the First of Anjou (5 March 1326 Visegrad, Hungary – 10 September) 1382, Trnava Slovakia) – King of Hungary between 1342 and 1382 and of Poland from 1370 to 1382. His father was Carol Robert of Anjou. Both, father and son, were members of Anjou Dinasty.

16 Bobalna – village in Transylvania, Romania situated at 80 km of Cluj -Napoca and 20 km of Dej, towns in Cluj County, Romania. First historical documentary attestation of Bobalna was in 1332 year.

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and Romanians” (Universitas Hungarorum et Vallachorum). In order to defeat the rebels, Hungarian nobility, Catholic clergy, Saxons (Germans from Transylvania) and Szekely people17 created at 16 September 1437 a mutual, political and military alliance against the rebels. The alliance was first named “Fraternia Unio” which means Brotherhood Union. Later in history, this union was known as “Unio Trium Nationum” which in translation means “The Union of Three Nations”. Due to the fact that in majority rebels peasantry were Romanians the Alliance had excluded for centuries Romanian ethnics (Universitas Vallachorum) from the social, political and economic life of Transylvania. The consequences of Unio Trium Nationum can be followed up to the end of the 1918 year when Transylvania has returned to Mother Land Romania [16].

In XIII century the kingdom of Hungary became one of the most powerful and developed kingdoms in Europe with important contribution in the antiOttoman struggle. But, in the internal affairs, it has followed the politics of Brotherhood Union of 1437 which led to a continuous impoverishment of the low social categories.

Many peoples from cities and villages loosed their wealth and land and became serfs. In 1514 the Pope Leon18 the Tenth organized a crusade against Ottomans and in order to form the army he promised to free all serfs who will participate to the crusade. Many

peoples, Romanian and Hungarian, were enrolled in the army hoping to become free citizens. Due to the economic reasons Hungarian nobility was against to free the peoples and this was the main cause of uprising who in the short time had been transformed in a real peasantry war on the all territory of Transylvania. The leader of the rebels was the Szekely Gheorghe Doja (Dozsa Gyorgy in Hungarian), a member of the low nobility. Like in 1437 actions of rebels were pointed against Hungarian nobility and clergy. The rebels also claimed tax reduction and what was the most important equality between Romanian and Hungarian as part of social categories of Transylvania. In July 1514 the rebels were defeated and the leader Doja executed in a horrible way as for an example [14,17].

The consequences of 1514 peasantry were disastrous for the Hungarian Kingdom.

The ruler institution of Hungarian Kingdom (named “Dieta”), was more preoccupied to limit the possibilities of serfs and low levels social categories instead to take measures to organize the defensive against the Ottoman Empire. As results, in 29 August 1526 at Mohacs, Hungarians were beaten by Turks because they were not able to organize the necessary army. For almost 200 years Hungary was transformed in a province of the Ottoman Empire and Transylvania became autonomous [14,18].

17 Szekely People – Hungarian ethnic group with not well established ethnical origin belonging to Hungarian Culture. Szekely people are talking a regional Hungarian language with many archaic words. They live in majority in Covasna and Harghita Counties of Romania. At 2002 population census were registered only 525 Szekely peoples.

18 Pope Leon the Tenth (11 December 1475 – 1 December 1521) – His name at birth was Giovanni di Lorenze de Medici, the second son of Lorenzo de Medici, political man and ruler of Florentine Republic.

Giovanni Lorenzo was the head of Catholic Church from 9 March 1513 until his dead in 1521.

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Figure 3. Physical map of Transylvania in the neighbor of Romanian Voevodates, Wallachia and Moldavia

IV. HABSBURG AND DUALISM PERIOD.

ROMANIAN NATIONAL CAUSE

In 1683 Ottomans are defeated by Austrians and Polish after a new and unsuccessful siege of Vienna. Austria, led by Habsburg had taken the Hungarian Kingdom from Turkish, fact officially stipulated by the Peace Treaty of Karlowitz from Serbia Vojvodina in 26 January 1699. Ottomans also renounced to the vassallity of Transylvania in favor of Habsburg. Transylvania had lost its autonomy and was incorporated in the Habsburg Empire. At the beginning of XVIII century, Austrian Empire reached maximal territorial expansion, becoming one of the most military, economically and politically developed states in Europe with pronounced multi-ethnic, multi-religious characters.

In Habsburg Empire lived Germans, Hungarians, Romanians, Italians, Czechs, Slovaks, Ukrainians and others. Catholics were in a large superiority, but there were also other confessions like Reformats, Protestants, Orthodoxies, etc. In order to ensure the unity and cohesion of the Empire related to external challenges and threats were necessary special measures. Many regions lost their autonomy, and ethnic groups (like Szekely peoples) lost their privileges obtained in the time of Middle Age in the process of re-organization of the State on the modern basis.

For Romanians from Transylvania, the politics generated by Brotherhood Union were continued in a different form and were accentuated by the coming of Austrians. Still Romanians, as major ethnic population in Transylvania, had continued to be a tolerated nation together with their language and Orthodox faith, with no access to education and social, political and economic life. In order to attract Romanians on the side of

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official power of Empire, Austrians with the accordance of Pope have organized the Romanian Church United with Rome (or Greek – Catholic Church). Many Orthodox Churches from Transylvania together with their Bishops, clergy and believers passed to this new form of Catholic rite. The new Greek – Catholic Church was in essence an Orthodox rite under authority of Pope.

The process of formation of Church United with Rome was long during few decades and officially confirmed in the decree “Indulgente esse” emitted by Pope Clement the Eleventh19 at 6 July 1716 [19].

Passing to United Church Romanians have opened their access to first of all to high level education, to political, social and economic life. After 1700, due to education it is formed during the time a Transylvanian Romanian elite.

They understood the advantages of the education but they realized the efforts of Habsburgs to divide Romanians and to forget their origins. Intellectual movements of Romanians like Supplex Libellus Valachorum20 and Transylvanian School21 revealed the Latin origin of Romanian different from Germans and Hungarians.

19 Pope Clement the Eleventh (23 July 1649, Urbino, Italy – 19 March 1721, Rome, Italy) – Name at birth Giovanni Francesco Albani with ancestors from Albania, the origin of his family name. Giovanni Francesco was Pope of Rome from 1700 until his dead.

20 Supplex Libellus Valachorum in direct translation from Latin means The requests of Vallachs from Transylvania. Requests were addressed to Emperor Leopold the Second asking equal rights to Romanians like Germans and Hungarians as majority population in Transylvania. The requests were formulated

by Romanian intellectuals in accordance with the document of the Human Rights of Citizens edited in France.

21 Transylvanian School (Scoala Ardeleana in Romanian) – movement of the emancipation of Romanian in Transylvania. Leaders of Transylvanian School formulated the requests to the Emperor and also they have introduced Latin writing instead of Cyrillic.

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Leaders of Romanian intellectuality were Greek – Catholic believers and they studied in Western Europe. They have revealed to Romanians their noble Latin origins coming from the time of Roman Empire and the fact that they constitute the majority population in Transylvania as directly descending of Romans and therefore entitled to ask equal rights like Hungarians and Germans [20].

Results of Romanian intellectuals from Transylvania can be observed in the uprising of 1784 led by Horea, Closca, and Crisan22 and the 1848 Revolution. In both events, Romanians from Transylvania struggled for their emancipation, equal rights for Romanians as for Hungarians and Germans.

After 1860 a short period of liberalization of social life in the Austrian Empire came.

It seemed that rights of Romanians from Transylvania and of other ethics would be recognized. Due to the external conditions, the Empire necessitates in reorganization.

In 1867 started the Dualist period when Habsburgs have chosen the authoritative way of dividing the Empire between Austrians and Hungarians. Transylvania, practically as a consequence of bureaucratic steps, was incorporated to Hungary despite the willing of Romanians and other people from Transylvania. As a result of a series of legislative actions like Election, Education, Names and Press Laws Romanians and other non German and non Hungarian ethnics became tolerated nation together with their faith and language. Participation to the political, economical and social life of non German and non Hungarian ethnics was seriously limited. For example the number of Romanian schools at all levels financed

by Government before the beginning of the First World War was almost zero even though Romanians were the dominant population in Transylvania [10,11]. For many 22 Horea, Closca and Crisan – Romanian peasants, leaders of 1784 uprising where have participated Hungarian and Romanian serfs, craftsmen miners, priests,etc.

Romanian ethnics, the only solutions for a better life were emigration or the change of their name in Hungarian one and to renounce to Orthodox faith in favor of Catholicism, Reformism or Protestantism.

As suggested in references [10, 11] the Romanian activists have used all legal, active and passive methods in their struggle for the emancipation of Romanian nation, equal in rights with Hungarians and Germans in the frame of Austrian and Hungarian Dualism. Even Memorandum non successful movement started in 1891, initiated by leaders like Aurel C. Popoviciu requested the same rights, using philosophical, historical, linguistic and literary arguments [11,21]. Popoviciu considered that Dualism has no future and Austrian – Hungarian Empire must be organized as federation after the model of USA and Switzerland [21].

He named the future federation as United States of Austria [21].

The Memorandum movements were initiated by young Romanian students, activists and intellectual leaders from Transylvania. They have send a series of requests to official Austrian – Hungarian authorities asking equal rights for all Romanians and ethnics from Empire and a new form of state organization instead of Dualism. They were supported by students from Romania and abroad. After the unsuccessful results of Memorandum movements activists and leaders of Romanians from Transylvania oriented their action for Unification with Romania because they have understood that in the construction of Austrian – Hungarian Dualism, there is no future. Unfair and not correct treatment of national problems from the side of Dualist authorities led at the end of the First World War to the falling of Empire and appearance of new states in Europe. Transylvania was returned to Mother Land, and the modern state of Romania was formed at 1 December 1918,

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confirmed later at 4 June 1920 at the Peace Conference from Trianon (France).

Conclusions In this paper, the theological controversies between Hungarians and Romanians from Transylvania related to the done general context were analyzed. Between many causes who have generated the mentioned national issue, religious aspects are important and they can be found far in the history in the time of separation of Christian religion between East and West. This crucial process of separation of Christian religions led to serious consequences reflected in the political, economic, and social life of people which can be observed even I our days. Case of Dualist period was also investigated, revealing some interesting religious aspects.

In the conditions of the contemporary world, the present analysis is of real interest because inappropriate approaches of such sensible questions will have for sure unexpected results for many peoples for decades. In this sense, European Union adopted in ’90 years of the last century several documents assuring individual rights for minorities in Europe. Moreover, the present work suggests that in any case Christianity, as the religion of love to your neighbor, must unite the people and not to separate them. This is not an easy task but is the only right one. It is necessary to not forget that the future visit of Pope in 2019 has the main task to reunite peoples and religions and not to differentiate them.

References [1]

[2]

Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of the Expansion of Christianity. The First Five Centuries. New York: Harper & Bros, 1937.

Meer Frederik van der. Mohrmann, Christine. Atlas of the Early Christian World. Edited by M.F. Hedlund and H.H

Session 4. Diversity and Pluralism

Rowley. London & Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson Publisher, 1958.

[3] Gonzales, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: Vol. 1: The Early Church to the Reformation, ISBN 978-0-06-0633158. San Francisco: Harper 1984.

[4] MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire: A.D. 100-400, ISBN-13: 978-0300036428. Yale: University Press 1984.

[5] Sculpture of Pliny the Young. By courtesy of Daniela Manili Pessina – Own work - CC BY-SA 4.0, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?curid=68340125 [6] Erhman Bart D. Lost of Christianities: The Battle for Scripture and The Faihs We Never Knew, ISBN 978-0-19-5141832. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.

[7] Gaudin, Philippe: Great Religions (Marile Religii). Bucharest: Orizonturi 1995 (Translation in Romanian) [8] Lupusor, Andreea. “Great Schism from 1054: How it Got There”, Historia, (October 2011) http://www.historia.ro/ sectiune/general/articol/marea-schismadin-1054-cum-s-a-ajuns-acolo [9] Vergatti, Radu Stefan. 2016. “Little Essay on the Great Migration”. ISSN 2067-5682. Annals of Academy of Romanian Scientists, Series of History and Archeology 8 (2): 40-50 [10] Oprea, George Emanuel.

2018.

“Romanian Activists From Transilvania in the Period of Austro-Hungarian Dualism”. ISSN: 2393-1744. Dialogo Journal 5 (1): 163-170.

[11] Oprea, George Emanuel.

2018.”Federalism Idea and its Development”. Moscow History in Schools Journal. Proceedings of Young Scientists 9: 72-74 (in Russian).

[12] Head of Sculpture of Constantine the Great. By courtesy of Ricardo Andre Frantz https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/User:Tetraktys [13] Census of Population in 2011 in Romania https://www.recensamantromania.ro

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doi: 10.18638/dialogo.2019.5.2.14

5:2 (2019)

CONFERENCES & JOURNAL on the D ialogue be twe e n Scie nc e and The ology

Pop, Ioan Aurel and Nagler, Thomas (coordinators). Pop, Ioan Aurel. Nagler, Thomas. Barbulescu, Mihai. Pop, Grigor P. Dorner, Anton E. Glodariu, Ioan.

Rotea, Mihai. Vasiliev, Valentin (authors): History of Transylvania: Until 1541. ClujNapoca: Romanian Cultural Institute, Center for Transylvanian Researches, 2005 (in Romanian).

[15] Gergely, Andras: History of Hungary.

ISBN 973-26-0607-X, Bucharest: Kriterion 2000 (in Romanian).

[16] Marcu, George (coordinator). The Encyclopedia of Battles from History of Romania (Enciclopedia Bataliilor din Istoria Romanilor). Bucharest Meronia 2011 (in Romanian).

[17] Constantinescu, Miron and Daicoviciu Constantin H. Compendium. History of Romania (Compendiu. Istoria Romaniei). Bucharest: Editura Didactica si Pedagogica Publisher 1971 (in Romanian).

[18] Giurescu Constantin C and Giurescu Constantin D. History of Romanians (Istoria Romanilor). Bucharest: All P 2015 (in Romanian).

[19] Alzati, Cesare. Greek – Catholic Church United with Rome (Biserica Romana Unita cu Roma Greco-Catolica). Blaj: Buna Vestire 2003.

[20] Ene, Ana. 2016. “Supplex Libellus Valachorum Transylvaniae: Aspects of Modernity of Rhetoric Discourse”.

Brasov. Faculty of Literature, Transilvania Universyty, , Transylvania Journal 8: 1728.

[21] Crisan, Vasile: Aurel C. Popoviciu (18631917): Monograph. ISBN 978-973-117141-8. Alba-Iulia: Altip 2008.

[14]

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