Policy Brief No. 210 — October 2025
The Governance of Migration: The Indian Experience
Sanjay Bhattacharyya
Key Points
→ The Indian diaspora is large and influential. India’s development, demography and democracy can sustain high emigration through the twenty-first century. Migration governance is now integrated in India’s national development priorities and the use of digital platforms and e-governance are transforming the migration landscape.
→ India’s priority is to empower potential migrants, develop capacity for higher productivity and wages and negotiate new pathways for safe and orderly migration and mobility.
→ India’s positioning as a preferred partner in destination countries can help balance global labour markets, demographic shifts and demand for new competencies.
→ The problem of illegal migration in India needs attention in both source and destination countries. Multilateral mechanisms, such as the UN Global Compact for Migration (GCM), are the way ahead for win-win migration solutions.
Introduction
In the twenty-first century, migration and mobility impacts people, power and politics. It is relevant for economies introducing new technology, for societies experiencing fewer people in the workforce and politics in source and destination countries as opportunities increase for migration. The impact of migration drivers, push and pull factors, networks that fuel migration and global cooperation deserve close attention.
Indians constitute the largest diaspora globally, with more than 35 million residing overseas (Ministry of External Affairs [MEA] 2024). Many are influential change makers; many others are migrant workers.
The governance of migration in India prioritizes the integration of migration policy with national development objectives and provides citizen-centric responses that empower migrants for safe and orderly migration and mobility. India has differentiated policies for vulnerable migrant workers, whose remittances sustain their families, and highly qualified professionals, whose leadership contributes to national development.
About the Author
Sanjay Bhattacharyya is a former Indian diplomat who specialized in diplomacy for an era of globalization and transformation. As secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs, he was at the helm of India’s foreign policy making, diaspora affairs and citizen-centric governance initiatives, and was BRICS Sherpa during India’s presidency. He served as ambassador to Switzerland, Turkey and Egypt.
Since his retirement from government, he has been an independent consultant, pursuing interests in academic, advocacy and corporate capacities. He is a professor of diplomatic practice at Jindal Global University and lectures regularly on governance, public policy and foreign affairs at government, academic and corporate institutions.
Sanjay serves as an independent director and as an adviser to companies in the corporate sector.
The Governance of Migration
Historical Trends of Migration and Mobility
India’s tradition of migration goes back to ancient times. During the Indus Valley Civilization, Indians traded with Pharaonic Egypt. Later, ancient Greeks and Romans wrote about exchanges of merchandise, ideas and people. There were established pathways from the western coast of India to the Arabian Peninsula and Africa for traders, travellers and men of religion; many would spend half the year on either side. India’s maritime tradition reached Southeast Asia to enable the spread of religion, trade and empire. Until medieval times, most migrants were assimilated in the foreign society.
Migration acquired a new dimension in the colonial period. Between 1834 and 1917, 1.3 to 1.6 million1 Indian workers were shipped under the indentured labour system (known as girmitiya, in India) to British colonies in Mauritius, the Caribbean, Malaya, Fiji, Ceylon and Burma. They worked in plantations, mines and public projects. Recruited by agents, known as sirdars in the East and maistries in the South, most indentured labourers were forced migrants, who had lost their livelihood as peasants or artisans. The French and Dutch also recruited indentured labour for work in their colonies. In addition, Indian soldiers who had served overseas, professionals and businessman also migrated to settle as free men in the colonies. An agent-based network and legal structure emerged, which continues to influence migration today. These migrations led to the emergence of an Indian diaspora.
Post-independence, the dynamics of migration changed again. During partition, millions were forced to migrate between India and the newly created Pakistan, and some migrated to Britain or other colonies. In the new nation, an impoverished economy with few opportunities pushed emigration of qualified professionals and students to the West and workers to the Gulf and other regions. 1 Submission to the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Memory of the World Register. Collated by the MEA for
Twenty-First-Century Indian Migration Trends
In the twenty-first century, migration expanded in numbers and also spread to new destinations. While the 17 million2 Indian citizens overseas (separate from 19 million persons of Indian origin who adopted foreign nationality) constitute six percent of the global migrant population of 281 million (McAuliffe and Oucho 2024, xii), they represent just 1.2 percent of India’s population. Major source countries such as Bangladesh, Mexico and the Philippines have much higher shares of migrant population. India’s youthful demography, with 60 percent of the population under the age of 35, can sustain migration demands from destination countries. Indian migrants3 include low-skilled workers, comprising about 4.5 million in the Gulf region; highly qualified professionals, mostly in rich countries in the West, often accompanied by family; students, more than 1.2 million,4 many preparing for jobs overseas; and a new migration trend of high-networth individuals and digital nomads. Surveys by the government indicate that most blue-collar workers are in circular migration and return home, while qualified professionals and students exhibit both circular migration and mobility to third countries.
After the policy of economic reforms and liberalization was introduced in the 1990s, the number of internal migrants grew to more than 450 million (De 2019; citing 2011 Census of India) or 36 percent of the population and emigration numbers increased as well. This required interventions for the integration of migration policy with national development priorities.
Institutional and Regulatory Framework
In colonial times, the Emigration Act (1837) governed the flow of indentured labour. However, the exploitation of illiterate workers was widespread, and the law was updated5 in several instances to
2 MEA, response to parliament question no. 1368 answered on July 31, 2025, in Rajya Sabha.
3 Computed by MEA (not published).
4 MEA, response to parliamentary question no. 1368 on July 31, 2025, in Rajya Sabha.
5 After the Emigration Act (1837) was enacted, it was updated in 1842 to regulate the deceitful activities of emigration agents by paying them a fixed salary and establishing a Protector of Emigrants (). The powers of the POE were expanded in 1864, a comprehensive emigration statute was collated in 1882 and adjustments were made in 1922 following the abolition of indentured labour with a new law.
address problems of exploitation and to strengthen regulations.
The continuing exploitation of Indian workers led to the Emigration Act (1983), which reviewed colonial era laws and provided the legal framework for protection of migrant Indian workers. It created the Emigration Check Required (ECR) category that mandated compulsory emigration clearance (EC) for workers who have not completed grade 10 in school (earlier graduates) for migration to 18 countries6 deemed to be high risk on account of weak labour standards. Later, ECR was extended to nurses and seamen, both having higher qualifications, but often requiring protection overseas. All other migrants were classified as Emigration Check Not Required and could move freely for employment overseas.
The act provided for a Protector General of Emigrants (PGE), under the ambit of the MEA, with a network of 15 POEs located across the country to issue EC for overseas employment. Recruiting agents (RAs) had to register with the PGE to apply for EC on behalf of workers. Similarly, foreign employers (FEs) also had to compulsorily register. ECR workers’ contracts would be scrutinized by POEs before issuing EC and subsequently at an immigration check point (ICP) before departing the country.
Recommendation: Introduce an updated emigration law that facilitates emigration, strengthens migration governance and aligns with multilateral understandings.
Policy Objectives and Priorities
In the last decade, India’s migration governance has adopted a citizen-centric approach to promote overseas employment, curb exploitation of migrants and advance measures to protect vulnerable migrants. The new policy provided accessibility, transparency and predictability, as well as an interactive model, a digital platform and publicprivate partnerships (PPPs) to empower migrants to embark on safe and orderly mobility.
The key objectives of the new policy were to facilitate migration through new legislative and institutional structures; a differentiated approach for vulnerable workers, highly qualified professionals and young students; negotiating better working
6
Afghanistan, Bahrain, Indonesia, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, South Sudan, Sudan, Syria, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Yemen.
conditions and new pathways; incentivizing safe and orderly migration to discourage illegal migration; and practising evidence-based policy.
To achieve the objectives, practical steps were initiated to empower those preparing to go overseas: with a secure passport and overseas employment verification; upgrading the earning capacity of migrants through skills and new pathways; and updating the legal framework to facilitate and safeguard overseas employment.
Passport Seva Programme
Reform in the passport system was the first step in the new approach. A study by MEA and the National Institute of Smart Governance identified that the paper-based process, weak feedback, delay in delivery and activities of touts (unofficial and unauthorized agents) had weakened the passport system; it also confirmed that the Passports Act (1967) could support system reforms.
The Passport Seva Programme (PSP) was conceived as a fully digital system for efficient passport services to empower citizens. It was operationalized in 2010, as a partnership between MEA and Tata Consultancy Services. The PPP separated customers from the sovereign granting authority, thereby dismantling middlemen and improving customer satisfaction. For improved access, the PSP established Passport Seva Kendras (PSKs)7 across the country; for efficiency, a systems approach, digital platform and manpower re-orientation was adopted; for security, biometrics and passport documentation were enhanced to global norms; and e-passports were reintroduced. The PSP revolutionized passport delivery, increased capacity, lowered issuing time, provided positive experiences to migrants and emerged as a successful e-governance model to promote safe and regular migration.
Recommendation: Integrate domestic ICPs with e-passport handling for smooth immigration. Negotiate with countries using e-passport smart immigration for contactless passage for Indian passport holders.
E-Migrate Program
In 2023–2024, an estimated 2.5 million Indians travelled overseas for work; of them, about 750,000 went to ECR countries, including 400,000 ECR passport holders.8 In addition, around 1.2 million students travelled for higher studies and more than 30 million9 for tourism, business and other purposes.
The Emigration Act (1983) lacked teeth to handle unscrupulous RAs and FEs and often left migrant workers vulnerable. Besides, it could not handle problems overseas. Moreover, PGEs were overburdened and had to operate with inadequate data. Instances of illegal emigration also showed an increase.
It was against this backdrop that the e-Migrate digital platform10 was established in 2014. Like the PSP, it empowered migrants by providing transparency, verification on credentials of 2,000 RAs and 275,000 FEs and digital scrutiny of employment contracts to ensure faster processing of EC as well as of security of employment overseas. As a data-driven digital system approach, its digital verification ensures streamlined operations, reduces bureaucratic interventions and improves stakeholder coordination. Further, e-Migrate links PGEs/POEs, who have powers to grant ECs, and ICPs, engaged in departure verification. The platform is now used to impart soft skills such as PreDeparture Orientation Training (PDOT), to facilitate compulsory insurance coverage and to register for state-subsidized health care. The platform has a facility for secure document verification (DigiLocker), electronic payment and paperless delivery. Most importantly, it is emerging as a database for overseas employment, linking workers and FEs.
Recently, the e-Migrate platform was used in Gulf Cooperation Council countries for a skillmapping and skill-matching exercise as well as the integration of migration portals. Further, new pathways seek to use the e-Migrate platform for sourcing special skilled labour.
Recommendation: e-Migrate needs further upgrades to be a facilitator of overseas employment, to include all categories of migrant workers and
8 MEA data.
7 The
9 Ministry of Tourism, response to parliamentary question no. 2213 on August 7, 2025, in Rajya Sabha.
10 See MEA (2024).
PSP network has 93 PSKs and 450 post-office PSKs to receive applications, while 37 passport offices provide the sovereign operation of granting of passports.
professionals and to generate data for evidencebased policy as a digital public good.
Skill Initiatives
Overseas employment demands special skills but yields better wages and remittance potential. To harness this potential, skill centres were established in partnership with Australia, Germany, Singapore, the United Kingdom and the United States for areas including construction, hydrocarbons, hospitality, public utilities and caregivers. Subsequently, the National Skill Development Corporation and manpower agencies have expanded the framework. Global Capability Centres specialize in higher-end technologies and support intra-corporate mobility to other countries. The government began compulsory PDOT for ECR migrants to improve soft skills, while a Gulf-based initiative imparts awareness of language, basic laws and sectoral skills. However, most ECR workers still do not possess sufficient skill training and wage levels remain low.
Skill mapping and matching exercises launched with Gulf countries have yielded useful data, providing leverage to skilled migrant workers to meet new demands. Sector-specific and special skill-related agreements have been concluded with Israel, Japan, Korea, Mauritius, Portugal and Taiwan. Although still in their early days, skill agreements have provided better working conditions and earnings for Indian migrant workers.
Recommendation: For the Gulf region, higher minimum wages and skill upgrading need to proceed in tandem. New pathways should be created to destination countries that provide higher wage levels and better working conditions and that are ready to negotiate skill-specific labour contracts.
Updating Labour and Mobility Agreements
India’s recent consultations with Gulf countries for skilled workers provided an opening to shift employment of ECR workers from low-skill jobs to more skilled opportunities. India also fixed minimum wages for different categories of workers to prevent exploitation. With recognition of the contributions of hard-working Indian workers, new memorandums of understanding now provide for integration of migration portals for transparency, ethical recruitment, better working conditions and higher remuneration.
The effort to establish new pathways and destinations gained momentum during the COVID-19 pandemic when many workers had to return from the Gulf. The Specified Skilled Workers (SSW) agreement with Japan11 and similar agreements with Korea and Taiwan12 provided rewarding opportunities in relatively high-skill areas but language training was sometimes required. Other skill-oriented agreements include Israel for caregivers and the construction sector and Portugal and Mauritius for varied skills. These new pathways for skilled workers yield significantly higher wages than in the Gulf.
Meanwhile, there has been a spurt in the mobility of highly qualified and skilled Indian professionals and students with niche demand in developed countries. As India’s free trade agreements often provide limited scope for the movement of natural persons for temporary relocation of individuals to other countries to provide services, India negotiated Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreements (MMPAs) in the European Union. Following understanding with the European Union on the Common Agenda for Migration and Mobility (CAMM) on the EU interest in return of irregular migrants, on the Indian interest of preferential mobility and the common objective of strengthening safe and orderly migration, MMPAs were concluded with EU member states.13 Each MMPA had unique characteristics with an “India preference” opening new pathways for migration through negotiated labour market adjustment mechanisms.
Recommendation: Expand MMPAs to more countries. Engage in negotiations for social security agreements.
Other Welfare Measures
A major effort of the new governance structure has been to improve communication with stakeholders, increase trust and develop interactive mechanisms. Remittances by Indian migrants increased to US$118 billion14 in 2024, with decline in remittances
11 The 2019 India-Japan SSW agreement specifies 12 sectors: nursing; building cleaning; machine parts and tooling; industrial machinery; electric and electronics industry; construction industry; ship building and ship machinery industry; automobile repair and maintenance; aviation industry; accommodation industry; agriculture; fisheries and aquatic; manufacture of food and beverage; and food service industry.
12 The 2024 India-Taiwan skill agreement has a more flexible approach to demand for skills, noting possibilities in manufacturing, construction, agriculture and caregiving.
13 India has MMPAs with Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Portugal and Spain in the European Union and also with the United Kingdom.
14 Remittance Survey (Sixth Round), Reserve Bank of India, March 2025.
through informal channels; the large-scale opening of bank accounts in India encouraged many to switch to formal banking channels for their remittances. For redressal of grievances, the MEA set up the MADAD (means help, in India) portal, an online consular grievances management system, in 2015, which has achieved a more than 95 percent redressal ratio. The government established the India Community Welfare Fund to provide migrants with financial assistance, legal aid and counselling services and set up shelters for women workers in distress. In a world that has experienced conflict and environmental crises, India’s evacuation missions to bring its citizens home have also been a source of reassurance to citizens overseas.
Multilateral Consultations, Align with the UN GCM and 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
India’s migration policy seeks international cooperation in alignment with national priorities. As the chair of the Colombo Process,15 India has sought to share best practices, develop technical expertise, optimize development benefit, promote ethical recruitment and forge partnerships with other groupings. In the Bali Process, India has highlighted the importance of combatting illegal trafficking and the smuggling of migrants and to strengthen information sharing. India’s engagement with the Abu Dhabi Dialogue,16 of both source and destination countries, has leveraged the advances made in bilateral consultations with partners in the Gulf region and to align them with GCM principles. The country’s negotiations with the European Union on CAMM provides a basis for understanding on migration, mobility and returns and better prospects for migration of Indian workers to the region.
As international migration law is still evolving and depends on national legislation, the multilateral understanding on principles and mechanisms agreed to in the UN 2030 Agenda and the GCM provide a basis for collaboration between countries and with multilateral agencies. India seeks to leverage migration and development; work collaboratively on drivers of migration; establish new pathways; fight against trafficking and smuggling of migrants;
15 Colombo Process members are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam.
16 Abu Dhabi dialogue membership includes members of the Colombo Process that are source countries and seven Asian countries, namely Bahrain, Kuwait, Malaysia, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE.
ensure sensitivity to gender issues, youth and child migrants; evolve strategies for integration; and adopt flexible and citizen-centric approaches.
Recommendation: Facilitate multilateral negotiations for freer migration and mobility, easier and transparent border control and capacity building for dealing with push and pull factors, and prioritize integration of the migrant community.
Safe and Orderly Migration and Mobility
Many Indians have reached destination countries through illegal or irregular17 channels, often managed by traffickers. Some workers are desperate to migrate for a better livelihood and potential for remittances; some even sell family assets to finance travel for a promised job, but they are often apprehended and deported back home. India’s approach on the issue of illegal or irregular migration has been based on addressing push factors of development gaps or social distress in the home country, supporting empowerment of citizens, and stakeholder consultation with domestic and foreign partners to improve trust and cooperation. India’s policy is to facilitate the deportation of irregular migrants after verification of citizenship. Further improvement of the system is necessary such that the incentives for safe and regular mobility outweigh the risks of irregular migration.
Recommendation: Illegal migration is a matter of concern, and a detailed study of the drivers and networks is necessary for new initiatives.
Diaspora
India’s diaspora of 35 million (pravasi) have a distinct place in the affairs of their adopted countries and their home country. In recent years, emigration from India has grown and the trend is likely to continue. The Indian diaspora occupies prominent positions in society, business, academia, arts and even as heads of state in several countries.
17 In India, the terms “illegal” and “irregular” are both used in the migration governance context, though “safe and orderly” has become common usage in recent years. While illegal refers to violations of Indian laws, irregular is used in the international context and to GCM references. Global networks of traffickers take advantage of vulnerable migrants and exploit their circumstances, including cases of human trafficking and smuggling of narcotics and arms.
The Indian diaspora is categorized as Non-Resident Indian citizens or Persons of Indian Origin (PIO) when they are foreign citizens; the policy approach varies between the two. India introduced an Overseas Citizen of India card for PIOs but does not have dual citizenship. At another level, they are categorized as girmitiya, those who had left India 150 years ago as indentured labour, and those who left in recent times. The focus of diaspora engagement and diaspora policy has been to mainstream them in national development efforts by providing options to those who are keen to engage in their motherland. For this the agencies of central and state governments have worked with civil society and diaspora associations across the world.
There are many among the diaspora who wish to play an active role in India. India’s engagement with the foreign citizens of Indian origin is through a policy of four Cs: care, connect, celebrate and contribute. India values their sentiments for the motherland, facilitates their search for roots, encourages contacts with the home country, develops channels for remittances and welcomes participation in development. The Pravasi Bharatiya Divas, a mega diaspora meeting, is organized on January 9, the anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi’s homecoming from South Africa. Hosted by the president and the prime minister, it features the granting of the Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Award, the highest national award for diaspora. These gatherings also organize events for opportunities to cooperate in investments, technology projects and national development missions, which have been very successful.
Conclusion
The twenty-first century has seen conflict, economic and social conditions, climate change and technology trigger migration at a scope and scale larger than before. Source countries have to manage the flows and create safe and orderly pathways for mobility. Destination countries acknowledge that migration supports development but face challenges of integration and protectionism. Multilateral negotiations have recognized the benefits of migration and efforts are under way to harmonize understanding on international migration law.
India, as a major source country, plays a significant role in global migration dynamics. India’s youth is educated and skilled, empowered and democratic, and their migration has been a positive factor in destination countries. India regards the governance of migration as an important aspect of its national priorities, such that Indians can contribute to national and global development while holding the values and principles of peace and progress. India’s migration policy has evolved through a careful evaluation of the historical perspective, development of legal and institutional frameworks, mechanisms and policies for maximizing stakeholder benefit and engaging in global cooperation for mutual benefit. India’s immigration policy is still evolving but provides a template for holistic development based on a citizen-centric approach, stakeholder consultation and continuous review in alignment with national priorities and multilateral understandings.
Acronyms and Abbreviations
CAMM Common Agenda for Migration and Mobility
EC emigration clearance
ECR Emigration Check Required
FEs foreign employers
GCM Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
ICP immigration check point
MEA Ministry of External Affairs
MMPAs Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreements
PDOT Pre-Departure Orientation Training
PGE Protector General of Emigrants
PIO Persons of Indian Origin
POE Protector of Emigrants
PPP public-private partnership
PSK Passport Seva Kendras
PSP Passport Seva Programme
RAs recruiting agents
SSW Specified Skilled Workers
UAE United Arab Emirates
Works Cited
De, Supriyo. 2019. “Internal Migration in India Grows, But Inter-State Movements Remain Low.” People Move (World Bank blog), December 18. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/peoplemove/ internal-migration-india-grows-inter-statemovements-remain-low.
McAuliffe, Marie and Linda Adhiambo Oucho, eds. 2024. World Migration Report 2024. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Migration. https://publications.iom.int/system/ files/pdf/pub2023-047-l-wmr2024-ch1-en.pdf.
MEA. 2024. Annual Report 2024. Government of India. www.mea.gov.in/Images/ CPV/140725MEAAnnualReport2024English.pdf.
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