[un]Martyr a Territory: What Lies between Symbols of Power and their Context

[un]Martyr a Territory WHAT LIES BETWEEN SYMBOLS OF POWER AND THEIR CONTEXT

Christine Doherty

[un]Martyr a Territory WHAT LIES BETWEEN SYMBOLS OF POWER AND THEIR CONTEXT

This project is an exploration of the discourse between the built environment, its curators, and those who dwell within.

As a capitalist society, the built environment places its lens to the market and serves an abstraction of reality. When the lived experience counters conceptual design, territories and people are sacrificed at the hands of resistance and development.

Christine Doherty | Professor Antonio SanmartĂ­n | FA Ben Arenberg Design Thinking Fall 2018 Sam Fox School of Design and Visual Arts | Washington University in St. Louis

“The scar is a deeper level of reconstruction that fuses the new and the old, reconciling, coalescing them, without compromising either one in the name of some contextual form of unity. The scar is a mark of pride and of honor, both for what has been lost and what has been gained. It cannot be erased, except by the most cosmetic means. It cannot be elevated beyond what it is, a mutant tissue, the precursor of unpredictable regenerations. To accept the scar is to accept existence.

Healing is not an illusory, cosmetic process, but something that--by articulating differences-both deeply divides and joins together.�

Lebbeus Woods

Contents discourse PRODUCTIVE RESISTANCE

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context SACRIFICE IN ST. LOUIS

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program TO [un] MARTYR

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speculation DIDACTIC INTERFACES

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DECK OF CARDS

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DEFINITIONS

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REFERENCES

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discourse

Productive Resistance i PREMISE ii HYPOTHESIS I iii HYPOTHESIS II iv HYPOTHESIS III

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Premise //

The Architecture of Resistance

How can resistance be productive for the built environment?

In the simplest relationship, resistance interferes the system of democracy through revolution. Yet resistance occurs in the physical realm which infers the urban revolution is most respondent to resistance, as it defines and provides the space for civil dissent.

The built environment affects the lived experience either positively or negatively due to external factors, including the manifestation of resistance. Therefore, if resistance were positively affecting the built environment, the infrastructure itself should become productive for the system of revolution as well.

Conversely, if the built environment provides the arena of action for civil dissent, the space is a product from the discourse that occurred over time. The memory of the space begins to transform the narrative of the space, and daily lived experience is impacted through previous contested events.

Resistance cannot be designed for or against, but it remains an element of democratic society that continuously affects the built environment.

Resistance or civil dissent begins in the realm of every day life, and takes shape in public space. As an insurgence it manifests the struggles fro the rights to the city and demands dignity from the citizen and the sovereign. In its spatial production, resistance has impacted the built environment, but the value of resistance lies in its outcome, whether the citizens received their rights.

The physical realm holds a major role for all elements involved, and the urban element, the changing of cities and the environment, can have a greater impact on the social and political outcome. Reforms in the insurgent system are influenced by symbols of power, objects of resistance, and the equity embedded in the built environment.

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Premise //

The Architecture of Martyred Territories

Can the built environment recollect the energy embodied in martyred territories for resiliency?

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With an ever-growing population in a dying planet, any curator of the built environment must respond to its inherent systemic inequity. Without responding to social injustice, environmental injustice cannot be achieved, given that resources consumed and resources provided are intrinsically linked. Only by unveiling inequity can the powers that be respond directly to people calling for a revolution.

Resistance in the built environment is the refusal to comply with powers of the city. What goes largely ignored is the territories underneath resistance, which are either discarded or redeveloped. Architecture can respond to resistance by recollecting the embodied energy in these martyred territories and transforming it into a productive contextual power.

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Premise // Challenging the Process and its Outcomes How can architecture respond to social inequity caused through design of its territory?

Social inequity represents the polarities in which we live. Through a curated process, whether capitalism or class structure, inequity has only grown with the population. As curators of the built environment, architects are responsible for not only the spaces we design, but also the process in how we create cities.

No longer can we assume design to be inherently good, but we must critique the process and intentions in which we design. Architects are becoming part of a larger dialogue, one that involves global warming, resource exploitation, and political power. The following three hypotheses listed are predictions in ways architecture can respond to these elements, with the intention of social justice.

The nine terms shown and examples of their physical manifestations are by no means an exhausted list of the possibilities within architecture and design. They are only meant to show what is the relationship between cities, buildings, and their people--be that positive or negative. Architecture can learn from these precedents are reform new intentions with the information we have today.

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1

Symbols of Power

Political Space

Martyred Territories

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Hierarchy

Collective Memory

Active Citizenship

Security

Social Dissent

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Social Agency

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Hypothesis I Architecture must exercise the power withheld in political space to shift the degradation of the physical and social environments.

Architecture’s relationship to urbanism and human unsettlement is reaching intensities for which the environment is unprepared. The built environment is finding itself in an unfamiliar territory impacted by migration, urbanization, technology, and natural disaster. Through the collision of these elements, resistance to defined structures erupts with the built environment as its martyr. Now that architecture is aligned with a global matrix of forces concerned with the environment, economic development, and psychological transformations, its role shifted to providing strategic expertise for institutions born of neoliberal capitalism, i.e. structures of power.

No longer can architecture only explore its relationship with the environmental and material transformation alone; it now collides with transformations of the human psyche and its relationship to geo-politics. Once designated territories have been defined as political, and the built environment can respond. The architecture of the future must exercise the power of equity in the shifting geopolitical frameworks of the time.

Precedents

Power Architectures

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St. Louis Promise Zone

STL Poverty + Wealth

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Hypothesis II Architectural symbols of power can encourage active citizenship through agency of design.

Architectural symbols of power inform the public of their access to political space. Within the political environment, a system of regulations is put in place to establish norms and hierarchies—distance from the ruler to the ruled. Whether positive or negative, these symbols become dark squares of different magnitudes, either economic, institutional, or political. In a social environment, individuals create personal sets of beliefs that contribute to a sense of security—vectors which connect individuals within society. The public realm collides these systems and constructs the reality of daily life. The insurgence of protest occurs in the path of the social vectors, and causes disruption in the urban fabric.

By concretely representing power and hierarchy, architectural symbols of power embody a set of values to be rendered visible to the public. The challenge for accessible architectures of power is to present an ideology to the public while facilitating the a productive network within the social environment.

Precedents

Plaza de Mayo Buenos Aires

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Rabin Square Tel Aviv

National Mall Washington, D.C.

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Hypothesis III The ephemeral architecture of resistance embeds its collective memory into the land, reverting the martyred territory into justice.

Resistance architecture is not so much determined by the construction of materials and spatial quality as it is by the relations and tectonics of people and ideas. In the context of social dissent, protest architecture is primordial, tactile, and insignificant as an isolated object. Yet the narrative of the object is inseparable from the spatial geometries of protest. The objects reinforce the agency and goal of the event, which is integral to the resistance itself. The formal architectural boundaries control the extents of public activity through a centripetal force, but the objects of protest hold the power within that instant.

The relationship of these architectures, temporal and permanent, alter the public narrative of the place.

Post-resistance, both the object of civil dissent and the architecture of place have been impacted through the social agency. Collective memory is structured through social arrangements, and the encompassing architectures can create positive reinforcement of a contested dichotomy.

Precedents

Zucotti Park New York City

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Parco de Celio Rome

Avenue Bolivar Caracas

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context

Sacrifice in St. Louis i THE MAKING OF A MARTYR ii RESISTANCE OF THE PEOPLE iii CONTESTED LANDSCAPE iv MARTYRED TERRITORY v SACRIFICE IN ACTION vi TESTING GROUNDS

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“In the social production of their life, men enter into definite relations that are indispensable and independent of their will; these relations of production correspond to a definite stage of development of their material forces of production. The sum total of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society — the real foundation, on which rises a legal and political superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of material life determines the social, political and intellectual life process in general.

It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness.�

Karl Marx

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The Making of a Martyr

// Racist Design

1 | Sacrificed land is a result of a deeply unequal history embedded in the landscape.

Similar to many cities in the United States, St. Louis grew on the premise of divide and isolate. Systemic racism is a concept only recently understood but has been a harsh reality for many Americans in the past centuries. While the US Constitution defined all men as “created equal” in 1787, the prolonged legal recognition of racialized slavery was the cornerstone of the racist social system that every American abides by today.

Despite the abolition of slavery in 1863, racist practices were already so embedded into social norms that one act of supposed “freedom” could not redeem. As a result, African Americans faced numerous challenges which all led to economic and social inequality.

Different from systemic, institutional racism is less overt than individual racism, but has a far greater effect because it impacts regular access to deserved services. In the US, institutional racism can be seen in housing, healthcare, criminal conviction, civil services, political representation, and education. The current undeserved impoverishment and inequality was largely perpetuated by completely unethical racist policies in the twentieth century to separate physically whites from people of color in residential segregation. .

Redlining was the practice of financial institutions barring residents in predominately minority neighborhoods from financial services such as mortgages, insurance, or any type of money-lending. It also involved the Home Owner’s Loan Corporation (HOLC) drawing a red line around certain areas of a city deemed to be not “credit worthy.”

Of course housing discrimination did not begin with the HOLC in the 1930s, but the maps created only legally allowed racial bias. In many instances, they were merely a reflection of discrimination already taking place based on housing quality. Yet because of the HOLC, people of color remained isolated urban environments and unable to invest in property with their white neighbors.

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1937 St. Louis Redlining Map

Figure 1

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The Making of a Martyr

// Intended Disinvestment

2 | Infrastructural power reinforces inequity through investment and disinvestment.

After going through a period of war, St. Louis needed a comprehensive plan which Harland Bartholomew took the responsibility of drafting. To date, this was the most ambitious plan the city had seen, given its look into the future with major infrastructures.

At this time, the city was predicted it would have a population of 900,000 by 1970 which would mean there would be a need for housing, traffic ways for the auto-centric, economical plans for public and semi-public facilities and improvement in all that was neglected during the war period. The goal became to plan for a more efficient and attractive city through Euclidean zoning, restraining every group to particular areas to prevent chaos.

Bartholomew took to modernist ideals which the city is still dealing with today. He believed in wide streets, looping highways, and urban renewal. He marked territories of blight, blocked riverfront access with industry, and designed highways through impoverished neighborhoods. By conceptualizing St. Louis as a whole, overlayed with its history of racist planning, Bartholomew furthered racial and economic segregation, making disparities between rich and poor even greater.

Infrastructure became a tool for separation, and designers isolated themselves from social responsibility.

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1947 St. Louis Comprehensive Plan

Figure 2

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Resistance of the People

// Fight for the City

Positive and negative reinforcement of resistance from 1819 to present.

St. Louis has a long history of its people fighting back for the equality they deserve.

With records dating to the 19th century, people used democratic and activists means to show the city who has the right. Not every protest, whether a court case or a political march, is set to the lens of the underserved, but is means for people to state their beliefs.

Many of these moments of resistance counteract social and infrastructural equity, but need to be recognized nonetheless for the dialogue between people and city.

Within a democratic society, resistance more often takes form in a court house, with a law suit and due process. When the state is unable to serve justice, people take to the streets. They occupy public terrain to demonstrate public issues. Whether the message is received by the government is not always the priority, or even the audience. The power of political marches lies in the message given, not received. Marching in the street of a city shows who is most affected by design decisions.

Most recently, St. Louis was nationally recognized for the reaction to Michael Brown’s shooting, an event that became known as Ferguson Unrest. While the media distorted the message into mere acts of violence, spaces throughout the city hold a remembrance of theses after-effects, and all due to the people who responded.

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1963

Figure 3

2015

Figure 4

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Resistance of the People

// Historical Dialogue

THE GOOD

Dred and Harriet Scott file law suit for freedom

State of Missouri bans slavery

Mill Creek Valley removal protest

Missouri Equal Rights League is established

Black women’s nut pickers strike

1819 1764

1847 1846

Shelley v. Kraemer: forbade racial property covenants

Black Union strikers march

Lawsuit against segregated trolley cars

St. Louis founded

Jefferson Bank & Trust sit-in

SLPS creates first black vocational high school after protest

1875 1917 1865 1867

1949 1934

1942

1947

1948

1963

Protest against blacks entering public education system

Fairgrounds Park race riot

Protest to enter Union as slave state

THE BAD 32

Minor v. Happersett: Missouri refuses a woman’s right to vote

East St. Louis Race Riots

Trump ant-immigration policy march Christopher Columbus statue removal Housing Authority rent strike

I-70 Black Workers Union barricade

Anheuser-Busch product boycott

Kavanaugh nomination protest Torrence Mull death protest

Stockley verdict protest Confederate monument protest

Liddelll v. Board of Education: equal education access

Percy Green climbs Gateway Arch

Congress on Racial Equity [CORE]

NGA eminent domain protest

William Temple of God march on policing

Ferguson Unrest Occupy STL 1995

1964

1969 1970 1972

1992

1999

2001 2011

2014 2015 2017 2018

Missouri v. Jenkins: overruled state’s responsibility in de facto segregation

TERRITORIAL RESISTANCE 33

Contested Landscape

// Designing Inequity

Poverty to wealth disparities have a direct relationship to historical resistance.

The city of St. Louis holds many contested territories. Its reputation for excessive investment in the central corridor has benefited the city on myriad levels, but has also left the north to fend for its own devices, despite being a named Promise Zone.

Through a layered history of seclusion, disinvestment, and retaliation, St. Louis has tied its infrastructural networks to its social networks. No longer can designers isolate themselves from the economic dichotomies they produce. Whether at the scale of the building or of the city, makers of the built environment now have a responsibility to break away from separatist ideals of modernism and post-modernism, and respond to the political environment that is contested perpetually.

Resistance and revolution have shaped the city, and it is architecture’s time to collaborate these elements into a performative structure.

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Contested Landscape

// Potential Resistance

Hypothesis cited to St. Louis region:

1 | Architecture must exercise the power withheld in political space to shift the degradation of the physical and social environments.

2 | Architectural symbols of power can encourage active citizenship through agency of design.

3 | The ephemeral architecture of resistance embeds its collective memory into the land, inciting a martyred territory.

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Contested Landscape

// Typologies

Examples of territories martyred on the grounds of urban revolution:

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1|

Territory Neighborhood Means Year

National Geospatial Agency Jeff-Vander-Lou Eminent Domain 2015

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Territory Neighborhood Means Year

Fairgrounds Park Pool Fairgrounds Race Riot 1949

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Territory Neighborhood Means Year

Mill Creek Valley Fairgrounds Urban Renewal 1959

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Territory Neighborhood Means Year

Arch Grounds Downtown Urban Renewal 1963

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Territory Neighborhood Means Year

Collinville Avenue Downtown East St. Louis Racial Massacre 1917

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Martyred Territory

// Type 1: Eminent Domain

1 | National Geospatial Agency

In 2016 National Geospatial Intelligence Agency had made the initial decision to build its new western headquarters in North St. Louis City to relocate from south city. To assemble the 99-acre site, St. Louis is poised to use eminent domain to acquire the property of those who did not want to leave. There were a total of 160 parcel owners on the site at the time, many of which had been owned for generations.

The city puts its full weight and authority behind the effort to secure the $1.7B project, and the estimated 1,500 construction jobs and 3,100 permanent jobs. The 99-acre site north of the Pruitt-Igoe site, is comprised primarily of traditional narrow residential lots. NorthSide Regeneration owner, Paul McKee, had been buying derelict properties for several decades with the intent to land bank and sell back to the city as a consolidated lot. Paul McKee derailed this neighborhood long before NGA decided to relocate, but the powers of eminent domain further the inequity.

More than $1.6M was budgeted to compensate owners forced to relocated. With the power of eminent domain in hand, the city reach agreements with the majority of property owners. Following the statutory process, a circuit court judge appointed commissioners to arbitrate offers for 43 parcels. Offers range from $900 to $195,000, but were never even half the amount the owners requested.

Territory Neighborhood Means Year

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National Geospatial Agency Jeff-Vander-Lou Eminent Domain 2015

BEFORE

AFTER

Figure 5

Figure 6

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Martyred Territory

// Type 2: Race Riot

2 | Fairgrounds Park Pool

The Fairgrounds Park Riot is a race riot that broke out in 1949 from the city integrating the swimming pool. It was the first municipal pool in the city of St. Louis and the original Fairground Park pool was the largest in the world. In 1949, St. Louis city officials decided to open the pool to the city’s black residents in response to a federal court’s holding that prohibiting blacks from using public golf courses was a violation of the 14th amendment.

On the opening day, about 30 African American children came to use the pool, and as they were swimming, a group gathered outside of the pool’s fence shouting threats at the swimmers. City police were called in to escort the black children out of the park when the swimming period ended but white teenagers would periodically strike the black children without police reprisal.

Later that day, a crowd of several hundred had gathered. Only 20 to 30 of the people gathered were African American youths. White boys with baseball bats surrounded a group of black boys, one of who was said to have a knife, and beat one of the African American youths until a police officer fell on top of the victim to stop the attack. At this point, the original crowd swelled to thousands as other park users heeded the apparently false cry that an African American boy had killed a white youth. The violence that resulted required the involvement of nearly 150 police officers. Relative order was established nightfall. The mayor immediately reinstituted segregation policies in order to minimize the potential for future violence.

Territory Neighborhood Means Year

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Fairgrounds Park Pool Fairgrounds Race Riot 1949

BEFORE

AFTER

Figure 7

Figure 8

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Martyred Territory

// Type 3: Urban Renewal

3 | Mill Creek Valley

Mill Creek Valley was home to 20,000 residents and 800 businesses in 1959, when it was officially declared a slum to be acquired and demolished by the City of St. Louis. About 95 percent of its residents were black. What civic leaders referred to as an “urban renewal project,” the NAACP labeled a “Negro removal project.”

Stretching for more than 450 acres across midtown St. Louis, Mill Creek Valley was the site of many important buildings. The Booker T. Washington Theatre was one of the nation’s first theaters built and operated by blacks. The People’s Hospital on Pine Street was the only place in the city where black physicians could treat private patients. The People’s Finance Building was the first commercial building in the country built entirely

by African Americans. All would be demolished under the guise of the largest urban renewal projects ever sponsored by the federal government.

The Mill Creek Redevelopment Project attempted to bring new life to an increasingly impoverished and crime-ridden area, but the expected interest never materialized. The idea of rebirth through land clearance never solved the problems of urban deterioration.

The empty land of Mill Creek Valley has now been covered by Saint Louis University’s sports fields, Harris-Stowe State University’s campus, and Interstate 64.

Territory Neighborhood Means Year

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Mill Creek Valley Fairgrounds Urban Renewal 1959

BEFORE

Figure 9

AFTER

Figure 10

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Martyred Territory

// Type 4: Urban Renewal

4 | Arch Grounds

St. Louis spent its first 200 years since its founding in 1764 well connected to its riverfront. By the time President Thomas Jefferson completed the purchase of the Louisiana Territory from the French, a total of 828,800 square miles, for $15 million, the Federal government quickly began to encourage westward expansion and settlement.

St. Louis became the logical starting point for emigrants heading west. By the 1830s, St. Louis had become the “Gateway to the West,” and the riverfront was active with economic commerce.

In 1933 President Roosevelt signs an executive order authorizing the acquisition of the central riverfront to develop the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial. Demolition of 40 blocks from Eads Bridge to Poplar Street begins in 1939. WWII put construction on hold until mid century.

Modernism brought major infrastructure to St. Louis, including an extensive highway system that cut the city off completely from the River. Eero Saarinen’s original plans to bury the highway were scrapped, and the isolated monument was completed in 1965. The arch may still be a symbol of triumph for many people, it still represents the conquering a land for an abstraction of nationalism. Buildings were destroyed and people were dislocated.

Territory Neighborhood Means Year

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Arch Grounds Downtown Urban Renewal 1963

BEFORE

AFTER

Figure 11

Figure 12

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Martyred Territory

// Type 5: Racial Massacre

5 | Collinsville Avenue

The 1917 East St. Louis Massacre was an outbreak of labor- and race-related violence by whites that caused the death of 40-250 black people and approximately $400,000 [over $8 million, in 2017 US Dollars] in property damage. An estimated 6,000 black people were left homeless, and these events were declared to be the worst case of laborrelated violence in the 20th century.

Racial tensions began simmering in East St. Louis as early as February 1917. The AfricanAmerican population was 6,000 in 1910 and nearly double that by 1917. In the spring, the largely white workforce at the Aluminum Ore Company went on strike. Hundreds of blacks were hired. After a City Council meeting on May 28, angry white workers lodged formal complaints against black migrants. When word of an attempted robbery of a white man by an armed black man spread through the city, mobs started beating any AfricanAmericans they found, even pulling individuals off of streetcars and trolleys. The National Guard was called in but dispersed in June.

On July 1, a white man in a Ford shot into black homes. Armed African-Americans gathered in the area and shot into another oncoming Ford, killing two men who turned out to be police officers investigating the shooting. The next morning, whites pouring out of a meeting in the Labor Temple downtown began beating blacks with guns, rocks and pipes.

They set fire to homes and shot residents as they fled their burning properties. Blacks were also lynched in other areas of the city. After the third day, the entire neighborhood was on fire.

Territory Neighborhood Means Year

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Collinville Avenue Downtown East St. Louis Racial Massacre 1917

BEFORE

AFTER

Figure 13

Figure 14

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Martyred Territory

// Type 6: Box Typology

6 | Dollar Store

Dollar General began as a small local business in Springfield, Kentucky in 1955 with the simple idea of offering affordable items to its customers. By 1957, annual sales of Dollar General’s 29 stores came to $5 million. As of 2018, the company has more than 15,000 stores nationwide with a net worth over $25 billion. While the 1950’s tactic remains the same, affordable goods, the controversy comes in a more nuanced layer, the option of goods available, and the typology of structure.

A study done by the College of William and Mary did a report on Dollar General customer spending, and found that while the average customer pays only $29 a month, they are still spending more for the same items a different commercial setting. For example, a 2-pound bag of flour at Dollar General costs $1, but at the local grocery store at the time of the study, a 5-pound bag of flour costs less than $2. These types of stores tend to prey on lower income populations, just because they are one who are willing to pay cheap prices for basic needs. Typically lower income neighborhoods do not have adequate access to fresh foods, and the limited selection at Dollar General must suffice.

As a box typology, Dollar Generals cannot easily inhabit re-purposed architecture. These stores need large open spaces and surface parking. As such, when a dollar store moves into a neighborhood, they may need to either tear down a few buildings, or occupy vacant land with unproductive surface. While they appear as a service, they are the new form of martyred territory in impoverished cities.

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BEFORE

AFTER

Figure 15

Figure 16

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Sacrifice in Action

// Power Dialogue

Power dialogue manifests in the form unproductive land and productive program.

As the city watched its population leave for the suburbs, and a following regeneration on the south side, the north was sporadically infilled with unproductive urban elements.

In addition to NorthSide Regeneration, the LRA, the city’s land banking authority, has accumulated properties and either torn buildings down or watched them go to disrepair.

Many street of north St. Louis have lost their architectural character and continue to be remnants of an aggressive oppression. With growing poverty, the political space of St. Louis grows with innate intensity.

Family Dollar is a billion-dollar franchise which has continuously preyed off low-income neighborhoods across the country by replacing moments of vacancy. Fast food places also tend to market lower income, as the map shows a correlation between low-house value and location. Auto store may be necessary in urban environments, but when placed at prominent intersections or in lieu of a better service, only further the sacrifice a territory--property which was once productive for all now unproductive for most.

While these elements provide a service, their large surface parking, lack of quality goods or fresh foods are preventing neighborhood growth. They become symbols of power at a tangible scale.

Martyred Territories

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Sacrifice in Action

// Uncovering History

Major design decisions reappear over time within a social construct.

St. Louis can address its racial covenants and attempt redevelopment through private property, but the relegation of its territorial value has been decided decades ago. By understanding the city at the scale of its parcel, the map shows relationships between corridors, productivity, and architectural sacrifice. Singular design decisions cannot instigate spatial justice at this scale, but can encompass a broad understanding of embedded issues.

By layering various plans of St. Louis and their historical connectivity with present-day unproductive lands, intensities become clear at particular moments. These moments, in Fairgrounds and Old North, could be considered contested testing grounds for an architectural intervention.

1918 Plan of St. Louis

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1947 Redline Plan of St. Louis

2018 Unproductive Territories Historical Corridors

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Testing Grounds

// Fairgrounds

Non-contextual architectural decisions furthered isolation.

North Grand Boulevard was once a major commercial corridor that connected the north to the center of the city, and bring Natural Bridge Avenue to Florissant Avenue. This intersection is within the political space of contestation, in close proximity to various symbols of power, and encompasses a martyred territory as its remnants of quality architecture stand in the distance.

Surrounded by unproductive lands, a Family Dollar and its surface become the prominent feature, despite the Grand Avenue Water Tower only a short distance away. Yet because Family Dollar is a service to the neighborhood, it cannot be eradicated like so many buildings have been before it. Due to the excess of surface parking and abandoned lot, it can be replaced within close proximity of the site to continue providing for the neighborhood with minimal disruption.

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4

1

3

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2

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Testing Grounds

1 view into site

2 view from vacant lot

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// Dollar General

Figure 17

Figure 18

3 view across parking lot

4 view to water towers

Figure 19

Figure 20

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program

to [un]Martyr i DEFINE ii MATRIX iii CASE STUDY iv PROGRAM

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“The real political task in a society such as ours is to criticize the workings of institutions that appear to be both neutral and independent, to criticize and attack them in such a manner that the political violence that has always exercised itself obscurely through them will be unmasked, so that one can fight against them.�

Michel Foucault

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Defining Martyr A value sacrificed for a principle in the built environment.

Merriam - Webster verb mar·​tyr | \`mär-tər \ 1 to sacrifice something of great value and especially life itself for the sake of principle 2 to put to death for adhering to a belief, faith, or profession 3 to suffer death rather than renounce a belief

A sacrifice in the built environment implies the serving local value to benefit the greater region. A martyred territory is not directly degrading--the principle at hand is viewed from a larger scale meaning the local context is ignored. Cities often find themselves in race to respond to a regional scale by offering incentives that hold detrimental effects to the immediate context.

St. Louis, as a shrinking mid-western city, has a history of redefining progress to mark itself nationally. Mill Creek Valley, the arch grounds, and the NGA site were lands scarified to serve the city, the greater region. Cities in similar economic conditions need these symbolic powers to thrive, but must re-evaluate the incentives behind each martyred territory. Architecture can encompass both the symbol of power and the local context-the answer lies in program.

To un-martyr a territory is to respond to these power plays by shifting the benefit of the symbolic power to the intimate context. Design can respond to its nation and its immediate people by incentivizing the symbol of power to serve the local need.

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Case Studies Conceptual understandings of power symbols and their folded effects can stimulate a dual program of intimate and regional power.

Throughout the history of the built environment, people have created objects and spaces with the intention to speak to an ideology greater than the individual. Many were originally intended to be a symbol, an icon of the nation’s power, while others were transformed into symbols over time and events.

Whether these symbols arose from the nation, the city, or the people themselves, we must analyze who funded the symbols, who built it, and for what purpose. From these existing symbols, successful or not, a relationship of program emerges.

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1

Giza Complex

2

Millennium Bridge

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Metro Cable

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East Side Gallery

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City of the Sun 71

Case Study

// Giza Complex

A symbol of power built by the people for the sovereign holds sanctuary and service space.

The Pyramids of Giza were built as memorial temples three pharaohs in the Early Dynastic Period. The complex, which encompasses the three Great Pyramids, the Great Sphinx, several cemeteries and an industrial complex. An estimated 20,000 to 40,000 workers are thought to have built this complex over three generations. However, during an era of per-industrialization, a man’s livelihood was meant to serve his ruler. The people who built this great monuments did so willfully, as it would reward them in the afterlife.

Area Pyramids Temples Cemeteries Boat Pits

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62.5615 sq mi 9 3 4 9

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Case Study

// Millennium Bridge, Podgorica

A symbol of power built by the nation for the city traverses two economic sectors of the city.

Podgorica, the capital of Montenegro, has had a stagnate economy in recent years due to competition with other post-Yugoslav states to regain a stable industry. Podgorica holds a third of the country’s population, and the state’s intention to reinvigorate the city came with infrastructural upgrades, including the symbolic Millennium Bridge over the Moraca River.

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Case Study

// Medellín Metro Cable

A symbol of power built by the city for the people allows for greater economic growth.

The Metrocable is a gondola lift system implemented by the City Council of Medellín, Colombia, with the purpose of providing a complementary transportation service to that of Medellín’s Metro. It was designed to reach some of the city’s informal settlements on the steep hills that mark its topography. The system was installed with the intention of building libraries and parks, but it primary success is shortering the time and space between the settlement and economic opportunity.

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Case Study

// East Side Gallery, Berlin

A symbol of power built by the nation reinvented by the people can allow for multiple interpretations.

The East Side Gallery is an open-air gallery in Berlin. It consists of a series of murals painted directly on a 1316 m long remnant of the Berlin Wall, located near the center of Berlin, on Mühlenstraße in Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg. The gallery has official status as a Denkmal, or heritage-protected landmark. It consists of 105 paintings by artists from all over the world, painted in 1990 on the east side of the Berlin Wall. The actual border at this point had been the river Spree. The gallery is located on the so-called “hinterland mauer”, which closed the border to West Berlin.

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1316 METERS

3.6 METER HEIGHT

105 PAINTINGS

3 MILLION VISITORS

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Case Study

// Campanella’s City of the Sun

A symbol of power built by the people for theocracy can be an educational tool within the architecture itself.

The City of the Sun is a utopian ideal created by the Italian Dominican philosopher Tommaso Campanella. As a walled city, one of the most spectacular and imaginative aspects of The City of the Sun are the painted walls of the city. Apart from enclosing and protecting the city, the walls are also the curtains of an extraordinary theater and the pages of an illustrated encyclopedia of knowledge. The walls of the palaces are painted with images of all the arts and sciences. According to Campanella, citizens are all considered equal, since the purpose is to serve the state through educational emancipation. A temple is located in the center of the city, which serves as am osmosis from the citizen to God.

Area Diameter Circumference Entrances Temple Area 80

3.14 sq mi 2.2 miles 7 miles 4 350 paces

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Program

// Conceptual Relationship

A space that ignites a process to conspire and evolve.

St. Louis has catered investment to its central corridor for decades now. With the particular tool of tax abatement, cities across the nation desperately call to big business for a long-term, abstract idea of economic growth. Through various institutions and legal structures, St. Louis and other cities have martyred its people and its territory for contested outcomes. Because of the excessive investment, the architecture of symbols of power tends to be elaborate, large, and of high quality. The time has come for all disciplines regarding the built environment to respond to this abuse, and redirect investment and quality toward those being scarified.

While cities do respond to failing social systems with healthcare, education, and housing subsidies, the fact these systems revolve around a baseline implies many complexities and needs are left unheard and unanswered. As welfare subsidies are intended to be used elsewhere other than the location of distribution, cities have no responsibility to provide their people with any other spatial justice other than the architecture of the system. The result is architecture which is simple, limited, and inarticulate.

Design can respond to economic symbols of power and their martyred outcomes by reversing their intentions and juxtaposing a counter symbol, a symbol for the people.

The architecture of resistance forces the symbol of power to respond to its immediate context with service designed for the people who had been sacrificed.

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Program

// Mismanaged Priorities

Amazon HQ2

Amazon has become the zeitgeist of corporate welfare given the shear amount of incentives it has been offered for the new headquarters. Jeff Bezos, the creator and CEO, is name the richest person in modern history, but still demands cities to martyr their citizen’s rights to further expand his capital. Locating Amazon HQ2 in St. Louis would certainly benefit the city, as St. Louis has a growing workforce and plenty of palpable land for new development, but it would also greatly damage the immediate context, whether that be the deteriorating Fairgrounds or the thriving Central West End. Amazon ignores social responsibility for the sake of regional growth.

AMAZON INVESTMENT

+$5 BILLION

CITY INVESTMENT ST. LOUIS CITY SUBSIDIES ST. LOUIS COUNTY SUBSIDES ST. CLAIRE COUNTY SUBSIDIES STATE OF MISSOURI SUBSIDES STATE OF ILLINOIS SUBSIDES

-$1.15 BILLION -$56.6 MILLION -$700 MILLION -$2.4 BILLION -$927 MILLION TOTAL

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-$7.1 BILLION

St. Louis Social Services

Social services in St. Louis essentially provides for citizens most affected by their martyred territories--according to a 24-7 Wall Street report, it is the 3rd worst city to live in. Fairgrounds, and most of north city, holds the majority of the city’s crime and poverty. Basic services such as food, housing, and healthcare are ever-needed. Placing a Social Service office in Fairgrounds directly responds to these urban issues in a simple, yet gritty manner.

By joining these programs, a new possibility emerges. Amazon HQ2 is nothing more than a glorified office building, and St. Louis Social Services is the crude version of office space. Once the occupants enter the same doors to their rightful spaces, a public, spatial entity can encompass them both, creating space to ignite, conspire, contest, evolve, and diffuse.

ST. LOUIS SOCIAL SERVICES PROGRAM MANAGEMENT HOMELESS SERVICES OFFICE OF VETERAN AFFAIRS OFFICE ON THE DISABLED ST. LOUIS AREA AGENCY ON AGING YOUTH AND FAMILY SERVICES ST. LOUIS WARD BUDGET

$25.5 MILLION $2.1 MILLION $10.9 MILLION $202,71 $299,917 $9.9 MILLION $2.1 MILLION $229,228

NEIGHBORHOOD IMPROVEMENTS

ST. LOUIS CITY ALONE WAS WILLING TO GIVE 60x MORE TO AMAZON IN TAX ABATEMENT THAN ITS OWN 2019 BUDGET FOR HUMAN SERVICES.

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Program

// Parasitic Relationship

Amazon HQ2

OFFICE TOWER

NET SQ. FT.

OPEN OFFICE ADMINISTRATION

RESEARCH LABS

COMMON SPACE ASSEMBLY SERVICE CIRCULATION MEP

2 MILLION SQ. FT. 1.6 MILLION SQ. FT. 30% 10% 10% 10% 10% 5% 20% 5%

GREEN SPACE JOBS CREATED / DESKS NEEDED

2,500

PARKING SPACES

1,250

FUTURE EXPANSION REQUIREMENTS

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8 MILLION SQ. FT.

St. Louis Social Services

OFFICE MID-RISE

NET SQ. FT.

ADMINISTRATION

CLIENT PROGRAM SPACE ASSEMBLY SERVICE CIRCULATION MEP

50,000 SQ. FT. 40,000 SQ. FT. 30% 30% 20% 5% 10% 5%

GREEN SPACE PEOPLE SERVED PARKING SPACES FUTURE HOUSING EXPANSION

300 / DAY 40 100,000 SQ FT.

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Program

// Current Status

Amazon HQ Seattle

Figure 21

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St. Louis Social Services Market Street

Figure 22

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90

speculation

Didactic Interfaces i THRESHOLDS ii RELATIONSHIPS iii POTENTIAL

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“Social space is a product conceived not as a completed reality or an abstract totality, but a set of possibilities in the process of being realized.�

Henri Lefebvre

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Speculation

// Thresholds

Amazon HQ2 and STL Social Services are an interface to the region and the site.

While the programs manifest in one building, the intention for both is to create space embedded within one another for the opposite user. Amazon is not a stagnant entity on the site, rather the infrastructural backbone to provide needed services to the area. St. Louis Social Services may be parasitic in nature to Amazon, but is really the front door to the building. Both programs create a threshold to the immediate context, the city, and the region.

Hypothesis I Architecture must exercise the power withheld in political space to shift the degradation of the physical and social environments.

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95

Speculation

// Relationships

The intensity of the design belongs to the public interface, STL Social Services and its immediate context.

Amazon may require extensive needs programmatically, but for the sake of the semester project, the intensity of design will be focused on the interface of the two programs and to the public. Amazon and St. Louis Social Services are not merely conjoined objects, but a relational public space that allows for opportunity in all its users.

Hypothesis II Architectural symbols of power can encourage active citizenship through agency of design.

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Speculation

// Potential

The architecture can catalyze St. Louis Social Services to claim the tower from the fading Amazon.

The benefit of a simple office tower design is its flexibility. Amazon will not last beyond the building, as technology is changing the consumer industry. Once Amazon fades, the people of Fairgrounds can claim the building as their own. With the right instigators, the interface between the programs can catalyze this transformation.

Hypothesis III The ephemeral architecture of resistance embeds its collective memory into the land, reverting the martyred territory into justice.

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Appendix

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Deck of Cards The deck of cards instigated this exploration, with the primary question of architecture’s role in societal revolution. From there stemmed a process which began to unravel the complexities of shifting frameworks in a democraticallybuilt urban environment. The following terms and ideas are a mere gesture into architecture’s potential role.

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Definitions Active Citizenship Collective Memory Hierarchy Martyred Territory Political Space Security Social Agency Social Dissent Symbols of Power

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Definitions Active Citizenship noun `aktiv | \`si-tə-zən-`ship \

“Democracy is not simply a license to indulge individual whims and proclivities. It is also holding oneself accountable to some reasonable degree for the conditions of peace and chaos that impact the lives of those who inhabit one’s beloved extended community.”

Aberjhani

Merriam - Webster 1 action within membership in a communit 2 the quality of an individual’s response to membership in a community

Open Society Foundation 1

people getting involved in their local communities and democracy at all levels

2 a combination of knowledge, attitude, skills and actions that aim to contribute to building and maintaining a democratic society

Wikipedia 1 refers to a philosophy espoused by organizations and educational institutions which advocates that members of charitable organizations, companies or nation-states have certain roles and responsibilities to society and the environment 2 can be seen as an articulation of the debate over rights versus responsibilities

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Collective Memory noun se·cu·ri·ty | \`si-’kyūr-ə-tē\

“Man cannot become attached to higher aims and submit to a rule if he sees nothing above him to which he belongs. To free him from all social pressure is to abandon him to himself and demoralize him.” Émile Durkheim

Memorial Worlds 1 a social group’s identity is constructed with narratives and traditions that are created to give its members a sense of an community 2 the stories, artifacts, food and drink, symbols, traditions, images, and music that form the ties that bind members together 3 an element societies require continuity and connection with the past to preserve social unity and cohesion

Study Academy Online 1 the memories of a group of people who have collected them through shared social experiences 2

the process of one person coining a term, then others contributing ideas that built up over time into a widely accepted definition

3 the theory that people--whether by race, family, or culture--gather memories which influences how we see our lives

Wikipedia 1 the shared pool of knowledge and information in the memories of two or more members of a social group a

parallels the memory of a person who is better at recalling images than words; but also exhibits key differences and features, such as cross-cueing

b the phenomena that groups remember more than individuals, as groups are able to draw on the knowledge and experience (memories) of all individuals present

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Definitions Hierarchy noun /`hī(ə)`rärkē /

Merriam - Webster 1 a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority 2 the upper echelons of a hierarchical system; those in authority 3 an arrangement or classification of things according to relative importance or inclusiveness

Martyred [Territory| noun mar·​tyr | \`mär-tər \

1 to sacrifice something of great value and especially life itself for the sake of principle 2 to put to death for adhering to a belief, faith, or profession 3 to suffer death rather than renounce a belief

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Political Space noun /pə`lidək(ə)l/ | spās

National Democratic Institute 1 refers to the avenues, opportunities and entry points available for citizens to express their voice and influence political processes and outcomes 2 can be considered open if citizens are able to communicate their preferences, organize, act individually and collectively and engage government without restrictions or harassment

Power Cube 1 spaces for participation are not neutral, but are themselves shaped by power relations, which both surround and enter them 2 institutional channels, political discourses and social and political practices through which the poor and those organizations working with them can pursue poverty reduction

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Definitions Security noun se·cu·ri·ty | \`si-’kyūr-ə-tē\

Security mostly refers to protection from hostile forces, but it has a wide range of other senses: for example, as the absence of harm; as the presence of an essential good; as resilience against potential damage or harm; as secrecy; as containment; and as a state of mind.

Merriam - Webster 1 the quality of being free from danger, anxiety or fear, or the prospect of negativity 2 something given, deposited, or pledged to make certain the fulfillment of an obligation 3 an instrument of investment in the form of a document (such as a stock certificate or bond) providing evidence of its ownership 4 something that provides protection

Oxford Dictionary 1 the state of being free from danger or threat 2 the state of feeling safe, stable, and free from fear or anxiety 3 a thing deposited or pledged as a guarantee of the fulfillment of an undertaking or the repayment of a loan, to be forfeited in case of default

Wikipedia 1 freedom from anxiety 2 a security referent is the focus of a security policy or discourse; for example, a referent may be a potential beneficiary (or victim) of a security policy or system 3 the security context is the relationships between a security referent and its environment

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Social Agency noun se·cu·ri·ty | \`si-’kyūr-ə-tē\

“Democracy transformed from thin paper to thick action is the greatest form of government on earth.”

Martin Luther King, Jr.

Merriam - Webster 1 agencies that provide health, welfare and rehabilitation services with the aim of improving quality of life 2 government and non-government agency provided services that improve social welfare for people in need 3 a public or private nonprofit organization providing specialized programs and transportation service to a specific clientele such as the elderly and persons with disabilities

Thought Co. 1 the complex and interconnected set of social forces, relationships, institutions, and elements of social structure that work together to shape the thought, behavior, experiences, choices, and overall life courses of people 2 the thoughts and actions taken by people that express their individual power.

Wikipedia 1 structure is the recurrent patterned arrangements which influence or limit the choices and opportunities available. agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices.

2 the capacity of individual “agents” to construct and reconstruct their worlds

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Definitions Social Dissent noun so·cial dis·sent | \`sō-shəl di-`sent \

“If constructing the future and settling everything for all times are not our affair, it is all the more clear what we have to accomplish at present: I am referring to ruthless criticism of all that exists, ruthless both in the sense of not being afraid of the results it arrives at and in the sense of being just as little afraid of conflict with the powers that be”.

Karl Marx

Merriam - Webster 1 difference in opinion between individuals or groups 2 a justice’s non-concurrence with a decision of the majority 3 political opposition to a government or its policies

Oxford Dictionary 1 the holding or expression of opinions at variance with those commonly or officially held 2 the offence of expressing disagreement with the referee’s decision 3 refusal to accept the doctrines of an established or orthodox Church; nonconformity

Wikipedia 1 a sentiment or philosophy of non-agreement or opposition to a prevailing idea (e.g. a government’s policies) or an entity

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a

may be formally expressed by way of opposition politics, while politically repressive regimes may prohibit any form of dissent, leading to suppression of dissent and the encouragement of social or political activism

b

several thinkers have argued that a healthy society needs not only to protect, but also to encourage dissent

Symbol [of Power| noun sym¡bol | \`sim-bəl \

All communication (and data processing) is achieved through the use of symbols; symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences.

Merriam - Webster 1 an authoritative summary of faith or doctrine : creed 2 something that stands for or suggests something else by reason of relationship, association, convention, or accidental resemblance, especially : a visible sign of something invisible 3 an arbitrary or conventional sign used in writing or printing relating to a particular field to represent operations, quantities, elements, relations, or qualities 4 an object or act representing something in the unconscious mind that has been repressed

Oxford Dictionary 1 a mark or character used as a conventional representation of an object, function, or process, e.g. the letter or letters standing for a chemical element or a character in musical notation.

2 a shape or sign used to represent something such as an organization 3 a thing that represents or stands for something else, especially a material object representing something abstract.

Wikipedia 1 an energy evoking, and directing, agent 2 something that stands for another, it can be place, object, or a person 3 a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of a universal truth

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References Discourse Agamben, Giorgio. “The Logic of Sovereignty.” Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and the Bare Life.

1998.

Harvey, David. Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution. Verso Press. 2012.

Hatuka, Tali. Violent Acts and Urban Space in Contemporary Tel Aviv. University of Texas Press.

2003.

Lefebvre, Henri. The Urban Revolution. University of Minnesota Press. 2003.

Lynch, Kevin. Mapping the Sense of the Region. MIT Press. 1976.

Mouffe, Chantal. Agonistic Democracy and Radical Politics. http://pavilionmagazine.org/chantal-mouffe-agonistic-democracy-and-radical-politics/ Sennet, Richard. The Uses of Disorder. W.W. Norton and Company Inc. 1970.

St. Louis Poverty and Wealth Statistics. Social Explorer. https://www.socialexplorer.com/a9676d974c/explore Soja, Edward. Seeking Spatial Justice. University of Minnesota Press. 2010.

Woods, Lebbeus. The Sarajevo Window. https://lebbeuswoods.wordpress.com/2011/12/02/war-and-architecture-the-sarajevowindow.

Context Abbot, Mark. The 1947 Comprehensive City Plan and Harland Bartholomew’s St. Louis. St. Louis Plans: The Ideal and the Real St. Louis. 2007. Print.

Boudreau, Kate. Fairground Park: The History We Chose to Forget. NextSTL. 1 Dec. 2010. Web. Eminent Domain at NGA Site. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Editorial. 8 Sept. 2018. Web. DeLoach, Ryan and DeRose, Jenn. Urban Renewal and Mill Creek Valley. DecodingSTL.org. Web. 117

Context [continued] Dollar stores are thriving, but are they ripping off poor people? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/jun/28/dollar-store-ripping-people-offpoverty-inequality Dollar General Net Worth. Forbes Companies. https://www.forbes.com/companies/dollargeneral/#a341026470ec History of Our Riverfront. City to River. Web. http://www.citytoriver.org/history/ Household Income Above $100,000. Social Explorer. https://www.socialexplorer.com/a9676d974c/explore House Value Below $50,000. Social Explorer. https://www.socialexplorer.com/a9676d974c/explore Household Income Below Poverty. Social Explorer. https://www.socialexplorer.com/a9676d974c/explore Keyes, Allison. East St. Louis Riot Left Dozens Dead, Devastating a Community on the Rise. Smithsonian Magazine. 30 June 2017. Web. Lubin, Rebecca Baird-Remba and Gus. “21 Maps Of Highly Segregated Cities In America.”

Business Insider, Business Insider, 25 Apr. 2013. Web. Patterson, Steve. Harland Bartholomew’s Negative Impact. Urban Review: St. Louis. 2 Dec. 2009.

Web.

Program Barker, Jacob. St. Louis left off Amazon’s short list, but leaders say not in vain. St. Louis Post-Dispatch.

19 Jan 2018.

Campanella’s City of the Sun. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Campanellas-City-of-the-Sun Handwerk, Brian. Pyramids at Giza. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic. com/archaeology-and-history/archaeology/giza-pyramids/ 118

Program [continued] East Side Gallery Berlin. EastSideGallery.com. http://www.eastsidegallery-berlin.com/ Medellin Metro. MedellinColombia.com. https://www.medellincolombia.co/getting-around/ medellin-metro/ Millennium Bridge, Podgorica. Wikipedia. Web. St. Louis City Budget FY19. STL-MO GOV.gov. https://www.stlouis-mo.gov/government/ departments/budget/documents/upload/FY19-AOP-Human-Services-as-adopted.pdf St. Loiuis Ward Spending. STL Today. https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/metro/how-to-split-a-pot-of-money-equal-may-not/ article_a2e9e72a-e0fd-5690-a67e-0aafbc9c9cd8.html

Image Credits Figure 1

Mapping Inequality in New Deal America. St. Louis HOLC Map. https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/#loc=13/38.6477/-90.2478&opacity=0.8&are a=D5&sort=85&city=st.louis-mo

Figure 2

1947 Comprehensive Plan. St. Louis-MO GOV.gov.

Figure 3

The History of Protests in St. Louis. http://projects.stlmag.com/the-history-of-protests-in-st-louis

Figure 4

Black Lives Matter Protester March Downtown. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. https://www.stltoday.com/ news/local/metro/black-lives-matter-protesters-march-through-downtown-st-louis-ferguson/ article_98fe6a2e-b8ad-5010-8b77-e052756c1f93.html

Figure 5

Carson, David. St. Louis Today. https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/getting-ready-for-newnga-st-louis-approves-up-to/article_29e132ff-c78b-5850-ac4c-85d5ff382d8b.html

Figure 6

Image taken by author

Figure 7

Boudreau, Kate. Fairground Park: The History We Chose to Forget. NextSTL. 1 Dec. 2010. Web.

Figure 8

Image taken by author

Figure 9

DeLoach, Ryan and DeRose, Jenn. Urban Renewal and Mill Creek Valley. DecodingSTL.org. Web.

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Image Credits [continued]

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Figure 10

Image taken by author

Figure 11

Abbot, Mark. The 1947 Comprehensive City Plan and Harland Bartholomew’s St. Louis. St. Louis Plans: The Ideal and the Real St. Louis. 2007. Print.

Figure 12

Image taken by author

Figure 13

Keyes, Allison. East St. Louis Riot Left Dozens Dead, Devastating a Community on the Rise.

Smithsonian Magazine. 30 June 2017. Web.

Figure 14

Image taken by author

Figure 15

Explore St. Louis. Neighborhoods.

Figure 16

Dollar General Re-bannering. Progressive Grocer.

Figure 17

Image taken by author

Figure 18

Image taken by author

Figure 19

Image taken by author

Figure 20

Image taken by author

Figure 21

Amazon builds a tree-filled crystal jungle. USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/ news/2017/05/09/amazon-spheres-downtown-seattle/101434584/

Figure 22

Homeless Shelter Closes. St. Louis Public Radio. http://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/homelessshelter-closes-residents-are-sent-city-run-warehouse#stream/0

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“Nothing disappears completely, nor can what subsists be defined soley in terms of traces, memories, or relics.

In space, what came earlier continues to underpin what follows...�

Henri Lefebvre