Upholding the Commons: An Alternative Approach to the Redevelopment of the Island of Barbuda

Upholding the Commons An Alternative Approach to the Redevelopment of the Island of Barbuda

M.S. Sustainability in the Urban Environment

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Copyright Š 2019 by Hillary Brown, Professor, City College of New York All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the author except for the use of brief quotations in a book review or scholarly journal.

First Printing: 2019

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pholding the Commons: an alternative approach to the redevelopment of the Island of Barbuda TABLE OF CONTENTS Overview…………………………………………………………………………………………………................

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Background…………………………………………………………………………………………………............

Existing Conditions & Challenges

Towards a Solution: Networked & Synergistic Opportunities …………………………………………....

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Combined Solutions for Regenerative Development via an Infrastructural Commons……………...

Coastal Erosion Protection

Water Harvesting, Erosion Control and Stormwater Management

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Aquaculture, Seawater Greenhouses & Agriculture…………………………………………………….......

Aquaculture / Mariculture

Seawater Greenhouse Permaculture

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Sanitation and Waste Management………………………………………………………………………........

Sanitation

Waste Management

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Integration of Small Enterprise - Eco-Industrial Parks………………………………………………….......

North Park

South Park

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Eco-TourismDevelopment……………………………………………………………………………….............

Visitor Centers

Botanical Garden

New Trails/ New Eco-Resorts

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Renewable Energy & Proposed Microgrids……………………………………………………………...........

Wind Power

Solar Power Storage Microgrid

Electric Vehicles

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Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………….............

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References……………………………………………………............…………………………………..............

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Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………………………..............

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Devastation to homes and vegetation Courtesy: International Federation of the Red Cross 2

OVERVIEW Small island nations in the tropics are on the front-lines of climate change, experiencing impacts from sea-level rise, saltwater intrusion, and stressors from increased meteorological intensity (drought, coastal erosion). At the same time, many of these nations are struggling to put in place and protect basic critical infrastructural services, create food security, and spur economic development to support growing populations.

Atlantic Ocean

Barbuda

Caribbean Sea

Location of Barbuda; Courtesy: Google

Today, the island of Barbuda, part of the State of Antigua and Barbuda, is tragically confronting these challenges after it was devastated by Hurricane Irma’s 180 mph winds in September 2017, displacing its population (approximately 1,800) and destroying 95% of its structures. A year and a half later, the slow pace of recovery—island cleanup and reinvestment—has continued to frustrate the return of island inhabitants. In these pages, the goal of this conceptual design project was to set out an alternative vision for rebuilding Barbuda’s infrastructure and mobilizing a new economy, inclusive of sustainable and adaptive measures, as one potentially more aligned with the history and culture of the island.

land ownership (“commons”) has distinguished the development of the island, a rare example of participatory economic planning and successful land redistribution among the population of freed slaves and their descendants. This tradition was formalized into law through the Barbuda Land Act of 2007. Citizens don’t own the land but have the right to use it to build on or farm, contributing to the island’s former traditional economy of openrange cattle herding and agriculture. Barbudans still cling to this communal usufruct tradition.

One of the remarkable effects of the commons ownership is that it has limited the kind of mass tourism development prevalent in parts of Antigua as well as across the rest of the Caribbean.

What distinguishes Barbuda from other Caribbean islands and suggests the need for an alternative redevelopment paradigm is the small island’s historic legacy of relative social equity and self-reliance. Barbuda’s uniqueness, politically and socially, can be attributed to its communal land-tenure system, Since the end of slavery on Barbuda (a former British possession), collective

The idea of shared access to a commons worked well for its 300-year old economy of open-range cattle herding. However, as its livestock economy declined precipitously in the last century, the island became more dependent on imported food and other goods. Today, there is uncertainty around the status of this traditional form of ownership.

Since the hurricane, the central government 3

Satellite Image of Barbuda 2019

in Antigua has complicated the recovery and rebuilding, as it proposes to upend this tradition of communal land ownership. It claims that private ownership of land is necessary to spur investment in tourism-oriented development and this concern is pushing the repeal of the Land Act. Many Barbudans today see this maneuver as an instance of “disaster capitalism,” or land-grabbing for the benefit of a few and a profound threat to their cultural heritage.

Despite this uncertainty, the conceptual plan put forward here attempts to acknowledge aspects of the commons, aligning its proposed measures with this tradition of communal governance. Its premise is that much of the currently undeveloped land and coastal area on this sparsely populated island could remain in communal use and be developed as an infrastructural commons, controlled under a commons governance model, and one envisioned to sustainably and resiliently provision the resident population.

In the following pages, some of the key infrastructural, food and economic challenges are detailed, along with proposed strategies and redevelopment options that could achieve greater island self-sufficiency in energy, water, sanitation, waste-handling, food systems, and tourism-based economic development. Many of these solutions emphasize the use of local resources based upon controlled open access to the current island 4

commons. To develop resiliency options, new paradigms are promoted that bypass first-world fossil fuel dependent technologies and consider infrastructural technologies and development opportunities that are both more ecologically benign, resilient and also well-integrated with local context, culture, and resources. Included in this report is a conceptual plan for the partial reconstruction of the island economy based upon recommended “intermediate technologies”— combining advanced ideas with cheap and readily available materials—in order to provide greater physical, environmental and economic security for the Islanders. Proposed interventions cover water, sanitation, agroforestry, food, and energy production, and the development of eco-industrial parks, along with low-impact ecotourism in Barbuda—all examined from a local economic development perspective.

Such a multi-objective, planning approach is distinct from how conventional power, sanitation, water, agricultural improvement, and industrial initiatives have been both constructed and operated independently and without regard for their interdependence. A key objective is to embrace new, or rebuilt urban services and systems that are productively interlinked to be less energy-, water- and resource-intensive, yield beneficial synergies while providing citizens of this emerging economy more extensive social, environmental and economic co-benefits.

BACKGROUND The island of Barbuda is part of a three-island nation (belonging to the Commonwealth of Nations) at the northern end of the Eastern Caribbean archipelago between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Its total area is 443 square kilometers (km2), consisting of two major inhabited islands Antigua and Barbuda, 43 km apart, as well as several smaller, uninhabited islands, and low-elevation, coral reef islets known as Cays.

Barbuda is low-lying and has no permanent rivers.

The island’s eastern highlands (rocky headlands) slope down to meet the plain on the south and western sides. The coastline is fringed by fine beach sands and coral reefs. There are numerous bays and harbors, with the largest on the western side. The landscape is composed of limestone and is effectively a coral reef raised above sea level in successive stages.

The ecosystems include scrublands and grasslands, herbaceous swamps, salt-ponds,

sandy beaches, and coastal lagoons, especially unique to the region. Wetlands have given rise to nesting bird colonies, especially the rare and now threatened frigate bird. Deforestation and subsequent cattle overgrazing have taken a toll on native wildlife, the natural habitat, and key watershed areas. Overfishing has occurred and commercially important species are less abundant today. Island agriculture and animal husbandry, formerly an economic mainstay, has been supplanted by tourism.

View of Barbuda and Antigua before and after Hurricane Irma 5

Existing Conditions & Challenges The island of Barbuda maintains relative obscurity compared with other nearby Leeward Islands. It remains a “semi-closed system of society and environment” (Perdikaris et al, 2017).

While it has to a great extent circumvented the development cycle of Caribbean tourism, it has left limited economic opportunities for its population, which remains reliant on fishing, agriculture, and limited tourism. The island of Barbuda currently has few exploitable natural resources. Even prior to the hurricane, food and water quality/quantity insecurity existed. Increasingly, climate change threatens to intensify hurricanes and the sea-level rise that already floods coastal areas (Ibid). There is an extensive loss of protective mangrove swamps and salt ponds. Other environmental challenges include de-vegetation from livestock overgrazing, some intrusive tourism development, and sand mining in coastal regions (see fig. 1). and without regard for their interdependence. A key objective is to embrace new, or rebuilt urban services and systems that are productively interlinked to be

less energy-, water- and resource-intensive, yield beneficial synergies while providing citizens of this emerging economy more extensive social, environmental and economic co-benefits.

Water: Antigua and Barbuda are among the driest islands in the eastern Caribbean. Lacking sufficient quantities of either groundwater and surface water, Barbuda is experiencing water scarcity. The island’s historic wells (many now abandoned) dot the island’s low-lying regions; however, most of these have become contaminated by sand mining or saltwater intrusion. Water salinization is a key threat to Barbudans, particularly for irrigation of backyard gardens. Salinity levels are highest in the village area (Codrington) (Boger et al., 2014).

Water Sources Semi-arid climate, annual precipitation of 750-900 mm, 6 month cycles of wet + dry periods Water Scarce + Droughts: • Hurricane season precipitation + overall decline in annual rainfall • No significant surface water – seasonal springs + ponds • Groundwater salinization – water contaminated when flood water enters the wells • Groundwater contamination from Sand Mining and pollution • Private wells • RWH systems + cisterns Municipal Water Systems: • Desalination RO plant • Poor Maintenance – leaks within the transmission + distribution network

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Stormwater Runoff: • High concentrations of rainfall over short periods facilitates water runoff + flooding • High evaporation rates • Topography + geology is not well suited for permanent dam construction

Topsoil Erosion: • Sand mining led to rapid land degradation + use of exporting + road building • Intense storms washed away the topsoil • Roads degraded marshlands affecting flooding/landslides/ erosion prevention Animal Husbandry and • Livestock grazing affects soil Agroforestry: structure, creating hard • History of centuries of freecrusts that facilitates flooding range cattle herding now • Salinization- saline resistant obsolete corps reducing the • Communal land ownership biodiversity and usefulness allows everyone to take of land advantage of the island’s • Pesticides + herbicides animals contribute to loss of habitat + • The Barbuda Land Act of 2008 biodiversity eliminated the communal land ownership + shared animal resources

LEGEND Marshland Water Underwater Reefs Watershed Boundary Wells Flood Zones

Figure 1: Overview of Existing Conditions

The island’s primary water supply comes from an expensive desalination plant reliant on an energyintensive reverse osmosis process, along with supply from private wells.

Once a predominantly forested island, Barbuda was initially deforested to make room for sugarcane plantations. Since then, unsustainable livestock grazing has significantly contributed to land degradation and soil erosion. Rapid stormwater runoff from the hurricane season (June through November) frequently floods the main town of Codrington, scouring topsoil on its way downhill. The five-month water shortage has worsened during recent droughts, negatively affecting agriculture and profoundly impacting Barbudan quality of life. Since the hurricane, water service has been restored but most homes still aren’t connected to the mains as most homeowners still remain off-island.

Sanitation and Utilization of Waste Streams: Sanitary issues in Barbuda stem from the damage following extreme weather events, most notably Hurricane Irma in 2017. Prior to Category 5 Hurricane Irma, Barbuda relied primarily on septic systems as a means of wastewater disposal. However, following the devastation and destruction of homes and connected waste infrastructure, sewerage has become a significant problem. Lack of latrines and other sanitary infrastructure has led to human waste disposal in gutters and river ways, polluting the surrounding marine and mangrove ecosystems. In addition, low-lying areas prone to flooding have become contaminated with unsanitary standing water, breeding grounds for mosquito-borne illnesses.

In addition, a lack of suitable on-site waste7

handling has led to complicated disposal mechanisms for Barbudan household waste.

Waste had been transported by barge to Antigua’s Cooks Sanitary Landfill, which already has significant capacity issues. Waste management is handled by the Antigua Barbuda Waste Recycling Corporation (ABWREC) and the National Solid Waste Management Authority.

Agriculture and Food Production: Food security remains a challenge for Barbuda.

According to the FAO, 20.5 percent of the Antigua/Barbuda population was considered undernourished as of 2012 (FAO 2012). The nature of ecological problems affecting Barbuda are unfortunately chronic and are expected to worsen with climate change. Economically, island agriculture today contributes nominally, due to poor soils and nutrient depletion from erosion. With inconsistent freshwater availability, occupants rely upon subsistence and low-value crops. The fishing industry is likewise unable to significantly contribute economically due to the small scale of the fishing industry and its workforce (1.5% of its GDP and 2% of its workforce).

Alternatively, aquaculture has been slow to start and quick to stop because of the same issues affecting agriculture; freshwater availability and extreme weather events stemming from climate change.

The marine and coastal ecology has been especially essential to Barbuda. Ecosystems consisting of mangroves, coral reefs, and beds of sea-grass contribute to the fisheries resources.

Today, bleaching of coral reefs is depleting nearshore fish stocks (Perdikardis et. al, 2017). Various initiatives are attempting to enforce sustainable ocean policies and local management capacity around fishing.

Economy & Tourism Resources: The recent island economy has been largely driven by tourism. It is also reliant on administrative jobs funded by the Barbuda Council. The island’s subsistence food and livestock economy have plummeted and the population is dependent on imports (Bodger et al, 2014). One of the largest sources of income in Barbuda includes remittances from diaspora relatives working in the U.S. or U.K. The tourism in the two islands of Antigua and Barbuda contributes to between 60-75% of the economy. The islands together have attracted around 1 million visitors annually to enjoy the 8

beauty of its remaining virgin nature. Antigua and Barbuda have a long history with hurricanes, which have happeed on average once every 18 years. Although tourism is very important, inadequate attention has been paid to building and infrastructure resiliency by design. Additionally, there is an undersupply of accommodations for tourists, poor infrastructure and tourism-focused facilities. The presence of many underutilized attraction points in the island is among the challenges facing tourism in Barbuda.

Energy: In general, the Caribbean nations sustain multiple challenges associated with energy consumption and generation. All are heavily dependent on the importation of fossil fuels subject to volatile pricing. This results in high electricity tariffs (Ochs et al, 2015). Even prior to the hurricane, Barbuda relied on power provided by neighboring Antigua, namely via its Power and Utilities Authority (APUA), a government-owned, vertically integrated corporation. APUA purchases 80-90% of the electricity supplied from a locally owned independent power producer (IPP).

On pre-hurricane Barbuda, energy production relied on a poorly maintained diesel generator.

This provided an expensive as well as unreliable electricity service, one unable to cope with peak demand and unscheduled outages (Bicknell 2002).

Peak electricity demand is 51 megawatts (IRENEA 2016).

TOWARDS A SOLUTION: networked + synergistic opportunities in the commons "This proposal for modest infrastructural and economic development, therefore, consists of a critical combination of practical solutions for Barbuda revitalization and resiliency that take into consideration both the traditions of collective land tenure as well as potential alignment with the principles of a circular economy."

A number of recovery and rebuild strategies for this the island were considered. Ultimately, some were deemed unsuitable and many could not be readily aligned with the project goals of integration and loop-closing. For the plan described herein, an overarching intention was for the specific solutions, taken together, to support development so as to perform better than the sum of the individual solutions. Strategies and technologies were chosen to be networked; many have synergistic properties. This proposal for modest infrastructural and economic development, therefore, consists of a critical combination of practical solutions for Barbuda revitalization and resiliency that take into consideration both the traditions of collective land tenure as well as potential alignment with the principles of a circular economy.

The notion of a circular economy is an emergent field of research and speculation. It advocates for the replacement of our extractive, “once-through,” or linear economy, with one that better emulates the closed-loop systems that define the natural biosphere, where ecosystems are sustained in the long-term, taking inputs of energy from the Earth system and recycling it through subsidiary flows of energy and matter. There are diverse applications of the core concepts, but for purposes of this project, it is described as closed-loop flows of energy and matter. By cascading (passing along) waste energy and recovering material or nutrient waste for reuse for another purpose, such an enhanced system of “closed-loops” can reduce virgin resource inputs while eliminating waste, pollution and emissions outputs. Optimized by design, a human-engineered system of goods and services may be considered restorative or regenerative.

of Hardin’s “Tragedy of the Commons” parable causes many people to conflate the open access commons with overuse (pursuit of self-interest at the expense of the whole system), a true commons ownership fosters controlled open access or group access coordinated by group governance. Multiple examples today across the globe underscore the endurance and social viability of this system.

As a counterpoint to reliance on either government or the market and its regulators for public services, the concept of the “infrastructural commons” (I-commons) suggests a protocol based partly upon intermediate technologies as well as collaborative management to promote equitable and efficient use of shared resources. It proposes new forms of production, based on inclusion, access and community responsibilities to manage and operate accordingly. Here resource users are actual “coproducers.”

The I-commons idea entails the development of both physical infrastructure and governance systems overseeing these systems. Unlike the market, which exploits natural capital while externalizing wastes, a commons approach: 1) encourages a means of consumer “co-production” of energy, water, waste-handling, transport and sanitation services—involving labor by the population at hand; and 2) develops synergistic and circular technical strategies for sharing across these sectors to better protect a shrinking resource base.

The infrastructural and eco-industrial park solutions that follow have been developed to adhere to the principles of the circular economy and align with the operation of the commons.

In Barbuda, there is the unique opportunity to reinforce and reinvigorate the tradition of collective land ownership and use, emphasizing the notion of the commons. This pertains to both economic development as well as infrastructural reconstruction. Whereas the persistent notion 9

COMBINED SOLUTIONS FOR REGENERATIVE DEVELOPMENT VIA AN INFRASTRUCTURAL COMMONS Several restorative measures across the island, implemented collectively and in an integrated fashion, begin to address the key challenges.

Overland runoff collection area

Silvopasture: Combines agriculture agroforestry and animal husbandry

Collection ponds Terraces: Topsoil stabilization

Marshes restoration

Figure 2: Proposed Natural Systems Interventions

Technologies and strategies were selected for beneficial reciprocal effects and their production of co-benefits. The solutions primarily rely upon utilization of local resources and relatively unskilled labor, with an eye to enhancing the local capacity and a self-sufficient economy.

These restorative measures address the key challenges for improved water resources, food production and coastal protection described above (fig. 2). Other conceptual designs focus on distributed energy and economic development, including a focus on rejuvenating eco-tourism.

Coastal Erosion Protection Given the relative frequency of hurricanes in the eastern Caribbean, major storms have caused severe damage and loss of sand, sand dunes and shore. Changes in beach width and cross-sectional area have been noticed, but to a great extent, the coastline remains unmonitored. Given Barbuda’s 10

flat, low-lying landscape, almost all the beach profiles have altered; some beach segments, especially in the south, are eroded or displaced more than others (Cambers, 1998).

Coastal upgrades include restoration and resiliency measures to improve the beach, marshland, and lagoons. Other solutions beyond the scope of this project might include placing the beach parks under protected status, construction of offshore breakwaters, groynes, and undertaking beach nourishment. Additionally, planting of dune fringes with vegetation, trees (sea-grape), grasses and vines and planning new development at a safe distance will prevent degradation of precious coastal resources (Ibid).

Water Harvesting, Erosion Control and Stormwater Management.

The destruction caused by Hurricane Irma has created an opportunity to employ the best

Rainwater Harvesting Rooftop

Runoff

Rooftop RWH Systems

Developed

Undeveloped

Tanks/Cisterns

Stormwater management

Ground catchment systems

Domestic use

Drainage, GI, trenches

Microcatchment

Check-dams, swales, terraces

Underground collection

Constructed marshlands

Covered ponds/ Underground tanks

Topsoil storage

Urban Use

Flood Control

Irrigation

Soil restoration

Livestock

Runoff farming

Figure 3: Island-wide Water Recovery

sustainable practices utilizing green infrastructure for water security in the island’s redevelopment (fig.

3). These practices include groundwater catchment systems constructed in the un- or underdeveloped commons, stormwater management in developed areas, and optimization of rooftop water catchment and storage for domestic use.

The undeveloped upland (highland and slopes towards the plain) can be optimally reconfigured for the collection of uncontaminated stormwater and storage, creating a supply for the five-month dry season. Construction of a series of terraces within the sloping areas of the upland region can stabilize topsoil subject to runoff. Using a system of check-dams, swales, and trenches, surface water runoff can be further channeled into several collection ponds created at low points in the central, southern and western plains (fig. 4).

Restoration of fertility in the upland and plains can be achieved through expansion of healthy grasslands. This can be done by integrating native plants and various grasses into the constructed terraces (fig. 5). For agriculture in some of the terraces, the use of crop rotation can significantly increase nutritional content.

With the added improvement of silvopastoral techniques (incorporating livestock grazing into new upland forestry and scrub vegetation), animal manure can be used as a fertilizer. Silvo-pasturing is compatible with revitalized use of native plantings (e.g. Macaw Palm, Palmetto, and other species) that restore habitat diversity and improve soil quality. Trees offer shade and shelter for animals (fig 6). These integrated solutions add resiliency against flooding and topsoil loss and provide a platform for positive economic development.

Contaminated urban stormwater runoff can be best managed by green infrastructure deployment.

Proper drainage and trenches along roads and paved surfaces can deliver runoff to simple rain gardens, swales paralleling the roads, and collected in underground tanks for non-potable uses. Some of the contamination of groundwater due to poor sanitary conditions can be remediated through improved latrines and stream protection (see fig. 7).

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Stormwater management & Erosion Control Stormwater harvesting: Undeveloped Areas: - Fiber rolls for erosion control; - Controlled flooding and runoff channeling; - Check-dams, swales, trenches; - Collection ponds for catchments/flood control in Codrington; - Covered ponds (liner) to prevent evaporation and mosquitoes breeding; - Terraces for runoff slowdown and agriculture; - Wetlands restoration;

top soil/sediment buildup erosion control

check-dams runoff control

Developed Areas - Flood control; - Trenches for runoff redirection; - Green Infrastructure: rain gardens, permeable pavements, constructed wetlands; - Drainage for runoff collection from paved areas;

Evaporation control liner

fiber rolls

collection pond

Figure 4: Upland Collection System Upland Site Water Regenerative Development Concepts, Island of Barbuda

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swales channels

Group 3-Final

Erosion Control & Topsoil Expanding Grasslands to Enhance Agricultural Productivity - Using native perennial grassland plants as crops to produce biomass as the raw material for bioenergy and bio-based products; - Improve soil health after one season, allowing for plant life to become more drought resistant, leading to exponential growth.

As grasses become healthier, more water can be held, creating a positive feedback loop.

Vetiver grass stabilizes topsoil and protects against erosion Image source: www.vetivergrassuk.com/applications.html

Site Regenerative Development Concepts, Island of Barbuda Figure 5:Upland Renewal of Grasslands for Water Retention

Group 3-Final

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Animal Husbandry Approaches Silvopastoral systems – Fully integrated livestock pastures that contain not only grass but also naturally growing or cultivated trees for forage, shade or timber.

Shifting livestock / animals - Plant trees in “grazing rows” to maximize fertilization of soil. As areas are fertilized, animals are shifted to different parts of the island. Cows are concentrated upland while goats and livestock are allowed to roam.

Animals shift annually at the start of the dry season.

Shi - Pl of s

Integrated systems

Increased productivity

Environmental benefits

Land use efficiency

Reduced pollution

Systematic crop rotation

Increased biodiversity

Nutrients from manure

Pest control

Image source: www.kickstarter.com/projects/291195731/silvopasture-a-book-on-livestock-for-climate-smart

Livestock management

Food resources

Microclimate Image source: www.barbudaful.net/jlnews/372-cooperative-egg-farm-opens.html

Figure 6: Animal Husbandry Approaches

Upland Site

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Regenerative Development Concepts, Island of Barbuda

Group 3-Final

Re - Ce Bar

Figure 7:Potential Sanitation Interventions

To address the issue of stagnant water and accompanying disease vectors in floodplains, a simple technology—placement of multiple “biopores”—a simple application developed in Indonesia—is recommended for use primarily in central Codrington’s compacted soil and most severe area of flood risk. Biopores are smallcircumference holes, hand-bored into the ground and filled with organic waste, attracting the boring action of worms and other organisms that create

porosity in the soil (fig 8). This simple technology has a dual purpose: reducing stormwater runoff and creating water storage by infiltration. The biopores used here will be clustered around residences, as well as placed in a concentration north of the town to buffer the mangrove area (fig b 21x). Organic waste from the homes placed in the biopores forms compost, which can be used to fertilize home gardens.

Biopore Absorbing Hole: • • •

•

Keeps groundwater reserve Prevents subsidence of the land and cracking of the land.

Organic waste to compost can create fertilizer for agricultural use.

Compost can be used at home for private gardens.

Figure 8: How a Biopore Works 15

Figure 9: Typical Biopori Locations

Universal on-site water harvesting and efficiency measures can significantly reduce the Barbudan households’ dependence on desalination water or the unstable water quality from wells. While rainwater catchment from rooftops and cistern storage has been utilized in Barbuda, preference should be given to solutions that have dual functionality. One multifunctioning system is the so-called Bermuda Roof, which is a pitched roof constructed from heavy limestone tiles, a solution that has proven quite hurricane-resilient. The light color of limestone reflects heat and the tiling slows down heavy rainfall and directs it through gutters to storage tanks (fig. 10). An open issue is whether the limestone mined in Barbuda might be too porous for this application.

Most of these proposals involve relatively minimal capital investment. The proposed techniques of integrating infrastructure inherent to the island context (or importing some from other parts of the world) can be accomplished easily using the existing topography and many local resources. Most of the expense of this work will involve engineering and construction costs. A cost-effective approach would include utilizing a Caribbean-based firm or NGO to provide designassist or design-build services for all aspects of 16

these projects. Training of island residents for the work is aligned with a commons approach to infrastructure placement. It is anticipated that the building of the water catchment infrastructure and a return of appropriate animal husbandry and specific farming technique to the island would employ 30-50 people. Additional jobs also created during the construction period will then transform into maintenance and operational jobs.

Image source: www.amusingplanet.com/2018/03/how-bermudas-chronic-water-shortage.html

Water Harvesting (RWH) “Bermuda roof”

ents:

of surface. oncrete limestone composite tiles movement and better collection; able water elastomeric paint

network of guttering and pipes. diverts the dirtiest roof-water away ank. conveyance system

k situated above or underneath

e or plastic. event bacteria, algae, and ing.

ct the water from the storage tank; nsmit the water throughout the m. nd pump

first-flush diverter

water tank

RWH basic system concept

Figure 10: Hurricane-proof Roofing for Water Collection and Cooling

generative Development Concepts, Island of Barbuda

Group 3-Final

Stormproof roof + main RWH components: 1. Catchment area: a roof surface.

• “Bermuda Roof” concrete limestone composite tiles for slowing water movement and better collection; • NSF approved potable water elastomeric paint 2. Conveyance system: network of guttering and pipes.

• ‘first-flush device’ diverts the dirtiest roof-water away from the storage tank.

3. Storage device: A tank situated above or underneath (cistern) the ground.

• cisterns - concrete or plastic.

• tightly sealed to prevent bacteria, algae, and mosquitoes breeding.

4. Distribution system: • container to extract the water from the storage tank; • pumps used to transmit the water throughout the distribution system.

manual hand pump automated

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AQUACULTURE, SEAWATER GREENHOUSES & AGRICULTURE With a catch consisting primarily of finfish, lobster, and conch, the fishing industry is unable to significantly contribute economically due to its small scale and the limited size of the workforce as well as emergent impacts of climate change. An alternative technology, aquaculture (mariculture) has been slow to start and quick to stop because of the freshwater availability and extreme weather events stemming from climate change.

Aquaculture/ Mariculture The aquaculture recommendations herein focus on growing Florida Pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) in two offshore tanks producing 10,000 pounds of fish/month. The primary fishing areas are shown in fig. 11). Additionally, it will require an on-shore laboratory with a broodstock facility, two hatchery tanks, and one for juveniles (fig 12).

In the southern location, it will have two sets of floating “longlines� (20x50m), with 1.5 m distance between the lines. Those will be interspersed with seaweed (Gracilaria sp.) and scallop (Euvola ziczac) production in lantern nets (fig. 13) (FAO, 1990). During this initial phase, expectations include the production of 8200 pounds of scallop and 6600 pounds of seaweed per year. A mangrove restoration project in the area will accompany the development of mariculture, consisting of a simple plantation of four common mangrove seedlings in a quadrant with 50 cm of distance between them (Lewis, 2001) (see fig. 14).

Figure 12: Aquaculture of Florida Pompano 18

Some techniques for aquaculture are still not well developed, especially for uncommon species. The reproduction and larval phases require more care, and in many cases, it is necessary to buy the postlarval fry from specialized laboratories off-island.

Additionally, rations for the fish will need to be imported, and the waste generated will need to be carefully managed because of the use of hormones and medicines. However, the low cost for scallop and seaweed production, in addition to the ability to produce a variety of species within the same structure, presents a great economic opportunity.

Aquaculture will create five jobs based on a twoshift rotation for daily maintenance and technical oversight. Scallop and seaweed mariculture will create three jobs for fishing production, depending on the level of expertise, and additional technical oversight. Labor to maintain the greenhouse would be minimal, except for harvest times. Therefore, for every greenhouse, one to two operations jobs would be created.

Figure 11: Fishing Zones and Fish Ecosystems

Seaweed Production: 200m2= 6,600 pounds/year Price: $ 13/ pound total: $ 18,000/ year Scallop Production: 200m2= 8,200/year Price: $ 12/ kg total: $ 98,400/ year Labor: 2 workers 1 technical

Figure 13: Seaweed and Scallop Cultivation 19

Inside a Seawater Greenhouse; Courtesy- Global Oppurtunity Explorer

Figure 14: Four Common Mangrove Seedlings 20

Figure 15: Process Diagram Seawater Greenhouse

Seawater Greenhouse The Seawater GreenhouseŠ (SWG) is designed to condense freshwater from evaporated seawater.

Salty sea water is drawn from the ocean and is trickled down a vertical cardboard membrane situated at one end of the long axis of the greenhouse. The membrane is designed to receive forced air passing over the water whereupon it evaporates into the greenhouse. The air moisture is increased through solar evaporation. On the opposite end of the long axis of the greenhouse exists a vertical wall of pipes containing cool seawater, where the water-laden air condenses in contact with the vertical pipes and is utilized within the greenhouse, with the remainder providing potable water (fig. 15).

The Seawater Greenhouse (SWG) is a shell type structure, curved to deflect wind. It can be modularly made to any size and often is utilized in series but is shown in fig. 16 as standalone. In its basic configuration, the frame structure is made of modular steel components stabilized with stiffening brackets for east dismounting under hurricane threats. The structure is covered with durable polycarbonate sheets. All connections, foot brackets, structural stiffeners, and other fixings are made in patinated brass and bronze. The greenhouse yields various fruits and vegetables as follows: sweet pepper, eggplant, carrot, onion, squash-winter, cabbage, lettuce, tomato, squash-summer, for an estimated total annual retail revenue of $2,975.00 (see fig. 16).

The Seawater Greenhouse is a unique, patented technology which requires specialized knowledge, and it is developed just by few companies.

However, it provides a multipronged solution, adaptable to Barbuda, for production of potable water, gourmet salt, as well as real ecosystem benefits outside of the greenhouse, all integrated with the additional permacultural designs, and aquaculture plans. The siting of the SWG near the terraced areas dedicated to new agriculture is synergistic. Moist air ejected from the greenhouse helps irrigate adjacent new plantings (fig. 15).

Permaculture To address fresh food scarcity issues facing Barbuda, permaculture is utilized as an asset for restoring the degraded agricultural landscape while generating yields to feed the local population and contribute economically. Polycultural guilds allow for various crops to be grown together, each performing different ecological functions, exchanging different nutrients with the soil, accessing nutrients at different soil depths while providing for mutually beneficial microclimates (fig. 18).

Several polycultural “guilds� (def: groupings of plants for health/productivity) are designed precisely to balance nutrients, restore ecological function to the landscape, and provide a diverse yield within the 10-11 USDA hardiness range of Barbuda (fig 19). The accompanying crop

Figure 16: Seawater Greenhouse Courtesy- Seawater Greenhouse 21

specifications for each guild can be found in related tables. Each is integrated with poultry birds that can be primarily relied upon for egg production, pasture fertilization, and insect control. Included with the guilds, and capitalizing on the pasture fertilization provided by the poultry, is the establishment of seasonal cotton crops, which will be utilized and processed by a local eco-industrial park. The result is a closed system of agricultural production that requires no inputs yet provides a yield while restoring the land, renutrifying the soil and reducing runoff and erosion by allowing for the infiltration of water into the soil. (fig. 20 and 21.)

The primary challenge for permaculture within the region selected here is in designing the landscape prior to planting the individual crops. A system of swales will be dug slightly off contour with a maximum of a 5% grade to enable to collection and redirection of rainwater without promoting the formation of gullies. This water management strategy will assist in the establishment and development of the polycultural guilds. Planting the guilds only needs to occur once, considering each crop is perennial, and will therefore further establish itself year after year. From this initial labor investment in planting the guild, there is a yearly profit with relatively minimal labor or input requirements.

Job Creation The jobs created by the permacultural lot will be designated primarily to the harvesting of crops as well as eggs produced by the poultry. The only additional jobs created will focus on the harvest and production of cotton, and the processing of crops harvested from the permacultural guilds.

These, however, fall under the domain of the ecoindustrial park due to the nature of processing foods for sale within their market as well as downtown Codrington. The guilds will regulate and self-maintain, which make harvesting the primary job within the guild, performed by very few people. The enterprise will be developed as a commons, with sales of crops providing local incomes to workers.

Costs The methodology of mangrove restoration previously described costs of US $150/ha. For the area planned for recovery (4.6 ha), the total cost is estimated at US $690. The cost of installation and maintenance of seaweed production is also minimal. It is estimated in US $.05/pound (estimation from Mexico production). This same cost is applied to the scallop production, once it uses the same structure and labor. However, what makes the price of this production higher is the requirement to purchase seedlings from a commercial laboratory and the apparent high rate of seedling mortality. For that reason, it is difficult to predict the quantity and cost associated.

Figure 17: Permaculture, Seawater Greenhouse and Upland Plantings 22

Common Name

Pricing for the greenhouse is based upon unit costs in the States. Labor is figured at $15.00 per hour. Concrete aggregate is readily available on the island and therefore, a lesser cost could be assumed. The total estimated cost for one greenhouse is in the range of $300,000 to $500,000.

The guild design concept is to create proximate closed-loop systems that provide a yield without degrading the land. The costs associated with the development of the permaculture guilds are in their initial establishment: the purchase of the seeds and propagation supplies. Thereafter, there is relatively little maintenance or ongoing input cost associated with them because they are selfmanaging and self-regulating.

Exempting labor, only the seeds and cuttings required for each guild are required, which varies from market to market. A largescale system could be developed primarily from seed, while other crops, like tree collards, would require cuttings which, again, can be acquired inexpensively.

From the establishment of the first guilds, the material for propagating and raising each of the subsequent guilds would be done from local materials.

Local material use and the integrated establishment of agriculture are one of the underlying ideas of permaculture; that through intelligent design and proper planning, a substantial yield can be generated without the excess requirements typically associated with food production.

Quantity

Plant Type

Height

Spread

Ecological Function

Human Use

2 2 18 1 6 5 4

Canopy Canopy Understory Understory Herbaceous Herbaceous Root

3-45' 30-50' 8' 7-12' 4-5' 3-4'

25-30' 20' 1-1.5' 3' 2' 3-4'

Shade Nitrogen Fixa�on Nitrogen Fixa�on

Food Food Food Food Food Food Food

Callaloo

8

Herbaceous

3-6'

3'

Carbon Sequestra�on, Polinator A�rac�on

Food

Comfrey

15 sq �

Ground Cover

5'

1-2'

Topical Herb

Coffee Chayo�e

10 2

Understory Vine

10'

3'

Phosphorus and Nitrogen Fixa�on

Avocado Inga Jinicuil Tree Collards Pigeon Pea Asparagus Ar�choke Yams

Goose Grass

Ground Cover

Yarrow

Ground Cover

2-4'

1-2'

Peanuts Pearl Millets Dandolians Chickens(Hen) Chickens(Rooster) Ducks Geese

Ground Cover Understory Ground Cover

1-2'

6-8'

5 1 4 2

25 sq � 25 sq � 25 sq � 40 sq �

Nitrogen Fixa�on Livestock Grazing/ Calcuim Fixa�on

Beverage Food

Dynamic Accumulator, Herbal Medicine Ground Cover Nitrogen Fixa�on Calcuim Fixa�on

Food Food Food Food Breeding Food Livestock Guard

Figure 18: Permacultural Production

QUANTITY

Greenhouse

Guild 1

Guild 2

Guild 3

Sweet Pepper Eggplant Carrot Onion Squash- Winter Cabbage Le�uce Squash - Summer Sweet Potato Giant French plantain Medium French Creole Plantain Co�on Chicken Eggs Duck Eggs Subtotal Avocado Chicken Eggs Duck Eggs Subtotal Mango Guava Meduim Creole Plantain Co�on Chicken Eggs Duck Eggs Subtotal

366 297 240 198 170 137 91 0 60 4 6

SALES

YIELD/

PRICE/ LB

ACRE

10 8

$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $

2.22 1.11 1.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 10.00 0.33 1.50

2,134 900 268 3,000 2,400

8 10 8

$ $ $

5.00 0.33 1.50

900 3,000 2,400

2 3 4

$ $ $ $ $ $

6.00 5.00 2.00 10.00 0.33 1.50

354 240 150 160 6,000 5,435

20 18

REVENUE

$ 4,268.00 $ 1,800.00 $ 2,680.00 $ 990.00 $ 3,600.00 $ 13,338.00 $ 4,500.00 $ 990.00 $ 3,600.00 $ 9,090.00 $ 2,124.00 $ 1,200.00 $ 300.00 $ 1,600.00 $ 1,980.00 $ 8,152.50 $ 15,356.50

Figure 19: Seawater Greenhouse Cultivation

23

Figure 20: Permacultural Guild 1

24

Figure 21: Permacultural Guild 2

25

SANITATION & WASTE MANAGEMENT Lack of sanitary latrines, sewerage and solid waste infrastructure has led to human waste disposal in gutters and river ways, polluting the surrounding marine and mangrove ecosystems. In addition, low-lying areas are prone to flooding, leading to contamination of standing water and the subsequent proliferation of mosquito-borne illnesses, see fig. 22.

e es for

a

d Waste

atment ted by it

n-site

d/or to

nfall,

ases. oastal

infall Figure 22: Existing Waste Management

development concepts, Island of Barbuda 26

Waste and Sanitation

Sanitation The urgent sanitation-related issues in Barbuda stem from the damage following extreme weather events, most notably Hurricane Irma in 2017. Prior to Hurricane Irma, Barbuda relied primarily on residential septic systems in the town as a means of sewage disposal. Domestic wastewater was directed either to on-site subsurface disposal systems such as “soak-aways� (slow-draining pits) and drain fields, or to roadside cutters, culverts or watercourses. However, following the devastation and destruction of homes along with water and sanitary infrastructure, sewage disposal has become a significant problem and the domestic use of pit latrines has proliferated.

The primary intervention proposed for sanitary waste treatment is the use of in-ground anaerobic biodigesters. These are self-contained waste purification systems for the storage and treatment of human, animal, agricultural, and organic waste.

In closed tanks, organic matter is decomposed by bacteria in the absence of oxygen to create biogas, which is then recovered and stored (fig.

23). The remaining slurry or digestate can be used for crop fertilization. These biodigesters will be implemented at two different scales. In the immediate center of Codrington, small footprint digesters are recommended, with an initial proposal for three, 600-gallon storage capacity digesters fed by a centralized sewage system (fig.

24). In more outlying neighborhoods, a gradual scale-up at a rate of 1 biodigester per 30 families is suggested. In addition, three triple-scale digesters are proposed: one in the North Eco-Industrial Park (see pp.24) to process agricultural and animal wastes from the saltwater greenhouse and upland agroforestry operations; one in the South Park to accommodate tourist and industrial wastes; and one in the southern tip of the island to process future waste from bio-reserves and new hotels, an area which will also require a centralized anaerobic biodigestion system, (see fig. 24).

The proposed biodigesters will operate at a thermophilic (higher than normal) temperatures, with the goal of processing the cumulative wastes of a restored, 1800-person population and accompanying eco-industries.

Roof-mounted fluid-solar systems will heat the mixture, and gas output is expected at a calculated rate of 0.05m3/kg of waste.

The gas will be collected and distributed to provide cooking fuel for residential homes and hotels.

Design

Figure 23: Propose Anaerobic Biodigester ative Anaerobic development Biodigesters concepts, Island of Barbuda

One of the primary challenges of biodigesters is community buy-in. Often, the idea of using human waste as a fertilizer is met with disdain by communities.

Therefore, a crucial component of a successful proposal is community training, so that the process is led by community members rather than outside industry. To a lesser extent, this applies as well to the other proposed interventions.

Infrastructural Waste and Sanitation Proposal 27

Figure 24: Location of New Biodigesters, Codrington

Waste Management In addition to sanitation issues, a lack of suitable on-site waste treatment has led to complicated disposal mechanisms for household waste. Waste is transported by barge to Antigua’s Cooks Sanitary Landfill, which now has significant capacity issues. Here there is little sorting, processing or recycling, contributing to capacity issues. Waste management is handled by the Antigua Barbuda Waste Recycling Corporation (ABWREC) and the National Solid Waste Management Authority.

To implement a recycling system on the island, a small conventional recycling facility can be colocated in the southern eco-industrial park, which would utilize source separation and storage for the potential collection and reprocessing of recyclable materials. It would be complemented by both intown curbside collection and more remote dropoff centers (fig. 25).

Rather than an industrial-scale recycling operation transporting non-recyclables to Antigua via barge, a small-scale waste-to-pyro plant is proposed (fig.

26). This can be ordered to specification and can 28

process a variety of wastes, including hard and soft plastics, rubber compounds, and car tires.

Waste is melted down at high heat, producing a usable fuel oil. Intended outcomes of this system are the reduction of reliance on Antigua for waste processing, the reduction of pollution of natural areas from litter, and the production of fuel oil for local use, mitigating costs of operations. In addition, a typical small-scale recycling plant is proposed to handle glass and metal products that cannot be fed into the pyrolysis facility.

Figure 27 shows the location of both sanitary and waste management facilities in relation to the master plan for eco-industrial parks, agricultural centers, and other infrastructure. Figures 28 and 29 show the integration and synergies among these sanitary and waste-handling facilities.

Job Creation

The primary job creation in the recycling industry would be staffing the management and implementation of biodigesters, requiring community labor involvement. Biodigesters (see p. 18) entail the use of technical knowledge, and

Intervention 4: Conventional Recycling Facility Recycling Flow chart Collection Curbside Collection

Drop off centers Single stream system

Co-mingled

Source separation

Central Collection facility

Central Sorting facility

Rinsing Recycling of different materials Reprocessing Private business

Buy-back center

Eco-park

Small-scale pyrolysis facility

Regenerative concepts, Island of Barbuda Waste and Sanitation Regenerative development concepts, Island of Barbuda Infrastructural Proposal Figure 25: Proposed Recycling development Program Sanitation

Potential Design using local materials Regenerative Figure 26: Waste Pyrolysis Diagramdevelopment concepts, Island of Barbuda Sanitation

Waste and Sanitation

29

stream s n treat

Figure 27: New Island-wide Sanitary and Waste Management Arrangements

development concepts, Island of Barbuda 30

Waste and Sanitation

Figure 28: System Integration Across Sectors

Landfill is transported to Antigua by barge LANDFILL

HAZARDOUS WASTE

RESIDENTIAL

ECO-PARK

AGRICULTURAL

Grey Water Black Water Kitchen Waste

Separated Waste

Plant Waste Animal Manure Fish

Biodigestate

Biogas

Recyclate

Businesses

BIODIGESTER

ORGANIC WASTE Paper Plastic Metals Glass RECYCLABLE WASTE

Curbside Collection RECYCLING PLANT

Fuel Oil

Figure 29a: Waste Management Integration

31

at least one person with expertise is required to oversee all digesters on the island and provide training. In addition, each industrial scale biodigester and the Codrington cluster should have a manager and 3 on-hand employees, totaling 17 full-time jobs. As the Codrington cluster grows, more labor will be required, and part-time employees will bring that number closer to 30.

The ongoing operation of two recycling plants will require full-time labor to sort trash, pick out contaminants, and oversee operations. In addition, truckers will be required to transport trash from residences to site. By rough estimate, each plant will require as many as 20 full-time workers, and 10 truckers, for a total of 30 jobs.

While the biopores can be created individually by each family, the proposed intervention could create a new biopore construction company, which can create stores for the sale of tools as well as digging jobs for people who can create the right kind of deep pits, secured with concrete rings. Part-time processing and composting jobs are also created from the biopore intervention.

This is a small-scale operation, but may be able to employ one or two full-time managers plus 10 part-time laborers. Biopores around individual homes further out of town can be maintained by homeowners.

Manufacturing jobs can be created by developing new products from recycled or found materials.

Reuse and remanufacturing also creates jobs as some discarded products can be fixed up and used again, e.g. computer parts, clothing, appliances, and other salvaged goods. New businesses would likely emerge from waste collection and separation, e.g. thrift stores and salvage yards.

Cost

Biodigesters are relatively low-cost constructions, and in the case of Barbuda, they can be formed with local limestone aggregate, minimizing cost. Studies put the capital requirements of a small-scale biodigester at around USD $1,100-$2,700, plus $600-$1,500 annual operations and maintenance costs (RomoRabago et al, 2014). Given the local materials sourcing, this may be at the low end. In addition, the proposed solar-thermal panels are relatively inexpensive, with kits available for purchase in the low thousands. Given the high demand, the higher end range should be purchased and so an 32

anticipated cost is about $3,000 per digester.

It is reasonable to suggest that there will be considerable savings and associated GHG emission reductions from input materials being sent to the eco-park thereby using secondary feedstock over new materials. The small-scale single-stream recycling also offers collection savings of about $10-$20/per ton as estimated by the 2007 presentation by the Solid Waste Association of North America (SWANA). The analysis of a conventional facility can be seen through the case study of Willimantic, CT’s Waste Paper's single-stream system. The pyrolysis plant can be purchased online from a custom manufacturer, costing approximately $100,000.

Depending on the sophistication of the system, the commercial cost of composting toilets ranges from $1,500 to $8,000. However, composting toilets are relatively simple to build and we can support the local economy by employing residents to build and install composting toilets using native materials. Other than the cost of labor, composting toilets can be built for little to no cost especially if they are built using recycled materials recovered from the recycling plant.

Since most composting toilets are waterless, the monthly use and cost of water is highly eliminated. Finally, biopores will rely only on the cost of labor, and since they are intended to be a community-scale implementation, we expect minimal outlay as individual homeowners will be encouraged to construct their own. At paid wages, we can expect roughly 1,600 man hours, which at a generous $15/hr. would result in an outlay of $24,000.

Sanitation

Biopores and development Regenerative Composting Plans concepts, Island of Barbuda

Infrastructural Waste and Sanitation Proposal

Figure 29b: Localized Waste Management Biopores Regenerative andIntegration development Composting Plans concepts, Island of Barbuda Sanitation

Infrastructural Waste and Sanitation Proposal

33

INTEGRATION OF NEW ENTERPRISES Eco-Industrial Parks Tourism had dominated Barbuda’s economy, accounting for nearly 60% of GDP. A recent $ 2 million commitment on behalf of the Chinese government to repair damaged roofs, strengthening national building code standards has allowed approximately 1,000 people to return to the island, but unemployment remains high as few other rebuilding initiatives have taken place.

40). Both eco-parks will be made up of separate but integrated facilities and enterprises where the waste output from one industry services as an input to another (see fig.33).

North Park

The north park is sited near the agricultural redevelopment area (terraces, seawater greenhouses, and aquaponics), as it performs agro-processing of perishable food products.

This locale facilitates ease of crop transport. One section of the facility will process the produce and fish delivered by the greenhouse to be sold in the adjacent farmers market as well as downtown.

Depending on the amount of produce obtained weekly, canning methods will be determined. The facility will have 6 stove tops which will be used with pressure canners. All produce and fish need to be washed, cut, dried and then prepared to be canned (fig. 34). These jarred products will be sold weekly in the farmer’s market.

Figure 30: Locations of Proposed Eco-Industrial Parks

To promote advancement in employment for the community-- technically appropriate economic enterprise in Barbuda—as well as foster ecological integrity, one or more eco-industrial parks could be developed. These comprise a small community of manufacturing and service businesses working together (here conducted as commons) to create collective benefit greater than the sum of each company’s individual benefit. This is accomplished through small business cooperation and efficient sharing of resources (information, materials, water, energy etc.) in a single location. Two eco-industrial parks are proposed, north and south. The north park will focus on agriculture production (fig. 30), whereas the south park will focus on construction and services around the limestone industry (fig.

34

Organic cotton for high-end textile production and sales will be manufactured adjacent to the agroprocessing facility. In the first phase of Barbuda’s textile production, cotton lint will be exported to other off-island textile manufacturers at $10/ pound. Using a simple cotton gin, cotton lint is essentially cleaned and separated cotton from the other parts of the crop (fig. b 35). The remaining cottonseed will be used as a supplement in livestock feed, or to produce cottonseed oil for use in the food processing plant.

A farmers market is included on site, open a few days a week or a few hours each day, depending on the amount of fresh and canned goods available. One of the biodigesters that is collocated here consumes waste and produces fertilizer and energy.

This eco-park (fig. 36) will feature a Visitors

Figure 31: North Eco-Industrial Park

Figure 32: South Eco-Industrial Park 35

Figure 33a: Eco-Industrial Parks' Resource Flows

Figure 33b: Farmers Market + Visitors Center 36

Food Preservation: Fish: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Clean + gut fish within 2 hours of catching, keep fish on ice until ready to process.

Remove head, tail, fins + scales. Place waste in organic collection.

Wash away blood + then cut fish in 6 cm lengths Fill pint jars with the fish skin against glass Add 1 teaspoon of salt into jars, do not ad any liquids.

Vegetables: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Wash vegetables Cutoff ends + undesired parts + place waste in organic collection Slice or dice vegetables + boil for 5 minutes with enough water to cover all vegetables Add 1 teaspoon of salt into each jar Fill jars with vegetables + liquid Tighten jar lids + place into pressure canners.

Cook as per times in table below.

Note: Weighted pressure canners will be used for all canning processes Type Fish Vegetables

Time (min) 100 75

PSI 11 11

Figure 34: Food Preservation

Cotton Lint: • Phase 1 – Organic cotton farming from planting through sale of lint.

Cottonseed and cottonseed oil are byproducts that can be used as well.

• Cotton lint - raw cotton sold in bales which is sold to customers for further processing.

• $10/pound of lint of sea island cotton.

• 800 pounds of lint / acre of cotton planted • Only 1 cotton gin required in the Northern plant. 1 industrial gin can process 12 bales an hour. (1 bale = 500 pounds) • Bales are 55 * 20 * 33 inches, so a moderate sized storage facility needed.

Figure 35: Cotton Production

37

Figure 36a: Location and Details of Visitors Center

Center, which will be the starting point for all educational tours given by volunteers or local high school students. Tourists will visit the greenhouse, cotton processing, canning facilities to learn about each of the facilities’ inputs and outputs, as well as connections, flows, and waste assimilation within the eco-industrial park.

38

A farmers market is included on site, open a few days a week or a few hours each day, depending on the amount of fresh and canned goods available. One of the biodigesters that is collocated here consumes waste and produces fertilizer and energy.

Figure 36b: Location and Details of Visitors Center

A number of challenges exist with reference to implementation. The canning and food processing component of the north eco-park will rely on the amount of produce grown by the seawater greenhouse. The regular production of the food will be a trial and error method to see which vegetables will grow the best in this type of controlled environment. The farmers market also

wants to maintain consistency with the products sold to build a solid customer base. There’s also a lack of fresh water for textile production. If in the next phase of textile production, clothes will be produced, these processes are considerably water intensive. New innovative technologies (such as that utilized by Nike) could be used dye clothes using no water.

39

Stormproof roofs: MONOLITISM: Why have so many elements?

Any weak link creates a domino effect, and makes the structure collapse.

•

Least prefabrication as possible, and really strong connections to actually make the structure feel like a unity.

• Use of concrete as the main material. Since you pour it on site, it’s very easy to create a strong link between pieces, even if they are prefabricated.

Follow Bermuda’s example with the Berrmuda Tiles, and be able to finish the roofs with limestone tiles.

• •

• •

Do monolithic roofs of concrete with imported cement and the limestone aggregates.

Solve the waterproof problem: Always in the exterior side (it loses the natural, pure and beautiful image of the limestone), but if not done this way the water will get in and never get out, and consequently break the tile. So, you can either: Paint the tiles with waterproof paint.

Add a plastic waterpoof layer.

Figure 37: Alternative Roofing

With regard to job creation and costs, it is estimated that these eco-industrial parks might employ between 15 and 30 with higher numbers once the production ramps up. Cost for initial equipment, including the cotton gin about $ 20,000, with further cotton textile production equipment for the south eco-industrial park costing about $ 120,000.

South Park

The south eco-industrial park (fig. 32) is sited slightly uphill from the beach where the ferry docks are and is collocated near the recycling center for ease of refuse materials unloading and loading. It houses a limestone cutting and trimming facility. This facility is where mined limestone pieces of different sizes are separated—each for a different use—for example, large stones for the construction of facades, medium-sized ones for use in mosaic tiles, and the smallest size, once crushed, can be used as concrete aggregate, along with other additives. The concrete can be utilized, among other things, for stormproof roofing of large buildings (fig. 37). A molding facility would create 40

not only limestone tile but also ornamental and paving pieces since limestone has very similar properties to ceramic. In the kiln, all the pieces will be baked to prepare them for retail sales.

Material wholesale and retail (selling untreated materials wholesale, and constructed pieces, retail) will be located at the main road traversing the length of the island. The eco-park will feature limestone-related construction material directly in raw, unprocessed condition for construction companies and will sell smaller-scale elements, paving and ornamental limestone objects.

Textile production: In the second phase of Barbuda’s textile production, the cotton lint produced in the north eco-industrial park will be manufactured into finished textiles for local sale (fig. 38). The facility will house spinning, carding machines, and a loom. This is also where the dying and printing of the cloth will happen.

Total all in building and equipment costs (less the textile equipment priced above) are estimated at $ 130,000.

Phase 2 Organic textile production of shirts and dresses from lint through finished clothing.

• • •

1 bale = 800 shirts Sell at ~$100/shirt. Much more profitable than selling raw cotton lint.

Two facilities needed in Southern Park

Thread processing facility: • Carding Machine

• •

Blowing Room - cleans and extracts lint from bales Carding Machine - turns cotton clumps into slivers Spinning Machine - turns slivers into threads

Textile finishing facility: • •

Looms - threads into clothes and fabric.

Dying machines - add color and patterns to clothes

Fabric Loom Figure 38: Textile Production

41

ECO-TOURISM DEVELOPMENT The revival of tourism in Barbuda will likely take a backseat to the restoration of infrastructure and public facilities on the island. However, attracting international investment in tourism on private property is uppermost in the minds of governmental officials. Some strategies below comprise a modest approach to reviving tourism as eco-tourism around naturebased phenomena, development of new trail systems, complementary eco-resorts, and tourist visitation to the community-held and operated eco-industrial parks as well as sites with alternative approaches to agriculture (fig 39a and 39b).

Protected Areas

Figure 39a: Improvements to Tourist Routes 42

The centers will also be built with local materials such as wood and limestone, minimizing the consumption of concrete and steel; these will provide restrooms, shelters, and house recreational equipment (fig. 40). Decentralization of these visitor facilities will generate more new jobs.

Botanical Garden

A proposed new Botanical Garden in a series of coves in the north section of the island will be designed with different groups of native species, and feature fauna and flora especially attractive

to birds and other wildlife. These include salttolerant species such as beach rose, the Cretan date palm, bayberry, coconut and breadfruit trees, tamarind, Yaupon, cinnamon trees, Yucca and many other species (fig. 41). Visitor access among these natural and ornamental spaces will rely upon a series of elevated walkways, the implementation of a shallow jetty port located to the north-east, and a pedestrian eco-corridor toward the sanctuary of frigate birds, a focal point for many tourists. provide new learning spaces for different users.

Tourist Trails System

Figure 39b: Improvements to Tourist Routes 43

Limestone in Barbuda Most of the island of Barbuda is formed by coral limestone.

3 types of sizes of limestone • Great dimension, used in big pieces for structure in facades. Can also be used in roofing. Also for ornamental elements, like tiles.

• Small size works as an aggregate and component of concrete, mixed with cement and water.

• It is also used as a filler, to fill the low spots of an irregular terrain or even for the construction of roads.

• It is a very porous stone, so needs protection (waterproof layer, so the water doesn’t get in).

• Not high structural capabilities.

Figure 40: Limestone Utilization

Figure 41a: Proposed Botanical Garden: Introduction to new plant life 44

Figure 42: Proposed New Eco-Resort, Gravenors Bay

New Trails A series of gravel paths will be placed connecting the protected areas of Palaster Reef and the Codrington lagoon, which is a wetland ecosystem of international significance. Other trails will connect tourists to highlights such as Goat Island Wildlife Park, the wildlife reserves of Spanish Point and Darby’s Cave.

New trails in the upland provide connection along the length of the island. Transversing paths connect to the highland cliffs and coves on the eastern shore.

Figure 41b: Proposed Eastern Section of the Botanical Garden 45

Figure 43: Eco-Resorts Green Features

Figure 45: Location and Design of the Proposed Camping Site 46

Figure 44: Building Materials

New Eco-Resorts The siting of two new eco-resorts will be close to key beaches: Coco Point and Pink Beach (fig.42).

These modest interventions will provide additional accommodations on the island. They will follow in the footsteps of other Caribbean ecoresorts with open-air public facilities, modest bungalows constructed with local materials and emphasizing low-water use (fig. 43) The housing will be constructed with the strategic use of concrete to provide hurricane resiliency (fig. 44). Cabins will be connected by a new network of pathways and raised walkways to further reduce beach erosion and soil degradation.

Low impact eco-camping sites again are designed for minimal landscape intrusion, natural forms of shelter, use of tent platforms, and open-air facilities for cooking (fig.

45).

47

RENEWABLE ENERGY & PROPOSED MICROGRIDS With its reliance on fossil fuel generation, Barbuda has endured both high power costs and routine outages—a sign of an inefficient utility. The island, as elsewhere in the Caribbean has abundant renewable energy resources. Furthermore, it has had relatively low individual power requirements, which would allow it to rely almost exclusively on the ever-present trade winds and solar power (Jensen, 1998)

Figure 46: Renewable Energy

Biomass conversion plants reliant upon biogas digesters (see pp.18) are another potential for power production. In 2011, the government had set a target of 15% mix of renewables by 2030 for Antigua and Barbuda. This should be considered too low a benchmark for Barbuda. Initial calculations for renewable power were assumed to be based upon increasing the overall generation capacity of the island, from approximately 5.6 GWh/year to 6.1 GWh/year and a peak load of 1 MW (see fig. 46).

There are obstacles to be overcome. Peak electricity usage typically is not coincident with solar energy availability, requiring relatively high energy storage costs and/or better balancing with evening and nighttime wind power. Given that 48

Barbuda is so low-lying and vulnerable to hurricane damage, both turbines and mounted solar arrays will need to include special appurtenances for technology protection. Furthermore, electric distribution relies upon a grid of overhead cables owned by APUA and therefore the grid would need to be purchased if Barbuda created an independent power supply arrangement. Lastly, any power system going forward would need to take into consideration the increasing demand and constant load of water desalination (Bicknell, 2002).

Wind power

Barbuda lies at the lower end of annual average wind speed in the region (6.4 m/s (NASA, 2000).

With prevailing trade winds mostly from the east and southeast, the wind energy potential is nearly constant throughout the 24 hour period and on a monthly basis. This means that potentially, this energy supply would not require backup (Bicknell, 2002). The eastern highland areas of the island at about 50 m above sea level—in a location near an existing road—would achieve the most optimal wind speeds (approximately 8.9 m/s, and potential energy of 500,000 kW).

Turbines that are cost-effective and a relatively self-reliant energy source can meet the specific requirements of smaller grids are best adapted to Barbuda. One such product is the Vergnet GEV MP 2-blade series that is both robust and light (Vergnet website). In case of forecasted hurricanes, the turbine can be lowered in less than 1 hour (fig. 47). This small turbine is assembled on the ground and requires only forklift for assembly. It is strengthened by light buy-wires. One turbine, estimated at the site’s wind speed of about 8 to 9 m/s could produce between 1000 and 1200 MWh/year (http://www. vergnet.com). As many as 10 turbines could produce the excess capacity required to run the upgraded desalination plant.

Solar Power

A solar energy average of 5.82kWh/m2 falls on Barbuda (NASA, 2002). It is anticipated that approximately 1,875 modules with a collective area of 42,000 so would be required island-wide.

The majority deployment of these PV arrays would be placed on hurricane-proof rooftops in Codrington with some on remote dwellings, with a remaining amount designated to both the Seawater Greenhouse and the southern ecoindustrial park. The anticipated photovoltaic generation capacity is .75 MW (fig. 48). Given that there is a lapse between solar energy production time and peak load, storage would be required. An estimated cost for this installation is about $ 1.8 m.

Storage Located within or adjacent to the current APUA generation site in Codrington, a series of 15 storage batteries will provide capacity for continuous power utilizing excess PV and wind energy storage. These flow batteries pump electrolyte through stacks of electrochemical cells and come in a plug-and-play ISO containerized format (fig.49). Other battery storage would be placed near the cellular tower at the islands southern end. A total initial cost is estimated at approximately $ 2 m.

Power Demand + Energy Consumption Total Energy Consumption: 6.21 GWh/year Peak Load: 1 MW Expected PV Capacity: 0.75 MW • Quantity of Modules: ~1,875 • Area Required: ~42,000 sq. ft • Deployment: Codrington (Roof-tops), Seawater Greenhouse • Estimated Cost: $1,875,000 USD Expected Wind Capacity: 0.50 MW • Quantity of Turbines: ~10 • Area Required: ~8,000 sq. ft.

• Deployment: Highlands • Estimated Cost: $2,000,000 USD

180'

Diesel Generators • Generac Commercial Diesel - 150 kW • Quantity: 10 • Estimated Cost : $350,000 Figure 46: Island Energy Analysis

Figure 47: Wind Power Technology 49

Microgrid

The ideal arrangement for power distribution would be through a solar-powered microgrid, one placed to serve Codrington and another to serve the southern eco-industrial park and cell tower. Distribution would be optimized with the use of prepaid electrical service, employing the SparkMeter for residential use (fig. 50).

Electric Vehicles To accommodate domestic waste collection as well as modest public transport on the island, north to south, 2 busses and 2 sanitation trucks are required, along with two workhorse pickups for the eco-industrial parks at an estimated total of $ 1.5 m (fig. 51).

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Job creation The impact of a distributed renewable energy system, with storage back-up, and micro-grid distribution would offer key benefits for Barbuda.

Whereas APUA previously employed 27 workers on Barbuda, an estimated 13.3 jobs for solar and 13.3 jobs for wind would quadruple utilitybased employment. A Youth Energy Education center could provide training and apprenticeship opportunities for Barbudan youth, helping them to remain on-island.

Photovoltaics • • • • • •

Proposed Location: Codrington, Eco industrial Complex, (N) of Gravenors Bay Manufacturer & Model: LG Electronics LG400W Total Quantity: 1875 modules Application of Tech: Rooftop PV & Solar PV Farm Estimated Cost: $1,875,000 Ownership: APUA

Energy Storage • • • • • •

Proposed Location: Codrington, Seawater greenhouse, Eco industrial Complex, (N) of Gravenors Bay Manufacturer & Model: UET Reflex 2016 Total Quantity: 15 Application of Tech: Storage for excess PV & Wind generation Estimated Cost: $2,000,000 Ownership: APUA

Figure 48: Solar Energy Utilization

Figure 49: Energy Storage 51

Prepaid Electrical Service for Solar Microgrid

Figure 50: Service Distribution

Electrical Vehicles • • • • • •

Proposed Location: Eco industrial Complex Manufacturer & Model: BYD K9 Electric Transit Bus, Wrightspeed Electric Garbage Truck, Workhorse W15 Electric Pickup Total Quantity: 2 buses, 2 garbage trucks, 2 Workhorse pickups Application of Tech: Island services and energy storage Estimated Cost: $780,000+$600,000+$104,000=$1, 484,000 Ownership: APUA

Figure 51: Electric Vehicle Utilization 52

SUMMARY Compared to its neighbors in the Leeward Lesser Antilles, Barbuda’s distinctiveness derives from its lesser development and from its communal land-tenure system. While this usufruct system had worked for three centuries of open-range cattle herding, it started to decline beginning in the 1980s with employment in tourism.

Today, many of the related landscape elements— wells, stockyards, etc. have become obscured (Potter and Sluyter, 2010). Still, feral cattle, sheep, goats, wild pigs and deer range on the open land.

Barbudans generally resist attempts to end communal land tenure (Ibid). The proposed replacement of this former land use with communally-owned and operated agriculture, aquaculture, coupled with communally-run sanitation, and development of communally owned and operated eco-industrial enterprises based upon local resources, offers a mechanism to perhaps forestay the development under governmental control while preserving the social uniqueness of Barbuda. The notion of keeping “Barbuda for Barbudans” (Potter, 2011) remains a powerful shared discourse. It enables the continuance of their tenacious narrative of resistance to the enticements of globalization and luxury tourism development.

These precepts for communal land management stand behind the aim of this conceptual master plan. As proposed herein, the reliance on relatively simple, intermediate technologies for sanitation, water, and waste management, and power provision allows for a certain measure of self-sufficiency in terms of infrastructural services. Proper training of local personnel in the use and maintenance of these technologies would be a key prerequisite.

Barbudans are a close-knit society and they maintain a strong attachment to their locality, a result of centuries of island tradition. Barbudans could begin to reinforce their communal interdependence through island-wide efforts to maintain and redevelop their shared landscape and coastal ecologies. Upholding their commons regime, they might strategically begin to replenish the natural resources of this beautiful island climate and reopen it for modest, controlled ecotourism, while growing their local economy.

Economic Impact of Renewable Energy • • • • • •

Reduces dependency on imported fuel Socio-Economic Benefit for the island, increased local employment opportunities IRENA estimates Green Job market at 10.3M jobs in 2017 Utility previously employed 27 workers on Barbuda Estimated 13.7 & 13.3 jobs created per million spent between solar/Wind would quadruple Utility employment Develop Youth Energy Education initiatives for training and apprenticeship opportunities

Figure 52: Economic Benefits of Renewable Power 53

REFERENCES Bicknell, Richard, “Barbuda: A renewable resources assessment,” unpublished Master of Science research paper.

Bodger, R., Perdikaris, S., and Potter, A., Mussington J., Murphy, R., Thomas, L., Gore, C., and Finch, D.,“Water resources and the historic wells of Barbuda: tradition, heritage and hope for a sustainable future,” Island Studies Journal, Vol 9 No. 2 327-342.

Cambers, Gillian, “Coping with Beach Erosion in the Caribbean,” UNESCO Publishing, 1998.

FAO 2016. "Fishery Country Profile: Antigua and Barbuda" Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nation (update).

Accessed April 14, 2018. http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/ATG/en FAO 1990. “Training Manual on Gracilaria Culture and Seaweed Processing in China” Accessed April 15, 2018. http://www. fao.org/docrep/field/003/AB730E/AB730E00.htm IRENA, Renewable Readiness Assessment: Antigua and Barbuda, International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), (2016) Abu Dhabi. https://ab.gov.ag/services/energy/pdf/IRENA_RRA_Antigua_and_Barbuda_2016.pdf Accessed 011919.

Jensen T.L. (1998) Renewable Energy o Small Islands Forum for Energy and Development. Printed by Tolvfireogtres grafisk centre, Copenhagen. ISBN: 87-90502-01-9.

Lewis, Roy R 2001. "Mangrove restoration: costs and benefits of successful ecological restoration." In Proceedings of the Mangrove Valuation Workshop, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, pp. 4-8. Accessed May 5, 2018. http://www.fao.org/forestry/10560-0fe87b898806287615fceb95a76f613cf.pdf Ochs, Alexander, et al., Caribbean Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy (C-SERMS): Baseline Report and Assessment (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 2015).

Perdikaris, S., Bain, A., Boger, R. Grouard, A, Rousseu, V, Persaud, R. Noel, S., Brown, M and Medina-Triana, J. “Cultural heritage under threat: the effects of climate change on the small island of Barbuda, Lesser Antilles.,” in: Dawson, T., Nimura, C., Lopez-Romero, E. and Daire, M. Public Archaeology and Climate Change. (Philadelphia: Oxbow, 2017).

Potter, A.E., “Transnational Spaces and Communal Land Tenure in a Caribbean Place: “Barbuda is for Barbudans,” (2011). LSU Doctoral Dissertations. 2575.

Potter, A.E., and Sluyter, A. “Renegotiating Barbuda’s Commons: Recent Changes in Barbudan Open-Range Cattle Herding,” Journal of Cultural Geography, June 2010.

Rakocy, James E., Richard C. Shultz, and Donald S. Bailey 2000. "Commercial aquaponics for the Caribbean.": 353-364.

Accessed May 1, 2018. http://aquaticcommons.org/13364/1/gcfi_51-27.pdf RENA (2016), Renewable Readiness Assessment: Antigua and Barbuda, International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Abu Dhabi.

Romo-Rabago, B., Herremans, D., Hettiaratchi, D. and Eng-Fisher, R. (n.d.). Low cost biodigester as a sustainable energy solution for developing countries: Jiudai Yakou village, China, a case study.. [ebook] Haskayne School of Business, pp.1-100.

Available at: -[Accessed 25 May 2018].

Van Wyk, Petrer, and Megan Davis. 2006. "Integrating aquaculture into Caribbean development: selection of marine species.": 917-928.Accessed April 18, 2018. http://aquaticcommons.org/13948/1/gcfi_57-66.pdf Vergnet Wind Turbines http://www.vergnet.fr/ Accessed 011919

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

U

pholding the Commons: an alternative approach to the redevelopment of the island of Barbuda

A plan for sustainable solutions and adaptive strategies for rebuilding the island’s infrastructure and boosting its economy. It is predicated on retention of the islands historic land tenure system—the commons. It provides alternative infrastructural services - sanitation, water, energy, agriculture, and marine resources - along with modestly-scaled eco-tourism and economic development based upon leveraging the integration points across these systems.

This project was an 8-week class design project in Case Studies in Sustainability, taught by Professor Hillary Brown in Spring 2018, under the interdisciplinary Master of Science program: Sustainability in the Urban Environment, at the City College, City University of New York.

Author: Hillary Brown, FAIA, Professor, with student contributions Design Team: Sara Altohamy, Steven Balinsky, Daniel Blanc, Robert Bryce, Andy Chen, Joanne Guerra, Gabriel Herrera, Akshayaa Kariyakkar. Eric Knowles, Daniela Kuntz, Jeremy Latriano, Ricky Li, Elena Lisovin, Chitra Mamidela, Sophia Mojica, Katelyn Meyer, Corey Murphy, Anna Pardo, Ashita Patel, Eric Rivera, Carlina Rosario, Shruti Shah.

Assistant: Chitra Mamidela Special Thanks to: Rebecca Boger Published through the generosity of the M.S. Sustainability in the Urban Environment program.

Book design by Chitra Mamidela

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Sustainability in the Urban Environment

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