Traditional Colour Sensibilities and the Role of Natural Environment

Traditional Colour Sensibilities & The Role Of Natural Environment

The Valley of Imphal, Manipur

By Chinmayee Parikh DRP under Amala Shah

Bachelor of Interior Design , 2022 Faculty of Design | CEPT University

Valley of Imphal documentation Natural Environment, Built Form, Textiles, Crafts and Culture

by Chinmayee K. Parikh, Batch 2017 - 2022 CEPT University, Ahmedabad Guide: Amala Shah All the photos are taken by author unless mentioned otherwise .

All Colour swatch sheets are produced by hand & scanned .

Printed at Siddhi Printech, Ahmedabad

Traditional Colour Sensibilities & The Role Of Natural Environment

The Valley of Imphal, Manipur

By Chinmayee Parikh DRP under Amala Shah

Bachelor of Interior Design , 2022 Faculty of Design | CEPT University

Declaration Declaration This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of This work contains materialinwhich has beenor accepted for the award any other Degree ornoDiploma any University other institutions and of to any Diploma in any not University or any othermaterial institutions and to the other best Degree of my or knowledge does contain previously the best of knowledge doesperson not contain any material previously published or my written by another except where due reference has published been madeorinwritten the text.by another person except where due reference has been made in the text.

I consent to this copy of thesis, when in the library of CEPT Library, being Iavailable consent on to loan this copy of thesis, when in the library of CEPT Library, being and photocopying. available on loan and photocopying.

Student Name & Code No: Chinmayee Parikh Student Name & Code No: Chinmayee Parikh UI1117 UI1117 Signature of student: Signature of student:

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Date: 28/05/2022 26/04/2022 Date: 26/04/2022

FACULTY OF DESIGN Student Name & Code

:

Chinmayee K Parikh UI1117

Thesis Title

:

Traditional Sensibilities and Role TraditionalColour Colour Sensibilities andof Natural Environment on it the role of Natural environment

APPROVAL The following study is hereby approved as a creditable work on the approved subject carried out and presented in the manner, sufficiently satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a pre-requisite to the degree of Bachelor of Interior Design for which it has been submitted.

It is to be understood that by this approval, the undersigned does not endorse or approve the statements made, opinions expressed or conclusion drawn therein, but approves the study only for the purpose for which it has been submitted and satisfies him/her to the requirements laid down in the academic program.

Name & Signature of the Guide

WWW.CEPT.AC.IN

Dean, Faculty of Design

T +91 79 26302470 F +91 79 26302075

KASTURBHAI LALBHAI CAMPUS UNIVERSITY ROAD, NAVRANGPURA AHMEDABAD 380009. GUJARAT, INDIA

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Acknowledgments

To my guide, Ms. Amala Shah - I am thankful to her for trusting me with a research project of this scale. This project and its research wouldn’t have been possible without her vision, knowledge and constant guidance. I am grateful to her for giving me this opportunity to experience design and the play of colour and light in such a holistic way.

To my family, I cannot thank them enough for their love, support and courage they have given me to reach where I am today. My parents, for being my strongest backbones and happiest cheerleaders; My brother, Sharman for being my forever support, my light in the darkest of days; My Grandparents for always pushing me to work with all my heart and giving me a platform to stand up from.

To all my faculties at CEPT for the five years, Kireet Patel, Vishal Wadhwani, Niyati Patel, Sameer Shah, Errol Reubens, Ratna Shah, Naandi Parikh and Jay Thakkar for always providing me with their valuable knowledge and guidance throughout the journey.

To entire fraternity at Faculty of Design, for helping and teaching throughout the years on campus.

Especially KD sir and Chandra ma’am, for being constant supports.

To Avishi for being my torchbearer through my journey from school to college, we have a long way to go. To Richa, Devanshi, Shivam and Dharun for guiding me to sail through my toughest times.

To Aashni and Pooja, my friends and co researches

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during the DRP, for being the constants and solid shoulders. This journey wouldn’t have

been

this

beautiful without you.

To my friends who have turned into family, Nidhi R, for always being my backbone and my strongest cheerleader in all times. Aashni and Naman, for always pushing me towards the best of me and being a constant in pulling off sleepless nights and final submissions. Pooja and Manav for always backing me up and for being there during my toughest days at college. This journey wouldn’t have been possible without you all. Thankyou for being my constant source of motivation, happiness and positivity.

To all my batch-mates, who have been there throughout this journey to build happy and good memories to take along for the rest of my life.

To my amazing set of seniors for always guiding me when I was stuck and my juniors for always lending their hands whenever I needed them.

To my school friends, Nandini, Tithi, Jesal and Preet for always standing by me and supporting me to achieve my dreams and goals in.

Last but not the least, my group of friends, ‘Among us’ , ‘Dots’ and ‘Rolling’ for truly being my buffers throughout the semesters and for being my strongest cheerleaders! You have been there for me on my good and bad days. Thank you for always being there!

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To the people of Manipur ...

I am grateful to each and everyone for their guidance, support love and warmth they have given me throughout my field trips at Manipur.

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To Da Daya, for his constant support and for making my journey easy throughout the research. Thankyou for helping me to connect to different people in the region.

To Da Ram and Chi Nandini for providing me with a home away from home. Your warm welcome, hospitality and interest to guide me has pushed me to explore more and in different pockets of the region.

To Shri Mutua Bahadur for sparing time and sharing his immense knowledge about the culture of Manipur, people and their textiles. Your books have helped me gain more clarity to do this research.

To Dr. Manju and Chi Jaya for sharing their valuable knowledge and experience in the field of arts and culture of the region. To Chi Joymati and Chi Jibonmala for sharing their knowledge on rich textile and handlooms of Manipur.

To Da Hosa, Da AK, Da Rohit and Da Jayenta for taking me to different villages in the region and accompanying me on the field trips.

My sincere thanks to Chi Meena for sharing valuable photographs.

her

To Kakoli, Rishika, Chi Vimla, Donald and Aditya for tagging with me to explore different areas in the region.

This compilation of research wouldn’t have been possible without them. My sincere thanks to the people of Manipur!

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Table of Contents

10 16 18 88

158

183 200 10

Aim & Abstract Scope & limitations Methodology Introduction

Chapter A: The natural environment

Chapter B: Colour selection as manifested in the traditional way of life

Chapter C: Culture and influences

Observations Conclusive pallete

Glossary & References

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Aim To understand colour perception and process of selection as guidelines, with possible application in contemporary design.

Traditional communities and cultures have evolved their own perceptions and aesthetics over a long period of time as it becomes a part of the internal character Colour is a very important aspect of this aesthetic, as it influences the perception of all aesthetics in the particular community/culture as a way of life encompassing - the built form, textiles, objects of daily use, arts and crafts.

This study is an attempt at following the colour selection and connection to the natural living environment.

It will also briefly look into cultural influences on such selections.

Keywords Colour perception, light quality, traditional communities, cultural history, way of life, Natural environment

Scope - Understand a natural design process led by a particular community over years inspired by the immediate context.

- Contemporisation of colours in a particular community over industrialization,

Limitations - The research is oriented to the span of 4 monthsJanuary to April (2022) hence covers peak winters and the onset of summer.

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Abstract Colour perception depends wholly on the quality of light and context with immediate surroundings in our field of vision. Colour selection, in terms of preferred colour palettes in traditional communities/ cultures, have evolved based on these principles of colour perception. The roles of material availability, socioeconomic factors, psychology and physiology have fractional influences on such selections. These colour selections/preferences evolved and fine-tuned to become characteristic, signature cultural sensibilities as manifested in a specific way of life; encompassing the built environment, objects and implements, Arts, crafts and attire.

These selections evolved just as specific built forms and arts and crafts evolved within these communities/ cultures/regions. India is a vast country with myriad communities and cultures in their totally varying natural environments and diametrically different geographic regions. Many of these cultures still retain their original essence with few alterations. This presents a fabulous opportunity to embark upon such a study and documentation of traditional colour sensibilities, with the emphasis on the natural process of selection – a vital design process. These can possibly be applied to contemporary design processes.

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Methodology diagram

Field visits and data collection in the form of: Photographs of subjects mentioned in parts A, B and C. Time-lapse photographs depicting the quality of light in the region Key colour swatches of important references

References: Meeting concerned traditional people for traditional insights Meeting experts whenever possible Researching through books and the web

Collating the information: Preparing a field report after each site visit to present a glimpse/ cohesive picture of the selected area covering all aspects of sections A, B and C; including learning experiences in the field Preparing a graphical area map of the selected region, depicting the geography, locations of various tribal clusters and various craft clusters Arranging the collected pictures and swatches according to sections A, B and C

Synopsis A write up on the specific community/culture with reference to the sections A, B and C with a few photographs to complete the narrative A special note on the quality of light and its influence on the perception of colours in the region Drawing parallels between colours of the natural environment and the man-made environment (the way of life), using photographs and colour swatches Presenting the insight in terms of the colour aesthetic of the selected traditional community/culture in their region

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Introduction India’s Jeweled land, Manipur, is one of the seven sisters of the northeastern region. Geographically, Manipur is surrounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the North, Mizoram to the South, Assam to the west, and shares international borders with Myanmar to the east.

Manipur has two district topographies- the valley and the mountains. The lush blue-green mountains border the central valley from all around. With two district topographies, about 92% of the geographical area is covered by the layering of the blue-green mountains leaving only 8% of the area to the valley. The region is the part of Indo-Burma biodiversity hot spots of the world; hence it has varied landscapes and waterscapes, making it a home to numerous species of plants and animals. The diversity of these varieties and species has made the state richer in its context and fabric for the people of Manipur.

The geopolitical positioning has led to an emergence of the amalgamation of cultures, religions, ethnicities and strong identities amongst tribes and communities.

Thirty-three indigenous tribes inhabit the most significant areas of mountains. These tribes are sparely populated over the hills. The most dominant ones amongst them are the Nagas and the Kukis. Each tribe has its ethnic heritage, culture, tradition, practice and lifestyles that make them unique. The colours and weaves of their attires serve as markers for their cultural identity.

Even though the valley is a smaller portion of the area than the hills, it is densely populated. Along with the locals, dominantly the Meitei community, other ethnic groups like the Marwaris, Nepalis, Burmese, and Bengalis have settled in the valley from outside.

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Although the Meitei’s dominance prevails with their single speaking language Meithelion (also known as Manipuri), scripts, culture, and religion date from the 10th century. Their culture and tradition still perpetuate with some changes with time.

This research examines the Meitei community based in the valley of Imphal through the lens of colour and light to understand the traditional colour sensibilities and the impact of the natural environment.

Map-1 : Geographical map of manipur- defining the valley region and the hills

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The valley of manipur The rich valley is surrounded by the beautiful layering of hills and lakes, making it a constant fabric of the region. The capital city of Manipur, Imphal, lies in the northern part of the region. Hence, the valley is known as the valley of Imphal.

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Map-2 : Mapping in the valley of Imphal as per the field research

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CHAPTER A:

The natural environment All topics including seasonal variations

1. Geography & type of natural environment 2. Flora and Fauna 3. Natural Sources of Various materials 4. Quality of light Image 1: Overview of the valley covered by shades of greens

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1. Geography and type of natural environment, including seasonal variations The valley of Manipur can be perceived in patches of greens, browns, and blues due to stretches of forests, grids of agricultural fields, barren uplands, hillocks, wetlands and lakes in the valley. These varieties of landscapes and waterscapes are seen along with the constant fabric of blue-green mountains throughout the region.

The valley is shaped perfectly oval with a widespread of 2000 square kilometers at an elevation of 790 meters above the sea level covering six central districts of the state. Various natural resources cover around 64% of the geographical area. The capital city of Manipur, Imphal, lies in the northern part of the valley.

Climate and weather play a dominant role in enriching the soil in the valley. The combination of an abundance of rainfall and the presence of rich alluvial soil has treated the people of the valley with rich biodiversity.

Image 2: Overview of the valley in the afternoon as seen in shades of greens and browns on a sunny day with the partial layering of clouds in January

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Image 3: Patches of dense forests and shrubs

Image 4 (left) & 5 (right): Shades of rust yellow, dull browns and tones of olives contrasts with the lush greens in the stretches of canopies of the forest covers.

Forests An extensive palette of greens can be seen due to the different types of forest covers spread across the valley formed by various tropical, sub-tropical and evergreen trees. Dense plantations of tall trees like Teak, pine, oak and locally found Uningthou (a Manipuri name for Bonsum) and Leihao (a Manipuri name for Champa tree) are located away from the major settlements.

When seen from a higher viewpoint, these tree canopies are perceived in layers, the nearest one bright and fresh, with some stretches of dried orange browns, some dark green due to the density of greens and the further ones the darkest, blending with the context. Strong sunlight falling on these canopies in the afternoon adds tones of bright yellows to the palettes of dark greens.

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Image 6: Wild bamboo patches along with the evergreen plants in the forest

The valley has patches of tropical moist deciduous forests. They are commonly known as the monsoon forest and include big timber trees like Sal, Shisham, Teak, Mango, Rosewood, and other tree species that dominate these forests. These trees shed absolute leave in spring and early summer.

Banana trees, amla trees, silk-cotton trees and wild oranges are some commonly grown trees found at a few distances spread across the region.

The floor of the forests is covered with wild grasses and mosses along with the dry- shredded leaves. Various species of Tropical plants like the palms, ferns, wild orchids and hoyas are found accompanying these evergreen trees in the forest. These plants add peculiar tones of tropical greens to the palette.

Wildflowers are found in whites, warmer shades of bright yellows, fleshy orange and blood reds. Wild orchids mark their presence in the forest by flaunting their vibrant colours.

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In these forest patches, the wild Bamboo and cane are found in abundance. Bamboo, commonly known as ‘Wa’ in Manipuri, is found in various typologies, patterns, and colour variations. These fresh green shoots of bamboo with nodes at regular distances grow harmoniously with each other. The valley has more than 55 species of bamboo, each having different uses depending on its form, strength and colour. Some grow tall and thin, whereas some are short, pale, and tender. One species of bamboo are so delicate that they sway when the breeze passes, and this wind produces a whistling sound. Since they are available in abundance and have multiple qualities, they are one of the essential resources for the people in the valley to use in their daily lives. It is used in different ways at multiple scales.

Image 7 (bottom): A species of bamboo narrow at the end and sways with the wind.

Since these bamboos grow round the year and are primarily grown in the wild, they are collectively found in different stages of their growth. The tender ones are seen in pale greens and dull yellows, whereas the

Image 8: Wild bamboo patches along with the evergreen plants in the forest

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middle-aged ones are in tones of fresh greens, and the mature ones are in the shades of darker greens. They are owing to seasonal variations in weather, temperature and sunlight, a wide range of tones of fresh greens with pale yellows and bright browns are seen. When the morning soft natural light passes through the canopies to reach the tender bamboo shoots, they shine to faint green and golden ochres and rust browns. The long bamboo shoots bear its flower at the tip, which adds hues of pale light browns to the palette.

Image 9: A different species of bamboo having variations of beige and golden browns in its sheath

Image10(left)&11(right):Bamboo shoots at various stages- some grown new,some shedding their sheath

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Image 12 : Tree canopies in the forest patches near Nongpok Sekmai

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Wetlands Adding a splash of blue to the patches of greens and browns is the Loktak lake, one of the notable features of the Imphal valley. It is located in the southwestern part of the valley and covers an area of 40 square kilometers in the valley. All the short streams draining from the hills and the four major river basins – Barak River, Manipur River, Yu-river, and Lanye River basin deposit their sediment in this lake, making it one of the largest freshwater lakes in the northeastern part of the country.

The lake’s ecosystem naturally leads to the generation of green floating heterogeneous biomasses that are masses of vegetation, soil, and organic matter. These floating masses are found in riots of greens and are uniquely used by the local fishermen community for their livelihood. They use these masses to make a large circular ring known as phumdis for fishing. Once these phumdis develop a thicker mass with time, families actually reside on them. The lightweight houses on these phumdis are made with bamboo and paddy thatches. With the seasonal variations, the vegetation

Image 13: A large expanse of the loktak lake with dotting floating numerous phumdis

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Image 14: Along the phumdis, new biomasses regenerate, hence seen in different stages

Image 15: Homes of the fishermen on their owned phumdis | 16: Fishermen practicing their daily routine

on phumdis change shades from florescent greens to darker shades of green-brown. These variations are starkly visible in the contrast of the clear blue water and sky. The lake is covered by a series of circular phumdis over the expanse of the blue waters. Along with these phumdis are the lotus, lilies, water reeds and aquatic grasses spread all over the lake. This variety of land- Image 17): Purple lilies scapes in the lake grows in harmony with each other. blooms stand out in the dense Stark pink and bright purple lotuses bloom alternatively

vegetations of the lotus leaves.

as per their cycle and stand out in the varied palette of greens. The water in the lake is so fresh and clear that it directly reflects the variations in the sky. This makes the colour of the lake very dramatic every dawn and dusk; the orange and pink shades of the sky reflect on the simmering waters in harmony with the phumdis, and the blooming of lotus is a delight to watch!

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Weather and Climate The lush green mountain ranges help maintain a moderate climate in the valley by blocking the cold winds and barring cyclonic storms. Hence, the temperature in the valley is warmer than in the hills throughout the year.

With

the

changing

temperatures

and

weather

from January to March, there are variations in the quality of light experienced in the valley.

In January, the valley experiences peak winters, with temperatures dropping to sub-zero levels by midnight, leading to occasional rain showers. These showers enhance the green palette into darker greens keeping the forest covers fresh and dense.

Due to the temperature drop, the clouds gather up filled with water for sudden rain showers, resulting in heavily packed skies filled with dull, hazy, and gloomy morning skies. Dim blue-greys layer the percipience of colours of the landscape in the early mornings. One can only see muted colours from the landscapes instead of the usual vivid colours. With the day getting sunnier by afternoon, the fog clears up. The percipience of landscape colours is layered by lighter blue-greys as a filter, resulting in clear visibility in the meantime.

During the golden hour, the vivid colours of the mustard plants with the dried paddy fields are visible and one can only see muted colours from the landscapes as opposed to the usual vivid colours.

The transition of peak winter to summer, marking the change in weather and resulting rise in temperature, causes the shades of green to turn into darker browns in the month of February eventually. End of this month, the valley experiences its peak summer when

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temperatures reach around 40 degrees Celsius. As most of the trees shed their leaves during this season, the palette of greens subtly changes to brown shades and is set in contrast with the clear blue skies.

The month of March is the onset of the spring season.

A range of colourful blooms are starkly visible amongst the shredded trees and dried leaves. Bright red and orange stand out amongst the palette of the valley.

Driven by the topography of the region, the dense vegetation on the mountains brings rainfall for more than six months, from April to September every year.

Due to this, the valley is overrun by several rivers running from the north to the south, resulting in the valley’s formation. The landscape again turns lush green, and the temperature remains nippier round the year. These rivers serve as important waterways and links between different parts of the region.

Image 18 (left): Forest in the month of January

|

Image 19 (right): Forest in the month of March

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2. Flora and Fauna, Including seasonal variations Flora Nearly 64% of the geographical area of the state is occupied by natural vegetation, which consists of different types of landscapes. The weather and soil in the region support subtropical, tropical, and evergreen plants to grow.

Along with cane and bamboo, other grasses, reeds, and kauna grow in abundance and are also used to make daily-use products.

Many colourful flowers grow in this region like dualcoloured marigolds, mainly orange-yellow and orange-red. Along with pink and purple lotuses, multi-coloured flowers like white mogras, yellow daisies and red-pink roses, red hibiscus and lantanas are seen in most households, which also grow wild. These flowers are used as an offering to the Gods and by the women to ornate their hairstyle.

Myriads of local trees like the Heimang trees bearing orange berry fruits, Laihao tree with white and orange sweet-smelling flowers grow on the roadside. Common trees like Amala and Kesuda’s colourful flowers are seen in abundance in the valley.

Image 20 (left) : Orange and red dual coloured marigolds

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Image 21 (right) : Lily

Image 22 (left) and 23 (right) : Purples and violets buds of Wild flowers

Image 24 (left) and 25 (right) : Pink wild flowers with buds

Image 26 (left) and 27 (right): Pink and yellow dandelions

Image 28 (left) and 29 (right) : Multicolour Lantanas grown - bright pink, yellow, orange and reds

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Flora

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Image 30: Agricultural fields on the hilly patches near Andro village

Image 31: Agricultural fields in the flat valley. The mustard plantations stand out in contrast to the green and brown landscapes of the valley.

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Man-made plantations Even though most of the population is settled in this valley, the built forms cover only 9% of the area of the valley. More than half of the valley area is used as agricultural land. The low-lying areas can be perceived in elongated pixels of florescent yellows, bright greens, and muted browns due to the agrarian divisions of lands. Patches of reflecting shimmer of blues are seen due to the gathering of water in the lowest area of the valley. These stretches starkly pop out in front of the layers of the grey-blue hills. The low-lying areas can be perceived in elongated pixels of florescent yellows, bright greens, and muted browns due to the agrarian divisions of lands. Patches of reflecting shimmer of blues are seen due to the gathering of water in the lowest area of the valley. These stretches starkly pop out in front of the layers of the grey-blue hills.

Image 32: An overview of the patches of farmlands layered amongst the patch of dense forest, sparsely vegetated rolling hills and the mountains in the month of January

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Staying in such a fertile valley with alluvial soil supports various vegetation. Hence, agriculture & forestry are the two significant sources of income for the Meiteis, the largest community in the valley.

The people of Manipur follow a primarily rice-based diet as paddy is the region’s staple crop. Paddy is harvested towards the end of every year-end and stored for use until the next harvest. The harvested fields are then left to replenish.

In the months of January to March, the mustard plantations are sown. With the grey-blue mountains making up most of the fabric of the valley, a stark florescent yellow flourish a warmer palette of browns and pale greens. Wild purple buds, white gypsy plants, and small violet and dark pink flowers are grown on the road to contrast the former and combine to form a more extensive colour palette.

Image 33 : mustard fields

Orchards of fruits like pineapple, oranges, apples, and bananas grow locally in abundance. Produces like

Image 34: Covers of bright florescent mustards seen spread across the patches of land

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Paddy and

Image 35 : Pineapple plantations at its stage of maturity on the hills on andro

Image36 (left) : local spices of Ghost Chillies from Manipur | Image 37 (right) : Pomegranate plants

Peas, potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, etc., are abundant.

In the months of January, there are multiple plantations of pineapples on the low-lying hills of the valley. A broad spectrum of colours ranging from cool hues of greens to warmer tones of red are visible in different Image 38: Cabbages stages of pineapple plantations. In the initial stages, cauliflowers plantations the leaves bloom out light yellow with a lighter shade of green. The leaves turn a darker shade of green as the crop gains maturity, and once it starts bearing the fruit, the leaves turn to warmer tones of pink and red.

and

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Man-Made Vegetation

Man-made Environment

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Fauna The valley of Manipur is home to a wide selection of birds and animals.

Hoolock Gibbon, Sloe Loris, Spotted Linshang, Barbacked Pheasant, Burmese Peafowl, Blyths Tragopan etc., are some species found in the valley Manipur.

Each river system has a characteristic ecological condition that houses a diverse fish population for the people of the valley. One of the significant sources of freshwaters is the Loktak lake. It offers a wide range of aquatic wildlife. It has numerous sizes and typologies of local fishes.

In addition to that is the World’s only floating National Park - Keibul Lamjao National Park. They have a unique member of the fauna of Manipur - the brown antlered dancing deer, also called the sangai deer.

Most of the Meitei households have local species of hens with colourful tails, chickens and roosters caged in their courtyard. Black and white ducks with an electric green head and yellow beaks, white and brown geese, white & Indian grey pigeons and local sparrows are commonly spotted in the various densities of greens.

Image-39 (includes a to h) : Birds and animals seen in the valley

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a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

g.

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Fauna

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49

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3. Natural materials

Sources

for

Various

Manipur is a part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot. Hence, it is well endowed with a plethora of natural resources.

The landmasses, forests in the valley and the Loktak Lake are significant sources for extracting various materials in the valley. They treat the people with abundance of life resources for everyday use, and is an integral part of their lifestyle

Image-40 : Overview of the Loktak lake, one of the largest sources of Natural resources in the valley of Imphal

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Landforms

With variations in water availability and salt-mineral compositions in different regions, two significant soils are found in the valley – Alluvial and organic soil. Both the soils are clayey but have variations in colour, texture and qualities.

The valley of Imphal is rich in alluvial soils. These soils have a general clayey warm texture and colour ranging from greys to pale browns. Depending on the area, the soils are found in their varieties.

Andro, a loi village in the valley’s eastern part, has piety and saline soil. This clay is particularly used for making pottery. A Meitei Hindu village in the southern part of the valley, Thongjao has pits of red clayey gravelly Manipur is a part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot. Hence, it is well endowed with a plethora of natural resources.

Image 41: Light red-brown soil excavated from the earth’s crust near pheyang village

The landmasses, forests in the valley and the Loktak Lake are significant sources for extracting various materials in the valley. sandy, loamy soils used to make big sizes pots used for fermenting fish and storing water.

Image 42: Bright light brown colours alluvial soil found on the small hills of the valley.

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Image43 (left): Alluvial soil light pits found in Thongjao- light brown to grey-brown coloured soil & Image 44 (right): Organic soil pits found in Nongpok Sekmai – sticky in nature and dark grey in colour

Image 45 (left), 46(centre) & 47 (right): Different coloured rocks found from the hills in various regions – ranging from shades of light red browns to pale light browns to light grey browns

The low-lying regions in the valley have organic soils.

The soil is dark grey coloured and has a clayey loam texture. Nongpok Sekmai, a Meitei Hindu village near andro, has patches of these clayey soils found in the area.

Apart from the use of clayey soils in pottery, it is majorly used in making yumjaos and part of yum kei. The ochre and dark brown soils are used in making floors and layer up the walls on the interlacing of cane. The darker coloured clays are used to layer the interiors of the walls of the yumjaos.

Similar to the soil variations, other constituents like sand, gravel, rock and pebbles are also found in variety.

Different coloured stones found in the foothills, mainly the ochre browns, lighter browns, and grey browns from the foothills, are used in different kinds of pottery.

Stones of various sizes found at the bank of the rivers are used as essential tools in making pottery.

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Image 48 :Mineral water well made from the hollowing wooden log

At some places in the southeastern part of Manipurnear Nongpok Sekmai, there are hot water salt springs almost 45’ below the ground. Years back, with the help of wooden logs, they were used to channel the saline water to the surface and conserve them for future use. Saline water from this salt well is extracted with traditional methods and made into salt cakes. These salt cakes are rich in minerals and used by the Meitei in their daily lives. These cakes are used in cooking and hold cultural value as they are used in marriage as well as death ceremonies.

Forests

A variety of trees and shrubs play a vital role in the daily life of rural communities. Different types of forests are critical sources of primary raw materials for the people in the valley. Sources of wood and non-wood productscontribute to soil and water conservation, repositories of aesthetic, ethical, cultural and religious values.

Abundantly growing Cane and Bamboo are among the most used resources by the people in the valley.

Depending on the quality of species, they are used to make different things at various scales ranging from making architectural structures to using bamboos for making furniture and using them for making daily life

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objects like mats, bags and baskets. The versatility of the bamboos allows them to be used at their various stages of growth, from fresh tender green to dried mature browns and thick shoots.

Similarly, various types of grasses like Kauna are also frequently used by the Meiteis for making daily life products. Its multi-faceted qualities allow the reeds to be used at different stages in craft-based practices.

Woods are also one of the most basic and routinebased resources extracted from the forests. Majorly, the barks and twigs of the trees are used every day for kitchen fires.

The old tall tree timbers of oak, Sheesham, teak, Ghana and rosewood are used to make the core architectural structures. These woods are also used for making different furniture pieces. These woods are also significant sources of income for trade.

Numerous species of plants found in the forest are medicinal in nature.

Herbal trees and plants like amla (Indian gooseberry), Unani and ayurvedic medicinal plants are found in the forests of the valley.

Some of these parts of the plants like the stem, leaves, Wildflowers and fruits are used in making the natural plant-based dyeing process of the textiles.

Image 49 : Woods from the forest for their daily use.

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Lake

Loktak lake is also the most essential resource in the valley. Since 70% of the population in the valley are non-vegetarians, the fishery is an integral part of the Manipuri society. Fishes varying in all sizes, types, and varieties are found in this lake. ‘Ngari’, one of the local species of fish, is one of the most important sources of protein in Manipuri delicacies. Since it is considered a cultural symbol, it is used in different ways and forms in cultural practices and all staple meals.

Along with fish, the lake offers the people of the valley various aquatic plants along with edible vegetation.

These aquatic plants are highly rich in vitamins and marketable as they can be consumed in different Image 50 : Clear water of the forms- some like flowers, roots, rhizomes, stems, and fruits. loktak lake Their extraction is also used in various medicinal uses.

Apart from this, the lake helps in irrigation, generating power and providing fresh drinking water to the people of the valley.

Image 51 : Every morning, fishermen staying on the phumdis lay nets for fishing

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Image 52 (above) : From the fishing baskets made from bamboo, the fishermen is assorting the types of fishes | Image 53(bottom-left ) : Daily chores by the fisherman

Image 54(right -top ) : Local fishes & Image 55(right -bottom) : Purple lilies for selling in the market

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4. Quality of light

Without light, there would be no visibility of form, colour, texture, pattern or material. The way we see people, things, and spaces depends on the light illuminating the object.

Light is the science that concerns the process of colour vision and features in the perseverance of the environment of how we see colours around.

Light can either be soothing or harsh, depending on the position, intensity and type of light.

Sources of light can be classified as natural and artificial.

For the earth, the sun is the only source of natural light.

It changes with time of the day, time of the year and place on the planet. These light changes affect the visual perception of how we see things and how things are felt. The quality of light varies from region to region.

It depends on various factors like the positioning of the area, its solar azimuth, temperature and colour of the light.

Image 56: Beam of rays falling from behind the clouds on the Loktak lake in the evening

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Nature of light Light is a form of energy that makes vision possible.

Without light, there would be no perseverance in form, colour, texture, pattern, or material.

Visible light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can see. The light in this section has a wavelength ranging from 370nm to 760nm. As a full spectrum of visible light travels through a prism, the electromagnetic radiation separates into the seven colours of a rainbow - VIBGYOR - Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. Among these colours, the energy radiations with longer wavelengths are interpreted as warmer shades of red and orange.

In contrast, colours with smaller wavelengths are interpreted closer to cooler colours like blue and violet.

The wavelength of light is related to frequency and energy, determining the perceived colour palette.

The edges of the visible light blend in the spectrum of Ultraviolet rays and infrared radiation levels.

The Sources of light are majorly classified as natural and artificial. For the earth, the sun is the primary source of natural light. This source of energy and light emits seven

Image 56 : Types of electromagnetic radiations- the visible spectrum is perceived by the human eyesplit in rainbow colours- VIBGYOR.

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Image 57 : Electromagnetic spectrum in terms of light emission and its colours perception

Image 58 : More the frequency of light, the more the energy of light and the lesser the wavelength. Frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength of light. Red has the highest wavelength whereas the violet has the highest frequency.

types of electromagnetic radiation- radio, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. Most of these are absorbed by the atmospheric layers of the earth.

Sunlight is composed of the visible colours (VIBGYOR).

This mixture colours is known as white light.

When white light strikes a white object, it appears white to us because it absorbs no colour and reflects all colours equally.

Similarly, when it strikes a coloured object, this colour light is reflected back. When some amounts of light are absorbed leaving a particular wavelength of colour to reflect back, the colour of the object is perceived in that particular colour which it reflects.

And when a black object absorbs all colours equally and reflects none, so it looks black to us.

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Solar azimuth, Zenith and Altitude The solar azimuth refers to the angle of the sun rays measured in the horizontal plane along the horizon.

Throughout the course of the day, the sun changes its position in the sky, leading to a change in solar azimuth.

The intensity of the early morning and evening sun is lesser than the noontime because the solar azimuth is slanted in the mornings. In the noontime, the sun’s position is at the zenith (is perpendicular) in the horizon, receiving at-most light intensity throughout the day.

Solar azimuth helps in setting up and deciding the day and night. This constant change of the solar azimuth around the clock affects the illumination of the object.

On the other hand, solar altitude refers to the vertical angle of the sun relative to the Earth’s horizon. The value of the solar altitude varies based on the time of day, the time of year and the latitude on Earth. At sunrise, the solar altitude increases from zero degrees.

At sunset, the solar altitude decreases toward zero degrees. The solar altitude plays an important role in guiding the seasonal variations around the year.

Regions closer to the equator have higher solar altitudes than the region near the poles. Although the amount of light and heat depending on the Solar azimuth and solar altitude in a geographical location plays an important role in orienting the landscapes in that region. The change in quality and quantity of natural light change throughout the year, allowing the valley to experience different weather, climatic conditions, and seasonal changes.

Image 59 : Solar azimuth

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Image 60 : Solar Altitude

Image 61 : Seasonal changes

Basics of light

Image 62 : Earth’s tilt and rotation on its axis. The red circle locates manipur on the planet

Geographical location India lies in the northern hemisphere, beyond the equator, such that the tropic of cancer passes through some parts of the country. The regions in which the tropic of cancer passes through or is nearby experience warm temperatures and a humid climate. Although other geographical factors also play an important role in the weather and climatic conditions of the region.

Manipur is located in the extreme northeastern part of the country which is also located near the tropic of cancer. Due to this, the region experiences warm temperatures and humid climates.

The Valley of Imphal is located between the latitude and the longitude of 24.8170° N and 93.9368° E, locating it in the extreme northeastern part of the country. Due to the solar azimuth and its geographical positioning on the earth the north-eastern part of the country receives the day’s first sunlight 2 hours earlier tentatively than the other parts of the country. This allows the people of Manipur to experience daylight around 4 in the morning and twilight as early as 5 pm.

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Image 63: Night light at 9pm

These times are particularly for the Valley of Imphal in the month of march on the onset of spring .

Colour of the light – The colour of the light changes due to the scattering of light with the phenomenon of Rayleigh scattering. The Earth’s atmosphere comprises various gasses like oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. When the Sun’s rays strike the Earth’s atmosphere to pass through, they are distorted by the Earth’s atmosphere due to all these materials. As demonstrated earlier, different colours present in the spectrum have different wavelengths. This difference in wavelength causes a change in the colour of light and the perception of the surroundings.

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Variations in Natural light Twilight is the transitional period between the day and night (before the sun rises and after it sets); the light is always soft and diffused with cooler colours and has low contrast as the sun crosses the horizon and light scatters to shorter wavelengths.

During sunrise and sunset, the sun is near the horizon, due to which the sunlight passes sideways through a much longer and denser section of the earth’s atmosphere. This scatters most of the green and blue wavelengths to produce distinct shades of yellow and red. The warmer colours of light are experienced during this period.

Colour Temperature These different colour temperatures are referenced on the Kelvin scale, which ranges from cool blue-tinged light to the warmer reddish spectrum. These different colour tones can directly affect the mood and impact how colours are depicted.

Dusk

Morning

Afternoon

Evening

Night

Image 64 : Colour temperature throughout the day. The colour range starts from warm orange red light and ends at the cool blues

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Image 65: Dawn at 4am. Soft morning light is seen striking in the layers of the mountains

Image 66: Light throughout the day

Image 68 : Twilight around 5.30pm, in cooler and darker shades of blues.

Image 67 : Dusk at 4.30pm. This is at the golden hour period, emitting yellow-ish light and the sky is set in shades of orange and red

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UV Light The spectrum of UV light falls between the visible spectrum and X-rays in the electromagnetic spectrum.

The edges of the visible light blend in the spectrum of Ultraviolet rays and infrared radiation levels.

Since the UV light has a frequency between 10 and 400 nanometers, however, this light cannot be perceived by the human eye. Although some animals have a different visible range, often extending into the infrared range (wavelength greater than 700 nanometers) or ultraviolet, they can perceive these colours.

The Earth’s atmosphere filters the light from the Sun, so the light we see and feel changes with the time of day and different places on Earth. During the day (when the Sun is overhead), there is less filtering, so we receive brighter light with a higher blue and UV content. In the morning and evening, sunlight travels through more of the Earth’s atmosphere, filtering the blue and UV content, leaving the light softer and warmer (less intense, less blue, more yellow and red). Our bodies are programmed to respond to this daily intensity and colour changes. We are naturally energized by a bright sunny day and relaxed by the sunset’s soft, warm glow.

Since Absorption causes electrons in the material to jump to a higher energy level, these electrons can then return to a lower energy level in smaller steps, emitting a portion of their absorbed energy as visible light. Hence, the objects are exposed to sunlight; they appear brighter due to the absorption of invisible UV radiation resulting in internal reactions followed by emission of visible wavelengths.

Exposure to UV radiation can be highly detrimental to colours and materials. Part of the issue of why colours fade is related to the molecular structure of the

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pigments responsible for the original hue. Ultraviolet light can have an aggressive impact on many types of pigments, especially natural dyes, quickly exciting and breaking down the molecules that bring colour to an object. The more UV a coloured surface absorbs, the more chances UV radiation affects the pigmentation.

In Manipur, due to the cloudy weather, the UV rays affect a lot in the perception of colours.

The Lighter shades, like yellow, tend to be relatively ineffective when absorbed by UV light. On the other hand, darker shades, like red and blue, are better at absorbing UV rays. The dark colours like blues, greens and browns absorb more UV light than the lighter colours like white and pastels.

Hence, When the UV light falls on the lush green landscapes in the valley, the greens enhance and are perceived as darker and denser. This perseverance of greens in the valley make the surrounding cooler .

Image 69 : UV Spectrum in the light spectrum

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Image 70 : Light blue Clear skies in the months of March.

Weather conditions

The constant change in the angle of solar azimuth and solar altitude results in seasonal changes around the year. Along with that, geographical factors like the landscapes and the waterscapes play a significant role in setting up the climatic conditions in the valley.

The lush green mountain ranges help maintain a moderate climate in the valley by blocking the cold winds and barring cyclonic storms. Hence, the temperature in the valley is warmer than in the hills throughout the year.

The seasonal variations lead to different types of weather conditions in the valley. These conditions play an essential role in the perseverance of colour variations as they affect the quality of light. Major weather conditions are seen during Clear sky, Cloudy sky, Mist and Fog and Glare.

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Image 71 : Cumulus clouds stand out in the contrast of the blue dull skies

Cloudy Weather Clouds may look big, fluffy and humongous in the sky, but in reality, they are visible collections of tiny water droplets that live high in the atmosphere above the Earth’s surface. When the natural light falls on these tiny water droplets, the varying wavelengths of the droplets and the light scatter into all colours in the spectrum. This scattering is known as Mie scattering. When the light scatters to equal colours, it results in white light. Hence, the clouds are perceived as white clouds. Similarly, When the light scatters to unequal colours, the clouds are perceived in different colours.

The appearance and colour of the clouds change depending on the type of natural environment, quantity and the spatial distribution of particles. It is also determined by the intensity of light and the colour of light it receives from the sun. Clouds play an essential role in the scattering of the morning, leading to it changing their colour and further affecting the perception of colours.

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In contrast to the blue skies, the clouds appear in shades of white to achromatic greys. Depending on the type of clouds, some clouds block the sunlight, whereas some clouds partially allow the sun rays to pass through, allowing intense light beams to fall on the ground. Most clouds block the UV rays by filtering them through their layers.

In the valley of Imphal, the abundance of water bodies and forest covers lead to the extensive formation of multiple forms of clouds. With varying temperatures in different seasons, various types of clouds are seen.

On the onset of spring in March, the clouds clear up to clear blue skies. With the clearing of skies with partial clouds, the intensity of light falling on the ground increases leading to more heated grounds and a sudden temperature rise.

Cumulus clouds resemble cotton puffs in contrast to faded blue clear skies. On a clear sunny day in the warmer months of March, the white clouds appear late in the mornings and disappear towards the early evening. When the strong sunlight falls on these clouds, they create a silver lining effect. Due to this, the ground gets directly heated by the sun leading to a rise in temperature and increased light intensity throughout the day.

Image 72: Cumulus clouds partially seen in the fabric of mustard plantations

Image 73 : Cumulus clouds stand out in the contrast of the blue dull skies

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Image 74 : White and Grey coloured clouds resulting to Altocumulus clouds in the morning blue sky

Image 75 : Evening sky with Altocumulus clouds

Altocumulus clouds are the most common clouds in the middle atmosphere. They can be recognized as white or grey patches that dot the sky in large, rounded masses or clouds aligned in parallel bands. When the light passes through these white and grey clouds, its intensity decreases, producing a warm white colour of the light.

In the colder months of January and February, the thick and dense cloud covers are profoundly seen on most of the days. As the size and concentration of the hydrometers increase, less and less sunlight penetrates the cloud, resulting in their darker perseverance in varying shades of grey.

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Stratus clouds hang low, flat and featureless, layering uniformly on the greyish clouds. They resemble like fog that is spread all over, hugging the horizon. The light is completely blocked by the grey sheets of the clouds, making the environment dull. This leads to its association with mist or drizzle. Such clouds are seen on overcast days.

Altostratus appears as grey or bluish-grey sheets of Image 76: Over-casted grey skies at Loktak lake - Stratus clouds cloud that partially or cover the sky at mid-levels. Even though they cover the sky, the sun is seen dim-lit behind them. It doesn’t have enough light to shine through to cast shadows on the ground. Altostratus tends to form ahead of a warm or occluded front. They can also occur together with cumulus at a cold front.

Stratocumulus clouds are low, puffy, greyish and whiteish clouds in nature that are uniformly laid over the blue grey sky. They occur in patches with some visibility of the blue sky. These greyish clouds are medium dense in nature. They diminish the intensity of most of the light and block some amount of sunlight amongst their cloud cover, allowing some amount of light to fall directly on the ground. The beaming rays of the sun can be clearly seen falling on the land.

Image 77 : Stratocumulus clouds stand out in the partially overcast sky at the loktak lake

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Nimbostratus clouds cover the sky in a dark grey layer. They extend from the low to middle layers of the atmosphere and are thick enough to block out the sun. The light is blocked by these clouds, causing a dull, dark and grey environment. These clouds are essential rain clouds.

Cumulonimbus clouds are a few clouds that span low, middle and high layers. They resemble the cumulus clouds from which they grow. Skies near the grounds are often hazy and dark.

Image 78 left & 79 right : Cumulonious clouds in both the setting - At the time of sunset and gloomy sky

Image 80 : Cumulonious clouds in both the setting

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Weather condition- Mist and Fog Landscape overview in January

Image 81 : Due to the extreme cold temperatures in January, the skies are covered with fog and creates haze in the morning. The light scatter through the fog resulting to layering the vibrant colours of the vegetation and landscapes to muted palletes.

Image 82 : With the clearing of the fog amid the temperature drop, The cloudy sky allows some of sunlight to fall on the patches of lands which allows distinct visibility of colours. The bright yellow patches of mustard stand stark amongst the dried patches of the harvested paddy.

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Glare Glare is a harsh uncomfortably bright light produced by a light source with high intensity in the field of vision more remarkable than the intensity of light to which the eyes can adapt. It can be re-termed extreme brightness that can limit a person’s ability to distinguish details and objects. Glare may come directly from a light source, or it can be reflected—direct glare results from high brightness from a light source in vision.

Light when reflects from one medium to another can result in distracting glare. This results in some light being reflected off the surface or internally reflected within a spectacle lens.

Strong and stark Light reflections from smooth and shiny surfaces such as water, sand or snow result in Blinding Glare. It can be strong enough to block the vision.

When the light reflects on the surfaces, it becomes polarized and produces a blinding glare.

In the valley of Imphal, the agricultural lands lying in the low-lying areas get filled with water most of the year by rainwater. The water-filled patches of water are seen in dark shades of grey- blues, rust-browns and brown greens. Since these patches have very high reflectivity, they imitate the colours of the sky. When the strong sunlight falls on these patches of water, it reflects glaring stark silver blue-grey light blinding the vision. As the sun’s position keeps on changing along with its changing intensity, the intensity of the glare also varies.

Image 83: The Blinding glare _Loktak Lake

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Image 84 : With the clearing of the fog amid the temperature drop, The cloudy sky allows some of sunlight to fall on the patches of lands which allows distinct visibility of colours. The bright yellow patches

Surface Reflection - Refraction and its types Variations due to Indirect light Reflection is the change in the direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns to the medium from which it originated.

When the light falls on a shiny or smooth surface, the light bounces off an object in the opposite direction at the same angle, known as Specular reflection.

Here the angle of incidence and reflection are equal; hence most of the reflections are mirror-image of their original. These reflections are mostly seen on stagnant water bodies and flat, highly reflective surfaces in the natural environment.

When the light falls on a rough surface, the light bounces off in various directions; it is known as Diffused reflection. The light reflects on all rough surfaces in numerous directions, making the reflection faint. These reflections are generally experienced on surfaces like desert, snow and other surfaces.

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On the other hand, Refraction is the bending of a light ray when it crosses the boundary between two different, as from air to water. This change in direction is due to a change in speed. Light travels fastest in space and slows down upon entering matter.

When the light falls on any object, it absorbs some amount of light whereas reflects the other amount of light. The light that reflects from the object changes its colour due to the object’s inherited colour. Due to this, the perception of colour on the surrounding object changes.

The overall landscape and the numerous water bodies in this region play an essential role in perceiving light.

They absorb some amount of light and reflect some light into the environment. Various elements from the natural environment like the trees, agricultural fields, soil, rocks, mountains and water bodies reflect their light.

Since the valley of Imphal is rich in its waterscapes, specular reflections and refractions are frequently seen on most water bodies and small patches of land in the low-lying areas.

Since Loktak lake is a large expanse, it reflects more light and is one of the best sources for examining these reflections. The lake’s clear water amplifies the surface reflections and imitates the sky like a mirror. With the changing colours of the sky throughout the days and different patterns formed by the clouds in the sky, the reflections of these changes are constantly visible on the Loktak lake!

The lake has numerous biomasses floating over it and inside the lake. Some amount of light is absorbed by these vegetations whereas some amount of light reflects into the environment.

Depending on the weather conditions, time of the day and the intensity of light falling on the water-body,

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Image 85: Reflection of water

Image 86 : Dense patches of forests in the valley of manipur

the colour of the reflected light along with its intensity changes.

In contrast to the waterbodies, the soil and the rocks available in varying shades of ochres, browns and greybrowns absorbs most of the sunlight and partially reflect it back. Apart from the water bodies, the dense forest and vegetation play an important role in reflecting back the light.

The dense foliage of the forests creates a semi-porous kind surface over large stretches.

The thick, dense forest covers in the valley play an essential role in reflecting light into the environment.

The tree covers are lush and densely green. These green shades are cooler, and when the warmer hues of light fall on them, it absorbs most of it, reflecting its greener shades back.

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Image 87 : Landscapes in Andro in the month of January. Fog covers the sky with a dark grey layer, diffusing the visibility of colours. The florescent yellows of the mustard fields are percieved dully and hazy

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Seasonal Variation in the change of man-made vegetation

Image 88 : Landscapes in Andro in the month of January. The dull grey sky allows some amount of light to fall on the fields. The florescent yellows of the mustard fields stand in contrast to the overall landscape of the valley.

Image 89 : Landscapes in Andro in the month of March. The intensity of light is increases with increase in temperature. The harsh sunlight falls these landscapes leading to drying of the crops. The mustard plantation are harvested by march and the fields are in shades of beige browns and dried browns.

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Time lapse photos of the hills surrounding the valley in January

Image 90 : Dawn_Sunrise at 5am. The first ray of the sunlight passes through the layering of hills appearing in lighter greys at the far end and darker green blues at the nearer. With the light coming from behind the hills, appears to be blue grey creating a dramatic scenario in contrast to the clear skies.

Image 91: Afternoon sunlight - at 11am. The strong sunlight highlights the variations of greens and browns setting against the clear pale blue skies.

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Image 92 : Before sunset around 3pm. With the sunlight coming from the Western side. The layers of mountains are perceived in the variation of light grey blues to darker blue greys. With the hills nearby are seen covered with fog along with partial evening golden light.

Image 93 : Dusk_ Sunset at 5pm. Layered amongst the fog, the soft light disperses through the dull orange yellow sky creating dramatic perceiverance of the blue grey mountains post sunset.

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Time lapse photos of the loktak lake in January.

Image 94 : Aerial view of the loktak lake at 7am. Due to the cold weather, the fog covers up the sky to create a silver grey layer over the landscape. With the water of the loktak lake clearly reflects the sky, the phumdis stand in contrast and are perceived in dull greens and browns

Image 95 : Aerial view of the loktak lake at 2pm, The sky clears up by the dropping of temperature allowing some sunlight to directly fall on the water, resulting the sky to reflect. The fresh greens are now visible and the landscapes compliment the waterscapes.

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Image 96 : Aerial view of the loktak lake at 4pm, The skies have a layer of fog layered in the evening.

The soft evening light reflects on the clear water with the warmer shades of the sky. It creates a beautiful combination with the variant brown green shades of the phumdis.

Image97 : Aerial view of the loktak lake at 6pm. Post sunset, the darker tones of the warmer pallete reflects in patches on the lake. Natural streaks of light directly reflects on the waters, highlighting that patch of the lake creating a shades of silvers grey blues with tint on warmer oranges and pinks.

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Seasonal Changes

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Seasonal Changes

Changing colours of sky, hence water at the Loktak Lake throughout the day

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CHAPTER B: Colour selection as manifested in the traditional

Way of life

5. The built form 6. Textiles and attire 7. Objects of daily use and Lifestyle 8. Arts & crafts Image98 : Woman at ema market selling religious goods

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People in the valley of Manipur The natives in the valley are known as Meitei or Manipuri.

The geopolitical positioning of the state has led to the emergence of the amalgamation of cultures, religions, ethnicities, and strong identities amongst communities.

Tribes like Nagas and Kukis along with some communities of the Marwaris, Nepalis and Bengalis also have settled in the valley along with the Meitei. The largest population, the Meitei community, dominates the others in the valley by holding their identity as a single speaking language – Meitheilon or Manipuri, which also has its own script, culture and religion that dates to the 10th century.

Since the Meiteis have grown up amongst the diverse forms of nature, most of their resources for living and sustaining a livelihood come from nature. They have been fortunate and grateful to nature. Hence, they are firm believers of sanamahism, a Meitei way of life that worships elements of nature, namely fire, water, mountains, and trees. Therefore, most of their inspirations of colours, patterns, motifs and forms are derived from the colourful, rich and diverse nature.

Along with having indigenous faith in nature and spirit, the Meiteis believe in ancestorial worship. They have dedicated spaces in their houses and courtyards for their social conduct for the same. These practices and ways of life have helped Meiteis develop a unique and robust identity amongst the others in the valley.

Earlier in the mid-fifteenth century, with the influence of religion coming in by the ruling kings of Manipur, most Meiteis were converted to Hindu - Vaishnavites, recognized as Meitei Hindus and some converted to Muslims as Meitei pangals.

The pangals in the valley are in minority and are sparsely populated, whereas due to the higher population of the Meitei Hindus, they are dominant and are spread across the valley.

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With the acceptance of Hinduism, there were additions in meiteis lifestyle. New beliefs, rituals, festivals, lifestyles, food delicacies and styles brought in unique colours and motifs in attires along with craft practices in their original belief system. Although the Meitei continued to follow their rooted traditions and culture of sanamahism alongside Hinduism.

There were some scheduled castes Meitei who didn’t accept the religions but practiced Sanamahism and are known as Lois. They follow years old practices like making rice beer (known as ‘yu’ in Manipuri) and eating meat. Villages like Andro, Pheyang and Sekmai are considered to be ‘Loi’ villages. They have their craft practices and agricultural fields, making them self-sustainable for their living.

Image 99 : Young meitei girls in their traditional attire- phanek & phi, paired with gold jewellery and fresh flowers

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5.

Built Form

The built form is a man-made environment that comprises the relationship between humans and the context in which it is set up. Considering the environmental conditions, climate and materials available concerning the economic and social aspects of the region, it contributes to a vernacular-built form.

Traditional architecture is the backbone of the area’s social and cultural structure which maintains its integrity.

It represents and displays the identity of the people who live there.

Dwellings in the valley of Manipur are known as ‘Yum Kei’ (in Manipuri). As these yum keis are built using local materials, they are well contextualized with the climate and are designed keeping in mind their lifestyle and daily needs.

The meitei household is not only a noticeable architectural feature but also reflects the community’s embodiment and their traditional social structure based on kinship. Their spaces reflect the community’s unique identity, habits, and lifestyle with the use of materials and techniques of making.

Image 100 : A Yumkei - a meitei household in Andro

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Image 101 : A Yumkei - a meitei household in Andro

Spatial organization of a manipuri dwelling Meitei’s holistic approach makes their home more than a shelter, a place for rituals and economic activities for dwellers.

A ‘yum kei’ is a Meitei dwelling with numerous features compounded in the 4’ high dried dark brown bamboo splits woven from all around. Each yum kei will have a central courtyard surrounded by three porticos- a Yumjao – a big Meitei house, a sangai - a workspace and Kei -a storage unit. Each household has a phukria pond and a hingol – a large kitchen garden and sangol- a cattle shed for their daily needs. The inclusion of such numerous features makes each family selfsustainable in the valley.

Since the Meiteis are believers of ancestorial worship, they dedicate the eastern corner of the household to a small temple in their remembrance.

The yum kei designed by their ancestors were keeping in mind their cultural practices, lifestyle and contextual factors, the space planning and the orientation of the

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Image 102: : Bamboo woven compound walls

the yumjaos had logical reasons for their particular setting. Since then, the Meiteis have followed their ancestors’ practices while planning and making a yum Kei. For passing their ancestor’s knowledge of making a yumjao to the younger generations, it is narrated and choreographed in the form of a dance known as Lai Haribo, a traditional dance form practiced by the Meitei community.

The yum kei are made from locally available materials in abundance like clays, woods, bamboo and thatch.

It is designed keeping in mind the environmental conditions and contextual factors. This makes it sustainable, eco-friendly and affordable.

The Overall Setup Of A Yum Kei As one enters the yum kei from the southern entrance, one passes by an elongated Pukhri (known as a pond in Manipuri) to reach the central courtyard. Pukhri was initially made in a dwelling to store fresh water and have local fishes in it for everyday use. Since the aquatic cycle is constant, the pukri stays clean and has clear waters. Some Pukhri has kauna reeds grown alongside bright pink and purple lotus flowers and bright green lilies.

Image 103 : Pukhri- a pond in a yum kei household

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The central courtyard is the heart of a yum kei as it serves as a multi-functional space. It is one of the most important spaces in everyday use as it acts as a gathering space for kids and the elderly in routine along with carrying out activities like drying vegetables. On occasions, it is used as a performance space for homebased ceremonies like dance forms during yoashong (Holi). Every morning, the courtyard is coated with a slurry of cow dung and ochre yellow soil.

A 6 feet wide red/ blue circle is cemented on the ground at the centre of the courtyard stands in contrast to the hand-done coats of Wai teiba (lippan kaam in Manipuri). The circle demarcates a Meitei Hindu household. Influenced by the Hindu practice, the tulsi planter is considered to be holy and is placed at the centre of the circle in the courtyard.

Image 104 : Central courtyard in a Yum kei. During Holi, it is used for performing traditional dances.

Image 105 : Central courtyard in a Yum kei, a multi-functional space.

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Image 106: Front facade of a yumjao, Built at a plinth and layered with thatches of paddy

2 major porticos - Yumjao and Sangai Yumjao is linear form of a residential unit with approximately 12’ width and 30’ length. It is set against the pale hues of blue sky creating a contrast by the variations of brown. Due to the extreme heavy rainfall in the region, the Yumjaos are built on a slightly raised plinth. The height is gained by layering the mixture of ochre clays and coating the floor with cow-dung slurry. The edges of the plinth is rounded with finesse as the lippan kaam is done with hand. The coating on the floors of the yumjao and the compound have beautiful hand textures on it. This flooring provides a hygienic surface and makes it compatible with the other materials in the yumjao.

The structure of the yumjao was originally made from green-brown thick bamboo shoots. However, with time, the locally available timbers are also used in building some yumjaos. The structure creates a bold orthogonal grid. In between these grids, the textured walls of the yumjao are made by interlacing weaves of bamboo strips.

Image 107 (above) & 108 (below) : raised plinth of the yumjao using local light brown soil

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This skeleton is then plastered uniformly from both the sides with a mixture of dark brown clay, thick straw, mud and water. The use of dark brown clay for the walls give a cooling effect during the hot summers as well as a warming effect during the cold months of winters thereby acts as a temperature regulator. The local materials used are good insulators for different temperatures, humidity and pressure ranges, with moderate to high resistances from wind and rainfall.

These walls are uniformed from the exterior whereas a clear structure of the yumjao is visible from its interiors.

Image 109(left), 110(center), 111(right): Natural materials like clay and bamboo slits used for

making a yumjao

Image 112: Bamboo splits woven together and plastered with clay and mud

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Image 113 (left) and 114 (right): Different natural material plaster found on yumjaos. Light

brown beige and orangish clay plasters done by mixtures of paddy straw, cow-dung and regional clay available.

These structures are capped with a sloping roof made with layers of dried paddy thatch. The textures of golden-brown gradation of thatch complement the dark brown clay walls.

The entrance of the yumjao generally faces the East as it is the most used space in the household, the verandas get at-most sunlight in the extremely cold winter mornings of January. The orientation of the yumjao has an underlying purpose, that is, to function as a sundial.

In ancient times, the Meitei calibration of the time was based on the locus of shadows. The shadows of the house falling on various structures depicted the time of the day.

Since most of the materials used for making a yumjao are coming from the immediate context, i.e., nature, the colour palettes generated in the built form follow muted shades of browns which blend with the vegetation around it, yet stand out in the contrast of clear blue skies.

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Sangai are out-houses placed adjacent to the yumjao. They are built with a similar structure as a yumjao. The only difference is it has walls on the three sides and the longer side is open that provides full connectivity with the courtyard and the house. The space is largely used as a work space depending on the occupation of the family. Some use it for pottery and some use it for kauna crafts. In the Loi-villages like Andro, they are also used for rice brewing. The large opening provides enough natural light for one to work under this shed. The slope of the place is such that it doesn’t allow the rainwater to pour on the inside but rather aids the flow of water outside their space.

Image 115 : Sangai at andro - setup for brewing alcohol

Image 116: Sangoi at andro- used by the women for making pottery

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Image 117 : Mini hingol (patches of vegetables grown) beside the yumjao

Image 118 : Different coloured lime plasters generally done on the yumjaos

With the extraction of lime from the hills around and availability of colours in the market, the Meiteis have adopted pastel shades for the exterior of the house.

Inspired by the colours of nature, pastel shades of blue, green and yellow are lime plastered over the dark brown clay walls. Sandwiched between the shades of ochres in the flooring and textured dull browns in the thatch, these plastered walls stand out in contrast and hold their own identity.

With passage of time, the vegetation of the thatch has gone down which has resulted in higher costs of making thatch roofs. Meiteis have replaced the light brown textured thatch with the metal corrugated roofs which are then painted with red/brown colour.

Away from the sheds, is a small room known as Kei that is used for storing rice. These storage spaces are made with the thin cane strips woven lattices interlaced with the bamboo or wooden structure. To preserve them from extreme rainfall, these structures are raised up to a height of four feet.

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Image 119: Ema(mother) sitting at the verandah

Interiors of a yumjao Overall, the interior layout of the yumjaos still continues to be followed as was done by their ancestors. Years ago, their ancestors deduced the similarities of the house with a human body, associating it with different compartments for distinct organs, similarly, the yumjao has different rooms for each organ of the family. This systematic compartmentalization has provided identity and privacy to each member of the family. Hence, each space in the house is dedicated to a particular function.

The linear form is symmetrically divided but the entrance is off-centered towards the right side since, the left side of the veranda space is dedicated for the elderly to rest and preach their learnings to the younger generations.

On the right side of the verandah, the corner space is dedicated to the woman for having looms for weaving their local attires.

On entering the house, the central aisle is left for circulation space. At the center of the central aisle is the fireplace to keep the home warm in winters.

The longer side of the yumjao is divided into 3 equal parts on both sides. These screens of partitions are made with interlocking weaves of cane and bamboo.

The left side of the home has spaces for the males in

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Image 120 : Weaving on looms in the verandah of the house

the family whereas the spaces for females are on the right. At the extreme end of the yumjao, is the kitchen.

The Meiteis are fire-worshipping people and they consider the kitchen to be holy. The deity of Sanamahi is right opposite to the kitchen.

The use of natural material and its mixtures makes the house very comfortable to stay in, considering the extreme climate of Manipur.

Image 121: Setting up of kitchen in the Interior of a yumjao

Image 122: Setting up of kitchen in the Interior of a yumjao

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Generally, in the linear residential form, there is one door at the entrance and 5 windows opening - two at the entrance on either side of the door, two on the longer side of the yumjao and one at the end of the yumjao near the kitchen. These openings help bring in light and circulating fresh air. Apart from these openings, the yumjaos built on the plinth are constructed in a way that leave slits for partial light to enter and continuous ventilation to happen.

Image 123 : Entrance of the yumjao. Walls plastered light yellow

Image 124(left),& 125( right) : Door and window openings for ventilation

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Image 126: Interior of a yumjao plastered in white

Image 127(left) & 128 (right) : Designated spaces for the practice of Sanamahis in their yumjaos.

After sunsets, the Meiteis light up the fire at the center of the yumjao for it to heat up in the cold weather.

The fire generates a strong yellow orange light that complements the warmer shades of browns in the interiors of the yumjao that lit up the space as well.

The structure of the yumjao is clearly visible when seen from its interiors. The thick and brown bamboo shoots create large orthogonal grids on the two parallel walls of the yumjao. The monochrome-coloured plasters are applied in the patches in between the wooden structural grids. Their homes reflect upon Meiteis approach to minimalism and beliefs in simple living.

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Built form - Contemporary colours

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6.

Textiles and Attires

The colourful kaleidoscope of Manipur’s society and culture is clearly seen through their textiles, handlooms and attires. Each ethnic communities in the valley have their own diverse kind of textiles that depict their culture and identity. While glancing over the valley, the Meiteis are dressed in their bright and vibrant attires stand in contrast with the palletes of greens, brown and blues found in the background Their close affinity with the surrounding environment is reflected in their use of bright colours and forms of design motifs in their textiles.

Women of Meitei have peculiar costumes which consist of two major parts known as Phanek as a wraparound garment from top to bottom, like along skirt while phi which acts as draping garment over the upper body while men have a complete monochromatic white attire from head to toe. They are worn as a part of their daily lifestyle and hence prioritizes on the factors of comfort and functionality. Its beauty lies in the simplicity and hence this monolithic garment of women and monochromatic garment of men when worn looks gracious and feels complete in itself.

Image 129 (left page) : traditional pink, black and white phanek

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Materials used for making textiles The textiles are handwoven by the women themselves on a handloom. Based on the easy availability of the raw materials that can be processed to make a fabric in the region, these textiles are majorly made in two types of fabrics- cotton and muga silk since ancient times. According to the occasion and its importance, the fabrics of these textiles are chosen. These fabrics demonstrate a range and sophistication that the Meiteis believe in.

There are 3 types of cotton found in Manipur. Some grow wild in the forests; some are cultivated in farms and some are lustrous in nature which are used in making pillows. Meitei woman make sustainable yarns from the available raw material. Weaving from cotton involves stages like ginning, cotton rolling, spinning, winding and twisting it on the wheel. After the tedious and long process, the fibers are ready to be handwoven.

Similarly with the practice of Sericulture since more than 1000 years by the Meiteis, the textiles are often made from silk. And hence, the tedious process of the extraction of silk from its cocoon is often done.

After this process of extraction of the fabrics, they are woven on loin looms or hand-looms. Looms have given the weaver endless freedom to apparels in with different designs and in combinations of colours.

Image 130: Hand woven cotton threads along with silk drawn from the cocoons.

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Image 131: Group of ladies in their traditional phaneks and innaphi draped like a saree

Women - attires and the handlooms The Women in the valley have been the cultural bearers to keep traditions intact throughout generations.

Their attire consists of 2 parts- innaphi and Phanek.

Innaphi is a translucent shawl-like cloth hand woven in shades of pastel colours which ranges from greens, yellows, oranges to mauves and violets. They are worn as an upper body garment. Along with these colours they are delicately woven floral motifs and patterns which are inspired by the flowers and leaves found around.

The Traditional Lower garment worn by the women is known as the Phanek. It is a wrap-around ankle length long sarongs worn with the innaphi in routine and are made in a variety of colours and patterns. These bright colours add a colourful essence in their ethnic wear.

Basics of all Meitei costumes include the innaphi and phaneks. But According to its pattern and material it is made up of, it is worn on different occasions like weddings, festivals like holi, new year, birth and death ceremonies. The phaneks and innaphi are paired up with beautiful to wear saree as well.

Both the textiles are handwoven by the women themselves on a handloom. Based on the easy availability of the raw materials that can be processed

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to make a fabric in the region, these textiles are majorly made in two types of fabrics- cotton and muga silk since ancient times. According to the occasion and its importance, the fabrics of these textiles are chosen.

These fabrics demonstrate a range and sophistication through their minimalist approach that the Meiteis believe in.

Phaneks are generally of three different types-One of the most commonly used phaneks are the plain solid-coloured ones made from both cotton and silk and dyed in various colours extracted from vegetable, fruits and flowers. The cotton ones are worn in routine and are comfortable while doing the daily chores.

These are worn by women of all ages, caste and sects.

With the addition of simple geometrical borders to the plain bold coloured phaneks are the moirang phaneks. These phaneks generally have a triangular shaped border also known as temple border woven along the length of the phanek. Varying in sizes, the thickness of the temple weave ranges from 3 inches to 6 inches. Despite the colour of the phanek, the borders are generally black or red in colour. These phaneks are also made in both cotton and silk fabrics.

The cotton ones are used equally in the routine wear whereas the silk ones are worn during some occasion like or festivities.

Image 133: Simple geometrical border known as temple border done at one of the long edges of the fabric. Contrasting colour are chosen for making the borders in the phanek. Rani pink & Bright red are two major colours used for making the borders of the phaneks

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Image 132: Plain phanek worn as a routine dress by the woman

Image 134 : Various colours of phaneks found in the market

Image 135 & 136 : Shades of pink in combination to the black and white stripes along witht the traditional embroided borders are majorly found. Newer colours like blue, yellows and greens are also found

The Third type of phaneks are unique to the Meitei community and have been part of their culture since the practice of Sanamahism. These phaneks are woven with horizontal tricoloured strips and have embroidered traditional borders.

Looking at the Meitei’s attire years back, phaneks were the only piece of cloth that was worn to cover their body. The phaneks were bright tri-coloured striped with varying thickness to stand out amongst the dense vegetations. In those days, the fabrics were dyed from the abundantly available flower- one of them which helped in dying black colour. With the evolution of the patterns, the thickness of the horizontal stripes on the phaneks are woven thinner than the previous times.

Inspired by colourful flowers and vegetables found in the valley, the colours of the phaneks are selected in dual combinations with the constant black-coloured stripes.

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With the beauty in the ranges of variety of colours particularly found in the valley, the people preferred dying colours available in nature. This got them engaged in dying and grow plants at home, making them more self-sustainable. The colours were obtained from natural resources like parts of trees and plants like the barks, leaves, fruits, vegetables and colourful flowers. This led to colourful options for both the textiles.

Shades of red, pink, yellows along with darker colours like black, indigo and purple were majorly made from natural resources.

The inspiration of diverse flora and fauna is seen in the motifs and prints on different textiles. The embroidered borders of the phaneks are result of collective inspiration of natural objects like cucumber, honeybees, moon, sun, horses, elephants. Bold colours and geometrical

Image 137 : Traditional Embroided borders for phanek borders. Red , pink and white are three important colours used for the borders.

Image 138 (Below) : Women wearing the traditional embroided phaneks made in cotton fabric

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Image 139 and 140 (left and right) : Traditional Embroided borders for phanek borders. Red , pink and white are three important colours used for the borders.

patterns are evident in most of the textiles in Manipur.

These phaneks are considered to be auspicious and hence worn in marriage ceremonies and Meitei festivals. Most of the women are dressed in pink, purple, orange and yellows coloured striped phaneks paired with the translucent and floral based innaphi and solid coloured blouse.

Motifs The earliest motifs were limited to two basic designs, khoijao and hija patterns, carrying influences from folk tales and regional specificities. The khoijao (big hook) motif is a series of circular patterns which encompasses a large hook-shaped symbol. The outward corner of each hook faces upward and downward alternately, and the border is flanked by two narrow strips of embroidery on either side. The motif is first carved on a wooden block, printed on the cloth and then silk threads are embroidered over the print.[2] It is significant to note that this motif is not limited to phaneks.

Kondraba conceived the hija mayek pattern while making a boat. Thereafter, the royal weavers created

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an artistic representation that mimics the cross section of timber. The ‘W’ on the lower line echoes the Meitei alphabet sam, arranged facing upwards and downwards alternately. The border is flanked at both sides with ornate embroidery. The pattern in the top strip resembles a flowering creeper with leaves on the side and is known as khongnang. The bottom margin is decorated with the tenawa (parrot) figure, again placed alternately up and down and enclosing a yensil (wood sorrel) leaf motif.

Khoi akoibi (approximate translation: rounded hook design) evolves from the earlier khoijao design. It is a relatively newer addition and perhaps the most popular motif as well. Each circular pattern is interjected by the curve of a strained tenga (bow). It is followed by two

Image 141 : Lady weaving phi on the looms

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crescents inspired by the moon and is known as thamachet (tha is the moon and machet means a small piece). The circle at the centre mimics a pot, the symbol for divine mother who nourishes all living beings.

The big circular pattern circumscribes a diamondshaped pattern with two hooks radiating outwards on each side. The circle at the core represents a pitcher surrounded by distinct oval figures. The bigger ovals are cucumber seeds and the smaller ovals are apple seeds. The khoi applique is also used in potloi (a bridal wear for the lower body).

These phaneks are no longer held by hierarchical rules of social order, but they continue to strive for a high standard of beauty. The primary course of action to conserve these traditional motifs, which are entwined with Meitei identity itself, would be to increase awareness and exposure regarding these prints. Encouraging its skilled craftsmanship and reinforcing its symbolic and cultural value would allow a consolidation of its market value.

Image 142 : Lady weaving phi on the looms

The women of the valley practice hand-weaving as a sacred duty than executing it as craft. The worshipers of nature, Meiteis strongly believe that the art of weaving has been inspired by the nature - by seeing the birds weave their nest, insects like spiders weaving its web and plants interlacing amongst themselves.

Their practice weaving as part of their domestic duty which has contributed to making the society selfsustainable. With the years passing by, the handloom industry has been picked up by the women at such a scale that it is monopolized by them at the economic front as well. Ema market- (ema means mother), world’s only all women run market is one of the prime examples to understand hoe the women of Manipur play an important role in the rising economy of the state.

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Textiles - Phaneks worn by women

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7.

Objects of daily use & Local Cuisines

Objects used by the local people in their routine are generally made from the raw materials sourced from the natural resources available around. The objects are made using local inherited techniques. They become a part of their daily lifestyle .

Natural materials like clay, gourds and leaves have been celebrated in the design of every-day’s objects by the Meiteis which speaks of their self-sufficiency.

Image 143 : Routine rituals done in clay pots

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Image 144(left) : Woods from the forests for fire and cooking are stored at every household.

Image 145 (right) : The bamboo sticks are also used for making broomsticks.

Bamboo is integral part of the Meitei culture, finding its mention and use in their songs, cuisines, sports, dwellings, musical instruments, domestic daily life products and myths.

-Baskets and thaals are used for storing, drying and to dry veges, fruits and make essentials. Fish traps from cane are also used in daily life.

Image 146 : Rice brewing at andro, Various vessels are made from bamboo and cane for its making

Image 147 : Rice brewing at andro, Various vessels are made from bamboo and cane for its making

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Image 148 (left) & 149( right) : Different types of baskets and large thaals are woven from bamboo and cane and used to collect and dry different vegetables, fruits and fishes

Image 150 (left) & 151 ( right) : Different types of baskets and large thaals are woven from bamboo and cane and used to collect and dry different vegetables, fruits and fishes

Image 152 : Different types of baskets and large thaals are

Image 153 (left bottom), 154 (right) : Different types of baskets and large thaals are woven from bamboo and cane and used to collect and dry different vegetables, fruits and fishes

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Different types of pots are made for different uses.

Depending on the type of clay it is made up of and the properties it holds, the usage of it is decided. Some are used for Storing water and grains. In Andro, a potter’s village it is also used for storing clothes as well.

Most of the utensils are also made by pottery.

One of the traditional systems of brewing alcohol, The rice beer is also made in these vessels.

Image 155-159: Various types of pottery are used for different purposes. These pottery are sourced from Andro, Sekmai and Thongjao

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Image 160: Handloom set up at the right side of the verandah

Ceremonial offering done every day- incense stick holder, fresh flowers, Shentak- ceremonial dish with lid decorated with leaf shaped motif.

Image 161: Ceremonial daily use objects Image 162 (below) : Meifu- a traditional heater run by charcoal

Image 163: coal for maifu(fire)

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Manipuri Cuisine As a result of Manipur’s unique culture, the Meiteis have indigenous food habits that reflect their connection with nature and their socio-cultural interests. With a wide range of flavors ranging from plain to spicy, Manipuri food is an absolute delight to the senses. It is an eclectic mix of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes.

As the region receives an abundance of rainfall, it allows a variety of vegetables, fruits and grains, which eventually become a part of everyday meals. The presence of numerous water-bodies encourages a plethora of fish species. Meitei’s Staple diet is rice and is eaten with fresh or boiled vegetables, fish, meat, and fermented foods.

Boiling and steaming are two prominent methods of cooking used by Manipuris in routine.

A typical Manipuri meal consists of steamed white sticky rice accompanied by various dishes.

Kangsoi -a vegetable stew with local fish- ngari, Ooti is a thick curry made of green-yellow peas, chives and French beans, Atoiba thongba - a Manipuri curry made of fish, Kanghou - stir-fried vegetables, Eromba - a mash of boiled vegetables, ngari and chilli, Singju is a colourful mix of green leafy seasonal vegetables mixed with lotus stem, pulses and peas, spiced with Manipuri red chillies Morok metpa (a paste of roasted chillies, ngari and garlic).

These dishes are significantly seen in pale shades of greens, yellows and browns. Although, Chakhao, an exotic dessert made from local black rice, pops out in

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Image 164: Full manipuri thaliconsists of multiple pulses and dals along with sweet like black rice

Image 165 : Full manipuri thali- consists of multiple pulses and dals along with sweet like black rice

shades of pale purple when served together. When the Manipuri thali is served on a banana leaf, the colour of different dishes enhance in contrast to the fresh green background.

Oil is sparingly used in making manipuri delicacies.

However, Boras or fritters are essentially part of their snacks. Vegetables and chives like bay leaf, onion, ginger and garlic are added to enhance the flavor and aroma. A prominent spice which features most dishes is the umorok or king chilli.

The use of Local aromatic herbs, chives and roots is a significant feature of the Manipuri cuisine. These ingredients lend the cuisine its unique character and endow the food with nutritional and medicinal values.

By utilizing these plants, the communities in this area demonstrate their intimate understanding of the cycles of nature, wild plants, and animals.

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Image 166 : Women at ema market making Boras for snacks.

Image 167 and Image 168 : Local Fermented fish, used in everyday meals.

Manipur is predominantly a landmass covered by forests, hills and mountains and water bodies, the area of land under cultivation is low. Hence, traditionally, certain food products’ fermentation ensured that they were available throughout the year. These fermented foods form an intrinsic part of the traditional diet system and the cultural integrity of all ethnic communities in the valley. These fermented products are unique in terms of the substrate used, the traditional indigenous knowledge of preparation, and culinary practices.

The fermentation process adds nutritional and pharmacological qualities of certain food items, apart from enhancing their flavor.

Apart from fish, various foods like bamboo shoots, fish, soya beans, sesame seeds and meat are fermented for use in regular meals. Fermented alcoholic rice beers like Sekmai and distilled ones like Yu are part of their traditional delicacies.

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Rice Brewing Continuing their traditional practice of fermenting, Some Loi villages in the valley like Andro, Sekmai and Pheyang have not accepted Vaishnavism and have continued to follow Sanamahism as their culture.

Hence, they practice the traditional rice brewing as their source of major income.

The locally available white sticky rice, high in its nutritional value is fermented for days and with the processes of distillation used rice beer is made, commonly known as Sekmai . Further, when it is distilled, a clear highly alcoholic drink is known as Yu.

These alcoholic drinks hold a lot of cultural significance as they are also used during religious ceremonies like their traditional practices like Lai Haraoba.

Image 169 and 170 (right): Making of Rice beer in traditional style. Since, it is consumed during traditional festivals, it is made in large quantities at Anrdo, a loi village in the eastern part of the valley

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Manipuri Cuisine

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8.

Crafts

In the olden days, crafts were generated out of lifestyle needs and the raw materials available in abundance in the region were used to suffice the needs. The generation of crafts by the communities have been an outcome of the imbibed values, skills and their cultural character. Hence, crafts are one of the most contextually driven tangible outcomes generated by the communities, keeping it rooted to the region.

Another reason for crafts coming to existence was the need of a community to celebrate the festivities and add more to their routine lifestyle. Crafts add a layer of colour, pattern and motifs which enhances their culture and tradition in a distinguished manner.

Crafts in the valley of Manipur are as rich as its abundance of natural resources. The sensibilities of the Meiteis are associated with their crafts like handlooms, types of weaving, pottery and arts like classical dance, music and martial arts that reflect their cultural practices.

Most of these crafts are made by the women in the valley. The flair of the artistic people is best manifested through the handicrafts of the valley of Manipur.

The people of the valley were either agrarians or practiced the crafts of weaving and pottery.

Image 171 : Pottery from Andro

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WEAVING

The art of weaving in Manipur has been passed on from generation to generation over the years. May it be weaving on looms or hand weaving cane; the Meiteis have understood the material and the limitations to use bamboo judiciously to make the products they need for their day-to-day activities.

Handlooms

The women of the valley practice weaving as part of their domestic duty which has contributed to making the society self-sustainable. Through the years, the handloom industry has been picked up by the women at such a scale that it is monopolized by them at the economic front as well. Ema market, ema meaning mother, is the world’s only all-women run market is one of the prime examples to understand how the women of Manipur play an important role in the rising economy of the state.

Image 173 : Handlooms shops in ema market

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Image 172 : Women working on hand-looms

Image 174 : Bamboo splits interwoven to make a garage wall

Bamboo

In the marshy lands of the valley, cane and bamboo are grown in abundance and hence the craft production based on these materials is the highest. Bamboo craft is a traditional Manipuri craft which is intricately entwined with the lifestyle of Meiteis.

Every household in the valley will have bamboo used in different forms and at different scales due to its versatile qualities. Most of these bamboo crafts are practiced by the men amongst the communities. The thicker and long dried bamboo shoots are regularly used for making structures for shelters. Peculiar bamboo joineries are used in making furniture like tables, chairs and sofas for routine. Some parts of the looms are also made from bamboo. Smaller sized objects like combs, archery sets, headgears and musical instruments are carved out from bamboo shoots.

Image 175 : Various types of bamboo

The weaves of bamboo and cane vary as per different ethnic groups. Some weaves are done in a way that generates complex geometric patterns whereas some are simpler but delicately done. The designs of the weaves are inspired from the traditional geometrical textile motifs. The products woven meticulously in monotones of dried bamboos look extremely rich and elegant. Generally, the bamboo is used in it.

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natural form but sometimes the bamboo slits are dyed in vegetable dyes for the easy visibility of woven bamboo patterns. The signature Manipuri baskets are recognized in their chequered patterns in black and ivory in dome shaped basket called pheeruk and are used in ceremonial activities. The square base flattened bamboo containers made from fresh and dried split bamboo are used for storing various daily life objects like vegetables, washing rice. These baskets once smoked over the fire for few days are seasoned for future use. The heat and vapors when naturally seasoned, changes the monotones of light brown to darker shades of browns.

Due to its versatile use in numerous objects, bamboo is called the green gold of Manipur.

Pineapple plant fibers are also extracted by few ethnic groups and used for weaving furniture pieces, lamp shades and decorative items in Manipur.

Image 176-177 (left to right) : Bamboo Baskets

Image 178-179 (left to right) : Bamboo Baskets

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Image 180 : Woman weaving kauna mats in their sangai(household work space)

Apart from cane and bamboo, there are numerous types of reeds and grasses that grow in the marshy lands. Kauna is one of the wild Weed that grow in most of the ponds of the Meitei households and alongside paddy fields.

The five and half feet tall Kauna weeds are woven very similar to the weaving done in cane and bamboo.

After its cultivation, the weeds need to be dried up before using it for weaving. Floor Mats, mattresses and cushions mats hold a strong significance in the Meitei culture and practices hold lot of importance as its used in routine at home as well as in various festivals and occasions in community spaces and religious places.

The length and sizes of the mats vary as per required.

Image 181 : Kauna mat

Kauna was initially used only to weave mats for the people of the valley. With time, there are numerous products made for kauna like hand bags, vases, baskets, hats, boxes that are used by the people of valley in routine.

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Generally, the naturally coloured kauna grass is used for most of the products but Numerous weaving options make each product unique. With the variation in weaving with green and dried up kauna together, assorted textures can be seen in the product making it exclusive and different from any other. Sometimes for distinct pattern weaving, the kauna are dyed in vegetable dyes and woven along the dyed kauna.

This gives the product a distinct personality.

Image 182-187( left- right) : Process of making kauna products

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Pottery Along with the weaving-oriented crafts, pottery is a skilled craft practiced by a few of the ethnic groups in the valley. Women in villages like Andro, Thongjao and Nongpok Sekmai have mastered their skills in pottery over the years and practiced it for their livelihoods. The art of pottery is deeply reverted for the Meiteis and is closely related to their beliefs of Sanamahism.

Each pottery is made in its unique way, distinctive by its forms, textures, defined techniques and its uses accordingly. Because of the use of different mixtures of soils and rocks available in that particular village, the final product after firing takes up its peculiar colour which stands as its identity. These different types of potteries are found in most of the homes in the valley each serving different uses.

There are three major villages in the valley that practice pottery- Andro, Nong pok Sekmai and Thongjao

Image 188 : Pottery at Nongpok sekmai

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Image 190 : Textured with the seed, the Wet pots of andro are found in the shades of light ochres

Pottery of Andro

One of the Loi villages, Andro is located in the Southeastern part of the valley. It is known for brewing alcohol and pottery. Only the married women are the only ones who make pottery in the village. Hence, the scale of production of pottery in this village is limited.

The technique of making it makes it unique from all other types of pottery in the valley. Andro pottery is an outcome of coil pottery- the charai taba technique involves making the form of the pot by stacks of loops of the object. There is no use of a wheel or motor that is included in making the form of the product. The Meiteis of andro has been using their products for various activities like saving seeds, cooking, storing drinking water and making local sacred alcoholic brews.

With the locally available light brown clay, sand and dark brown rock are used for making the mixture of the clay. Along with this, implements like rock found from nearby the stream to help in developing the form, wooden bat-like tool to beat the form and fruit seed found in the nearby forest patches is used for creating a texture on the surface of the object. The forms of wet objects would be in the shades of mid-tone browns.

The firing is done by layering up cow dung cakes, stocks of paddy and barks of trees in between the wet products. Once fired the products turn in the shades of light ochre browns. Andro pottery is very simple yet very useful and beautiful.

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Image 191: Once the pots are ready, they are textured in shades of orange brown

Image 192 (top left), 193 (left bottom) and 194(right) : Textured with the seed, the Wet pots of andro are found in the shades of light ochres

Image 195: Textured with the seed, the Wet pots of andro are found in the shades of light ochres

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Pottery of Nongpok Sekmai – Further ahead from andro toward the eastern part of the valley is a small village -Nongpok Sekmai. The village contributes to simpler objects of daily use like plates, containers, pots and bowls.

This region has patches of fertile lands where the black loamy soil can be excavated and used as the main material for mixtures of pottery. The dark black sticky soil is mixed with the locally available sand and to make the right mixture of clay for pottery. Same implements as used for making andro pottery are used.

Image 196: Raw material for making the nokpok sekmai pottery

Since only the women practice this craft, each house in the village is divided with each stage of the making process. In turn, coming together to make a final product. Since the firing happens in at a commonplace in the village, there is a collective effort is layering up cow-dung cakes with hay and dry leaves are used to set up firing is at the commonplace in the village.

Image 197 & 198 : Making of the pottery by the women of Nongpok sekmai

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Image 199- 200: Clay pits in Nongpok sekmai, and making of a pot by a women

Image 201- 202: The pots are laid in the courtyard for drying| making of the pot

Image 203- 204: Baking of the pots in a small kiln made with paddy thatches and sand

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Pottery of Thongjao Thongjao is a potter’s village located in the southern part of the valley known for making large-sized pots for fermenting fish. The village has more than 400 potter families, each practicing this craft on a daily basis.

Different types of pots of varying sizes are made for different purposes like for storing fermented fishes, drinking water, cooking ware and planters are made by the in this village. The women in these families are the master artisans. For the large-sized pots, the process of making, drying and again giving form to the clay takes around 3-4 days in its making.

All the laborious work like excavating clay from their compounds, getting rock from the forests, making the mixtures of the clays and helping women lay pots at the kiln is all done by the men of the family.

These Meitei-Hindus believers’ families have a big compound consisting of all aspects that a yum-kai would have.

In the areas of Thongjao, there are three types of soils available. The red-coloured clay is stickiest whereas the dark coloured and light brown coloured clay are less sticky and easy to use in the mixture for making the clay. Along with this, implements like round stone found from nearby the stream to develop the form, a wooden bat like tool to beat the form, handwoven cotton cloth is used for creating a texture on the surface of the

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Image 205: Drying of the pots

object. The forms of the objects would be in the shades of dark browns. On the bamboo platform, the firing is done by layering up cow dung cakes, husks of paddy and barks of trees stuffed in between the arrangements of the pots. It takes almost 2-3 days for firing and cooling down. Once fired the products turn in the shades of light browns.

Image 206- 217 (left to right): Different steps for making thongjao big pots

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CHAPTER C:

Culture 9.

Cultural History

10. Art forms and Festivals

Image 218 : Celebrations during Yaoshang in Govindaji temple

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Culture is developed by beliefs, practices, faith, customs, food and habits by a community over the years.

Cultural History

Image 220, 221 : Flag of Manipur representing Pakhamba, meiteis mythical god.

All people living in the valley were originally tribes and followed their tribal culture. Later, when the tribes shifted to the valley and started cultivation, they formed a community with time. The people in the community were known as the Meiteis.

Although, The early history of Manipur is composed of mythical narratives.

However, the Meiteis practised an indigenous religion known as Sanamahi. Religion essentially entails the worship of natural phenomena and nature itself, therefore not altogether distant from the Vedic culture.

Thus, the sky, earth, forest, rivers, lakes, and their ruling Sylvan deities are worshiped in this religion.

The Meiteis turned Hindus in the early 18th century after King Pakhanba adopted the faith and made it the state religion. Even after turning Hindus, Meiteis who chose to go with Hinduism continued to worship the Gods of the old religion. Every Hindu Meitei household continued to have places in their homes reserved for Sanamahi and other deities. The abiding outlook of

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the religion is encapsulated beautifully in the image of another important deity, Pakhanba, represented by a serpent with its tail in the mouth, signifying ‘in the end is beginning is the end’, often interpreted as a metaphor of the cycle of seasons and indeed life itself.

Mythically, Lord pakhemba considered having 7 sons- majorly dividing the population in 7 salai-clans.

The 7 clans were Mangang, luwang, khuma, agom, moirang, khaba nganga and sarang Leisangthem.

These Clans in Manipur were divided according to the areas they lived in the valley. Each clan was assigned a particular colour based on the natural vegetation and the availability of the vegetable and plant dyes in that region. Women wore that particular coloured phaneks whereas the men’s turban was woven for that specific colour. Women wore that particular coloured phaneks whereas the men’s turban was woven for that specific colour. Although the usage of these particular colours and the clans are no longer that rigorous. They continue to occupy a central place in the social and cultural landscape of the region.

Their cultural sensibilities are strong and rooted to their region while their culture is as ancient and rooted as the state. Due to which, most of their inspirations of colours, patterns, motifs and forms are derived from the colourful, rich and diverse scenery found in the valley.

Image 222 : The 7 clan flag - red, white, black, yellow, pink, blue and green

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Cultural Dance Lai Haraoba One of the important festivals, Lai Haroaba depicts a traditional and symbolic dance performed for peace and prosperity. It is a ritualistic Manipuri form of dance drama that depicts Meitei cosmology by explaining their various traditions like making a yumjao, the process of spinning a cotton yarn, women giving birth and explains many cultural values among others. Lai Haroaba is one of the ways that ancestral practices and beliefs are conveyed to future generations. The dance form is accompanied by rhythmic and religious recitations that add up to explain the Meitei social values and ancient cultural aspects.

It is generally performed at the onset of spring and is celebrated till the month of May. This dance form is performed in groups by the men and women, dressed up in traditional attires. Men are dressed up in the white

Image 223 : Meitei Women performing Lai Haroaba

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Image 224 : Meitei Women performing Lai Haroaba

Image 225(left) : Performing rituals in Lai Haroaba. | Image 226 (right) : Men in their traditional clothes performing ceremony.

dhoti, white kurta and matching turban whereas the Women are dressed up in colourful traditional phanek and phi with hairstyle ornamented with the colourful flowers.

The celebration of Lai Haroaba sheds light on Meiteis material culture. These varied and colourful folk dances are an expression of nature, creation and aestheticism of the rooted Meitei way of life. It depicts the story of the creation and is still practiced, making it a living tradition. It has developed a strong and unique identity amongst the others in the valley.

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Earlier in the mid-fifteenth century, with the idea of religion coming in by the ruling kings of Manipur, most of Meiteis were converted to Hindus- Vaishnavites recognized as the Meitei Hindus and some converted to Muslims as Meitei pangals.

Along with Sanamahism, with the acceptance of Hinduism, there were additions of new beliefs, rituals, festivals, lifestyles, food delicacies and styles which brought in new colours and motifs in attires and craft practices in their original belief system.

The performing arts of the Meitei, especially the dance forms, have evolved after the acceptance of Vaishnavism in the valley. The epitome of Manipuri classical dance is the Raas Leela. It is a dance form that is based on mythological stories showcasing the life of Krishna with a culmination of the mythical stories of the Meitei culture. The sanskritans and Raas Leela represent the supreme flowering of the Vaishnav faith and constitute a unique contribution to Indian Culture over the country.

Classical dance form of Manipur The distinctive feature of this classical dance is the use of attire and costumes while performing.

The man portraying Krishna is dressed in a bright golden, yellow-orange dhoti pleated and tied at the waist to allow complete freedom for the movement of the legs. Depicting the devotional references of Krishna, the headgear is a red and golden crown capped with a peacock feather. Numerous colourful garlands and gold jewelry are layered for ornamentation purposes.

Similar to the Meitei wedding costume of the bride, the women characters of Radha and gopis are dressed like a doll in the potloi costumes. The potlois are embellished with jari, tikki and stones. It is paired with velvet blouses on the upper body and the translucent

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Image 217 : Preparations for Basant Rassleela at Govinda ji temple , making of potloi dresses

Image 228 : Basant Rassleela at Govinda ji temple

choli embellished with thick zari and golden tikki borders over it. In addition to that, the women are ornamented with layers of gold jewellery.

Th preparations for raas leela has to be planned well in advanced as the attire requires time to be made. The costumes are handstitched require skilled craftsmen for its making.

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Image 229 : Basant Raas-leela at Govinda ji temple

Image 230: Women dressed up in potlois

On a philosophical note, Raas Leela symbolizes the alliance of celestial bodies. The yellow-orange dhoti of Krishna depicts the Sun. Radha is contrastingly dressed in green depicting the mother earth whereas the gopis

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are dressed in a bright range of shades of red and maroons symbolising the other planets.

The story of Raas Leela is performed based on the seasons of the year namely Vasant Raas, Maha Raas, Nitya Raas, Kunja Raas and Diba Raas.

The Basant Raas is performed at the onset of spring in the Govindaji temple. It is located in Imphal and has been one of the sacred places for the Meitei where most of the ritualistic celebration takes place.

Basant Raas involves numerous gopis as a part of the traditional celebration.

A band of musicians expert in folklore and cultural portrayal are part of the performance. Men are dressed in white dhoti, kurta and turban whereas the women are often seen in phanek style sarees.

Image 231 : Basant Raas-leela at Govinda ji temple

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Apart from these traditional performances, Raas Leela is also performed as a theatrical play for the people of the valley. It is looked upon as a cultural dance form.

Apart from these, the Manipuri dance is also celebrated by solo artists narrating performances on similar stories of Lord Krishna. In these solo performances, the Meitei culture is reflected in their way of clothing.

Image 232and 233 : Theatrical raas leela - solo dance performances

Image 234 : Theatrical raas leela performance- solo and in group

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Image 235 : Meiteis dressed in pastel orange and pink

Although the traditional attires of the meiteis namely the phanek, phi, dhoti and turban have remained constant for women and men respectively, there have been adaptations of different colours in the palette.

There was an addition of a palette of pastel colours .

The bright coloured phanek were replaced by the pastel colours like yellow, orange and pink. These colours are worn by mostly the women while visiting the temple or while performing traditional practices.

The white translucent innaphi is paired with the pastel coloured phaneks. Men generally are dressed up in whites, yellows, pastel orange, saffron and orange.

Image 236 : Meiteis dressed in pastel orange and pink

With other ideologies of Hinduism coming in, festivals like Holi, Rath Yatra, Janmashtami, Durga Puja, Diwali are celebrated by the Meitei folk with a lot of energy.

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Image237 : Meiteis dressed in pastel orange and pink references for holi celebration and performance

Holi- Yaoshang Out of these festivals, Holi is the festival that holds the greatest importance and is celebrated in the valley on the onset of spring, commonly known as Yoashong in Manipuri. It is celebrated for the entirety of 5 days which includes religious practices like setting up holifire and associated meitei rituals, playing with colours and dance performances in the temple are carried out along with activities like sports activities arranged in the localities.

2-3 days before holi, there are celebrations at the Govindaji temple where the group of elderly men and women come and perform their traditional dance and music in front to the deities.

Image 232-235 : Women are dressed up in traditional pastel coloured phanek and white innaphi. They ornate themselves with flowers and gold jewellery. The men are dressed in white dhoti and kurta with saffron coloured turban. The priest wears a peculiar bright yellow colored attire layered with orange and green garlands,

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Image 238 : Meiteis dressed in pastel orange and pink references for holi celebration and performance

Image 239 : Woman’s hairstyle ornated with flowers and jewellery

Image 240 : Meitei womens group - pre yaoshang performance

-241:Young priest in bright yellows

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In the daytime, the elderly men and women from different communities come together and perform dance and music for the deities. Meiteis are dressed in shades of whites, yellow, orange and pink. These colours vary from pastel shades to bright tones. The men are dressed up in dhoti, kurta and a turban matching their dhoti. The women are dressed up from head to toe in solid pastel colour phanek and blouse with a translucent coloured innaphi embroidered with floral motifs on it. These religious attires are paired with gold plated jewellery that is inspired from nature.

Image 241 : Yaoshang celebrations at the govindaji temple and at home , men celebrating pichkari

Image 242 & 243 (left and right ) : Celebrating with colours at Govindaji temple whille performing dance for the deities.

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Image 244: All elderly men and women dressed in shades of pastels

Image245 and 246: Women dressed in deep mango colored clothes and ornated with flowers

Image 247 & 248 (left and right ) :All elderly men and women dressed in shades of bright shades of pink and orange celebrating holi at the temple.

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After performing in the temple, on the other days of the Holi, the dance groups perform in every neighborhood by singing folk songs and playing drums.

Image 249 : Yaoshang celebrations at the govindaji temple and at home

Image 250 : Yaoshang celebrations at the govindaji temple and at home

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Image 251: Thabal Chongba celebration in the community

On every night of these 5 days, the young boys and girls perform a Manipuri folk dance known as Thabal Chongba (moonlight dance). This is the only time of the year when people experience a night life in the valley.

For these, the preparations start quite in advance when the young girls are dressed up in colourful phaneks go door to door to collect funds for the setup and on the other hand, the boys occupy the community spaces for setting up the installation.

The young girls are dressed up in contrasting vibrant coloured horizontally striped phaneks paired with pastel coloured phi. Most of the women are chapped in bright coloured matching lipstick to their attire with hair simply tied up and adorned with fresh flower bunches.

Although the Meiteis still continued to follow their rooted traditions and culture of Sanamahism alongside Hinduism, the blend of both the cultures have made the culture and practices of Meiteis unique and rooted to the region.

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Basant Raas

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Manipuri Classical Dance

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Yaoshang

Yaoshang - Holi celebrations by the meiteis in March in Imphal, Manipur.

Celebrated for 6 days in Manipur, the festival of colours - Yaoshang - celebrated in Govindaji temple

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Observations Colour as an aesthetic I. Quality of light in the region & Perception of colours II. Context- the surrounding landscape III. Availability of natural resources IV. Emotional and psychological factors V. Colours as a cultural identity

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Observation - Colour aesthetics Surrounded by the layering of blue-green rolling hills from all around and flourished by the diversity of dense green forests covers, pale brown wild bamboo groves, lush green landscapes, shiny simmers of blue waterscapes and varying shades of grey blues with clear blue skyscapes, The valley of Manipur has been one wealthiest resource for the people living in the region. The natural environment has always been persistent for their sustenance and living as their largest resource. Hence, the Meiteis are believers of Sanamahism, which has encouraged them to draw most of their inspiration from the mighty nature.

Their particular use of colours, patterns, and motifs reflects their inspirations from their environment, which are noticed in their local dwellings, attires, daily use objects, and in arts and crafts.

With time, the Meiteis have evolved over palettes of colours, patterns, and motifs to have derived a particular use and proportions of colours. In the evolution of this design process over the years, five major factors, as stated below, have played an important role in decision making.

I. II. III. IV. V.

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Quality of light in the region & Perception of colours The Context- the surrounding landscape Availability of natural resources Emotional and psychological factors Cultural factors

I. Quality of light in the region

The geographic positioning of the valley has resulted in a temperate climate & high precipitation in the region.

The climatic conditions in the valley change around the year, resulting in the change in weather and drastically changing perception of colour.

In winters and monsoons, the overall light quality in the valley is soft and diffused due to either layer of fog, mist or cloud covers.

-The dark grey clouds completely block the light, whereas the white clouds reduce light intensity. The light and translucent clouds partially allow the light to pass through.

-The fog and mist add a dull greyish layer to the atmosphere, due to which all the bright and contrasting colours are perceived as dull and muted.

Bright colours ranging in the warmer colours like Red, orange, yellow and pink have longer wavelengths; hence, even in the foggy weather and dark skies, they are visible from far off.

On the contrary, the intensity of light received in summers is stark and harsh due to clear skies. When the intense light falls on the water bodies, a very strong glare is felt, causing a blinding effect on the eyes.

The change in the intensity of the light also affects the shadows created. In most cases, due to the hindrance of partial or complete cloud covers or canopies of trees, the shadows in the region are diffused shadows with blurred edges.

Although due to the change in the solar azimuth and the altitude throughout the day, the light’s colour temperature changes from warmer tones to cooler shades. This results in to change in perception of the colour of the objects. In the early mornings and late evenings, soft yellow-orange light is experienced in the valley, whereas the intensity of yellow light is strong by noon.

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Ultraviolet light also plays a vital role in changing the environment’s perception of colours as it acts as a violet-coloured filter over the environment. The dark colours like blues, greens and browns absorb more UV light than the lighter colours like white and pastels.

Hence, When the UV light falls on the lush green landscapes in the valley, the greens enhance and are perceived as darker and denser.

The blue-green mountains surrounding the valley and forest covers in the valley play an important role in absorbing the bright light and partially reflecting the cool green light. On the contrary, when the bright light strikes the surface of the water bodies, most of it intensifies with multiple reflections back into the environment. The Barren lands and rocks absorb some amount of light, leaving some amount of it to reflect the environment. These reflected lights also change the perception of colour when reflected on other coloured objects.

II. Influence of the Context- the surrounding -landscape Inspired by the numerous multicolour floral vegetation found in the immediate natural environment, traditionally, the textile and apparel were dyed using vegetables, fruit or flowering plants. Warmer palettes of colours like deep mango yellows, stark heimang oranges, bright red, and brinjal royal purple are commonly used in their apparel as found in their immediate environment. Shades of baby pinks, stark lotus pinks, lilac and violets of the lilies are widely worn by women of the valley in their phaneks, drawing direct inspiration from the lotuses that grow in the Loktak lake as well as in the Pukhri of their household. Colours like black and grey coming from the Kum medicinal plant are also widely used in combinations in their textiles.

Further, the fauna found in the valley was a clear inspiration for the people of the valley for making motifs. Some natural objects, animals, and birds are

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converted to their symbolic forms and were used in textile as embroidered borders. Daily observed honeybees, horses, and elephants are majorly seen in their symbolic forms in the phaneks borders along with other natural objects like the moon, sun and stars.

Bold colours and geometrical patterns are evident in most of the textiles in Manipur. Bright and contrasting colours are used to embroider floral borders on the translucently woven pastel coloured phi.

Most of the exterior of the yumjaos were plastered in aqua greens and aqua blues which adds a different type of green amongst the naturally found variations of yellow-greens, olives, forest greens, and yellow-green, dark greens, orange and browns. Brighter shades of cobalt blues are also plastered on the exterior walls of the houses.

The mixtures of blues and greens with the limestone seem to be a clear inspiration from the Blues of the Loktak lake, skyscapes and waterscapes, and the broader palette including a range of hues and tones of greens. Also, when the reflected light from the dense trees falls on these plastered blue and green, it enhances the plastered colours.

III.

Availability of natural resources

BUILT FORM - All materials used for building a Meitei traditional home are locally sourced, making it sustainable and self-sustainable.

-The thick bamboo sections and timber woods are used as structural members whereas the thin sections of bamboo and cane are used in making walls.

- The ochre and dark alluvial clayey brown soils found locally in the landforms are used for making floors.

-Straw, cow dung, water and mud are mixed with the dark brown clayey soil for better binding. The mixture is used to layer the interlacing of cane to make the walls of the yumjao.

-Varying shades of brown Paddy thatch are capped over the structure to make the open gable roof.

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Overall, the yumjaos can be perceived in varying shades of browns ranging from muted ochres to ochres browns, grey browns to dark browns.

CRAFTS- The valley of Imphal is rich in alluvial soils. These soils have a general clayey warm texture and colour ranging from greys to pale browns. In the three major pottery-based villages – Andro, Nongpok Sekmai and Thongjao, these clayey soils are used as a base material in pottery. Each village has different soils and rocks, hence there are different coloured pottery outcomes.

Products made in each village have a different reason for their making. Other implements like small rocks and big plant seeds are sourced from the nearby forests for their use in pottery.

- Andro, a Loi village in the valley’s eastern part, has piety and saline soil, which is mainly used in making pottery. Brown rocks are mixed along with the clay to make pottery. The pots, vases and large vessels made by andro women are rust orange in colour.

- In one of the largest potter’s villages of the valley, Thongjao, there are pits of red clayey gravelly sandy, loamy soils. These different types of soils are separately used to make big pots for fermenting fish and other vegetables and storing water. With time, they also make commercial products like vases, dishes, succulent pots, and artifacts.

-Nongpok Sekmai, a Meitei Hindu village near andro, has patches of these dark grey-brown clayey soils found in the area. The soil is dark grey coloured and has a clayey loam texture. It is mixed with pieces of black rock to make the dough. Most of the pots and dishes made in this village are used daily.

Apart from Pottery, major crafts in Manipur are based on locally available grasses and reeds like bamboo, cane and Kauna reeds. Due to their versatile properties, they are used at varying scales from building structures to making daily life products. Meiteis have judiciously understood the material and their limitations to make the products they need for their day-to-day activities.

All the crafts that involve different types of local grasses

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are seen in ranging shades from fresh greens to pale greens to dry light beige browns due to the variation in their raw material.

Most of the textile and apparel of the Meiteis are woven from cotton and silk as they are abundantly grown and locally available in the valley. Found in their purest form, white and off-white coloured are directly used as it is in their costumes.

Traditionally, all the colour dyes were obtained from natural resources like parts of trees and plants like the barks, leaves, fruits, vegetables and colourful flowers.

This led to colourful options for both textiles.

Shades of red, pink, yellow, and darker colours like black, indigo, and purple were majorly made from natural resources.

Yellow is extracted from turmeric, ginger, fruits of Nepal mahonia Saffron from Kusum flowers Red - Flowers of Sindhur tree (also known as Lipstick tree), Red colour flowers and teak wood flowers Bright red- Akhengba Machu – a mixture of Urierom and Nepal Mahonia Indian Red- Khamu Machu from the khamu plant Pale rose- Leimachu – Fruit of Ureirom, Purple- Kachnar - Purple Bauhinia purpurea L Green Asangba- Sambum Machu Brown- Shahi and Kuhi Machu - yongshak - treebillbeans Blue - Clitoria ternatea -– blue colour flowering plantasian pigeonwings Black- Amuba Machu – from kum tree and barks of shahi – rain bell flowers and plants of walnut These plants were easily grown at home and were abundantly available in the hills of Manipur.

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IV.

Emotional Factors

Set amongst the dense green and highly vegetated landscape, Meiteis overall prefer wearing bright, stark and contrasting colours that distinctively stand out amongst the dense palette of the greens found in the fabric of the valley of Manipur. Blues are green coloured textiles that are avoided as they doubt; they blend amongst their context.

Balancing these bright and contrasting colours, lighter shades like whites and pastels were also a part of their clothing. The attire of the Meitei women is a set of combinations of the bright and contrasting phaneks with plain translucent coloured phi. The phi was originally woven in silk and was worn in its original offwhite shades. Although with time, the phi is woven in silk, and dyed in pastel shades of yellow, pink, purple, and green.

As a result of the weaving technique and the urge to stand out against the landscapes, textiles involved geometric patterns along with bold colours. Most of the phaneks are woven in bright tri-coloured strips.

Previously, the thickness of the bands in the phaneks was thicker for them to stand out amongst the dense vegetation. Although with time, the thickness of these bands has reduced with the influence of fashion trends.

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V. Colour as a cultural identity In Manipur, the Meiteis follow two cultures parallel in their daily lives.

Meiteis believe in Sanamahism and have been practicing it since the 10th century. The nature worshipers with their practice have most of their colour associations to the elements of nature. Culturally, based on the population of the region, the Meiteis were divided into 7 clans – Mangang, luwang, khuma, agom, moirang, khaba nganga and sarang Leisangthem.

These Clans in Manipur were divided according to the areas they lived in the valley. Each clan was assigned a particular colour based on the natural vegetation and the availability of the vegetable and plant dyes in that region. Women wore that particular coloured phaneks whereas the men’s turban was woven for that specific colour. Women wore that particular coloured phaneks whereas the men’s turban was woven for that specific colour. Although the usage of these particular colours and the clans are no longer that rigorous. They continue to occupy a central place in the social and cultural landscape of the region.

After the influence of Hinduism in the the15th century, they started practicing Vaishnavism due to which there were which brought additions of colours to the palette of the textiles. Saffron and orange were added to their cultural colour palette.

With the confluence of the two cultures, there were additions of shades of colours in the palette. Pale shades of yellow, orange and pink were worn by the women while performing Hindu rituals. These shades of colour were also worn during birth ceremonies and funerals. A pastel range of colours is seen replacing the white phi.

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White symbolizes purity and is considered an embodiment of light. It symbolizes peace and hence, it is worn by men in their routine attire. White is also considered auspicious hence, men wear white outfits while the women pair the white phi with the contrasting Phanek while performing religious Meitei ceremonies.

It is also worn by the groom in Meitei weddings. On the contrary, In Hinduism, it is considered a colour for mourning hence, it is worn at funerals.

Yellow symbolizes energy as it is associated with the sun. It also signifies sanctity and spirituality. It denotes knowledge and learning. Culturally Hindus also associate yellow with Lord Krishna’s pitambari colour.

Shades like golden yellow, chrome and gold are also associated with yellow.

White- Purity

Y e l l o w energy

Orange colour symbolizes fire. It is religiously worshiped by the meiteis as it one of the five elements of nature that supports life sustainance.

Saffron is the most sacred colour in Hinduism as it is also associated to fire. It is connected to perfection and the highest state of illumination.

Red has been a prominent colour seen in both cultures.

It is a celebratory colour and symbolizes well-being and joy. Red is associated to the colour of blood hence, it is a colour of auspicious and new life. It also represents fertility. Red, a sign of both sensuality and purity, is the hue used for important occasions, such as weddings, births and festivals.

Pink symbolizes femininity and is associated with contentment. Found in numerous shades in the flora.

The women of Manipur wear it with all pride as it symbolizes delicacy, grace and beauty.

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Orange - fire

Red - blood

Pink-

beauty

Blue symbolizes the natural elements - the sky and water which makes it symbolic of the peacefulness of nature.

Blue-water

Green is seen in abundance in manipur. It distinctively symbolizes mother nature. It represents fertility- a new beginning, as well as the harvest and happiness. Overall, it means life. Overall, it means life. It is considered a colour that symbolizes the same tranquility and calmness evident in the deities and the natural world.

Black symbolizes as a warrior colour in Manipur. It is also considered a connotation of an evil eye. Although, black is commonly used in most of the phaneks.

Pale shades of yellow, orange and pink are worn by the women while performing Hindu rituals.

Green

-

life

Black- Warrior

Pastels shadesorange and pink-

yellow, worship

Colours have been essential in depicting cultures and are associated with particular religious values. Colour symbolism serves essential roles in art, religion, politics, ceremonials, and everyday life. Its strong emotional connotations affect the perception of colours and contribute to a way of life!

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Conclusive palette

1. Natural environment Range from shades of white, blues, greys and browns with a riot of green and pop of warm bright colours.

2. Man-made palette The addition of Pastel shades strikes balance with a large palette of warm and bright colours. The greens and the blues deviate to aquas contrasting to the shades of browns and grey black.

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Glossary Meitei – The largest community residing in the valley of Imphal, Manipur Meithelion – The local language spoken by the Meitei community Kuki – indigenous tribe living in the hills and valley of Manipur Nagas– indigenous tribe living in the mountains and valley of Manipur Sanamahi – a Meitei way of life that worships elements of nature and ancestorial worship

Manipuri/ Meithelion words Wa- Bamboo Ngari- A local species of fish found in the Loktak lake Yum Kei – A meitei household that consists of numerous other Yumjao – a big Meitei house Sangai – Outhouses that are used for activities Hingol- a large kitchen garden in a Meitei household Sangal- a cattle shed for their daily needs.

Pukhri- a pond in a Meitei household Kei- a separate Granary storage unit in a Meitei household Phanek – The traditional Lower garment worn by the women Phi – Traditionally worn translucent shawl-like cloth handwoven in shades of pastel colours Potloi – Traditional bridal wear of most Meitei Hindu women in Manipur. It is a cylindrical skirt made of thick fabric ornamented with sequins and mirrors.

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All images expect stated Above are taken by the author on field trip - Jan- April 2022

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To a holistic design process, inspired by the nature, followed by culture and respected by traditional practices, I ll always always cherish!