Chicago History | Fall–Winter 1973

Chicago History

FALL- WINTER 1973

Chicago Historical Society

Clarence Darrow loved the view from his apt. on E. 60th St., overlooking Jackson Park and Lake Michigan .

In this issue, Matilda Fenberg, Darrow's protegee, tells how the famous trial lawyer chose his jurymen.

Chicago History

THE MAGAZINE OF THE CHICAGO H I STORICAL SOCIETY

"BRIDGED"-A FAMILIAR CHICAGO EXPERIENCE,

read the caption on the cover

of Harper's Week0,i on May 28, 1887.

The accompanying engraving portrayed hundreds of people waiting on the approach to a bridge which had been turned to allow a large ship to pass through.

The term "bridged," unknown in the East, is familiar indeed to Chicagoans, even today. In his article in this issue, Frank J. Piehl takes us back to the time when bridges had to be fought for, ship captains resented and menaced even the ferries that plied the Chicago River, and everyone was "bridged."

Chicago's first public ferry, which was pulled handover-hand by rope across the river, was placed at the foot of Rush St. in 1847 and named the Lake House Ferry tour years later. It ran continuously from 5 A.M . until 10 P. M., without charge. Detail of a painting of the second Fort Dearborn, artist unknown.

Chicago Historical Society

Chicago History The Magazine of the Chicago Historical Society FALL-WINTER 1973 Volume 11, Number 4

CONTENTS Cover: The Rush St. bridge on the turn .

The watercolor was painted by Cha rl es E. Kremer from an early stereoscopic view m ade by J. Garbutt, probably in 1869.

Chicag o Hi stori cal Soci ety

SHALL WE GATHER AT THE RIVER / 196

by Frank J. Piehl

THE WORLD ' S MOST BEAUTIFUL BALLROOMS / 206

by Nancy Banks

I REMEMBER CLARENCE DARROW / 216

Isabel S. Grossner, Editor Nancy Banks, Editorial Assistant

by Matilda Fenberg

"SOMETHING MORE THAN PACKERS" / 224

by Louise Carroll Wade

Editorial Advisory Committee

CHICAGO'S ROWDY FIREFIGHTERS / 232

by George D. Bushnell

Paul M. Angle, Chairman

Fl FTY YEARS AGO / 242

Emmett Dedmon

BOOK REVIEWS:

James R. Getz

THE WORK OF LERONE BENNETT, JR. / 248

0 Ii ver Jensen

by Rose Jourdain Hayes

Robert W. Johannsen

MORE ON THE FIRST AMERICANS / 249

Herman Kogan

by Dee Brown

Will Leonard Clement M. Silvestro Robert M. Sutton

Printed by R. R. Donnelley and Sons Company Chicago , Illinois Designed by Doug La ng Copyright, 1973 by the Chicago Historical Society North Avenue and Clark Street Chicago, Ill inois 60614 Articles appea rin g in this journal are a bstracted and indexed in Historic al Abstracts and / or America: H is tory and Life

BRIEF REPORTS / 250 by the staff

INDEX OF VOLUME II / 251

Shall We Gather at the River

BY FRANK J. PIEHL

Chicagoans take their bridges for granted, but there was a time when they were cursed by river men and pedestrians alike.

WHEN THE C0RNBELT FLEET-the ships used on the Great Lakes to train U.S. Navy reservistsrecently returned after a two-year absence, a rousing Chicago welcome seemed in order. So on Friday, the 13th of October 1972, for the first time in Chicago history, all six bridges on the M ain Branch of the Chicago River were raised simultaneously and kept open for thirty minutes while the newly returned Navy sailed up and down the river. As the boats passed, traffic backed up at the open bridges north of the Loop, just as it had in days gone by.

The problem had its origin in 1833, the year Chicago officially became a town and the federal government began constructing a harbor in the river. When the first modern vessel of any size, the Illinois, entered the Chicago River on July r 2, r 834, the Chicago Democrat reported that "her top-masts were covered with flags and streamers, and her canvas was all spread to invite the gentle breeze. The banks of the river were crowded with a delightful crowd, and as she reached the wharf of Messrs. Newberry and Dole, where she first stopped, she was hailed with loud and repeated cheers." Traffic on the river grew fast. By September, about one hundred and fifty vessels h ad discharged cargo at Chicago, and a steady stream of ships entered the river each season thereafter from eastern ports.

As the young city grew, crossing its river taxed the patience of the entire population. Streams of wagons came to Chicago from the fertile W a-

Frank J. Piehl, a research chemist, became interested in Chicago history about six years ago and is devoting his spare time to research on the city's bridges.

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bash valley and the western prairies, laden with produce. They needed to cross the river to Newberry and Dole and other warehouses on the orth Side. Other business activities concentrated south of the river. Residential communities spread to the north and west. Workmen and merchants had to commute across the river from their homes to their livelihoods. So, while ship owners and captains were demanding unobstructed navigation, citizens and merchants were fighting for ferries and bridges. The struggle between these two conflicting forces threads its way through Chicago history.

The first crossings of the river were primitive.

John Kinzie, probably following an earlier tradition, maintained a canoe between his trading post on the north bank and Fort Dearborn, where the Michigan Avenue bridge now stands.

Then in June 1829, the County Commissioners established the first public ferry in Chicago at the "forks" of the river. The main landing was on the east bank of the South Branch, about where Lake Street bridge now stands. Passengers and wagons ferried to the west or north sides for a fixed fee. Other ferries sprang up at Clark, State, and Rush streets, but all were cumbersome, slow and dangerous.

The earliest Chicago bridges were fixed and couldn't be opened for navigation. The first one crossed the North Branch at North Water Street in 1832, and another was erected in the following year across the South Branch, between Randolph and Lake streets.

Both were primitive affairs, and dangerous.

Charles Cleaver described the perils of crossing the bridge over the South Branch: There were no rails on the sides, and, as it shook and trembled under every team that crossed over, it was

Chicago Histori ca l Society

The Dearborn St. drawbridge 1834- 1839, Chicago's first movable bridge. Technically known as a cable-lift bridge, it was dubbed a "gallows-frame pattern" by citizens, who maintained that the two gallows frames, one at each side of the river, frightened the timid. The present Dearborn St. bridge is the fourth at the same site. From A . T. Andreas, History of Chicago, v. I.

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not surprising that, once in a while, a span of horses should jump into the river. I saw one myself that winter [1833- 1834]-a splendid team, just driven in from Detroit, and the best in the city-plunge into the river and drown before we could help them.

The Main Branch was first bridged in 1834 at Dearborn Street. A channel had been cut through the sand bar at the mouth of the river in February, and with the promise of ships entering the river in great numbers, the bridge had to provide passage to the forks. So a drawbridge was chosen, patterned after the medieval bridges built over castle moats. The two leaves of the draw were raised by cranking up chains that stretched from the center opening over a gallows frame and down to the fixed approaches to the draw.

The drawbridge proved a mixed blessing. The design was faulty, and the draw tended to get stuck. It also broke down frequently. Chicago pioneer E. 0. Gale reminisced about it being "like a sleepy boy, it was difficult to start if it was not disposed to rise; but when up, like Banquo's ghost, it would not down." It was soon being cursed by pedestrians and drivers as they waited for the open draws to go down; but the loudest clamor was sounded by the captains of the vessels who had to wait for the draws to go up.

In spite of a 60-foot opening, the bridge obstructed navigation and was struck frequently, causing damage both to itself and to boats. Agitation mounted until it was torn down in 1839.

Meanwhile, William B. Ogden and other landowners on the North Side labored relentlessly in the Common Council for a new bridge.

Two groups opposed their efforts, the vessel interests who wanted an unobstructed channel, and the powerful landowners on the West and South Sides who wanted to keep the farm products from the merchants on the North Side.

Ogden won his bridge through the kind of brilliant negotiation that was typical of his entire financial career. He compromised with the shipping interests by abandoning efforts for a bridge at Dearborn Street in favor of one upstream at 198 Chicago History

Clark Street. He and Newberry then donated valuable land to the Catholic Church for their new edifice on the North Side to induce Mayor Raymond to vote for the bridge, thereby ending an impasse in the Council. Ogden and his eastern partners subscribed for about two-thirds of the bridge bonds, and he even took the construction contract himself, to insure that the bridge would be built.

The new bridge was a pontoon bridge, called a tub, or a float, or a floating swing bridge in early accounts . A fixed wooden pier was erected on pile foundations from each bank. The movable span was anchored at one end on a pivot alongside one pier, and the other end was supported on a floating barge or tub. The float was opened with a rope or chain fastened to the shore on the pivot end of the bridge, some distance from the pier.

The first such bridge opened at Clark Street in 1840. Improved float bridges were built at Wells, Randolph, and Madison streets in 1847, opening navigation on the South Branch. Another was built at Kinzie Street in 1849 to replace the dilapidated fixed bridge at North Water Street, opening navigation on the North Branch to the slaughterhouses already established there.

Marine interests wouldn't permit a bridge east of Clark Street, however. In spite of growing industry and commerce, residents near the mouth of the river had to rely on the Lake House Ferry, which took its name from the pretentious hotel built in 1836 where the Wrigley Annex now stands. The three-story brick hotel cost $100,000 and was then the finest building in town.

The ferry, a flat scow with board seats for passengers, was propelled in a unique manner. A rope stretched from bank to bank, lying on the river bottom between trips. When the ferry was ready to cross, the rope was raised. The ferryman would grasp the rope and walk the length of the scow, propelling it with his feet.

Dropping the rope and returning to the other

f

1

I

l

.l

,r

The Rush Street bridge, 1857- 1863. A swing bridge, it was made entirely of iron and cost $48,000.

Chicago History

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Bridges

end of the scow, he would repeat the process, literally walking the ferry to the opposite bank.

Traffic on the ferry grew apace with the city.

The Daily Journal reported that 3,998 persons crossed in it on July 5, 1847. Considering the ferry's capacity, it must have crossed the river more than a hundred times that day. These many crossings delayed navigation up and down the rive:- and irked vessel captains, who retaliated by sailing over the ferry's rope in an effort to sever it- a practice which periodically threatened the safety of those in the ferry.

In I 848, the flow of grain and produce to the city was multiplied many fold by the opening of the Illinois and Michigan Canal. An immense traffic was established immediately. Lumber, clothing, furniture, and hardware poured through Chicago via the canal to equip the ever-growing westward movement. From a vast hinterland, as far away as ew Orleans, came wheat, corn, sugar, molasses, and coffee.

Produce reached Chicago in canal boats drawn by teams from the towpaths alongside the canal. Upon reaching the Chicago River, the canal boats were taken in tow by tugs, which clogged the river, creating long delays for people at the Lake House Ferry and the low bridges upstream-delays which also choked the commerce which had to move across the river. The situation had to be remedied.

Swing bridges were tried. These were built with a center pier in the middle of the river which supported the entire span. The bridges "opened" by rotating or swinging on rollers around a circular track on the center piers. Even though they were turned by hand-operated cranks, they opened and closed much faster than the float bridges. Yet the spans were so low and near the water that they had to be turned for even the smallest boat, and the delays therefore continued.

A traffic count at Clark Street bridge on a typical October day in 1854 listed twenty-four thousand pedestrians and six thousand teams crossing the bridge between 6 A.M. and 7 P.M. 200

Chicago History

During this time the bridge had been open a total of about three hours to permit the passage of about one hundred boats.

To reduce the frequency of openings, the bridges were raised to provide a clearance of eighteen feet. New bridges were built to this specification at Randolph and Wells streets in 1856, and at Madison Street in 1857. Canal boats could pass under them without difficulty.

But not the steam tugs that towed them. According to Gale, "the monarchs of the world appeared in 1856, the incarnation of indomitable impudence, a thing half angel and half imp, in the shape of a snorting, screeching, screaming, shrieking, splashing, spurging, smoky, saucy steam tug." Their stacks could not pass under the new bridges, and their captains demanded prompt opening of the bridges at their approach.

When the Common Council passed an ordinance requiring the tugs to lower their stacks enough to clear the bridges, the captains refused to comply. They went on strike, disrupting shipping schedules, but the day was saved by a local inventor who designed a hinged stack. The tug captains grudgingly conceded, and the swing bridge with an eighteen foot clearance was adopted thereafter as a standard design for Chicago bridges.

Throughout these developments upstream, Chicago's last ferry at the Lake House remained in service, but changes in the neighborhood had made it obsolete. The completion of the Great Central Passenger Station in 1 856 brought many visitors to the city, and pretentious business blocks and magnificent hotels sprang up nearby at Michigan Avenue and the river. To accommodate the throngs arriving at the new depot, the Common Council, in October 1855, approved the construction of a bridge at Rush Street, near the site of Fort Dearborn.

Disaster struck the Lake House Ferry before it was abandoned. On September 19, 1856, a replacement scow-the ferry was laid up for repair-was carrying a capacity load of men and boys to work when a schooner approached, sig-

Chicago Hi storica l Society

"Terrible Accident at Rush Street bridge, Chicago."

Engraving published in Harper's Weekly, Nov. 21, 1863, from a photograph by Alschuler.

The tug, monarch of the world. Their captains went on strike rather than lower the stacks of their boats.

Chicago Historical Society

Chicago History 201

V

Chicago Hlstorlcal Society

The S.S. North American, luxury Great Lakes cruiser, used to leave Chicago every Saturday at 4 P.M. She made her last cruise in 1961.

naled, and demanded the right-of-way. The ferryman dropped his rope to allow the schooner to pass. The passengers, impatient to reach the south bank, seized the rope and began pulling for shore. The schooner snagged the rope, spun the ferry around, and in an instant the passengers were in the river. Eleven bodies were recovered, and the total loss in life was estimated at fifteen. The ferry was finally a bandoned when the new bridge was opened in June 1857.

Although considered a model of engineering perfection, the Rush Street bridge-the first iron bridge in the west-was not universally admired. The Democrat complained that "it is an extremely ugly looking affair, but we trust it will make up in strength and durability what it lacks in beauty." Later events proved this a forlorn hope.

In November 1863, after only six years of service, it was destroyed by a herd of cattle. Traffic was at its peak: Mr. J. H. Dole was driving 202

Chicago History

across in his buggy, a teamster was crossing in a wagon from the McCormick Reaper Works, and a drover on horseback, accompanied by his younger sister, was driving a herd of about fifty cattle across. The Evening Journal estimated that a total of twenty people were on the bridge.

An approaching tug whistled, and the anxious and inexperienced bridgetender promptly began to turn the bridge, in spite of the cries of those on it. The turning of the bridge stampeded the cattle, which crowded to one end. The overloaded end tipped down, the span lurched and broke in two, and in an instant the bridge was a mass of ruins, bending and breaking over the center pier and dropping into the river. Except for the prompt action of sailors in nearby vessels, the loss in human life could have been great. Only one person was lost, along with many of the animals .

Bridges

Congestion at all the bridges grew steadily and, in 1867, the Common Council passed what came to be known as "the Ten-Minute Ordinance," which to this day forms the foundation of Chicago's bridge regulations. This ordinance provided that a bridge could not be held open longer than ten minutes. The signal for its closing after the ten minutes were up was the raising of the "red ball," a familiar phrase in later accounts about the river and its bridges. Similarly, vessels could not be delayed more than ten minutes. When the ordinance was tested in the courts by the indignant captains, they lost another round.

Congestion at the bridges grew still worse, however, and the ordinance was amended in 1881, making it unlawful to open any bridge within the city limits between the hours of 6:oo to 7:00 A.M. and 5=30 to 6:30 P.M., Sundays excepted . Shipping interests had forestalled this change for ten years, but when it was finally enacted the Tribune reported that it operated "much to the satisfaction of tens of thousands who work down-town every day, but greatly to the chagrin of the vessel owners, captains, sailors, etc."

By the close of the 19th century, commerce on the river faced new problems. Railroad transportation, which began modestly in the 1850s, had mushroomed. The river's shallow channel, which prevented ships of deeper draft from entering, gave the railroads an even greater edge. As heavy industry grew in Chicago, it began to concentrate along the Calumet River where land was cheap, and where delays to ships were not a problem.

The consequent loss of commerce threatened the economic health of the city, and a cry went up to alleviate the blockade to ships at the bridges.

For over a decade, the city wrestled with the problem of restoring Chicago's shipping without endangering the movement necessary to those within the city.

In 1899, the city engineer analyzed the engineering literature and recognized in the Tower

Bridge of London the ideal design for Chicago.

London had used a trunnion bascule bridge, a brilliant design based on a see-saw principle known since medieval times. Later engineers, under the direction of Edward Willman, modified the London design and adapted it to local problems, and thus created the "Chicago style" trunnion bascule bridge, now a standard in Chicago and the world over. This design was further improved over the years, under the direction of Thomas G. Pihlfeldt, who was in charge of the city's bridges for the next forty years. In 19rn, Joseph B. Strauss, the famous Chicago bridge engineer who designed and built the Golden Gate bridge in San Francisco, wrote that "Chicago is the acknowledged bascule center of the world." That distinction has never been lost.

The city struggled tirelessly to replace the center piers with bascule bridges. The last swing bridge on the main channel, at Clark Street, was already being replaced in 1929, when a sand boat rammed it and struck a premature death blow.

Traffic was tied up in knots for forty-seven days while the new Chicago-style bridge was rushed to completion. When it was finished, the days of the center pier bridges had passed. The congestion of street and river traffic was alleviated, but Chicago had lost forever some of its pioneer charm.

Moreover, the change had come too late.

Shipping on the Chicago River could no longer compete with the railroads. It is now limited to barges and an occasional large ship carrying newsprint, cement, and other bulky commodities.

The once great passenger service on the Chicago River has suffered even more. At the turn of the century, over two million passengers arrived and departed each year by boat in Chicago.

In 1951, for the first time in years, the City of Grand Rapids failed to appear at the Goodrich docks at Michigan Avenue bridge, ending the passenger cruises across Lake Michigan to Benton Harbor and St. Joseph, Michigan. In 1961, the North American made its last stop at Chicago, closing the golden era of luxury passenger cruises Chicago History

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The Medusa Challenger, 552 feet long, passing through the draws of the Clark St. and Dearborn St. bridges.

Both bridges are the modern bascule type.

Courtesy Frank J. Plehi

on the lakes. Six years later, the last American passenger vessel operating on the Great Lakes, the South American, was retired. It bid farewell to Chicago in 1 967 by taking sailors from Great Lakes Naval Hospital on Chicago's annual Purple Heart Cruise.

A few launches still dock at Michigan Avenue and State Street bridges to take tourists out into the lake, but the only regularly scheduled service is a commuter run from the North Western Railway station to the Michigan Avenue bridge.

And the longest cruise is now the all-day tour of Chicago waterways held each spring and fall by the Chicago Travel Club.

With the virtual disappearance of shipping on 204 Chicago History

the river, delays at bridges have become rarer.

But one ship, a most persistent offender, still returns each year to cast a spell upon Chicago bridges and create traffic jams.

This nemesis of Chicago bridges was originally a bulk freighter, built in 1906 and named the William P. Snyder. She was converted into a selfunloading cement carrier in 1967 for the Medusa Portland Cement Co., and renamed the Medusa Challenger.

Each year since 1967, the Medusa Challenger has visited Chicago between twenty-five and thirty times to deliver cement powder to the Penn-Dixie Cement Corp. on Goose Island. She enters through the Chicago River locks and travels a tortuous three-mile route through the heart of the city and up the North Branch, towed by two tugs. At 552 feet, she is the longest ship ever to ply the Chicago River. The trip to the Penn-Dixie dock takes about two-and-a-half hours and carries her under eighteen bridges.

She often creates difficulties at those bridges.

On May 30, 1968, for example, the Medusa Challenger entered the Chicago River at about 6:30 P.M. As she approached the Clark Street bridge, an electrical short circuit prevented the bridge from being raised. While electricians rushed about, traffic was tied up at the open bridges at Dearborn and State streets for an hour and fifteen minutes.

At the end of the shipping season in December 1968, the State Street bridge stuck in the up position for ten minutes after the Medusa Challenger had passed through for the last time that year. In parting, she left a huge traffic jam all the way back to the Loop.

She returned again the following April, anxious to be the first ship of the season to enter the river. Once she was in, she turned one-half of the LaSalle Street bridge to stone, and it wouldn't open. Traffic backed up on LaSalle and Clark streets for over an hour during the busy noon hour while the electricians went to work again.

On her way out of the river the next day, she put the jinx on the Outer Drive bridge for forty

minutes. After a quick round trip to Petoskey, Michigan, for another load of cement, she put the whammy on the Outer Drive bridge again for another forty-five minute delay, only three days later.

The Medusa Challenger was becoming a legend, living up to her name, challenging bridges and petrifying them. The Tribune sent a reporter to do a feature article on the jinx ship and her captain, Joseph McCann, and the trip was faultless.

The article appeared on June 1, 1969, and that very afternoon the Medusa Challenger delayed traffic at the bridges at Wabash Avenue and at Wells Street for an hour.

In July 1970, she blew the fuses at Michigan Avenue bridge, and after a forty-five minute delay, she advanced to Wabash Avenue and blew the fuses there too, causing another one-hour delay. The following September she knocked out the Outer Drive bridge again, and she struck once more at the Michigan Avenue bridge in October 1972.

Her best performance came on December 17, 1972. At 6:oo A.M. she approached the bridge at Michigan Avenue, her favorite victim, and slapped a double whammy on it. According to the Tribune: The bridgetender threw up his hands in despair and the Medusa let out a woeful bellow with her fog horn that must have awakened most of the Loop. And the Medusa sat there, white steam billowing from the stacks, for five hours while city crews worked to unwhammy the hexed bridge.

When the curse was finally lifted, the Medusa Challenger churned out into the icy waters of Lake Michigan, confident that she was sti ll the master of all the bridges and of all those who waited impatiently for them to close.

Next time you're in the Loop, look for her.

Join the crowds who stand at the open bridges, elbows on the railings. As she glides gracefully by, wave to her captain. Think of the old hymn, "Shall We Gather at the River," and remember the millions who have stood at the river before you, waiting to cross.

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The World's Most Beautiful Ballrooms

BY NANCY BANKS

Those were the days-when the plain people of Chicago danced in palatial ballrooms to the music of the big bands.

HUNDREDS OF STARS TWINKLED OVERHEAD in the deep blue dome of the Aragon's ceiling while clouds drifted slowly by. The huge dance floor, built to resemble the courtyard of a Moorish palace, was filled with swirling dancers as the band swung into its theme song, "The W altz You Saved for Me." It was February 9, 1964, and Wayne King was playing his last dance at the ballroom that had given him his start as a bandleader and made him famous as "the Waltz King." The Aragon had been sold and was soon to be r::onverted to a roller-skating rink. The Trianon, its "sister ballroom" on the South Side, had been sold ten years earlier. It was truly the end of an era.

During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, the Aragon and the Trianon were known coast-to-coast as "America's Most Beautiful Ballrooms." Six nights a week, they featured the country's top bands-King, Dickjurgens,Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Guy Lombardo, Eddy Howard, Isham Jones, Lawrence Welk, and dozens more.

"Dance" rhymes with "romance," of course, and over the years more young people probably fell in love at the Aragon and the Trianon than anywhere else in Chicago. The estimated total attendance at the Aragon alone was more than fifty million.

The two "wonder ballrooms" had their unlikely beginnings in 1907, when a penniless young man named Andrew Karzas arrived in Chicago from Greece. Two years later, his younger brother William joined him. As soon as they managed to scrape together $300, the Karzas brothers opened a tiny storefront restaurant on the South Side. The restaurant prospered, and soon they made their first investment in the entertainment field, a nickelodeon at 63rd Street and Cottage Grove Avenue. As the fad for mov-

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ing pictures grew, so did the Karzas' fortunes, and they bought a small string of movie theaters on the South Side. In the early 1920s they built the Woodlawn, one of the earliest neighborhood movie palaces.

They were following the lead of the Balaban and Katz theater chain, which had started the craze for ornate movie theaters in 1917 with its Central Park theater. Most of the early B & K movie houses were "inspired" by French architecture, especially Versailles. So was the Karzas brothers' Woodlawn theater, and as Andrew Karzas listened to the crowds exclaim over the splendor of his "movie palace" he determined to go a step further.

He would build a regal ballroom, with the largest possible dance floor and the very best orchestras. He would model it after the Grand Trianon, a palace built by Louis XIV at Versailles, and decorate it with the finest marble, the most luxurious velvets and brocades. It would be located near public transportationand it would be air-cooled, so that dancing would be comfortable all year round. He would call it the Trianon, and it would attract (as he put it) "a very refined class of nice people."

Public dancehalls were not a new idea by any means- in 19 r 7, there were no fewer than 440 in Chicago. But the vast majority were "dance dives" -small, poorly ventilated rooms located in the rear of saloons, where, as the Juvenile Protective Association reported, "Men and women become intoxicated and dance indecently such dances as 'Walkin' the Dog,' 'On the Puppy's tail,' 'Shaking the Shimmy,' 'The Dip,' 'The Stationary Wiggle,' etc."

Young people from the "best" families danced at country clubs and private "dancing academies," and the few respectable public dancehalls

Courtesy Byron C. Karzas

Andrew Karzas, restaurateur, movie palace owner, and builder of "The World's Most Beautiful Ballrooms"the Aragon and the Trianon.

in the city were not on the scale Karzas envisioned. Among them were the Dreamland Ballroom on the West Side, which had opened in 191 r; Marigold Gardens, Guyon's Paradise Garden, and the Arcadia on the North Side; and outdoor dance pavilions in amusement parks, such as White City and Midway Gardens. The Merry Garden and the O'Henry Ballroom (now Willowbrook) both opened in r 92 r, soon followed by Fred Mann's Million Dollar Rainbo Gardens.

They were all eclipsed in 1922, when Andrew and William Karzas opened the Trianon at 62nd Street and Cottage Grove Avenue. A formal staircase at the far end of the palatial reception lobby, which was furnished with imported tapestries and chairs upholstered in brocaded velvet, led to a "grand salon" adjoining the ballroom upstairs. The dance floor, surrounded by a line of Corinthian marble columns, measured roo by 140 feet. The domed ceiling was bathed (a little garishly, some thought) in an everchanging display of colored lights, and overlooking the dance floor were boxes hung with crimson velvet, several parlors, and a tea room capable of serving 560 people. The total cost was estimated at $1,200,000.

Opening night, December 5, 1922, was an occasion worthy of the Trianon's splendor. The public-relations minded Karzas brothers paid Paul Whiteman $25,000 for a six night engagement-reputed to be the highest fee yet paid a dance orchestra-and donated the music and the ballroom for a charity ball benefiting the Illinois Children's Home and Aid Society.

Mrs. Potter Palmer II and Mrs. John Borden chaired the "Bal Fantastique," which became the charity event of the season. Mrs. Howard Linn was captain of fifty-eight debutantes who performed a marionette drill and served as ushers, wearing bright green silk pajama suits designed by Mrs. Linn with artist's wigs of green hair to match. Mrs. Harry Warner led another group of debutantes dressed as "Turkish cigaret girls."

The dancing was to begin at nine o'clock, in deference to "the early hour campaign which is being waged by Chicago mothers." Mounted police were assigned to control the crowds which thronged the corners, but they could not prevent the bystanders from jeering as the green-wigged debutantes arrived.

Inside, the Tribune reported, "the telephone book rubbed shoulders with the Social Register." Anyone willing to buy a $5 ticket was admitted. Costumes in the crowd ranged from Cleopatra to Little Bo Peep. Mrs. Borden appeared in harem trousers of silver cloth draped in black lace and fringed with ermine tails, but most society matrons wore conventional evening gowns and fantastic headdresses, often with wigs in matching colors or gilded hair. Mrs. Robert G. McGann, for example, wore "a towering headdress of three green ostrich feathers set in a cluster of diamonds." General John J. Pershing led the Grand March, with Mrs. Palmer on his arm in a clinging gown of gold cloth. Her "IndoPersian" headdress of pearls was surmounted by a single rose-colored plume.

Three ballets were performed during intermissions by Adolf Bloom's Civic Opera Ballet, including the Chicago premier of John Alden Chicago History

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Mrs. Potter Palmer II, in the costume in which she attended the opening of the Trianon in 1922. She is actually standing on a window sill and posing against the window draperies, with a small Oriental rug placed beneath her feet.

Carpenter's jazz pantomime, "Krazy Kat." The audience sat on silk cushions distributed by the debutantes; whether the ladies were requested to remove their plumes was not recorded. When the crowd had thinned out sufficiently, socialites and commoners alike danced until 4 A.M. The ball raised $30,000 for the Children's Home and Aid Society, and all present agreed with the Daily News that "society stepped upon the magic carpet of Bagdad last night."

Andrew and vVilliam Karzas expected ordinary citizens to come in droves on the following night, which is exactly what happened. Some of the male patrons were surprised to learn that coats and ties were necessary; the Trianon was the first ballroom in the city to require them. No business was lost, however-the management kept a supply of ties and coats of various sizes on hand. Women wearing sweaters, saddle shoes, or slacks were asked to come back another evening in "proper attire." Inside, the Trianon's tuxedo-clad "floor men" circulated constantly, putting a stop to wild dancing or displays of affection on the dance floor with a tap on the shoulder and a few pofae words. The Juvenile Protective Association visited the Trianon and pronounced it wholesome; as the Karzas brothers were fond 9f saying, it was "a place where you wouldn't be ashamed to bring your wife, or sweetheart, or girl, or mother, or grandmother."

The ballroom got another big splash of publicity fourteen months after it opened, when Rudolf Valentino performed "his brilliant dancing oddity- The Tango-"atop a platform constructed on the dance floor. On his first night, February 18, 1923, an attendance record was set as six thousand Sheiks and Shebas-many of the men wearing slicked-down hair, sideburns, and patent leather shoes-jammed the ballroom.

When Valentino and his partner, Winifred Hudnut, began to dance to the music of the Argentine Orchestra, hundreds of fans became hysterical. Bouquets, bracelets, hair combs, even diamond rings were thrown onto the platform.

The Trianon was so successful that in r 926 the 208

Chicago History

Chicago Hi storical Society, Daily News Collecti on

Karzas brothers were able to spend an estimated $1,750,000 to build the Aragon, at 1196 West Lawrence. The French influence had been strong when the Trianon was built; in 1926, Hollywood's version of the "Spanish-Moorish" style was everywhere. The Aragon was built to resemble a Moorish palace, at once more vulgar and more romantic than the Trianon's classical beauty.

Nearly every inch of the Aragon's walls, floors, and ceiling was decorated. The entry hall stretched the length of the building on the ground floor, ending in a wide staircase flanked by plaster dragons. Upstairs was the oval dance floor, surrounded by a double tier of archways enclosing the balconies and a promenade around the ballroom. The archways were heavily ornamented with Alhambra-like designs in molded plaster; the beams in the balcony ceiling were stenciled with bright geometric designs; there were Spanish-style lighting fixtures of iron grillwork and colored glass. Sixty feet above the dance floor was the famous domed ceiling, painted a deep cobalt blue and lit with twinkling stars. Four movie projectors (concealed by rococo towers at each corner of the ballroom) sent a continuous film of fluffy clouds scudding across the dome.

Once again, the Karzas brothers donated their ballroom on opening night. The occasion, July 14, 1926, was the "grand ball" of the national convention of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks. Mayor "Big Bill" Thompson bought the first ticket to the ball, which was presided over by Alexander Wolf, exalted ruler of the Chicago lodge. Miss Jean Marne of Chicago was named "Miss Fidelity," the crowning virtue of the B.P.O.E.; the runners-up were "Miss Justice," "Miss Charity," and "Miss Brotherly Love." Music was provided by Ted Fio Rito and Dan Russo's Orioles.

Of the two brothers, Andrew made most of the business decisions, chose the bands, and dealt directly with the bandleaders. His tastes and personality determined the ballrooms' atmo-

sphere, and he was as different from the flamboyant stereotype of a dancehaJI owner as his ballrooms were from most dancehalls. Maurie Lipsey, who headed the Chicago office of the nation's largest booking agency, the Music Corporation of America, and was Andrew Karzas' good friend, remembers him as a "very cultured, refined, dignified gentleman with a quiet personality. You'd never see him socializing with the bandleaders or musicians, although he was always very cordial with them-but you cou ld find him at classical concerts and charity affairs instead."

Andrew Karzas made one of his wisest decisions in 1927, when he took a chance on the future of radio and began broadcasting from the Trianon over a telephone line through the WGN studios atop the Drake Hotel. The Aragon soon began live broadcasts as well.

Radio had proven its power to win recognition for dancing spots and bandleaders, having already brought fame to the Coon-Sanders Original Kansas City Nighthawks at the Blackhawk restaurant and to Guy Lombardo at the Granada Cafe on the South Side. The top bands were eager for the publicity gained by the Karzas ballrooms' daily broadcasts over WGN (which was powerful enough to reach most of the lucrative Midwestern market) and an hour-long program on Sunday afternoon over the coast-tocoast Mutual Network. Thanks to radio and the Century of Progress Exposition, the Aragon and Trianon didn't fare too badly during the Depression . Two things visitors always wanted to see when they arrived in Chicago were the Century of Progress and "The World's Most Beautiful Ball rooms."

Dancing was probably the second most popular form of entertainment during the early 1930s, the first being motion pictures. "Dancing your cares away" was relatively inexpensive, and once a customer bought his ticket he could stay for as long as he wished.

Among the bands to make their reputations at the Karzas ballrooms were Art Kassel and his Ch icago Hi story

209

Ballrooms

The grand staircase at the Trianon .

210

Chicago History

"Kassels of the Air" at the Trianon; Dick J urgens, Griff Williams, and Anson ("Dancin' with Anson") Weeks at the Aragon; Eddy Howard, who began as a member of Jurgens' band; Jan Garber, "The Idol of the Air Lanes," Del Lampe, and a young accordion player from North Dakota named Lawrence Welk at the Trianon. And, of course, Wayne King, who was a saxophone player in Del Lampe's orchestra when Andrew Karzas spotted him and said, so the story goes, " I like your looks. Can you lead a band?" King was soon an established bandleader at the Aragon, where he played regularly for eight years.

The Karzas brothers' success is not hard to explain . First there was the beauty of the ballrooms themselves and the care lavished on their upkeep. Next was the atmosphere of "refinement" that Andrew Karzas had so carefully established with his dress code and his refusal to hire jazz bands or permit jitterbugging. F inally, there was his business judgment; he could always think of ways to bolster flagging attendance, like the huge Wurlitzer pipe organs installed in both ballrooms in the late 1930s to provide music during intermissions, the "Singing Screen" (complete with bouncing ball) for singing along with the organ, and the "Dance and Stay Young Parties" on Tuesday nights at the Trianon "for those over 3 r ."

Both ballrooms had a regular weekly schedule, including a " Sweetheart N ight," and a "Waltz Night" at which every other dance was a waltz. If a potential customer didn't know how to dance, that was no problem-"Class Nights" were Tuesday at the Aragon and Thursday at the Trianon, and each ballroom had a "400 Club" of selected dancers who were on hand to help novices practice during the "Scamper Hour" following the formal instruction.

Andrew Karzas also understood the importance of personal contact between the musicians and their audience. Lawrence Welk recalled in his autobiography that Karzas once told him: "You can establish more goodwill, and build up

World's Most Beautiful Ballroom

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MISS

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NATIONAL

Beauty Tournament and BATHING BEA.UTT

Pageant at Atla n tic City

Sept. :&, 3, 4, S and c,

Contest

Now On Closes August 25th

Any Jir-1. white who has nevtt been married . txtwcen the agu of lb and JS con enur the contest for the greet honor o( being

"Miss America" See other side for particulars .

DAZZLING ELIMINATION REVUES No w bdng held in the World¡s !\10$t Beaullful Ballroom . Com e t o tht' Tri An o n TuudAy. ":'ednesday or Thursday nights or SundA)- 'l.1 11tinee. B,1ng your hathing suit whi c h will be your ticket of .idm1"io n. Enter the con tut and ~i n this gTE:llt honor for Chic a,to.

Chicago Historical Soci ety

In 1924, th e competition for "Miss Chicago" was held at the Tr ia non . Th e winner was promised a free trip to Atlantic City to compete in the " M iss America" contest, a nd a week' s vacation there, all expenses pa id . In add it ion , "a ll contestants appearing in El imin at ion Revues will be suitably rewarded with desirabl e gifts."

Chicago History

211

Ballrooms

you r band more quickly, by spending a little time out there autographing and talking with your audience, than you can in any other way."

Welk said to his wife that night, "I had lunch today with one of the smartest men I've ever met."

Although Andrew Karzas never danced himself, he had an unfailing ability to recognize danceable music. Bands had to have a distinctive playing style, but Karzas rejected those who relied too heavily upon comedy routines or other gimmicks. Another criterion he used when picking a band was the leader's personality; it had to be "engaging" but not unctuous .

With few exceptions, the bands that played at the Karzas ballrooms had between fourteen and twenty members and featured the "lush" sounds of trombones, saxophones, and strings. "The more violins, the better Andrew Karzas liked it," Lipsey remembers. Many of the bands featured vocalists: Frank Sinatra sang with Tommy Dorsey's band, Perry Como with Ted Weems', Peggy Lee with Benny Goodman's. Although bands "switched off" from time to time, they tended to become associated with one ballroom or the other and the ballrooms themselves acquired slightly different atmospheres. The Trianon tended to be more traditional; its patrons were especially fond of the waltz and the polka.

Lawrence Welk, for example, was "big" at the Trianon while the more experimental sound of D ick J urgens never caught on. Jurgens, however, was highly popular at the Aragon.

The smaller, older ballrooms in the city were unable to command the top bands or the radio time of the Karzas ballrooms and many were forced out of business. Marigold Gardens began holding weekly boxing matches in 1929; the Dreamland had become primarily a roller skating rink by 1930; Rainbo Gardens became a bowling alley, and its ballroom was used for wrestling matches and jai alai games.

The Aragon and the Trianon experienced some financial difficulties themselves in the late 1930s. Radio had become stereotyped and dull, and no longer commanded the audience it had 212

Chicago History

a few years earlier. Ballroom dancing was becoming "old hat," and people were looking for new diversions. Finally, the "swing" craze had begun-in late 1935, with Benny Goodman. It spread like wildfire, but not to the Aragon or the Trianon. The Karzas brothers continued to hire more conventional bands whose playing was referred to as "Mickey Mouse music" or "the businessman's bounce" by swing-oriented musicians and critics. Swing bandleaders like Goodman, the Dorsey brothers, and Harry James played the Karzas ballrooms occasionally, but never for extended periods, and the "scene" in Chicago shifted to smaller dancing spots, notably the Panther Room of the Sherman House. The Karzas' business had to be reorganized and refinanced in 1939, which might have been a contributing factor in Andrew Karzas' sudden death in June 1940. He was fifty-nine.

William Karzas became general director of both ballrooms after his brother died. He continued the policies Andrew had established, and the ballrooms managed to outlast the swing era and stay in business until World War II brought back the really big crowds. By 1947, they were again able to boast that they catered to "more dancers each week than all other Chicago ballrooms combined." Business looked so good after the war that the firm purchased three ballrooms outside of Chicago: the Terp in Austin, Minnesota; the Prom in St. Paul; and the Surf in Clear Lake, Iowa.

This prosperity was only illusory, however; serious problems faced the "Karzas empire" after the war. The Trianon ran into difficulties when the surrounding neighborhood began to "change," Chicago's euphemism for an influx of Negroes . Bl ack bands did not play in either ballroom, and Negroes were turned away at the door-a policy which the Karzas brothers believed reflected the wishes of their patrons. Civil rights groups picketed the Trianon during the early 1950s and, on at least one occasion, the police were called when an attempt was made to crash the gates.

At the edge of the Aragon's dance floor, opened in 1926.

Ballrooms

Chicago Daily News

Lovely Jayne Walton sings a tune from the Trianon Ballroom bandstand as Maestro Lawrence Welk leads the orchestra in 1943.

214

Chicago History

These factors hastened the closing of the Trianon, which occurred in r 954, but other difficulties would have forced it to close eventually.

There were fewer big bands, and they were demanding more money. Admission prices rose accordingly, and attendance declined. At the same time, vocalists became the major attraction, rather than bands or bandleaders. Dancers tended to congregate in front of the bandstand to hear the vocalists-or, worse yet, stay home and watch them on TV. The "baby boom" meant that young couples had the added expense of babysitters and not much extra money. Many were afraid to take public transportation after dark, and neither the Aragon nor the Trianon had adequate parking facilities.

The Aragon held out for another ten years, staying open fewer nights a week and relying increasingly upon local bands and renting the ballroom for private parties. On March 3 r, r 958, a fire and explosion in an adjoining cocktail lounge ripped a hole in the lobby and caused an estimated $80,000 in damage, forcing the ballroom to shut down for the first time in twenty-one years. It reopened in June after a $250,000 remodeling job, but never regained even the ghost of its former popularity.

William Karzas retired in r 958 and his son, the second Andrew Karzas, became manager of the Aragon. Shortly after his father's death in September r 963, Andrew sold the Aragon to Chicago theater owners Oscar Brotman and Leonard Sherman for a reported $200,000. They converted it to a roller-skating rink, the first of many ill-starred ventures which have included televised boxing and wrestling matches, "ethnic parties," flea markets and bingo games, and rock music concerts under successive managements.

Similar events were held at the Trianon until 1967, when it was demolished to make room for an urban renewal project.

In 1966, the Aragon was converted into a "mod-type discotheque" and renamed the Cheetah. The Cheetah's press agent referred to the ballroom's decor as "boorish-Moorish," and

the new management covered the Spanish tiles with silver paint, installed strobe lights, draped the ceiling with white cloth upon which a "psychedelic light show" was projected, and hung a 50-foot spoked chandelier with 700 flashing, multi-colored lights in the center of the dance floor. The one thing they didn't do was attract customers; the Cheetah closed within six months.

Other owners have tried to revive ballroom dancing at the Aragon. In September r 968, a Chicago attorney named Emerson Whitney spent a near fortune removing the Cheetah's ravages and refurbishing the ballroom. His first band was Jose Bethancourt, a r 950s favorite, but the crowds never came and by the end of the month Whitney was losing $1,000 a night. Four sailors from the Great Lakes Naval Training Station even demanded their $2.50 admission back one evening because there were no women their own age to dance with. "Ballroom dancing is dead as a crowd pleaser," Whitney said when he gave up. "Everybody loves the memory, but they simply don't support it."

A later owner, H. S. Harvey, discovered he was right. In 197 r, Harvey installed a new parquet floor and new carpeting, applied a fresh coat of gilt paint, restored the Wurlitzer organ, used fifty-five gallons of cleaner on the mosaic tile, and hired a house band, "The Aragons," for ballroom dancing every Thursday night. But fewer than two hundred dancers showed up, most of them middle-aged, and by Ir P.M. only a handful remained. Harvey sold out after a few weeks. The current management, Aragon Entertainment Inc., schedules rock concerts on Fridays, bingo on Sundays, and a variety of events on other nights-but no ballroom dancing. The Aragon's days as "America's Wonder Ballroom" are over.

Acknowledgement: The author thanks Byron C. Karzas, who made available his personal collection of newsclippings, photographs, and memorabilia, consented to a lengthy interview, and reviewed the manuscript.

Chicago History 215

I Remember Clarence Darrow

BY MATILDA FENBERG

The son of a szeffragette, Clarence Darrow had a lifelong interest in intellectual women. was my return-trip ticket to my home town, Findlay, Ohio, where I was slated to become a junior partner in the law firm of Dunn & Cole. I had come back to my alma mater, the University of Chicago, to renew scenes and friendships. And now I decided I just could not leave without meeting my hero, the greatest trial lawyer of his time, Clarence Darrow.

I hurried to 140 North Dearborn Street and rushed into the offices of Darrow, Sissman, Holly, and Clark. Mr. Darrow was in his shirt sleeves, his graying brown hair rumpled, a wedge dangling over his forehead, wearing his famous eye-catching red suspenders. He took his feet off his enormous deDk, put down a book of poems, and rose to greet me.

My heart was pounding like an anvil. I hesitated, while he sized me up and asked my name.

I wanted to sound sophisticated. I blurted out, "My name won't mean anything to you. Mr. Darrow, do you think life is worth living?"

He shot me a startled look, then grinned, his face folding in kindness. "Oh hell yes," he said.

"Come on in. Sit down. Let's talk."

I t was easy to talk to Clarence Darrow. He had the kind of caressing voice that eased every secret out of you, the kind of luring tones that led j u ries to the decisions he aimed for or that led recalcitrant witnesses to their undoing. I knew all this from the newspaper pieces I had been clipping and pasting since grade school. I also knew he was a famous lecturer whose

IN MY POCKET

Matilda Fenberg, Darrow's protegee, drafted the Uniform Divorce Bill, proposed for adoption by all the states. She never lost a jury case, and still practices law.

216

Ch icago History

speech, " Is Life Worth Living?" had been given in Chatauquas from coast to coast. He told me he had lectured on everything from Tolstoi to capital punishment in every state of the Union except Oklahoma.

I was in the fourth grade of the old Central School in Findlay (now a pizza stand) when a policeman came to my class to ask for the Fenberg girl. He took me to the courthouse to act as interpreter for a neighbor of ours who had been arrested for receiving stolen copper. I had helped out before since I was the only one in town who spoke Yiddish, German, and English. I defended the man so fervently that the district attorney prophesied, "She'll be another Clarence Darrow." It was the first time I had heard the name.

And now I was sitting in his office. He had come from Ohio, too, and begun his law practice there. He had also taught school, as I had, to earn enough money to keep going.

He listened attentively to my personal history -how scholarships had sent me to the University of Chicago, how I had taught to send three sisters through college before I could study law.

"I taught in McComb, Ohio; Monticello, Indiana; Wapakoneta, Ohio; and Akron-all before I left Akron to attend summer classes in law at Columbia University."

And he capped me. "My sister Mary, though she had a one-year contract, was ousted from her school in Vernon because the parents were horrified at her being the daughter of a free thinker." Three years later, though, Darrow was asked to teach in the same school. He was paid $30 a month, and he stayed three years, while he studied nights until he was ready to enter the law school at Ann Arbor. After one year of formal education in law he was examined by a committee of lawyers, and passed. He was twenty-one.

•

I took the conversation up from there. While studying at Columbia, I heard that Yale University's law school would open its doors to women in October. I got on the nightboa t that very night (fare $1), and next morning I stood in line on the campus green, hanging onto my valise.

How many times the campus policeman tried to dislodge me! " Âź'omen don't go to Yale," he informed me over and over. I wouldn't budge.

"They do now," I argued. At noon he returned.

"You're right," he said, "but you're in the wrong line." He took my bag and I became the first woman to matriculate in the Yale Law School.

Darrow laughed . "If I had your formal education, what would I have been?"

The train left without me that day, for Darrow said that he would have an autographed photograph and a job for me if I would return the next morning, because Chicago "needed" me. But it was not until I received a wire from him to come help celebrate his sixty-sixth birthday at a banquet that I made the break. Darrow's birthday was April 18, the year 1923. He generously set aside a corner of his spacious desk for me and my books, and there I sat, listening to him advise and counsel, take and refuse cases -a member of Clarence Darrow's staff.

He was a unique man-thought-provoking, gentle, witty, and intellectual-and he had a tremendous following. When he invited me to lunch we were hailed so many times by wellwishers, most of them strangers, it would take us thirty m inutes to advance two blocks. I accused him once of loving the limelight, and he answered, "No, but I find I work best under direct light."

I watched all humanity pass Darrow's desk. I remember one young man who pleaded with Darrow to defend him on a burglary charge.

Darrow asked when he could expect part of his fee-but when the young man answered brightly, "Tonight," Darrow turned him down. "I don't take stolen money," he said, "at least, not that recently."

A third of his clients were penniless. If the

Court esy Matilda Fenberg

The autographed photograph Clarence Darrow offered the author the day he met her, before he knew how to spell her first name.

person could not pay at all, Darrow usually accepted him, thinking that if he didn't defend him no one else would. He believed that everyone, no matter who he was or whether he was right or wrong, had the right to legal defense .

Every accusation was hurled at him through the years. He was called socialist, atheist, communist, pacifist, radical. Some of the charges he admitted, at least in theory. He professed to be a pacifist, and hated violence, and yet he sometimes thought pacifism unrealistic. One charge he rejected. I remember¡ seeing him, late in life, with a newspaper crushed in his hand. "I've been maligned by the press before," he said, Chicago History

21 7

Clarence Darrow

"but this is the end. They're calling me a co nserv a ti ve."

He was daring. Once he spoke before the inmates of Cook County jail (then on the corner of Austin and Dearborn) . He told them: There is no doubt there are quite a number of people in this jail who would pick my pockets. And still I know this, that when I get outside pretty nearly everybody picks my pocket. ... They charge me one dollar for something that is worth twenty-five cents, and still all these people are good people; they are pillars of society and support the churches, and they are respectable .... Nine-tenths of you are in jail because ... you did not have enough money to pay a good lawyer. There is no very great danger of a rich man going to jail. ... If every man and woman and child in the world had a chance to make a decent, fair, honest living, there would be no jails, and no lawyers and no courts .... There should be no jails. They do not accomplish what they pretend to accomplish. If you would wipe them out, there would be no more criminals than now .

Darrow's friends were distressed by this kind of talk to sentenced criminals. His reaction was to publish the whole lecture with a Preface stating: "I have caused these remarks to be printed on rather good paper and in a somewhat expensive form. In this way the truth does not become cheap and vulgar, and is only placed before those whose intelligence and affluence will prevent their being influenced by it." The pamphlet sold for r 0¢.

Once I asked him if he really was a socialist, for I knew he had socialist friends, but he shook his head, saying, "I would never join the Socialist Party. There are so many anti-social people in it."

Back in Ashtabula, Ohio, a police judge had handed him a book, Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims (1884) by a young lawyer, John Peter Altgeld, that lit a fire in the young Darrow. Here in Chicago, in Darrow's early thirties, the two men began an enduring friendship. It was Altgeld's profound concern for the underdog that aroused Darrow in those first years. "Remember," said Altgeld, "brutal treatment brutalizes."

Darrow never forgot.

218 Chicago History

Darrow accepted his first political job, as special assessment attorney, at this time, a position he held for three months until he was appointed assistant corporation counsel of the city of Chicago. He represented the city in all contested matters, acquiring his first experience in court procedure, formulating and sharpening the technique he was to follow the rest of his life.

He began to get acquainted with judges, studied backgrounds and traditions, learned the characteristics and differences of ethnic groups in the big city of Chicago.

When Darrow had held this job some ten months, the corporation counsel became ill and Darrow, now thirty-three, was promoted to corporation counsel of the most tumultuous city in America. The Columbian Exposition was to open in r 893 and preparations had to be made for it, such as opening streets-problems that involved conflicts with railroads, rights of way, and building permits. He had been at it for four years when Altgeld, by then governor of Illinois, advised him to accept a position as general counsel of the Chicago and North Western Railway at a higher salary. Now Darrow and his wife Jessie could buy a home on the North Side and he could pay back his brother Everett and others who had helped him.

Darrow often went to Springfield to visit the Altgelds when a crisis arose, for he valued Mrs. Altgeld's opinions as well as her husband's.

Emma Altgeld shed light on all who entered her home, and Darrow too came under her influence.

As general counsel for the Chicago and North Western Railway Darrow was now financially well off. But just at this time, workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company struck and the American Railway Union, in sympathy, refused to handle Pullman cars.

The railroad yards were burning. The boycott spread. Eugene V. Debs, president of the American Railway Union, was thrown into prison, charged with conspiracy. Darrow admired and loved Debs. And Clarence Darrow was corporation counsel for the railroad. He paced the floor,

I

Chicago H istorlcal Soc iety

Emma Ford Altgeld, who had many gifts: She wrote short stories, published a novel, painted portraits and, a graduate of Oberlin College, could have been a music teacher. She is said to have had a serene disposition.

Chicago Historical Society

Ruby Hamerstrom Darrow.

Chicago Historical Society

Eugene V. Debs, president of the American Railway Union and Clarence Darrow's good friend.

Chicago Historical Society

Marvin Hughitt, president of the Chicago and North Western Railway. Ink drawing by Jane Spear King.

Chicago History

219

Clarence Darrow

he struggled with his good angel and his bad angel, then he put on his coat and went to Springfield to consult the Altgelds.

His decision, to resign and defend Debs, hit the Chicago and North Western Railway hard.

Marvin Hughitt, president of the railroad company, warned Darrow that the unions could not pay, that when the case was over he would be stranded without clients or a future and that every businessman in Chicago would avoid him as a radical. He begged him to stay on, said he would be made governor of Illinois, United States senator, or even obtain a post in the cabinet.

Darrow interrupted him. "These are not the things I am asking for. I guess I've got the wrong background and upbringing for that kind of life.

I believe in the right of people to better themselves and I'm going to throw in my ten cents' worth to help them."

The year was 1894. He defended Debs against criminal charges that would have made it a crime for a man to strike and also would have made it a criminal offense for any man to suggest such a thing to another. Debs ended up in prison on yet another charge, and Darrow went broke trying to free him, but there were compensations. Darrow _gained national fame and recognition as a lawyer for the workingman and for the people.

It was true that he did not possess the upbringing for big business. One of eight children, Clarence Seward Darrow was born in a farming village, Farmdale, Ohio, on April 18, 1857.

When he was seven years old, the family moved a half-mile or so down the road to Kinsman, where they stayed until Darrow was almost twenty-one. His mother, Emily, who died when he was fourteen, was a free thinker, worked for women's suffrage, campaigned for liberal Democratic candidates in a solidly Republican state, and could be relied upon to help in every liberal movement-religious, educational, or political.

His father, too, was exceptional. Amirus Darrow was an ordained minister who had never 220

Chicago History

taken a pulpit because he believed that "The end of wisdom is the fear of God, the beginning of wisdom is doubt." And he doubted everything. He wrote books and earned a meagre living for his family at carpentry. He made coffins and delivered them with the same horse and wagon in which he transported a runaway slave to the next station en route to Canada, while five-year-old Clarence sat on the concealing hay.

On Saturday nights, Darrow went square dancing like all the other boys. His partner invariably was a sixteen-year-old farmer's daughter, Jessie Ohl. She and Clarence hit it off very well and were married.

When Darrow was twenty-six, his son Paul was born in the little town of Andover. It was enough incentive for the young lawyer to move his family to Ashtabula, then a town of some five thousand. There he entered the office of Judge Sherman, and soon won cronies and influence.

He loved to play poker, and he loved baseball, and in no time at all he was made city solicitor at a salary of $75 a month.

Darrow recalled that if he had had $3,500 to buy a house in Ashtabula he might never have come to Chicago. When the interest payments proved too high, he heeded the urgings of his sister and brother and brought his family to Chicago.

Darrow now had the intellectual and literary companionship he craved.Jane Addams became his friend, often consulting him in matters pertaining to Hull House. One night he even hosted an English couple, Sidney and Beatrice Webb, at a dinner at Hull House with Altgeld and Jane Addams.

In this cultural atmosphere, Jessie fared very badly. In the beginning she accompanied Darrow to the parties, lectures, and discussions, but she could never understand why the people around her got so stirred up over issues that hardly touched them in any practical way. She had every virtue as a housewife. She took fastidious care of Darrow's clothes, her house was spotless. She was thrifty, loyal, self-sacrificing,

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Chicago Hfstorical Soci ety

Broadsi d e distrib uted in 1899, during former Governo r Al tgeld's unsuccessful campaign to b eco m e m ayor of Chicago.

and a good mother, but the marriage was breaking up. Darrow now came home only to sleep and on Sundays to spend time with his son.

There was almost no meeting of the minds.

Darrow had wit, loved fun. Jessie had no play in her. Darrow showed no interest in food. Jessie was an excellent cook. He pushed his food around on his plate, crushing his cigarette in the stew she had worked over for hours. He was unmindful of clothes, always looking somewhat wrinkled, and almost always indifferent to his surroundings.

The break was inevitable. He asked Jessie for his freedom. When Darrow suggested she secure

the divorce, she answered that it would reflect less on him professionally if he divorced her.

Darrow and Francis S. Wilson, who later became a justice of the Illinois Supreme Court, took bachelor apartments near Hull House, where they entertained writers, poets, professors, lawyers, labor leaders, musicians, intellectuals and liberals of all kinds and denominations. It was an exhilarating life, but in the spring of 1899 he met an auburn-haired newspaperwoman with a peaches-and-cream complexion and a blazing wit, and he was smitten.

Ruby Hamerstrom was twenty-six, he was forty-two. She was the most beautiful newspaperwoman in Chicago, maybe anywhere, and she wrote a column for the Chicago Evening Post entitled "Woman and Her Ways," besides editing the whole women's page for the Sunday edition. They became inseparable, and he married her four years later in the home of their mutual friend John Gregg, the originator of the short-hand system. After return ing from a twomonth honeymoon in Europe, where Darrow wrote Farmington, the account of his childhood, they moved into spacious quarters on the South Side. Their windows on East 60th Street commanded a broad view of the Midway, Jackson Park, and Lake Michigan. Darrow loved that place, and hoped never to leave it.

Three months after I had opened my own law office in Chicago, Darrow phoned me to ask if I would like to try a case with him the foll owing morning, defending a man charged with armed robbery. "The client thought maybe the two of us could get h im free."

Now was the time to conjure up all of Darrow's precepts for choosing a j ury, for addressing the judge and court. The judge, Darrow had said, can always find a loophole somehow, so you must make him think the way you think. Darrow kept his facts in his head, the indictment in his pocket. In any trial he became a teacher. I n picking a jury, he alway~ took his time, seemingly oblivious of the hours and the fee.

He often said, "Choose common people, never Chicago History

22 1

Clarence Darrow

Clarence Darrow, left, in his famous red suspenders, with William Jennings Bryan at the trial of John T. Scopes.

big business men." If he were dealing with a farmer, he would drawl. If the witness were a plumber, he used a plumber's vocabulary; if a grocer, Darrow turned groceryman. He knew Chicago so well he could tell just about anything about the witness or juryman from his home address.

He would often enlarge on his technique for choosing a juror. "Choose a man who laughs 222

Chicago History

because a man who laughs hates to find anyone guilty." "Avoid wealthy men because rich men always convict unless the defendant has violated the anti-trust law." Religion was important when he was deciding on a juror. It was advisable to accept a Methodist, he would suggest earnestly: "A Methodist's religious emotions can be translated into love and charity." But he warned against Presbyterians. Why? "Well,

Presbyterians know right from wrong." And he would not willingly accept Lutherans, for in his experience they were more apt to convict than not.

Jews, and the Irish, were the easiest to move to emotional sympathy. Never take a German, "for the Germans are bull-headed"; rarely take a Swede, for "the Swedes are stubborn." Choose old men. "They have seen more of the world and understand better."

Full of these precepts, I went off to court next morning. Sitting in front of him, at his insistence, I began to pick the jury. Darrow would intervene only when necessary. The next morning Darrow did not show up. A message handed me said: "Sick. Carry on without me." I did, trying to follow his every tip, and to "Look for the milk of human kindness." We won.

Not long after, a sensational murder took place in Chicago-the Leopold- Loeb case. Darrow was reluctant to take the ca e, but the relatives implored him. He said afterwards, when the death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment, "This means I'll get every case no other damnfool lawyer will take." But that was Darrow's usual case anyway.

His remarkable plea for the thrill murderers brought tears to the eyes of the presiding judge: Do I need co argue to your honor that cruelty only makes cruelty; that hatred only causes hatred; that if there is any way to . .. soften this human heart, which is hard enough at its best, if there is any way to kill evil and hatred and all that goes with it, it is not through evil and hatred and cruelty; it is through charity, love and understanding? How often do people need to be told this? Look back at the world . . . .

There is not a philosopher, there is not a religious leader, there is not a creed that has not taught it ....

I am not pleading so much for these boys as I am for the infinite number of others to follow, those who perhaps cannot be as well defended as they have been, those who may go down in the storm and the tempest, without aid. It is of them I am thinking, and for them I am begging of this court not to turn backward toward the barbarous and the cruel past.

A year later came the famous "Monkey Trial." When Darrow learned that William Jen-

nings Bryan was on his way to help prosecute a young teacher in Dayton, Tennessee, for teaching Darwinism in his biology class, Darrow offered his own services, free of charge, to the defense of John T. Scopes.

Aided by Dudley Field Malone and Arthur Garfield Hays, Darrow faced the crusading believer in Genesis before a town and assembly that resembled the state fair. Darrow lost. Young Scopes was fined $100, but the following year the sentence was reversed. The whole exciting trial (H. L. Mencken reporting) was broadcast by radio for the first time from a courtroom over WGN, the Chicago Tribune's station.

Darrow's spectacular law career began in 1878 and continued into the 1930s, into the Roosevelt administration. It was a time of disaster for the small businessman. Clarence Darrow was summoned to head the Review Board of the National Recovery Administration. He conducted fifty-seven hearings, personally hearing over three thousand complainants. He worked for four months, fourteen hours a day, and he was seventy-seven.

His health began to fail. At times he was bedridden and had to forego his walks in Jackson Park where he met his friends and, pausing on the lagoon bridge, discussed the problems of the world. He died March 13, 1 938, and he had asked his friend and former law partner Judge William H. Holly to say the appropriate words at his funeral: "He knows everything there is to know about me and has the sense not to tell it."

Funeral services were held in Bond Chapel at the University of Chicago in a torrential downpour. The heavy rain did not keep thousands of his admirers away. The chapel was packed, so some of them stood outside in the downpour, sorrowing for their friend.

Today the bridge in Jackson Park from which his son sea ttered his ashes to the wind and the rain is an official landmark. It is called the Clarence Darrow Bridge and pn every March I 3, rain, sleet, or snow, the followers of a great humanitarian gather there to remember.

Chicago History

223

"Something More than Packers"

BY LOUISE CARROLL WADE

Chicago's meat packers were strong men who drove not on?J their cattle, but themselves, their sons, and their employees.

In the process, they created a great industry.

are the eighth wonder of the world," boasted the Chicago Tribune on January I, 1889. "Sufficient meats are there packed to feed the standing armies of Europe."

It was true that Chicago packinghouse products were being marketed throughout the world by the end of the 188os and the city's stockyard was handling nearly eight million cattle, sheep, and hogs per year. Chicagoans took pride in the enormous volume of business done "at the StockYards." The thick cluster of packinghouses directly west of the yards employed nearly twenty thousand workers and had been christened "packers' town" or "Packingtown." Visitors learned that the packers really did use every part of the hog except the squeal. As Chicago humorist "Mr. Dooley" put it, "A cow goes lowin' softly in to Armours an' comes out glue, gelatine, fertylizer, celooloid, . . . hair restorer, washin' sody, soap, ... an bed springs so quick that while aft she's still cow, for'ard she may be anything fr'm-buttons to pannyma hats."

It was during the Civil War that Chicago wrested the title "Porkopolis" from rival Cincinnati. But the vast expansion of the livestock trade and meat packing in the 186os created serious municipal problems for the victor. Most of the packing plants were located on the South Branch of the Chicago River, and debris was illegally but conveniently dumped into that sluggish stream. As a result, noted a reporter, the "putrid" animal wastes "effervesce in the "THE UNION STOCK-YARDS

Louise Carroll Wade is the author of Graham Taylor : Pioneer for Social Justice and an American hi tory textbook. She is presently working on a book about Chicago's livestock trade and meat packing industry.

224 Chicago History

hot sunshine" and "the stench is overpowering."

In 1865, both the city and the state tightened the laws against depositing blood, bones, or offal in the lake, the river, "the branches thereof, or any of the canals or slips connected therewith."

Another important reform in 1865 was the establishment of a centralized railroad stockyard on the open prairie southwest of the city. Before then, the animals had been delivered to five widely scattered railroad yards where they were sold and distributed. Some were driven through city streets to the packinghouses on the South Branch; others were herded to the proper yard for shipment east. This traffic was "a perfect nuisance," according to one newspaper editor in 1864. He quickly added, however, that the livestock trade and meat packing represented "a very formidable interest in the multifarious pursuits of this city."

The proposal to erect one large stockyard outside the city limits was warmly endorsed by the city fathers. Railroad companies purchased stock in the new enterprise, and it had the support of the livestock dealers, John B. Sherman in particular. A native of New York State, Sherman had settled on a farm in Illinois where he raised corn and fattened livestock. His animals were sold at the Bull's Head stockyard on the far western edge of Chicago, near the present intersection of Madison and Ashland. Sherman became the manager of these yards, but in 1856, when the city was encroaching, he moved to the Lake Shore Railroad yards on Cottage Grove below 31st Street. After the city's southern boundary was extended to 39th Street in 1863, Sherman called for a stockyard "somewhere out on the prairie, beyond the line ever to be reached by the expanding city."

'

Chicago Historical Soci ety

Philip D. Armour, Prairie Ave. neighbor of John B. Sherman. He once told a reporter, "I am just a butcher trying to go to heaven."

Early in 1865, the new Union Stock Yard and Transit Company purchased a swampy tract west of Halsted Street, between 39th and 47th streets. By the end of the year they had drained the land, built spurs to all the railroads serving Chicago, and constructed a neat compound of animal pens, a hotel, and a combination bank and office building. The Union Stock Yard opened on Christmas Day, and its success was soon assured. ~early a million and a half animals passed through this "bovine city" in 1866.

The old railroad yards were phased out, and the city's livestock dealers leased office space in the Exchange Building.

One of the first to relocate was Nelson Morris, who was born in Hechingen, Germany, in 1838.

His Jewish parents fell on hard times after 1848, and the boy left school to help his father peddle copper, skins, and rags . A relative scraped together enough money for Morris' passage to America in 18y2, and the new immigrant found employment as a peddler in New England. In 1854, after working his way west on Erie Canal boats and a Great Lakes freighter, he landed a job in Chicago at the Bull's Head stockyard.

John Sherman paid him $5 a month and board and took him along to the Lake Shore yard in 1856, raising his pay to $8 a month and board.

Out of these wages elson Morris saved enough money to start his own livestock business in 1858.

First he bought injured and smothered hogs from the railroad stockyards and sold them to renderers; then he branched out, selling cattle to city butchers.

Morris' first big break came in 1861, when he secured a government contract to supply ten thousand cattle for the Union army. By the end of the Civil War he was well established as a livestock dealer and eager to expand his business at the new Union Stock Yard. He lived only "a buggy ride away" in a frame house at Indiana Avenue and 25th Street which he had built in 1862 for his bride. Here his five children were born, and this is where Nelson Morris died in 1907. He loved that "gaunt" house, said one of his sons, "as he loved no other spot on earth, save possibly a pen filled with milling cattle."

By the late 186os Chicago meat-packers were eyeing the vacant land directly west of the Union Stock Yard and east of Ashland Avenue. It had a number of advantages. It would put them near the livestock, thus eliminating the driving of animals to the South Branch. They could utilize the superb rail facilities for shipping their products. The South and West Forks of the South Branch could serve as their auxiliary sewer system. Best of all, however, they would be outside the city limits and free from the surveillance of "aldermanic smelling committees."

The first packer to rr'love into the area was Benjamin P. Hutchinson, a grain and provision Chicago History

225

Packers

Chicago Historical Society

John Plankinton, Milwaukee's leading packer and early partner of Philip D. Armour.

dealer who had started packing meat during the Civil War. In 1867 he built a new plant west of the Union Stock Yard for his Chicago Packing and Provision Company. Three other firms had joined him by the time of the Chicago Fire of 1871. The flames did little damage to the city's packing facilities and did not touch the Union Stock Yard. But the southward thrust of population in the 1870s and the city's determination to enforce its slaughterhouse ordinances convinced the other packers that it was time to leave the South Branch.

Armour and Company was the bellwether. In 1872, it left rented facilities on Archer Avenue for a spacious new plant west of the Union Stock Yard. Joseph F. Armour was the manager, but he took orders from his older brother, Philip, who was living in Milwaukee.

226

Chicago History

The five Armour boys had been born and raised on a farm in Stockbridge, New York.

Philip journeyed to California in 1852 when he was twenty; in four years he had accumulated $6,000, not by mining gold bul by providing water to the miners. He invested this money in a soap factory in Milwaukee, where another brolher, Herman, had settled. The factory burned down in 1857, and Philip D. Armour spent the next two years acquiring another nest egg by trading in hides at St. Paul. In 1859, he bought into a grain and provision firm back in Milwaukee; three years later John Plankinton, Milwaukee's leading meat packer, selected him as his business partner, and so successful was the Plankinton and Armour firm during the Civil War that it was ready for a major expansion in 1865. Herman Armour was sent to ew York to open an office, Joseph Armour started a small pork-packing plant in Chicago in 1867, and Simeon Armour took over a beef plant i1, Kansas City in 1869. But Joseph's health began to fail soon after his move to the Union Stock Yard plant, and Philip Armour brought the headquarters to Chicago in 1875-a move he would probably have made in any event. He arrived with a wife and two young sons, Jonalhan Ogden and Philip, Jr. The Chicago stockyards attracted cattle dealers from other parts of the country, also. One of the shrewdest was Gusta vu Franklin Swift, who had grown up on a sandy Cape Cod farm. At the age of sixteen he was buying cattle at the Brighton market outside Boston on weekends, slaughtering and peddling the meat to Cape Cod families during the week. In the r86os he began to operate butcher shops. Turning these stores over to his brothers, Swift entered into a partnership in 1872 with James A. Hathaway, a leading Boston cattle dealer. Swift's buying expeditions took him to the railroad stockyards in Albany and Buffalo, and he soon realized that he would have a better selection at cheaper prices in Chicago, whence these cattle came. In January 1875, therefore, the thirty-seven year

old Swift brought his family to Chicago, to a house on Emerald Avenue near the stockyards.

He was a small operator at the Union Stock Yard, and at first it was only his pronounced New England accent, his unusual height, and his penchant for riding a Texas pony that attracted any attention.

But he was already thinking about shipping dressed beef, rather than cattle on the hoof, to eastern markets. He knew that George Hammond of Detroit had been doing so successfully since 1869. Swift's earliest experiments were conducted in the winter of 1875- 1876, when he sent beef carcasses in an ordinary freight car with the door ajar for ventilation and cooling. The following winter he kept six butchers busy in a wooden slaughtering shed on the South Branch.

By 1878, he was ready to purchase railroad cars equipped with refrigerating systems, but his partner Hathaway balked at the expense. The partnership was dissolved, and Gustavus Swift invested his share of the proceeds, $30,000, in a new firm, Swift Bros. and Company.

Within the next two years he designed the refrigerator railroad car he wanted, had the cars built in Detroit, and persuaded the Grand Trunk Railroad to give him reasonable shipping rates. His brothers Nathaniel and Edwin handled the marketing through branch houses in New England. Swift now needed larger packing facilities, and in 1881 he put up an enormous cattleslaughtering house in Packingtown. Even his skeptical Cape Cod family had to admit that "Stave's Wild West scheme" was a reality .

Swift kept his lead in the dressed beef trade throughout the 188os, and his phenomenal success lured others into competition. Philip Armour began shipping dressed beef toward the end of 1879. A decade later, he was using 1,500 refrigerator cars for this trade. Armour and Company was by then the largest packing firm in Chicago. Their "village" spread over fourteen acres and included beef and pork houses, smokehouses, warehouses, cold-storage facilities, lard refineries, fertilizer and glue factories, as well as a

railroad car repair shop, a company fire station, and laboratory space for a full-time chemist. In addition, Armour and Company had packing plants in Milwaukee and Kansas City, offices in New York and London, and branch houses throughout eastern and southern United States for marketing their products.

Dressed beef had whetted Nelson Morris' appetite, too. Though primarily a livestock dealer, Morris had a small packing plant, a canned meat factory and, with Libby, McNeill & Libby, a large fertilizer company by the end of the 1870s. During the winter of 1879- 1880 he conferred with Nathaniel Kellogg Fairbank, owner of a lard refinery and oleomargarine plant. The outcome was the Fairbank Canning Company, which prepared both dressed and canned meats.

Morris selected the cattle and hogs whose chilled carcasses were sent east and whose remains were profitably disposed of in the canned meat department, or the fertilizer factory, or Fairbank's lard refinery.

It took ingenuity, hard work, and relentless concentration on details to build these businesses. The packers were keenly aware of the sacrifices they had made. When Nelson Morris presented his wife with a rope of pearls in 1875, he reminded her in an accompanying note, "I have worked hard to earn the money to buy it and have got it honestly by saving and economizing." Philip Armour's driving energy was legendary. He was at his desk by 7:00 A.M. and when he left at 6:oo P.M., he still had "a full head of steam," as one discouraged subordinate expressed it. "Give me plenty of work," said "P. D.", "and it is about all the tonic I want. And such a blessed thing work is, I feel thankful for it every day of my life." These men were understandably proud of the economic empires they had constructed. During the 1886 struggle with the Knights of Labor, Armour conducted a Tribune reporter through the Chicago plant, explaining every process ;;md concluding: "You see, we are something more than packers. We are merchants and manufacturers."

Chicago History 227

John B. Sh erman's house at 21 00 Prair ie Ave. in 1890. Within a few blocks of thi s ma ns ion lived 40 of the Co mm ercia l Cl ub's 60 members, making tha t s mall geographic a rea the social center of the city.

Chicago H istorical Society

The packers expected their employes-both office p ersonnel and packinghouse workers-to have the same dedication and enthusiasm for t heir jobs. They would not tolerate laziness, carelessness, or disloyalty. Armour expressed it this way in a letter to his sons: You of course wa_nt to be good and kind to your men.

You don't want to be stuck on any of them, but simply j ust with them. You certainly must permeate the concern from one end to the other that you are not dependent on any one, two or three men to keep the business afloat, but that you can float it yourself, even if you are left without any of them . . .. I think it has a lways been understood by my head men, that if any of them were let out, or if any of them resigned , that they never would be taken back again . ... If the men about you think they can get back at any time they want to ... or if they feel they can easily get at your soft side, you will never have any sort of respect or authority that is necessary to conduct a large business.

None of the packers was ever accused of exp osing his "soft side" to packinghouse workers .

Swift, Morris, and Armour were fond of pointing ou t how many jobs they provided. As Nelson Morris informed his son, "You can be of the 228 Ch icago History

greatest benefit by employing lots of labor and helping to maintain thousands of people, though you will never get any gratitude from them, no thanks, but you will get satisfaction." They also considered it vitally important to keep control of the labor force, just as they controlled livestock purchasing, transportation, and marketing. It was essential that they set wages and policies for hiring and firing. Thus, in the labor struggles of 1879- 1880, 1886, 1894, and 1904-all of which the packers won-they steadfastly refused to recognize the labor organization conducting the strike. As one packer put it in 1886, they would hire "only such men as recognize the fact that their first allegiance is to us, their employers, and not to a ny system of tyranny in the guise of a labor organization." As long as the employers could count on the police, the state militia, and federal troops to guard their property during a strike, their view of "allegiance" prevailed.

The packers expected their sons to follow in their footsteps, and the sooner they joined the business the better. Swift's oldest son Louis began buying cattle when he was only fourteen.

Packers

Six other Swift sons followed Louis through an apprenticeship in the yards and packing plant before moving into management posts. Said Helen Swift, "Father was very happy and, I think, proud that the boys all loved the business and had no leaning toward any other."

Armour had no trouble with his younger son and namesake. But Jonathan Ogden, interested in architecture, insisted on entering Yale in 1881. Philip Armour was impatient and persuaded the boy to quit after two years, although he did allow him to visit England. Reporting on this trip to John Sherman, the superintendent of the Union Stock Yard, Armour said: Ogden was impressed with the fact that so many Englishmen had a leisurely life on a small income ....

He thought there would be something he would like to do instead of grubbing for money, when we already had more than enough. He thinks he should retire. I told him to be at the Yards in his working clothes at seven on Monday morning.

Ogden joined Armour and Company in 1884.

Nelson Morris admonished his sons, "I want to see you .. . partners while I live, partners after I am dead." He could imagine, said one son, "no better future for any of us than that which he had provided in the ... meat packing and live stock business." This was fine for Edward but traumatic for Ira Nelson. The latter fought hard to enter Yale in 1892. His father bombarded him with letters: "You come here and work for me and pretty soon you can hire all those college fellows for fifteen dollars a week."

Years later, Ira wrote: ... for all of my determination, ... father won at last.

At the end of my first year at Yale I went back to Chicago-and to the stock yards, [to the] thick, heavy, nauseating odor . .. unlike that of any other in the world. All about us was the hurried, purposeful activity of the meat business, of buying and selling, of slaughtering and packing and shipping. I felt suffocated, hemmed in, barred from life, by the odors and the ceaseless, money-making activity about me.

Benjamin P. Hutchinson imposed his will on his son Charles Lawrence, an honors student in

high school who longed to attend college. Instead he began learning about meat packing and grain deals in 1873 and proved to be such an apt student that he was managing the Chicago Packing and Provision Company when the labor troubles of 1879- 1880 occurred. Soon afterward, young Charles L. Hutchinson decided there was more to life than squeezing the last penny out of the hog or the hog butcher. He retreated from his father's packing company and focused his business talents on the Board of Trade and the Corn Exchange National Bank.

Stockyards money was already being channeled into Chicago's cultural and charitable activities in 1881, when lawyer Emery A. Storrs, friend and ally of the packers, challenged them to do more for their city. Addressing a public meeting convened to consider a public library and art museum on the lakefront, Storrs said: I am tired of the uniformity of [Chicago's] brag .... I am tired of being continually reminded of the vastness of the Stock-Yards . . . and the enormous development of the pork trade in this great commercial metropolis. I want less of steers and less of pork, and more of culture .... I am in favor of the steers an d the pork, but I believe that out of them both ... there shall grow a culture as grand as that great material and physical prosperity.

N. K. Fairbank, the moving spirit behind the 1881 meeting, was a generous contributor to the Relief and Aid Society, Central Music Hall, the Newsboys Home, and St. Luke's Hospital. The Tribune called him "the 'general utility man' of philanthropic projects." In 1882, Charles Hutchinson became president of the Art Institute of Chicago, a post he would hold until his death in 1924- Moreover, he was both a contributor to, and a fund raiser for, the new University of Chicago.

The Swifts' earliest contributions were made to the building fund of the Union Avenue Methodist Episcopal Church, which they helped organize. By the late 188os, when he no longer had to pour money back into the business, Swift was helping other Methodist churches and missions Chicago History 229

Chicago Historical Society

Chicago Historical Society

Nathaniel K. Fairbank, businessman, civic leader, and philanthropist, was Nelson Morris' partner in the Fairbank Canning Company, sometimes called Morris and Fairbank. The photograph was probably taken at Mr. Fairbank's Lake Geneva estate, and the unidentified child is probably one of his grandchildren.

Ira Nelson Morris.

Father "won at last."

and the Young Men's Christian Association. He was also a generous contributor to Northwestern University and the University of Chicago. The Nelson Morrises supported the Hebrew Relief Association in the 1870s and later the United Hebrew Charities and Michael Reese Hospital.

Philip Armour had the most money and he gave the most. He belong to a wide variety of organizations, ranging from the Citizens' Association to the League for the Suppression of the Sale of Liquor to Minors and Drunkards. His special concern.s, however, were the Armour M ission and the Armour Institute. When Joseph Armour died, he left $100,000 for the missionary work of Plymouth Congregational Church.

Philip Armour added to the bequest and, in D ecember 1886, opened the Armour Mission. It had a day nursery and kindergarten, free dispensary, reading room, library and classrooms, lecture hall, and an auditorium with a large stage. Strictly nondenominational, it provided many of the same services that settlement houses and community centers would offer in the 1890s.

Surrounding Armour Mission were the Armour Flats, a complex of luxury apartments which provided income for the Mission.

The Armour Institute, which opened its doors in 1893, was a larger, more costly venture. It provided technical training for high-school grad230

Chicago History

Chicago Historical Society

Charles L. Hutchinson managed to leave the packing business and became the Art lnstitute's first president at the age of twenty-eight.

uates in mechanical, electrical, and chemical engineering. Only a nominal admission fee was charged, and over the years thousands of young Chicagoans got their chance at a technical education in this school. In 1940, it merged with Lewis Institute to become the Illinois Institute of Technology.

Many of the visitors to the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893 also saw the Armour Mission and Institute and the Stockyards. A surprised French woman concluded, "there are great butchers who arc also the greatest of all philanthropists." A journalist who covered the fair for McClure's wrote: I was much impressed in Chicago with the response which always followed my question: ' ¡If you were to select one man as representative of your Western life, ideas, ability-representative in success, and repre sentative in personal character-whom would you name?" The reply was always, "Philip D. Armour."

The 1880s and early 1890s must have been the best years in the lives of Armour, Swift and Morris. There had, of course, been criticism. As early as the 1870s, the Grangers accused the Union Stock Yard and Transit Company of monopoly. When Joseph Armour's bequest was revealed in r 88 r, Chicago Socialists passed a resolution saying it would have been more in keeping with the teachings of Christ if the

Packers

$100,000 were used to clear away the filth that surrounded the workers who created Armour's wealth.

In the mid- 188os, livestock growers and meat market managers, both of whom were worried about the expansion of the dressed beef trade, formed a coalition to air their grievances against Chicago packers. In 1889, they induced Senator George Vest of Missouri to conduct an investigation into "the transportation and sale of meat products." The Vest Committee found that Armour, Swift, and Morris did in fact cooperate in the purchase of livestock and the marketing of dressed meat, but no further action was taken because it was assumed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act would break up these "rings." I t was the first investigation by the federal government into the affairs of the packers, and the "Big Three" of Chicago were surprisingly nonchalant. Armour told reporters he had heard the charge of conspiracy before and added, "I don't care a damn, I mean a Democratic Alderman about it."

The packers took more seriously the accusations in 1898 that they sold "embalmed beef" to the brave soldiers risking their lives in the Spanish-American War. The charges were hotly denied, and Swift told a government board of inquiry, "I have never treated beef or seen it treated with chemicals." The chilled beef was sometimes carelessly handled by the army and allowed to decay in the hot, moist climate. But American troops were not "poisoned" by Chicago packers, as Colonel Theodore Roosevelt and others implied.

During the midst of this scandal, Philip Armour's robust health began to deteriorate. He could no longer endure the long office hours and doctors wa rned him about "a weak spot in my heart which would develop in case any excitement shook me up" or" [I] mix up in scraps that

worry me." But there was no way to protect him from grief when his promising son Philip died unexpectedly in 1900. That fall "P.D." contracted pneumonia, and he died in January.

John B. Sherman, friend and Prairie Avenue neighbor of the Armour family, was buried the following year. Gustavus Swift, living by then at Ellis Avenue and 49th Street in Kenwood, was slowing his pace. Though barely into his sixties, he struck contemporaries as " a rather old man ... tall and stooped; his hair and beard were almost white ... his face very grave." In 1903, while recuperating from an operation, he died.

Only Nelson Morris lived on to witness the final unraveling of the packers' once-splendid reputation. In 1903, the Armour, Swift, and Morris companies merged to form the National Packing Company, an open invitation for antitrust prosecutions. That merger, plus the publicity surrounding the great strike of 1904, brought scores of muckraking journalists to Packingtown. One was Charles Edward Russell of Everybody's. His articles on "The Greatest Trust in the World" appeared in 1905, and suddenly "Beef Trust" became a household word.

Another muckraker was Upton Sinclair, whose novel about the plight of packinghouse workers was published early in 1906. The Jungle shocked the American public and led to the quick enactment of the Federal Meat I nspection Act. Sinclair, a Socialist, had written the book to promote the political cause. He was disappointed by the results; as he said, he had aimed at the reader's heart and hit him in the stomach.

Yet it was Sinclair's tract which fixed the image of Chicago meat packers as ruthless exploiters of labor and consumers.

By the time Morris died in 1 907, he and Armour and Swift were indeed "something more than packers." In two short decades they had become odious Meat Barons.

Chicago History

231

Chicago's Rowdy Firefighters

BY GEORGE D. BUSHNELL

A mushrooming tinderbox ef wooden houses) stores) and lofts packed with flammable materialsthis was Chicago in the mid-183os) when its first volunteer firemen battled the clock and each other to reach a fire quickly and shoot water on the flames.

in 1831, when the Illinois legislature passed an ordinance authorizing any incorporated Illinois village or town to organize a volunteer fire company. Indeed, since much of the state was still unsettled, we can only explain the ordinance as prompted by the fires that had already devastated parts of Philadelphia and New York.

After the Black Hawk War of 1832, and with the threat of Indian uprisings stilled, Chicago mushroomed, fed by a tide of westward migration. Hotels and stores sprang up, and wooden sidewalks paralleled the muddy streets. So great was the demand for new buildings that a carpenter could earn $3 a day, double the wages of an unskilled laborer. The wooden buildings were thrown up cheek by jowl, their lofts filled with dry lumber or hay. Candles were used for lighting; glowing coals or wood, for heating. Barrels of highly flammable pitch were everywhere.

Under the circumstances, whatever other civic measures could be postponed, protection against fire could not.

In November 1833, therefore, only three months after Chicago's incorporation as a town, the founding fathers adopted its first fire ordiCHICAGO WAS NOT YET A TOWN

George D. Bushnell, public information director of the Illinois Institute of Technology, will be remembered by readers as the author of "When Jazz Came to Chicago," which appeared in the Spring 1971 issue of Chicago History.

232 Chicago History

nance, requiring that rooftop stovepipes be insulated from wooden roofs. They also authorized the purchase of two fire engines, two ladders, fire hooks, saws and axes, and 1 ,ooo feet of hose.

In September 1834, the ordinance was reenacted and a warden was appointed in each of four fire wards to see to it that the insulation was properly installed.

A month later, Chicago experienced its first recorded fire when someone dropped a live coal from a shovel being carried between two houses.

The blaze destroyed three houses, a grocery store, and a cabinet shop at Lake and LaSalle streets. The Chicago Democrat, while praising the citizens for acting promptly to extinguish the fire, observed that " The want of suitable officers to take charge and oversee ... was much felt."

Although the wooden buildings continued to multiply, it was not for over a year, Tovember 1835, that the trustees established the Fire Department of the Town of Chicago. At the time, the total police force consisted of one man-who also served as town collector-and the provisions made for fire protection seemed ample by comparison. Seven officers were appointed to administer the new department: a chief engineer, two assistant engineers, and the four wardens. They were to be aided by the town's trustees and "Such Fire Engine Men, Hose :M en, Hook and Ladder and Axe and Saw Men as are or may be from time to time appointed by the said Trustees." An unspecified number of volunteer fire companies were provided for, and each was instructed to elect a foreman, an assistant, and a clerk.

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Chicago's first fire department parade, September 1844. The scene is at Washington and Clark streets.

The Universalist Church is on the left and the Baptist Church is in the middle background.

Chicago History

233

Firefighters

Chicago's fire ordinance had a few teeth.

Every building owner was required to keep a leather bucket if the building contained a stove or fireplace, and able-bodied men were required to report to fires carrying their buckets. Citizens who continued to stack hay within the town's central area were to be fined $5, and anyone who foolishly hindered a fireman in action faced a ruinous $25 fine. Men who refused to clean and service their equipment were to be fined 50¢.

The first volunteer company to see service, the Pioneer Hook and Ladder Company No. 1, had already been organized by then, and a second, Engine Company No. r, was swiftly formed. An engine house was built on La Salle Street for Engine Company No. 1, nicknamed the "Fire Kings," and a water cistern of "twin hogshead" capacity was sunk nearby to fill the engine's water box.

The Fire Kings adopted a motto, Pro bona publico, elected officers, and drafted bylaws setting forth the duties of the foreman, his assistant, the treasurer, the clerk, and even a steward. The last was to provide food and drink at fires. Both companies served with distinction.

In March 1837, Chicago and its 4,170 residents became a city. Later that year, the second fire engine was ordered and a third company was organized. Named Metamora, it was based on Lake Street near the river. Only three years after its founding, its first foreman, Alexander Lloyd, was elected mayor, an early and accurate indication of the fireman's popularity and political influence. Chicago's volunteer companies were already important political units whose members voted en bloc by the time William Marcy Tweed joined a New York City volunteer company and began his climb to political power. Interestingly enough, his Tammany tiger was taken from the snarling Bengal cat that had decorated his company's engine box.

During the 1840s, the fire companies were growing almost as rapidly as the city. The volunteers' reward was prestige and public admiration, and they came from every walk of life. City 234

Chicago History

leaders and humble workmen, wealthy merchants and lowly clerks-all were equal when battling a fire. As a Philadelphia girl wrote of her brother in the 1850s: "When he was 21 years old, he joined a fire company called 'The Silk Stocking Hose Company' because so many young men of our best families were in it. But they didn't wear their silk stockings when they ran with the engine."

Some of the more material advantages which spurred enlistment in the volunteer companies were exemption from jury service, from the militia except in time of war, and from payment of the road tax.

Chicago's volunteers were also a cross section of the city's ethnic population, then predominantly English and German. The Irish tide of immigration spurred by the potato famine of the mid-184os was not reflected in the fire companies until after a paid department was established; still, among names like Adams, Bigelow, Kraff, and Schram could be found an occasional

Chicago Historical Society

Helmet worn by a member of the Fire Kings, Engine Company No. 1. The words "Fire King" at the top are in red.

Mitchell, Downs, Collins, or Haines. A notable exception to the usual ethnic mix was the Washington Company near Wells and Polk streets.

Its members were German to a man.

Each company governed itself with its own constitution and bylaws. In 1843, for example, Engine Company No. I levied a fine of 50¢ for members who did not "repair to the engine immediately on the first notice of an alarm." Refusal to pull the engine cost 50¢; absence from a fire unless ill, $2; refusal to obey an officer's order, $2; missing a meeting, 25¢. There was even a fine of 50¢ "for being guilty of improper behavior, profane or indecent language." Six years later, the bylaws provided for a fine of $1 for appearing at official functions without a uniform.

Although no official uniform was specified, and uniforms of any type were a personal expense, dress was always deemed important.

Chicago's first fire volunteers wore black caps containing their own initials and their company's number. The foremen wore caps with a coiled white hose painted on the front, and the chief engineer's headgear bore his rank. Assistant engineers carried speaking trumpets, and town trustees venturesome enough to attend fires carried staffs topped with a gilded flame.

By the 1840s, Chicago firemen were wearing a close approximation of the modern fire helmet, invented in 1828 by a New York volunteer. The helmet was designed to protect the wearer against falling debris, and to trap and carry off water behind him. When a chief engineer or company foreman left the service, it was usual to present him with a special helmet, often embellished with a silver plate giving the details of his career as a volunteer.

But there was more to dressing like a fireman than wearing a proper helmet, and the various companies blossomed forth in distinctive and often gaudy attire. The Red Jackets wore scarlet coats, black belts, heavy trousers, and white leather helmets, for example. The Fire Kings in 1 849 wore a green woolen frock and a wide

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Chicago Hi storical Soci ety

Invitation to the Third Annual Ball of the Fireman's Benevolent Association, printed in gold on embossed white paper.

black patent leather belt with a silver clasp engraved with their number "ONE." In 1851, the men of Hose Company No. 2 wore a red flannel shirt, a frock collar, a black patent leather belt with a brass buckle, and a black helmet-and at a parade they were resplendent in a dress uniform consisting of a scarlet sackcloth coat with a shawl collar and sky-blue velvet cuffs, white pantaloons, and buckskin belt and gloves.

Company names were often flamboyant, too: Protector, Excelsior, Niagara, Eagle, Rough and Ready, Phoenix, Neptune, Liberty, Wide Awake, and Red Rover. One unit was called "The Forty Thieves," but that was only a jesting nickname. They were really the Chicago Bag and Fire Guard Company, and their forty members carried large canvas bags for salvaged property. The Lady Washington Hose Company had its own song, which boasted: We'll fight the fiend until it's done For we're the boys of Wash-ing-ton !

Chicago History 235

Firefighters

Like volunteer firemen in every American city, the men loved their equipment and lavished affection and money on it. A special christening ceremony was held when an important new piece of equipment was about to be put into service. The engines were painted bright green, red, blue, or yellow, and the volunteers paid out of their own pockets for such trimmings as brass wheel hubs, ornate lamps, and gilt emblems. With the help of a benefactor, a company might commission an artist to execute delicate striping, or a painting on a rear or side panel, or even scrollwork. The company's nickname and official number might be hand-lettered on its engine. At fires, these decorated panels were removed and carefully set aside. By the 1850s, hose carts were also equipped with bells and ornate lamps, and decorated with eagles or plumes.

Sunday mornings, volunteers met at the station house to clean the engines, sharpen the axes and pikes, polish the torches, and fill the lamps with oil. Brass fittings were polished to a brilliant shine; wheels, axles, gears, and brakes were greased; ropes were checked for fraying; and hose was washed and carefully rewound on the drum.

During Chicago's volunteer firefighting years, the men pulled their heavy engines to the fire at a run, worked the pump rods at top speed, and battled the blaze close at hand with axes, pikes, and hooks. When the alarm sounded, the volunteer left his home or place of work and ran to his engine house. The first to arrive opened the doors and grabbed a rope under the front axle to start the brakeless engine moving. Others arrived and helped pull, and the engine was soon moving fast. The entire trip, to the fire and back, was dangerous both for the firemen who risked slipping and falling under the fast-moving engine and the hapless pedestrian who might be caught in its path. But rush to get to the station house they did, for the first to arrive had the honor of directing the stream of water at the blaze. Running ahead of all were the young 236

Chicago History

bloods who wanted to JOm the company and who, as apprentices, went first, carrying torches at night to light the company's way.

The first volunteers carried their hose on their engines or over their shoulders. In the 1840s, when the two-wheeled hose cart, or "jumper," was developed, hose companies were attached to the engine companies. As the hose length increased to 1,000 feet, the two-wheel carts gave way to four-wheel carts, or "spiders," which carried a drum on which the hose was wound by a series of winch-driven gears.

Until 1842, water to fight fires was sucked up from the river through hoses or moved by buckets. That year, the Chicago Hydraulic Company agreed to let the firemen use its wooden underground mains. Now the firemen could dig down to the nearest main and chop a small hole in it. The water would pour out and fill the excavation, and the firemen would first dip their buckets and after a while their suction hose into it. Depending on which they were using, they would either simply throw water on the blaze or direct it through the hose. When the fire was out, the volunteers would drive a wooden plug into the hole in the wooden main to stop the flow, and mark the location of the "fire plug" for future emergencies. Firemen still carry axes with pointed ends, originally designed for the quick removal of these wooden plugs from the old wooden mains, and modern fire hydrants are still called fire plugs.

Whether the water was obtained from the river, from a main or, by 1851, from a hydrant, pumping it was exhausting work. There were long poles for pumping at both sides or ends of each engine, and the normal cadence was sixty up-and-down strokes a minute. The hardiest men could work at this speed for only a few minutes. A relief line stood by to jump in when the pumpers tired, and broken fingers and arms were frequent as men leaped in to grasp the moving poles without slowing the pace.

The men took fierce pride in even this most tiring and unglamorous task. Fires were often

Chicag o H istorical Soci ety

Fire King No. 1, the city's first engine, photographed in the courtyard of the Chicago Historical Society.

far from the water supply, and companies would position their engines in a line. The engine nearest the water pumped it through its hose into the next engine box; that engine then relayed the water to the next engine; and so on. When an engine's crew pumped the water faster than the firemen ahead could relay it, the water spilled and washed over the engine's side for all to see.

An engine that had never been "washed" was called an "old maid," but to be a pumper on an engine that was being washed was a disgrace.

Chicago's volunteer firemen used several types of engines during their twenty-three-year reign. The "piano" or "piano box" engine, so named because its body resembled a piano, had its water suction hose attached to the rear. When not in use, the hose was curled up and over the top and fastened to a brass pipe, giving it the nickname "squirrel tail." Another engine, the Philadelphia type, had the pumping rods at the ends of the engine. As streets multiplied, the Jong ladder wagons were equipped with an extra steering tongue and tiller to maneuver them around sharp corners. The toolbox in the engine carried hydrant wrenches, hose spanners, engine wheel wrenches, and a bed key for dismantling beds so they could be removed from burning buildings.

Brawling was common among the " vamps," as they called themselves, and rivalries between companies were keen. If a street was blocked by another company, the men simply pulled their "masheen" up onto the plank sidewalks, forcing

bystanders to jump aside into the muddy street.

Reaching a fire first was more important than making room for several engines to arrive at once, and more than one expensive piece of equipment was damaged in a melee on the way to a fire. Volunteers were also capable of blocking another company at the scene of action, and even of chopping each other's hose Jines. A favorite trick was for a company's runner to dash ahead carrying a small barrel. Arriving at the fire, he would plop the barrel over a nearby hydrant to conceal it from rival companies and then nonchalantly sit on it until his own engine rolled up.

Rivalries were sometimes friendly, however; the Red Jackets and the Fire Kings once raced each other to a fire, the losers to buy the winners an oyster supper at the St. Charles Hotel. On another occasion, they raced back to their station houses after a fire. In both races, unfortunately, the men damaged their own equipment in a mad rush to win. And businessmen and public-spirited benefactors sometimes donated cash or equipment to companies that won organized competitions. On weekends, particularly on Sundays, companies would meet at the river bank under the eyes of an admiring audience, to see who could shoot a stream of water highest or go into action quickest.

Chicago's fire companies acquired social and fund-raising functions in the mid- 1840s. Thus, in 1848, when the Fire Kings held a benefit ball at the American Temperance House, their invitation asked "ladies not wishing to attend to please return their tickets," presumably for resale. By the 1850s, the simple black-and-white invitations were replaced by more elegant creations.

The Excelsiors' ball at Commercial Hall in 1851 was advertised by a heroic woodcut of volunteers with speaking trumpet and hose, and the Red Jackets' invitation for a ball in 1854 was decorated with gold-embossed Grecian dancers .

The following year, the Red Jackets' invitation emphasized the financial aspect of the event: the $2 admission fee was executed in large type, and Chicago History 237

Fi ref ighte rs

nearby was the admonition that "refreshments are extra." The balls were profitable, the Washington Company reporting that their 1856 ball raised $420 against an expense of $28.25 for lighting and heating Rice's Theater, obligingly donated for the event. To convert the profit into today's money, multiply by ten, perhaps twelve.

Injured or disabled Chicago firemen found a helping hand in the Firemen's Benevolent Association, organized in 1847. Dues were 50¢ at first, then rose to $ 1. The Association raised money for needy members and appointed two physicians from each fire district to attend injured members. Some years after a devastating fire in 1857, about which we shall have more to say, the Association erected in Rosehill Cemetery the nation's first monument to firemen, in honor of the volunteers who died in that fire.

In this city of wood, with 842 of its 889 houses of frame construction, fire insurance was haphazard. In 1847, Chicago paved the way for a uniform program by creating a committee to advise on the problem of the factories, lumber yards, and other flammable structures which were crowded into the commercial areas.

Even so, the city was not a good risk. One eastern insurance company's secretary observed that "We should be very careful what risks we take in Chicago .... It is a new place and in all such there is generally a tendency of everything to the center." He added somberly that the buildings contained enough combustibles "to cause the destruction of the whole."

In 1849, therefore, a group of Chicago fire insurance men organized as the Board of Underwriters to spread the risks and curb the practice of charging whatever the traffic would bear.

Maximum coverage was set at three-fourths the cash value of residences, and rates were set for each street.

Insurance companies used fire marks of various designs, made of tin, zinc, or brass, to indicate to volunteers that the building was insured.

The practice in eastern cities was for the company to reward volunteers for saving an insured 238

Chicago History

building. The same system was very probably followed in Chicago, whose first home-based company to issue a mark seems to have been the American Insurance Company, organized in 1852. Their zinc mark, about the size of an automobile license plate, bore the words "American-Chicago."

The destructiveness of Chicago's fires was at least in part due to its volunteer firemen. They were untrained, beset with rivalries as we have seen, and high-spirited. And as time went on, they attracted to their ranks a sizable number of men who can only be described as loafers, bullies, drunks, or thieves. By 1857, the losses not only by burning but by just plain looting had become so serious that a group of insurance agents and businessmen joined to create a brigade of one hundred picked men, trained to salvage valuables. Their instructions on how to proceed contained the admonition that they were "to take especial pains to prevent the destruction of furniture, as it is not considered good policy to throw mirrors from the fourth story windows."

Since the city's first fire of record in 1834, Chicago had experienced fires in 1839, 1847, 1851, 1853, and 1856. Then, on October 19, 1857, came the worst so far. The Democrat reported that the blaze had begun about 4 A.M. in a fivestory brick building at 109- 111 South Water Street, then between Clark and Dearborn streets. Fanned by a brisk west wind, the flames jumped an alley to ignite six stores, one a paint store.

John Dickey, foreman of Hose Company No. 6, was the first fireman to perish. Dickey was standing on a store roof when a wall above buckled under the heat and buried him alive. In all, 23 lives were lost and property valued at $700,000 was destroyed.

According to the Democrat, the fire was caused by drunken clerks who were "carousing with a lot of abandoned women" and overturned a lamp. As the fire spread, reported the Democrat, a half-nude woman "leaped from a second story

Chicago Historical Society

Firefighters

Engraving from Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, Oct. 31, 1857. The newspaper reported that "the firemen battled manfully" and that several adjoining buildings were "saved only by the most heroic exertions of the fire department."

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window into the arms of a gallant fireman."

Despite the praise given to the volunteers, a coroner's inquest revealed that engine companies 6 and r o had both lost hose before arriving at the fire. Worse, neither company had repaired or replaced hose damaged at a competition for a silver speaking trumpet.

Businessmen and citizens began to demand a paid, professionally trained fire department. The common council's Committee on Fire and Water charged the Red Rovers with "being composed of a very inferior class of beings, all more or less given to intoxication and guilty of rowdyism."

The Committee also observed that many drifters from other cities had joined the fire companies for a place to sleep.

In February 1858, Chicago tested its first steam fire engine, nicknamed "Long John" after Mayor Wentworth. When the purchase was approved, there was an immediate howl of angry protest from the volunteers, who saw in the newfangled, largely self-operating steamer a threat to their reign, which had been built almost solely on muscles and courage.

Their resentment came as no surprise. As early as 1853, Cincinnati had put in its first steam fire engine. That city's volunteers chopped the steamer's hose and stoned both its crew and the machine while a warehouse burned. Cincinnati inaugurated the nation's first paid fire department that same year.

The seething situation in Chicago came to a less dramatic boil on March 6, 1858. Three engine companies, two hose companies, and a hook-and-ladder unit assembled on Clark Street and, stepping off to the martial strains of the Great Western Band, marched to the courthouse square. As a large crowd collected, two hundred policemen arrived on the scene. Outnumbered and threatened with arrest for disorderly conduct, the firemen retreated. Their equipment was confiscated and a police squad and horses were assigned to man Long John in case of fire.

The city acted against the demonstrators in short order. On March 22, the demonstrating companies were disbanded. And in August, a salaried fire department was created and $25 a month was set as the pay for rank-and-file firemen.

And so ended the boisterous yet heroic era of Chicago's volunteer firemen. Thirty years later, at a fire reunion, a fitting tribute was paid them: "Take them all in all, they were brave men, devoted men. We shall never look upon their likes again."

Gold badge of Engine Company No. 7, 1854, exact size.

Chicago Historical Society

Chicago History 241

Fifty Years Ago

As recorded by newspapers in the collection ef the Chicago Historical Society

1923 July 2. Scores rush to Chicago's Marriage License Bureau to rewed as a new law, permitting immediate remarriage after a divorce, takes effect. Formerly, a divorced citizen of Illinois had to wait a full year.

July 4. Chicago enjoys its noisiest July 4th m many years with bullets and firecrackers bought at highway stands. Twenty-six are injured.

July 13. Fred Lundin and 15 codefendants are found not guilty of charges they conspired to defraud Chicago's public schools. As the pandemonium in the courtroom turns into a political rally, Lundin declares that "Truth crushed to earth will rise again ."

The American Federation of Labor and the International Workers of the World are conducting rival drives to organize steelworkers, from separate Chicago headquarters. The organizing centers around a demand for the 8-hour day.

July 20. A street-car strike is averted as arbitrators grant operators a raise of 3¢ an hour, to 73¢. The men had asked 10¢.

July 30. Mrs. Benjamin Carpenter, of the Birth Control League of Illinois, appeals to Mayor William E. Dever to permit the opening of a free clinic to give contraceptive information to parents, but the mayor declines to overrule Health Commissioner Herman N. Bundesen, who has refused a permit.

Many Chicago policemen are selling beer, liquor, wine, and cigars to saloons, charges Chief of Police Morgan A. Collins. A member of his staff explains that saloonkeepers who refuse would face arrest for bootlegging; he 242

Chicago History

Chicago Historical Society, Daily News Collection

Fred Lundin during his 1923 trial, which ended July 13.

adds that they are especially irked because they can buy better beer elsewhere.

Aug. 2. Many are too shocked by the sudden death of President Warren G. Harding, who had been thought to be recovering, to make a statement, but Mrs. William S. Heffernan, wife of the prominent attorney, opines that "There is no question that he was a sterling American product."

Aug. 10. Work has begun on the new Illinois Country Club golf course, a mile and a half west of Glencoe. A maximum of 280 men will pay $1 ,ooo each to join, and women will be allowed to play the course.

Aug. 1 r. The 8-hour day begins in the steel mills at midnight, and the complete phasing out of the 12-hour day is forecast within a year.

Wages are being raised 25 percent to make up the difference in the men's pay envelopes.

Aug. r 5. Deputy sheriffs, acting under court orders obtained by the national Ku Klux Klan, break up a Klan meeting at 19 West Adams St. The meeting was being held by one of three Chicago Klans that have withdrawn from the national group, charging it with graft and incompetence.

Aug. 16. Artist Childe Hassam joins New York art dealers in alleging that Chicago has been flooded with forged paintings signed by noted

American artists, particularly Ralph A. Blakelock, the landscape painter.

Aug. 18. Edgar Lee Masters has revealed the full story of his divorce in seven sonnets, his friends say, adding that their publication in Poetry next month will cause a sensation .

Aug. 20. Helen Wills, 17-year-old tennis champion visiting Chicago, has only one unfulfilled wish. She wants to meet a celebrity.

Aug. 21. Gunmen take unsuccessful aim at William Z. Foster, radical unionist, as he addresses a meeting of 3,000 at the Ashland Boulevard Auditorium.

Chicago's South Side is entranced as 30,000 parade to the music of 25 jazz bands to celebrate the national convention of the Improved Benevolent Order of the Elks, a Negro organization. Hundreds of automobiles draped with purple and white, the organization's colors, and flying the stars and stripes, make up the bulk of the parade.

The International Association of Women Preachers, 1700 strong, begins its annual deliberations in this city.

Sept. 3. An inquest reveals that Nancy Green, an organizer of the Olivet Baptist Church and one of the first Negro missionaries, was also "Aunt Jemima" of pancake fame. Mrs. Green was killed by an automobile .

Sept. 4. Frank Lloyd Wright's Imperial Hotel in Tokyo still stands after a fearful earthquake and huge fires ravage that city and devastate Tokyo.

Mary Springer McMahon, originator of Springer Heirs, Inc., admits she invented the family's claim to Delaware and that it is only a myth. A thousand Springer descendants had paid $ 1o each to press a claim supposedly based on a grant of land from King George II to Charles Christopher Springer, b. 1658; the money has disappeared.

Sept. g. Lincoln Park is growing. Additional land is being reclaimed from the lake by building breakwaters a quarter of a mile out, letting the lake pile up sand behind them, and

then adding clean fill. The northward expansion, which has already reached Irving Park Boulevard, is costing $17,000 an acre and is valued at a million. An outer shore drive is to be built on the new land.

Sept. 12. Mayor Dever vows war to the finish against Chicago's beer syndicates as Jerry O'Connor, beer runner, is slain in a saloon.

Sept. 14. The Illinois Federation of Labor rejects William Z. Foster's resolutions for industry-wide unions and recognition of the Soviet Union. The vote sustaining craft union organization came after impassioned pleas by John H. Walker, the Federation's president, and Victor A. Olander, its secretary.

Sept. 17. Chicago's beer war between the O'Donnell brothers and Johnny Torrio for control of the lucrative beer-running traffic claims two more victims as Georgia Meehan and Spot Bucher are killed by machine-gun fire, apparently in revenge for the murder of Jerry O'Connor.

Sept. 20. The 15th annual convention of Kappa Beta Pi, a legal sorority, opens with a reception for the several hundred delegates in the office of Cynthia R. Kelly, Chicago's assistant corporation counsel.

Sept. 24. The synchronized green, amber, and red lights of an electric traffic control tower at Michigan Ave. and Jackson St. function perfectly on the first day of operation but some motorists, confused by the new left-turn-only lanes, are seen going around in circles for half an hour.

Sept. 26. Charles Chaplin, stopping over in Chicago en route to New York, says he has thrown his last custard pie. He is now writing movie scripts.

Oct. 6. Edith Cummings of Chicago takes the national women's golf title from Alexa Stiring at Rye, ew York.

A hundred thousand Chicagoans gather on Municipal Pier to celebrate German Day and hear Mayor Dever explain why he is trying to stop the sale of beer in the city.

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50 Years Ago

The first Michigan Ave. traffic lights, at Jackson Blvd.

(Sept. 24). The entire system of Michigan Ave . lights was purchased and installed by the Yel low Cab Co.

Oct. IO. Mrs. Levy Mayer, widow of the wellknown Chicago lawyer, gives $500,000 to Northwestern University for a law school building.

Oct. 1 1. Bernard J. Fallon, general manager of the Chicago Elevated Lines, announces plans for a northward extension of the "L" from Howard St. to Dempster St., in Evanston.

The company has ordered 105 new cars.

Oct. 1 2. The anchor from the Santa Maria, Columbus' flagship, is displayed in front of the Wrigley Building by the Chicago Historical Society.

Oct. 13. V ladimir de Pachmann plays Chopin at the Auditorium this afternoon, and a Polish opera, Moniuszko's Halka, is sung this evening by a cast from Milwaukee. At the Apollo Theatre, Adolph Bohm and a ballet corps of 50 dance to the music of Bach and Schumann.

Lovers of lighter entertainment can choose among four revues, including George M. Cohan's The Rise of Rosie 0' Reilly and the four Marx Brothers in I'll Say She Is. Oct. 22. Gov. Len Small pardons two men serving jail sentences for refusing to testify about alleged jury fixing. The jury in question acquitted the governor of charges that he embezzled state funds.

Oct. 25. Chick Evans files a bankruptcy petition listing $275,000 in debts. He has lost $200,000 in grain speculations alone. Earlier this year, Evans won the Western amateur golf championship for the fourth straight time.

Oct. 28. Six small boys in a flat-bottom boat are rescued by Ogden T. McClurg's yacht Ariel, which was a strong contender for the Lipton Cup at Belmont Harbor last summer. "We was going to Spain but the lake got too rough," a five-year-old explained.

Nov. 2. John J. Mitchell, president of the Illinois Merchants Trust Company, celebrating his 70th birthday, advises that "The plainer a man's life is, the more he gets out of it. Mrs. Mitchell and I have always been plain people." The Mitchell's summer home, originally

sent from Ceylon for the Columbian Exposition and now a Lake Geneva showplace, is constructed entirely of exotic woods and is modeled after ancient temples.

Nov. 3. "Beat Chicago" is the slogan of University of Illinois alumni, and Red Grange, the university's star halfback, obliges with a touchdown that sets the University of Chicago's Maroons on their heels, 7-0.

Nov. 6. Cook County voters approve a new LaSalle St. bridge and expansion of the overcrowded schools. Among the circuit judges elected is Mary M. Bartelme, the first Illinois woman to hold so high a judicial position.

Miss Bartelme ran without the endorsement of the Chicago Bar Association but won through the active campaigning of women's clubs throughout the county. She will become the only woman judge in the city.

Ma Streeter, widow of the famous District of Lake Michigan squatter, calls on her ancient enemies, the police, to protect her houseboat from being undermined and sunk by a barge.

Nov. g. Larry Rue and John Clayton, Chicago Tribune foreign correspondents, scoop the country's newspapers by telephoning news of Adolf Hitler's beer-hall putsch in Munich just as Germany's communication lines go dead.

Nov. 14. "I cannot be ordered around like a gashouse worker. I will not submit to the steamroller tactics of Mr. Insull," declares Amelia Galli-Curci, adding that if the Civic Opera's president forces her to sing Lakme, it will be her last season with the company.

Nov. 22. Dr. Lee DeForest, the "father of radio," predicts the "phonofilm." It will blend photography and sound and project them simultaneously on a motion picture screen, he tells an audience at the Coliseum's Radio Show.

Nov. 24. Dr. Gordon Jackson of Chicago weds Mae Walker Robinson, heiress of Mme. Walker, inventor of the famous hair restorer.

The ceremony in Irvington-on-the-Hudson is attended by Negro society of four countries and every state in the Union.

Chicago History 245

50 Years Ago

Ceylon Court, the summer hom e of Mr. and Mrs. John Mitchell . Tennis courts and gardens dotted the rolling wooded gro unds of the 531-acre estate, b ut see Nov. 2 .

Chicago Historical Society

246

Chicago History

Nov. 25. Illinois and Michigan are tied for the Western Conference title. The two football teams did not play each other this season.

Nov. 28. The Chicago Yacht Club opens new quarters in Lincoln Park as Capt. Donald MacMillan, explorer-member, dedicates the clubhouse by radio from the Arctic Circle.

Nov. 30. The ational Women's Party opens a citywide campaign for equal rights as 500 attend a reception at the Rush Street residence of Mrs. Gann a W alska McCormick.

Dec. 3. Amelia Galli-Curci is a sensation in Lakme.

Dec. 8. As the city prepares to fight a court order to issue a permit for a birth-control clinic in Chicago, Archbishop Mundelein requests permission to testify to his own reasons for opposing the clinic.

Dec. 11. William Allan Pinkerton, detective and criminologist, dies in Los Angeles at 77.

Pinkerton, a lifelong Chicago resident and friend of Abraham Lincoln, organized and directed the secret service of the Union Army.

Dec. 14. Mrs. Montgomery Ward gives Northwestern University a million dollars for a medical and dental school. The money is bestowed in memory of her husband. John G. Shedd is reported to be giving two million dollars for an aquarium in Grant Park.

Dec. 22. Marshall Field & Company purchases Rothschild & Company's IO-story department store at State and Van Buren streets for $9,000,000 in cash.

Dec. 24. Leo Koretz, fugitive swindler who defrauded Chicagoans out of more than $10,000,000 by selling nonexistent Panamanian oil, mails holiday greetings to his victims.

Dec. 3 1. Chicago's hotels, inns, cabarets, and roadhouses are completely booked for tonight's festivities. "There will be plenty of bulging hips in the crowd," forecasts one caterer, but corks will not pop. Even the elite bootleggers are finding champagne in short supply.

Ma Streeter's last stand, Nov. 6.

Merry Christmas from Leo Koretz, mailed Dec. 24.

Books

The Work of Lerone Bennett, Jr. should consider himself a serious student of the American scene without knowing the work of Lerone Bennett, Jr. In seven comprehensive, stimulating, and highly readable books, Bennett has rewoven the often tattered fabric of the black American's past with precision, love, and artistry.

Perhaps the greatest distinction in the work of journalist-historian Bennett is its immediacy, relevance, and reality. We are swept up in the historical pageant. And without rancour, without a llegation, simply, complex truths are told.

Before the Mayflower : A History of the Negro in America, Bennett's first and best-known book, is a comprehensive history, backgrounded in the courts of pharaohs and African kingdoms and culminating in the Poor People's Campaign of , 968 . The work is much more than a sequence of dates and events : historical figures become flesh-and-blood men and women. They are people who shaped history and were themselves shaped by it, and the progression of human events becomes, if not understandable, at least not quite so shocking. Bennett's lavish use of newspaper quotes, firsthand accounts, songs, poems, and letters add s richness and flavor to the manuscript. Beautifully written, and handsomely d esigned and illustrated , it is one of the most important books of our time.

In his Preface to The Negro Mood, Bennett writes: NO PERSON

I have attempted to dig beneath the surface and expose the psychic mechanisms of the Black Fury that is rolling across the land ... . The Negro rebellion is, in fact, four different rebellions: a rebellion against the conservative within and the conservative without; a rebellion on the streets and a rebellion in the thoroughfares of the mind.

In five essays, Bennett details in vivid prose the arid soil and hostile clime in which Tegro discontent took root and shape-offering penetrating and urgent insights into the psyche of black America.

In What Manner of Man: A Biography of Martin Luther King, Jr., 1929-1968, as in his other work, Bennett takes us backstage in history, letting us see the designing of the set and the casting of characters be-

By Lerone Bennett, Jr.: Before the Mayflower, 4th ed ., 1969, $6 .95; The Negro Mood, 1964, $3.95; What Manner of Man: A Biography of Martin Luther King, Jr . 1929-1968, rev. ed., 1968, $5.95; Confrontation: Black and White, 1965, $5.95; Black Power U.S.A.: The Human Side of Reconstruction, 1867-1877, 1967, $6.95; Pioneers in Protest, 1968, $5.95; The Challenge of Blackness, 1972, $6 .95 . All,Johnson Publishing Co ., Inc. 248

Chicago History

fore the curtain rose on the Freedom Movement and its star, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Then, through Bennett's gifted pen, we follow the man through that time in history when the American Dream strained to come true and men dared dream that they would overcome. Dr. King and the author were schoolmates at Morehouse College, and this beautifully made book is introduced by Benjamin E. Mays, president of Morehouse.

The concept of confrontation-the idea of forcing men to confront the gap between word and deed, promise and performance-has always been a key element in Negro strategy .... Hate and horror did not appear from nowhere in the summers of 1964- 65. They were seeded hundreds of years ago ... and manured by years of compromise and bad faith.

So states Bennett in his Prologue to Confrontation: Black and White, a compelling work and one of the most important bridges to understanding of the black experience yet built.

Black Power U.S.A .: The Human Side of Reconstruction, 1867-1877 is a history of the only years in America in which black individuals wielded real power. Contrary to popular mythology, they were not a childlike group of corrupt and playful gnomes but, almost without exception, men of intellect, of vision , and, yes, many of superior training, who brought into being some of America's most significant social legislation . Black Power U.S.A. describes the monumental ach ievements of long-ignored black leaders who made major contributions to black people, to the South, and to the nation against a ll but impossible odds.

Bennett moves us back in time, into Southern state legislatures and governors' mansions, into the nation's capital, and into the shanties and the big houses of the South. A well-illustrated book, with an open format and large typeface, it appeals equally to adults and junior-high readers.

Pioneers In Protest, contains the biographies of twenty pioneers in black protest-men and women, black and white. Al though there is much of value here, the work is uneven and lacks the traditional Bennett flair and sense of direction. In its format and typeface, it is similar to Black Power U .S.A. The Challenge of Blackness, Bennett's seventh and most recent work and his most incisive, is a collection of essays and speeches which pose the fundamental question: Is America ready for democracy? Bennett digs into his treasury of American history to transport us to today and to tell us the price we must all pay for our tomorrow.

There are flaws in Bennett's work: repetitiveness; overworked, incomplete, and mixed metaphors; the sudden interruption of narrative with unnecessary interjections. These reflect editorial inadequacies which hopefully will disappear from future volumes.

It has been said, and it is true, that Bennett lacks the stunning scholarsh ip of a John Hope Franklin, the soaring creative genius of a W. E . B. DuBois, or the explorer's joy of a Carter G. Woodson. But it is also true that Bennett possesses an admirable amount of

such qualities and that his unique genius brings it all together, translating history into contemporary terms, defining its relevance, indeed, explicating the urgency of America's racial past in our dealings with today and our hopes for tomorrow. We are in his debt and we are also indebted to his publisher, John H . Johnson, who had the courage and vision to publish this remarkable body of work.

Rose Jourdain Hayes Rose Jourdain Hayes is the author of Around You (Scott, Foresman, 197z) and of Chicago's Blacks: A History for the Young (Chicago Historical Society), due this winter.

More on The First Ame ricans several collections of American Indian literature have been published. All these books have presented interesting samplings of the prose and poetry of the natives of this continent, but Chicago historian Virgil J. Vogel has gone a considerable step further with This Country Was Ours. By mixing observations of the intruders from Europe with the words of contemporary Indians and arranging the whole into periods of United States history, he has created a remarkable documentary record .

The story begins with a creation myth of the Mayas and other pre-history accounts, and then in succession covers the periods from Columbus to the Revolutionary War, from George Washington's request for aid from the Passamaquodai to the Civil War, and from the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864 to the 1970s. Representative voices of modern-day urban Indians are Benny Bearskin, interviewed by Studs Terkel at Chicago's American Indian Center, and Belle Jean Francis, an A thabascan, speaking at the Field Muse um.

To round out his collection, Vogel appended a long section on the Indian in perspective, which includes past and present population estimates, Indian concepts of time, Democratic and Republican party platform planks relating to Indians since 1872, and Indian influences upon American names, art, music, and food. Furthermore the book has a chronology of significant dates in American Indian history, a unique biographical dictionary of prominent living and deceased American Indians, lists of available audiovisual aids, museums with important collections, Indian organizations, tribal publications, and a superb bibliography of Indian books and articles. This Country Was Ours, which the author researched at the University of Chicago library, is not only a collection of appealing and informative literature, it is also one

DURING THE PAST TWO OR THREE YEARS

This Country Was Ours, by Virgil]. Vogel, Harper & Row, 1973, $12.95; Crimsoned Prairie, by S. L. A. Marshall, Scribner's, 1972, $8.95, Sitting Bull: An Epic rif the Plains,

by Alexander B. Adams, Putnam, 1973, $9.95; Portraits from North American Indian Life, by Edward S. Curtis, Outerbridge & Lazard (Dutton), 1972, $25; The Mystic Warriors of the Plains, by Thomas E. Mails, Doubleday, 1972, $25; The Indians, by the editors of Time-Life Books, with text by Benjamin Capps, Time-Life, 1973, $9.95.

of the most useful reference books ever compiled on the American Indian. ot long after Phil Sheridan succeeded General Sherman as commander of military operations against the Plains Indians in 1869, he established his headquarters at La Salle and Washington streets in Chicago. During the Great Fire of 1871, the building and all its files went up in smoke, but the headquarters was rebuilt and it was from here that orders went out for all the campaigns against the Plains tribes; it was here in 1876 that George Armstrong Custer was held in arrest while Sheridan pied with President Grant to release the golden-haired general so that he might rejoin the 7th Cavalry for its march to the Little Big Horn.

Although numerous books have been written about the Plains Indian wars, very few have taken the viewpoint of the Indians. General S. L. A. Marshall's Crimsoned Prairie is another U.S. Army version, well told in the author's lively style but no better than previous works on the subject by Paul Wellman, Stephen Longstreet, Robert Utley, and many others. Marshall's motive for writing the book apparently was to refute what he describes as "a slanted interpretation of the struggle" now in vogue in Hollywood and elsewhere. Although he deals harshly with military leaders he considers incompetent, he is chary of praise for Indian leaders. He expresses sympathy for the plight of the Indians, deplores the Army's brutalities and senseless killings, but says the Plains wars were inevitable because of the confrontation of two radically different cultures. In attempting to justify the massacre at Wounded Knee, he uses testimony that was meant to vindicate the Army's actions, but ignores the statements of surviving Indians.

Undoubtedly the best known and most controversial of the Plains Indian leaders was Sitting Bull.

Alexander B. Adams has published a new biography of the famous Sioux hero, the first major biography since Stanley Vestal's pioneer work of 1932. Vestal did his research while Indians were still alive who remembered Sitting Bull, and much of his biography was based upon oral history. Adams by necessity used published and documentary sources, fleshing out his text by including a number of incidents which bear little relation to the life of Sitting Bull. His biography complements Vestal's, but it would have been a much more important contribution had he done more original research into two neglected but significant episodes in his hero's life-the long sojourn in Canada and the tour with Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show.

Until very recently, Edward S. Curtis was an almost forgotten photographer of American Indians.

Then suddenly his work was rediscovered, and his photographs began appearing in books. In 1971, Curtis' prints were used to illustrate T . C. McLuhan's fine selection of Indian statements, Touch the Earth . Later that same year, galleries began holding exhibits.

Curtis spent thirty years making photographs of Indians, visiting 80 tribes and collecting more than 40,000 photographs. He tinted the reverse side of his glass negatives with gold finish to achieve an unusual tone which he called Curt-tone. In 1906 the publicaCh icago Histo ry 249

Books

Brief Reports by the Staff Stephen A. Douglas Robert W. Johannsen Oxford, 1973. $ 19.95.

tion of some of his portraits in Scribner's Magazine won the attention of President Theodore Roosevelt, who saw possibilities of an album published in book form.

Curtis had long cherished the idea of a work in parts to be called The North American Indian, but he realized that the costs would be prohibitive for a commercial publisher. Roosevelt introduced him to]. Pierpont Morgan, who offered to bear the costs whatever they might be. Over a period of several years, the 20 volumes of 18 x 22 inch sheets were published in a limited edition of 500 sets, priced at $3,000 per set. The result was one of the finest examples of bookmaking in history, but the sets were buried in museums, libraries of wealthy collectors, and rare-book rooms. Hidden in vaults, the marvelous photographs were soon forgotten. A set, when available, sells for $80,000.

To make it possible for admirers of Curtis to see the splendor of his work as it appears in the original 20volume set, the publishers of Touch the Earth have selected 175 of his best photographs and issued them in an 18 x 15 inch volume, Portraits from North American Indian Life, with introductions discussing his work and life by A. D. Coleman and T. C. McLuhan. Although necessarily unwieldy, it is a magnificent book.

Two heavily illustrated but quite different books are The Mystic Warriors of the Plains and The Indians, the latter being one of a Time-Life series on the Old West. Thomas Mails not only wrote the text of The Mystic Warriors, he also illustrated it, after consulting thousands of publications and visiting many museums to examine artifacts, photographs, and paintings relating to Plains tribes. Out of this enormous task he has produced a mammoth work which includes hundreds of illustrations, including 32 paintings in brilliant circus-poster colors. Mails' principal aim was not art but accuracy and completeness. His detailed indexes and useful illustrated tables make it possible to find in a moment almost any fact or graphic relating to the Plains Indians.

Time-Life's Indians also contains a plenitude of illustrations, mostly historical photographs and paintings, but the arrangement appears to have been by random selection. Benjamin Capps wrote an adequate text but he was surrounded by an editorial staff of twenty, which may explain the book's lack of direction or impact. Books of this kind should tell a story in pictures and captions, but this one fails to do so. Because it is a mass-produced publication, however, it affords the reader far more colored reproductions than he can obtain in similarly priced volumes, and this almost compensates for the deficiency of arrangement.

Dee Brown Dee Brown, author of Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, has just completed the manuscript of a new book on the American West, also to be published by Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

250

Chicago History

will anyone have to write a factual biography of Stephen A. Douglas. These 864 pages relate the complete story of this interesting, ill-starred man and his political career. If the book has any flaw it is the author's failure to assess the meaning of Douglas' career in the context of the crisis that led to the Civil War.

NEVER AGAIN

The Fortnightly of Chicago Muriel Beadle and the Centennial History Committee, edited and with a Foreword by Fanny Butcher Regnery, 1973. $15.

1873, a group of society women formed an association ("cl ub" sounded masculine) for the purpose of extending their intellectual horizons. They first studied Graeco-Roman civilization; later they seem to have studied everything else in sight.

Many of the women formed or joined other groupsfor social reform, women's rights, and so forth. Since the volume describes the careers of all the members, within and without the Fortnightly's own walls, it becomes an interesting history of Chicago's women.

History from the top, and at $ 15, still exclusive.

IN

The Last Catholic in America: A Fictionalized Memoir John R. Powers Saturday Review Press, 1973. $6.95.

Reunion: Twenty-Five Years Out of School Robert Douglas Mead Saturday Review Press, 1973. $7.95 .

The Last Catholic is a funny book about growing up Catholic on the South Side, by an author who retains a convincingly childlike view of childhood and the adults with which the child must deal. Highly recommended.

The author of Reunion took a tape recorder to the l:\venty-fifth reunion of his class at Evanston Township High School , so it should have been an oral history, no? No. The direct quotes only serve to intersperse the analysis, explanations, and comments with which the author uses up about seven-eights of his pages, and it makes for dull reading.

A Continuing Marvel: The Story of the Museum of Science and Industry Herman Kogan Doubleday, 1973. $7.95. the Museum of Science and Industry celebrates its fortieth anniversary with the publication of its history. Herman Kogan's account is interesting, readable, it avoids the minutiae that would bore the lay reader, and it is reasonably objective. One only wishes it were a better job of bookmaking.

THIS YEAR

Index, Volume II

Active Book Stores ~wned by Artie Byrne), 58-59 Adams, Alexander B., Sitting Bu//: An Epic of the Plains, reviewed, 249 Addams Jane friendship with Clarence Darrow, 220 Altgeld, 'john' Peter, and Emma: friendship with Clarence Darrow, 218; photo., 219; illus., 221 "American Indian Peace Medals/' anicle by Francis Paul Prucha, 106: custom of presenting medals to Indian leaders, 106; symbolism_ of medals, 106, 113; first U.S. mcda~ ~1789), 106; changes during \rVashington's and subsequent adm1nistrauons, 106-13; last U.S. medal (1890), 111-13; numismatic importance, 1 13; photos., 108, 109,

Bloom, Adolph, his ballet company performs at ballroom, 207 Board of Underwriters, organized (1849), 238 Borden, tvfrs. John, at Trianon Ballroom, 207 Boorstin, Daniel J., "A, Monlgomery Ward's tyfail-Ordcr Business," article, 142 Breasted, Dr. J lenry, evaluates Gunther items, 94 Brennan, Ray, "Chicago Crime Literalure: A True Genre," book review, 63 Bridgeport (Chicago neighborhood): in 1890s, as described by Finley Peter Dunne, 47- 57i photos., 47 Bridges: insufficient to handle street traffic (1867), 177; Outer Drive Bridge, 138; Roosevelt Road and Adams St. bridges under construction ( 1923), 187; ste also "Shall We Gather at the River" Brown, Dec, " More on the First Americans/' book review, 249 Browne, Lee O'Neil, political ally of William Lorimer, 80 Bryan, L J ., and Lincoln Park, quoted, 105 Bryan, \Nilliam Jennings: at Scopes trial, 223; photo., 222 Burley, Clarence A., president of CHS during acquisition of Gunther collection, 92, 96, 97, 98 Burnham, Daniel, Chicago archite_ct and city planner, set "A Reconsideration of the 1909 Plan of Chuago" Burnham, Daniel, Jr., backs regional planning, 138 Bushnell, George 15., "Chicago's Rowdy Firefighters," article, 232 Busse, Fred, mayor (1909), endorses Plan ofChiwgo, r34 Butcher, Fanny: Many lives-One lovt, reviewed, 122; photo., 123 Butkus, Dick, Stop-Action, reviewed, 191 Byrne, Artie, Chicago bookseller, 58-59

I IO, I 12

American Jnsurancc Company, orgar.izcd 1852, 238 "A. Montgomery Ward's Mail-Order Business," _article by Daniel J. Boorstin, 142: A. Montgomery Ward starts mad-order firm (1872), 142; life in western U.S., 142-43, illus., 143; War~'s early career, 144; Ward's mail-order scheme, 143-44; coopcr~uon from Grang~.rs, 145-46, illu.r., 145, 146; first stock destroyed m 1871 fire? 146_; ~rst price list (1872), 146; Ward as salesman, 146-47; advances I? pnnung technology, 147, illu.r., 147; catalogue as sale~1!1an, 47-48, ,l/u.r., 149; Ward wins customers' trust, 148-49; compeuu~n with country stores, 149, illus., 130, 150; catalogue changes r~ral hfe, 149-50; growth of U.S. mail system, 150-52; heyday of m~d order bef<;>re 'Norld ~ar I, 152; Ward (1906), photo., 144; Ward d1es, corporauon reorganized (1919), 152; Ward's tower in 1889, illu.r., front cover No. 3 Anti-Saloon League, disbands ( 1923), 1 87 Angle, Paul M.: 11 The Bookseller," article, 58; 11 Joe the Barber,i' article, 1 14 Architecture, .ree Grieff, Constance M. Armour and Company: announces deodoriz~tion of stockyards (1923), 182; commissions Alphonse Mucha to design soap boxes, 26; .rte also " 'Something More than Packers' " .

Armour Institute: opens (1893), 230; merges with Lewis Institute (1940), 230 Armour, Jonathan Ogden, enters Armour & Co., 229 Armour, Joseph F.: opens plant, 226; beque~t, 230 Armour Mission: founded (1886), 230; described, 230 Armour, Philip D.: childhood, 226; earl)'.' career, 226; becomes partner of John Plankinton, 226; moves to Chicago, 226; enters_dress_ed ~cf trade (1879), 227; auiwde coward workers, 228; ~elat1onsh1p with sons, 229; charitable contributions, 230; reputation, 230; death (1901), 231; illus., 225; see also~' 'Somethin~ More than Packers'" Armour, Philip, Jr.: moves to Chicago, 226; dies, 231 Art: Chicago flooded with forged Blakelocks (1923), 243; s~t- also "Mucha's Chicago Poster," ''Painters at the Hall of Expos,uons: 1890," and artists by name Art fnstitute: opening, 14; bequest from Clyde M. Carr, 187 i Charles L. Hutchinson, first president, 229; Alphonse Mucha, lectures at, 26, 28, 29 Atwood, Charles B., partner of Daniel Burnham, 132 "Aunt Jemima" (Nancy Green), dies (1923), 243 Ayer, Edward E., criticizes Gunther items (1921), 95, 99 Bach, Ira J., "A Reconsideration of the 1909 Plan of Chicago," article, Bali~an and Katz movie theaters, 206 Ballet, at Trianon Ballroom opening, 207 ..

Band leaders and Bands: Jose Bethancourt, 21 5; Coon-Sanders Ongmal Kansas City Nighthawks, 209;Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, 2o6, 212; Ted Fio Rito, 209; Jan Garber, 211 i Benny Goodman, 212; Ed_dy Howard, 206, 211; Harry James, 212; Isham Jo~es, 206; Dick Jurgens 206 211 212¡1 Art Kassel, 209; Wayne Kmg, 206, 211; bel La;npe, '211; 'Guy Lombardo, 206 1 209; Dan Russo's Orioles, 209; Anson Weeks, 211; Ted Wee.m_s, ~1:2; Lawrence Welk, 206, 211 1 212; Paul Whiteman, 207; GnA W1U1ams 1 211 .

Banks: Fort Dearborn National Bank absorbed by Continental and Commercial banks (1923), 60; Logan Square and Sixteenth St. banks reorganized (1923), 185 Banks Nancy uThc World's Most Beautiful Ballrooms," article, 206 Barry,' Dr. William, past secretary of CHS, 103; Bartelme, Mary M., elected circuit_judgc (1923), 245 Batten, John H., president of Ha:1111to_n Club (191~), 80 .

Beadle, Muriel, and the Centennial History Committee, Tht Fortnightly of Chicago, reviewed, 250 Beecher, W. J., ''The Lost [llinois Prairie," article, 166 Beijbom, Ulf, Swtdts in Chicago, reviewed, 125 Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, grand ball, 209 Benneu, Edward A.: and 1909 Plan of Chicago, 133 1 134; described, 140; later career, 140; photo., 139 Bennett, Edward, Jr., architect, 140 Bennett, Lerone, Jr., books reviewed: Befort tht AJayjlowtr, 2,f8; Black Powtr U.S.A., 248; The Cha/lengt of Blackn~.rs, 24~; Confrontation: Black and JVhite, 248; The ;Vegro A1ood, 248; Pioneers_ in Protest, 248; iVhat .

A1anner of Man: A Biography of A1art!" luthtr A_mg, Jr., 2t8 Bennett, Richard M., "Forever Free?' book review, su Wille, Lois Bernhardt, Sarah: painted by Alp~oa_se Mu~ha, 26; poster,~~ Berthrong, Donald J., review of /1/mois: A flutory of tht Pratrzt Statt, by Robert P. Howard, 189 . .

Billings, Robert W., co-autho: of Stop-Action, re~1~w~d, IQI Birth Control League of Illino,s, seeks to open clinic in Clucago ( I 923), 242, 247

Cairo, [JI.: illus., 189; ste also Whitman, Digby B. Calhoun, John B., and Ill. Central Railroad, , 78 Calling card portraits (186os): comments on, 31; photos., 31-33 Campanini, Cleofonte: opera conductor, 8; funeral, 8 "The Candy Man's Mixed Bag," article by Clement Silvestro, 86: CHS acquires Gunther collection (1920), 86; Gunther's early career, 86-87; photo., 88; candy business in Chicago, 87-88, photos., 66, front cover and inside back cover o. 2; Gunther's early collecting activities, 88; buys Libby Prison (1889), 88; opens Libby Prison War Museum, 88-89, photo., 93; exhibits described, 89-90.,_pholos., 89, 91; Gunther's later career, 90-91; death (1920), gt; CttS to purchase collection, 91; controversy, 91-92; provisions of sale, 92; wome_n's fund-raising committee, 93; range of collection, 94i outstanding items listed, 93, 94, 97, 98 1 photos., 97; frauds in collection: go, 96, photos., 95, set also "The Mysterious Great Chain"; .fu~d-raisi_ng problems, 95 1 96, 97; further controversy and ncgot1at1ons with Gunther heirs, ~6, 97, 98; Lincolniana paid for, 98; final payment (1928), 98; miscellaneous items sold, 96-97, 98-99; collection evaluated, 99 Carpenter, Mrs. George A . (Harriet Isham): chairs CHS women's fund-raising committee, 93, 96; photo., 94 Carpenter, John Alden, ccKrazy Kat" ballet performed at Trianon Ballroom opening (1922), 208 Carr, Clyde M.: charitable bequests, 187; photo., 139 Carter, Mrs. Leslie: actress, 12; photo., inside fro_nt cover No. 1 Cassidy, Claudia, uThe Years of Splendor," article, 4 Castle, Dr. Alfred, meets Heinrich Schliemann, 174 Cemeteries: Calvary, 104; Chicago and Catholic, t 04-5 1 map, I 04; Graceland, 104i Oakwood, 104; Rosehill, 104, 105 Cerny, A. V., musician, 26-30 Cerny, Zdenka: cellist and subject of Alphonse Mucha poster, 26-30; illus., cover No. 1; photos., 27, 29 Charity balls: 1894 ball, illu.r., inside front cover No. 2; stt also uThe Passavant Cotillion-and Others" Chicago: city council, limits charitable tag days (192,2), 119; common council: legislates bridges and rive~ traffic, stt "Shall We Gather at the River" forbids interments in city cemetery (1858), I04i cost of living (19~2), 60, (1923), 184; fire dept.: 54, illus ., 55, Set alsn "Chicago's Rowdy Firefighters"; night court r~opens ( 19~3), .184-85; official seal: 156, illus., 157; police: at D~crmg St. station, tn 1872, photo., 53 1 police force ( 1835), 232, ac_t against firemen, 241 ,. increased (1921), 62; population: in 1867, 175, 1n 1890s, 50; ~treets: Eisenhower Expressway, 136, 138 1 Michigan Ave., 13~, 138, Nicholson pavement described by Heinrich SchJiemann (1867), 175, Ogde~ ~ve., extension of ( 1922), 1 19, Plan of Chicago, 134, 138, map, 141, ra1s1ng of grade, 174, 175 1 illus., 175, So. Water St. double-decking (1921), 60, Wa~ker Drive 134, 138, Washington St. tunnel, 175-76; w~terworks descn1?ed (1867~, 177, illus., 176; stt also Art, Banks! Bridges, Cemeteries, Chicago Public Schools, Civic 9~~ter, Cni:ne? Industry, La~r, Literature, Movie Theaters, Proh1b1t1on, Pubhshmg, Transport~llon Chicago and North Western Railway: Clarence Darrow appomted counsel, 218; resigns, 220 Chicago Civic Opera Company: variously named, 36; see also 11 'Our Own' Mary Garden" and "The Years of Splendor" .

"Chicago Crime Literature: A True Genre," book review by Ray Brennan, 63; see Kobler, John; McPhaul, Jack .

Chicago Historical Society: displays anch~r from the Santa ( 1 923), 245; purchases ephemera from Aruc ~yrne.i. 58; see al~o,, The Candy Man's Mixed Bag" and 11 The Mystenous Great Cham .

Chicago Hydraulic Co., allows firemen to use underground marns (1842), 236 .

Chicago Law and Order League, obJeCts to Salom_e, 42 Chicago Park District: Grant Park, free concerts m, 12; Jac~son Park, Clarence Darrow Bridge 223i Lincoln Park, land reclaimed from lake (1923), 243; su als~ "A Reconsideration of the 1909 Plan of Chicago" and uA Lincoln Park Legend" Chicago Plain, 1 71-72 . .

Chicago Plan Commission, see "A Recons1derat1on of the 1909 Plan of Chicago" .

Chicago Public Schools: portable schoolhouses unusable m summer heat (1923), 187; school board scandals: (1922), 62, (1923), 182, 1_87, 242; visited by Heinrich Schliemann (t867), 180-81; stt also Hernck, Mary J. .

Chicago Regional Planning Assoc., orgamzed (1924), 138 .

Chicago River: in 1909 Pla,1 of Chicago, 1~4_; offal from packmg houses dumped into 224; plan to make tt mto a subway (1923),_ 184; see also "Chic~go's Age of Sail" and "Shall_ We Gather at tbe River" Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, construction of, 56 Chicago Symphony Orchestra, ste uThe Years of Splendor"

J:1aria

Chi cago Histo ry

251

Index, Volume II "Chicago's Age of Sail," article by A. A. Dornfeld, 1 56: full-rigged ship on Seal of Chicago, 1561 illus., 157; age of sail preceded by age of steam, 156; earliest craft on Lake Michigan and Chicago River, 156; special rigs for Great Lakes ships, 157-59; working conditions and wag("s, 1 :>9, 163; ascendency of sail in mid-1800s, 160; disasters, 161--62, illus., 160-61; commerce, 162--63; decline of sailing ships, 163; Our Son makes comeback in 1920s, 1641 sinks (1930), 164-65, photo., 165; end of age of sail, 165; su also Sailing Ships, Steamships "Chicago's Rowdy Firefighters/' article by George D. Bushnell, 232: volunteer fire companies authorized in Ill., 232; need for fire protection in 1830s and early Chicago fire ordinances, 232-33; first recorded fire (1834), 238; first volunteer company (1835), 234; political influence of volunteer companies, 234; growth of companies during 1840s, 234; uniforms: 235, illus., 234, 241; company names, 235; fire-fighting equipment and methods, 2.36-37, illus., 237; rivalry between companies, 237; fund raising: 23 71 illus., 235; Firemen's Benevolent Assoc., 238; early fire insurance, 238; first fire department parade, photo., 233; rowdiness of volunteers, 238; fires (1839- 57): 238, illu.s .. 240; demand for professional dept., 241; first steam fire engine (1858), 2.41, opposed by volunteers, 241; salaried department created (1858), 24 1 Civic Center: "Fort Dearborn Center" proposed (1954), 138; in 1909 Plan of Chicago: 134, 136-38, painting, inside front cover No. 3 Clayton, John: "A Lincoln Park Legend,'' article, 100; reports I litler's beer-hall putsch ( 1923), 245 Clemenceau, Georges, visits Chicago (1922) 1 photo., 120 Clerk, George C., president, board of education ( 1867), 180 Cliff Dwellers Club, sponsors Alphonse Mucha (1913), 30 Cadman, Harry, partner of Frederick L. Olmsted, 132 Coleman, Mrs. John G., and Passavant 1 lospital Women's Board, 72.

Coliseum: built (1900), go; phoM., 93 Columbian Exposition: Clarence Darrow involved in legal preparation for, 2.18; su also "A Reconsideration of the 1909 Plan of Chicago» Commercial Club: merges with Merchants Club and sponsors Plan of Chicago, 134; Planning Commirtec, photo., 139 Cook County Forest Preserves, in Plan of Chicago, 134, 138 Cook County jail, Clarence Darrow addresses inmates, 218 Cooke, Rt. Rev. Msgr. Vincent M., photo., 75 Cortesi, Lawrence, Jean duSahle: Fathtr of Chicago, reviewed, 190 Couch, I ra and James, see cc A Lincoln Park Legend" Coue:, Emil: visits Chicago (1923), 183; photo., 184 Coughlin 1 john J. ("Bat h House John"): 182; photo., 182 Cradle, adoption home, opens in Evanston (1923), 184 Crane, Charles R., Chicago industrialist and patron of Alphonse Mucha, 2.6, 29, 30 Crime: Jim Colosimo, Chicago restaurateur, murdered (192.0), 24; juvenile delinquency (1921), 60; Yuletide crime wave (192.1), 60; review of Chicago crime literature by Ray Brennan, 63; see also Labor, Prohibition Culbertson, Blair & Co., visited by lleinrich Schliemann (1867), I 78-79 Curtis, Edward S., Portraits from North American Indian Life, reviewed, 2.50 "Crystal P alace" (Hall of Expositions): site of Inter-State Industrial Exposition (1890), 14; photo., (1873); 16 Dancehalls : report by Juvenile Protective Assoc. (1917) 1 2.06; Arcadia, 2.07; Dreamland 1 207 1 2.12; Guyon's Paradise Garden, 2.07; Marigold Gardens, 207, 2.12; Merry Garden, 207; Midwa y Gardens, 207; O'He nry Ballroom, 207; Panther Room (S herm an House), 2.12; R ainbo Gardens, 2.12; White City, 207; su also "The \Vorld's Most Beautiful Ballrooms'' D a rrow , Clarence: see "I Remember C larence Darrow;" wife Jessie: 22.0 1 22.1; son Paul: 2.20, 2.23; wife R uby: 221, photo., 219 Debs, Eugene V.: defended by Clarence Darrow, 22.o;photo., 2. 19 Deere, John, develops steel-moldboard plow, 168 DeLacey, Mrs. Zdenka Cerny, see Cerny, Zdenka Delano, Frederick A.: and Plan of Chicago, r 34; 136 Deneen, Charles S., opposes WiJliam Lorimer 1 78 1 80 Dever 1 \-Villiam E.: becomes mayor (1923) 1 185; ousts school board trustees, 187; opposes birth control clinic, 242; gives German Day address, 2.43; photo., 183 Dewes, Francis A., criticizes Gunther collection (192.1), 95 Dick, Edison: and Passavant Hospital, 68, 71; photo., 72.

Dickey, John, volunteer fireman, dies in 1857 fire, 238 Dickinson, Albert, contributes to acquisition of Gunther c0Jlcction 1 98 Dillingham Committee, bearings, 82., 83, 84 Dooley, Mr. : describes stockyards, 22.4; poster, 57; see also "Mr. Dooley's Bridgeport Chronicle'' Dornfeld , A. A., "Chi cago's Age of Sail," article, 156 Douglas 1 John B., president of Ill. Central Railroad, 1 78 Douglas, Stephe n A., biography reviewed, 250 Douglass, Frederick, calling-card photo ., 32 Drew, John: 12.; photo. (192.2.), inside front cover No. 1 Duff, Mrs. Sarah Robinson, Mary Garden's voice teacher 1 36 Duffield, Charles, meat packer (1867), 178 Dunne, FinleY. Peter, see "Mr. Dooley's Bridgeport Chro nicle 11 Dux, Claire (!vfrs. Charles H. Swift), opera singer, 44 Eagle Bre,...·ery, visited by Heinrich Schliemann (1867) 1 175-76 Eckstein 1 Louis, patron of Ravinia Opera, 10 Ellsworth, J ames W., and Columbian Exposition, 133 Ethnic groups: in volunteer fire companies, 2.34; Bohemian artists and intellectuals: 28, photo., 29; Germans: satirized by Finley Peter Dunne, 47-48, 50, German-American League meets (1921), 60, German Day celebrated (1923), 243; [rish, satirized by Finley Peter Dunne, 47-57; Norwegians, sailors on Great Lakes ships, 159-60; Scottish settlement in Hyde Park (1880s), 36; Swedes: celebrate Swedish independence day (1923), 187 1 review of Swedes in Chicago, 12.5-2.6; see also Greeley, Andrew M . ; Negroes; "The Passavant Cotillion-and Othersu Eugene Field memorial, unveiled ( 192 2), 119

252 Chicago Hi story

Evans, Chick: wins golf championship (1922), 116; files for bankruptcy (1923), 245; photo., 116 "The Expulsion of C hi cago's 1 B!ond Boss' from the Senate," article by Joel A. Tarr, 78: William Lorimer defends himself against bribery charges (19 r 2): 78, 84, phoJo., 79; Lorimer's political career, 78-80; charges of bribery in 1909 Senate election, Bo; Theodore Roosevelt snubs Lorimer, Bo; Senate investigates, 80-82.; Lorimer acquitted (1911), 82.; Ill. senate investigates, 82.; Senate reopens case (1911), 82.; Dillingham Committee hearings and Senate debate, 82.-84; Lorimer ousted (1912), 84; vote evaluated, 85; Lorimer's later career, 85; death (1934), 85 Fairbank, Nathaniel Kellogg: partnership with Nelson ~1orris, 227; charitable contributions, 22.9; photo., 230 Fallows, Samuel, Episcopal bishop, dies (192.2), 117 Fanning, Charles F., Jr~, uMr. Dooley's Bridgeport Chronicle," article, 47 Farwell, Arthur Burrage, and Chicago Law and Order League, 42., 119 Farwell, Mrs. Arthur B., and CHS women's committee, 93 Faulkner, Joseph 'vV., "Painters at the Hall of Expositions: 1890," articlc 1 14 Fay, Norman 1 and founding of Chicago Symphony (1891), 4 Fenberg, Matilda: "l Remember C larence Darrow/' article, 216 ; meets Darrow, 216; her education and early career, 216,2 17; joins Darrow's staff ( 1923) 1 2 r 7 Fergus, Robert C., evaluates Gunther collection, 92.

Ferries, see "Shall \Ne Gather at the River" Field, Marshall: plans dirigible service (192.3), 184; wills money for Field Museum, 136 Field ~1useum: controversy over location in Grant Park, 136; buys items from Gunth<"r collection, 98 Field, Palmer and Leiter 1 employs A. 1'1ontgomery Ward, 144 Firemen's Benevolent Association, organized 1847, 2.38 Fires: first Tremont House destroyed (1839), 101; Great Chicago Fire (1871): destroys A. Montgomery 'vVard's stock, 146 1 little effect on meat-packing business, 2.26, ships burn, 162.; 1895 fire, 54; 192.2. fires: Burlington Railway Building, photo., 61, Dearborn St. rail station, 12.01 Evanston Country Club, 12.0, Rogers Park, 62; Aragon Ballroom (1958) 1 2. 15; su also "Chicago's Rowdy Firefighters'' fletcher, Richard DA u 'Our Own' Mary Ga rden," article, 34 Forest Preserves 1 su cook County Forest Preserves The Fortnightly 1 review of its centen nia l history, 250 Foster, William Z.: attempted assassinatio n of( 192.3), 243; labor reso lutions defeated ( 1923), 243 Fox, Carol, revitalizes Lyric Opera 1 13 Friml, Rudolph: sells first composition, 28; photo., 29 Gale, E. 0., Chicago pioneer, quoted, 198, 2.00 Galli-Curci, Amelita: 8, photo., 10; dispute with Samuel Insull (1923), 245, 247 G-.irden, Mary, .su " 'Our Own' Mary Garden" and "The Years of Splendor" Gensburg, Louis, David, and Myer, donate portion of Markham Prairie, 171 Geraghty, Helen Tieken, produces Passavant cotillions, 68, 75 Germania Fire and Insurance Company, 1 74, 178 Guilini, Carlo Maria, conductor, 4, 13 Goble, Lottie, calling-card photo., 33 Goose Island shipyard, 157 Goose Lake Prairie: acquired by state, 170; photos., 168-69 Grangers: founded (1867), 145; activities, 146, illus;;. 145; membership, 146; appo int Montgomery Ward & Co. their omcial supplier, 146; support mail services, 150, 152.

Greeley, Andrew M., That A1ost Distressful Nation: The Tami11g of the American Irish, reviewed, 191 Gregory, Mrs. Robert, member of women's committee of CHS, 93 Grieff, Constance M., ed., Lost America: From the Al/a11tic lo the A1ississi·p1;i, reviewed, 191 Gros;ner, Isabel, "The Mysterious Great Chain," article, 153 Guerin, Jules: designs mosaic opera curtain 1 g; illustrates 1909 Plan of Chicago, 134, illus., inside front cover No. 3 Gunsaulus, Dr. F. V\/., evaluates Gunther collection (1920), 92 Gunther, Burnell, executor of Gunther estate, 91, 96, 97, 98 Gunther, Charles F., see nThe Candy Man's Mixed Bag" Gunther, Jennie (Mrs. Charles F.), 91, 96, 97 "A Jf alf Century of the Culinary Arts in Chicago,'' article by Morrison Wood: Chicago's reputation for cuisine, 18; outstanding hotel dining rooms: Auditorium Hotel, 19 1 photo., 2.0, Blue Fountain Room (LaSalle llotel), 2.0 1 Peacock Alley (Auditorium A nnex), 18, 19, Pompeiian Grill Room (Auditorium Annex), 18, 19,photo., 2~; ethmc restaurants: Colosimo's, 2.3-2.4, dejonghe's, 2.2.-2.3, La Louis1ane, 22., Madame Galli's, 2.3, Red Star Inn, 2.4, 25, Sch!ogl's, 24, photo., 19; other fine restaurants: Boston Oyster House, Gold's, L' Aiglon, Little Bohemia 1 Maisonette Russe, St. Hubert's English Grill, Tip Top Inn, H:1lowell, Sara, selects art for 1890 Exposition, 14, 16 Hamilton Club (Chicago), snubs William Lorimer (1910), 80 Hanecy 1 E lbri dge, lawyer for \.Villiam Lorimer, 83 Harding, \Varrcn G., dies (1923), 242 Hargrave, Colleen Moore (Mrs. Homer P.): suggests Passavant Cotillion , 70, 71; daughter Judy, 71 Hargrave, Homer P., 70 1 71 Harned, Henry, attorney for Gunther family, 98 Harvey, H. S., attempts 10 revive ballroom dancing at Aragon Ballroom (1971), 2.15 Hayes, Rose Jourdain, "The Work of Lerone Bennett, Jr.," book review, 2.48; Ste Bennett, Lerone, Jr. Hecht, Ben: friends, 124; su also Literature "Heinrich Schliemann's Chicago Journal," artic le by Donald Zacherl, 1 73: Schliemann's career, 173; photo., 1 73; annotated journal entries, 174-81: Schliemann arrives in Chicago (Nov. 13 1 1867), 174, visits F. Hoffman & Co., r74, describes Hoffman's career, 175, illus., 174, his impressions of city, 175, 177, 178, describes Nicholson pavement, 175, visits brewery, 176, visits waterworks, 177, illus., 176 1 describes grain elevator, 177, photo., 177, sees.play at McVicker's Theatre, 178, visits Power Bros. dry-goods store, 178, describes Ill. Central R ailroad

finances, 1 78, 181, equipmenl and trackage, 181, visits slaughterhouses, 1 78-79, illus., 179, visits public schools, 180-81, leaves Chicago (Nov. 16), 181 Helm comrniuee, Ill. senate, investigates Lorimer case, 82 Hendrickson, Mrs. Carl I., photo., 123 Herrick, Mary J., The Chicago Schools: A Social and Political /-Jislory, reviewed, 191 Hines, Edward, lumberman: and \.Yilliam Lorimer, 81; photo., 82 Ilirsch 1 Emil Guster, rabbi, dies (1923), 182 Hoffman, Francis A.: career described, 174-75; illus., 174 J lolly, Judge William H., speaks at C larence Darrow's funeral, 223 Jtotcls: Atlantic: 21, 22; Auditorium: 18- 19, photo., 20; Auditorium Annex: 18, 19, photo. 23; Bismarck, 18; Blackstone: 18, 20, 21; Brcvoort: 2 1, 22; Briggs Hause, during raising of grade ( r 857), illus., r 75; Conrad Hilton: charity balls at, 69, 71, photos., 69, 70, 74, 75; Drake, 18, 20 1 21; Edgewater Beach annex (1923) 1 184; Kaiserhof, 21; Lake House, constructed 1836, 198; LaSalle: 18, 19-20; Orrington, construction begins ( 1923), 182; Palmer House, 18; Pearson, construction begins (1922), 119; St. Charles, 237; Sherman House, 212; Stratford, 21; Tremont House: 174 1 su also "A Lincoln Park Legend" Howard, Robert P., Illinois: A History of the Prairie State, reviewed, 189 Howland, George: high school principal, 180; illus., 180 Hubbard, Gurdon S., describes Ill. prairie ( 1818), 167 1-luck,John A., brewery owner (1867), 175-76, 176 Hughitt, Marvin: and lll. Central Railroad (1867) 1 180,181; president of Chicago and North Western Railway and employer of Clarence Darrow (1894), 220; illus., 219 Huntington, Henry, buys items from Gunther collection, 96-97 Hu tchinson, Benjamin P. 1 su cc 'Something More than Packers'" Hutchinson, Charles L.: and father's business, 229; president of Art I nstitute, 229; commissions "Fountain of Time," 120 Ill inois: Depar tment of Conservation, and Goose Prairie, 1 70; legislature : authorizes volunteer fire companies, 232, investigates Lorimer case, 82 1 gives women right to serve on juries, 185-86 1 passes law permitting immediate remarriage after divorce, 242; voters reject new sta te constitution, 120; Supreme Court rules against buildings in Grant Park, 136; see also Howard, Rohert P. Il linois and Michigan Canal: completed (1848), 169; effect on Chicago River traffic, 200; map, 172 I llinois Central Railroad, in 1867, su ulleinrich Schl iemann's Chicago J ournal" I llinois Children's I-lame and Aid Society, benefits from opening of Tr ianon Ballroom (1922), 207, 208 Il linois League of Women Voters, hosts Lady Astor (1922), 62 I mproved Benevolent Order of the E lks, parades, 243 I ndians: see "American I ndian Peace Medals" and "More on the First Americans'' I ndustry: Grain trade: see "Chicago's Age of Sail" and "Heinrich Schliemann's Chicago Journal"; lumber: on Lake Michigan sailing ships 1 162, lumberyard illus., inside back cover No . 3; meat packing, see "Heinrich Schliemann's Chicago Jour.n al', and "'Someth ing More tha n Packers' 11 j publishin g, Popular A1echonics to construct new plant ( r 921), 6oi Sears, Roebuck & Co., rescued by pledge of money from its president, Julius Rosenwald (1922), 60; shipping, see "Chicago's Age of Sail"; steel, Jones and Laughlin Steel Co. purchase p lant site (1922), 60; \·V rigley Co. anuouncesstock dividend (1922), 60 Insull, Samuel: as manager of Chicago Civic Opera Co., 9, 46, 245; service with Commonwealth Edison Co. commemorated (1922), 117; photo. (1929), 13 l nsurance, early fire insurance in Chicago, 238 I nternational Association of Women's Preachers, meets, 243 I nternational Workers of the World: organize steelworkers ( 1923), 242; members' sentences for conspiring against military service in World War [ commuted (1923), 187 l nter-State Indwarial Exposition: paintings exhibited at (1890), 14-16; photo., 1 7 " I Remember Clarence Darrow," article by Matilda Fcnbcrg, 216: author meets Darrow, 216-17; describes her education and early positions, 216, 217i describes Darrow, 216 1 217-18, 221; photo. of Darrow, 222; his childhood, 220; marriage to Jessie Ohl, 220; law practice in O hio, 220; move to Chicago, 220; address to inmates of Cook Co. jail, 218; friendship with John Peter Altgeld, 218; assistant corporation counsel of Chicago, 218; as counsel to Chicago and North \..Ycstern Railway: 218, resigns, 220; defends Eugene V. Debs, 220; divorce and marriage to Ruby Hamerstrom, 221; Ruby Hamerstrom, photo., 219; view from their apartment on E. 60th St.,photo., inside front cover, No. 4; Darrow's precepts for choosing a jury, 221-23; pica in Leopold-Loeb case, 223; defense of John T. Scopes, 223; Darrow and William Jennings Bryan, photo., 222i Darrow as head of NRA Review Board, 223; his death, 223; funeral, 223 Isham, Mrs. George, member of women's committee of C l IS, 93

j

ean duSable, biography reviewed, 1go o h annssen, Robert W., Stephen A. Douglas, reviewed, 250 ohnson, Vilas, review of Swedes in Chicago, 12 oliet, Louis, recognizes continental divide al Chicago (1673), 169, 172 Juvenile Protective Association, and dancehalls, 206, 208 Kappa Beta Pi, legal sorority, convenes (1923), 243 Karzas, Andrew and William, see "The VVorld 's Most Beautiful Ballrooms'' Keeley, J ames, editor of Chicago Tribtmr, and Lorimer affair (191 o), 80 Kellar, Harry, magician, career summarized, 186 Kelly, Cynthia R. asst. corp. counsel of Chicago (1923), 243 Kenna, Michael (••JI inky Dink''): withdraws from city council, 182; photo., 182 King, Martin Luther, Jr., biography reviewed, 248 Kinzie,John: maintains canoe across Chicago River, 196; memorabilia in Gunther collection, 93 Kirk, Mrs. Nevins 1 and Passavant J lospi1al, 72, 73 Kobler, John, Caponr: The lr.je and lforld o/ Al Capone, revicwc-d, 63 Kogan, llerman, A Continwng Alarvel: 7/u Story of the Afuseum of Science and lndustr;·, revic\,ed, 250 Ku Klux Klan: initiations, 117, 187; and municipal employees, 182; opponents rally at Coliseum, 184; rift with national organization, 242

Labor: average wa~es in 183os 1 232; Chicago drilyman (1830s), photo., 51 i wages on sailing ships. 159: Clarence Darrow defends Eugene V. Debs during 1894 Pullman strike, 220; stockyards: attitude of packers toward employees, 228 1 riots in 1921, pl1oto, 61, packinghous<" wages rise (1923), 187; 1922: coal miners strike, 62 1 labor warfare near Herrin, Ill., claims 14, 62, rail wages ordered slashed, 6:2 1 terrorist activities in Chicago 1 62, transit workers strike, 116 1 photo., 117; 1923: bootbJacks' union holds dinner, 1841 photo., 185, bricklayers win raise, 184 1 coal strike ends, 117, Samuel Gompers moves against radicals, 187, steelworkers organize, win 8- hour day, 242, street-car operators win raise, 242, union business agents in sho~t-out, 183; William Z. Foster's reso lutions rejected by I ll. Federation of Labor, 243 LaFollctte, Robert M.: and William Lorimer, 78-85;photo., 81 Lakefront (Chicago): A. Mon1gomcry \rVard's court battles, 136; workrelief projects in 1930s, 138; in Plan of Chicago, 132 1 134, 138, maps, 137,141; landfill for Columbian Exposition, 133,photo., 135;suolso Bennett, Richard M. Lincoln, Abraham, memorabi lia: in Gunther collection, 89, 93, 97, 98; photo., 97 Lincoln, Mary Todd, see Turner, Justin G. 1 and Linda L. "A Lincoln Park Legend," article by John C layton, 100: Couch burial vault in Linco ln Park, 100, photo., 103; why vault remains there, 100- 101, 105; early careers of James and Ira Couch, 101; they open Tremont I louse, 101; move to new location, 101, illus., 102; Couc h bro.thersdescribed, 102; Ira Couch,photo.! 101; lra'~crypt, 102-3; Chicago cemetery (1865) 1 map, 104; campaign to stop interments and . remove bodies, 103-5; James buried al Rose hill (1892), 105 L~nn, Mrs. Howard, at Trianon Ballroom opening (1922), 207 Lipsey, Maurie, friend of Andrew Karzas, quoted, 209, 212 Lloyd, Alexander, mayor, and Metamora fire company, 234 Lon_g, E. B., review of Mory Todd Lincoln: Her Life ar1d letters, 188 Lorimer, William, see "The Expulsion of Chicago's 'Blond Boss' from the Senate" Literature: 1922: F. Scott Fitzgerald's Tlte Beautiful and Damned and Aldous I luxley's Chrome rel/ow are best sellers, 62, Ben Hecht and \Vallacc Smith charged with obscenity, 119, 10th anniversary of Poetry, 119; see also "Mr. Dooley's Bridgeport Chronicle, 11 "North Ave. Vignettes: The Bookseller," Butcher, Fanny, and other authors by name Lane, John, develops steel-moldboard plow, 168 Lang, Archie, directs Passavant cotillions, 75 Lantz, Herman R., A Community in Search of Itself.· A Case History of Cairo, Illinois, reviewed, 188 Lauder, I tarry: described by l\1orrison \tVood, 21; photo., 25 Leland, VVarren, gets injunction agajnst Hall of Expositions, 16 Leopold-Loeb case, Clarence Darrow's plea quoted, 223 Lewis I nstitute, merges with Armour Institute (1940), 230 Libby, McNeill & Libby, partnership with Nelson Morris, 227 Libby Prison, see "The Candy Man's Mixed Bag" HThe Lost Jllinois Prairie," article by \-V. J. Beecher, 166: pioneers' descriptions of prairie, 166-67; geology and extent, 166, 170-72; wild0owers and grasses, 167-68, photos., 168-69; steel-moldboard plow, 168, illus., 167; effect on ecology, 168-70; prairie chicken endangered, 169, photo., 171; effect of 111. & Mich. Canal, 169, map, 172; efforts to preserve prairies, 170-71 Lowden, Frank 0 ., all_y of \•V illiam Lorimer, 78 Lowden, Mrs. Frank 0., member of women's committee of CHS, 93 Lundin, Fred: defeated in primary (1922) 1 62; indicted in school board scandal (1923), 182; acquitted, 242i photo., 242 McCormick, Mrs. Cyrus 11. , and women 's committee of CHS, 93 McCormick, Mrs. Edith Rockefeller: at opera, 10; donates land for Brookfield Zoo (1922), 117 McCormick, Harold F., active in Chjcago Opera Assn., 44 McCormick, Mrs. Harold F., see Ganna Walska McCutcheon, John T., and Chicago Zoological Society, 1 17 McGann, Mrs. Robert G., at Trianon Ballroom opening, 207 Mcllvaine, Caroline: CHS librarian, 93, 94, 95; photo., 94 McJlvainc, William B., Wilmette home burglarized, 116 McKenna, John, satirized by Finley Peter Dunne, 47, 48 McLaughlin, Andrew, evaluates Gunther coJlection (1920), 92 McPhau l,Jack, Johnny Torrio: First of the Gong lords, reviewed, 63 Mails, Thomas E., The Mystic IVorriors of the Plains, reviewed, 250 Mandel, Carola (Mrs. Leon): first Passavant Cotillion, 7 1; photo., 73 Mann, Mrs. Louis, and Passavant Hospital Women's Board, 70 Marshall Field & Co. : backs first Passavant Cotillion, 68, 71; James Simpson named president, 182; acquires Rothschild & Co. Loop store, 247; photo., inside back cover No. 1 Marshall, S. L.A., Crimsoned Prairie, reviewed, 249 Martinelli, Giovanni: sings at Ravinia, 10; photo., 1 1 Mayer, David L., patrnn of Mary Garden, 38 Mayer, Levy, lawyer: dies (1922), 116; terms of will, 119 Mayer, Mrs. Levy, bequest to Northwestern Univ. (1923), 245 Mead, Robert Douglas, Rewlion: Twenty-Five rears Out 1J School, reviewed, 250 Medals, see "American I ndian Peace Medals" Mencken, l--1. L. 1 covers Scopes trial, 233 Merchants Club of Chicago: sponsors Plan of Chicago, 133-34; merges with Commercial Club (1907), 134, 136 "Mr. Dooley's Bridgeport Chronicle," article by Charles F. Fanning, Jr., 47: Finley Peter Dunne's column gains fame duri ng SpanishAm<'rican War, 47; Dunne creates "Mr. Dooley," 47; Mr. D ooley's views of politics in Bridgeport (Chicago neighborhood), 47-50, socia l life, 50-52, courtship and marriage, 52-54, firemen as heroes, 54, illus., 55, harshness of Bridgeport life, 54-56; Dunne's career as political satirist, 57; poster of Mr. Dooley by \Villiam Nicholson, 57.

Mitchell,JohnJ.: quoted on living the "plain" life (1923), 245; summer home I photo., 246 Mohr, Charles, capt. of IVilliam Nelson, 164, 165 Monroe, llarriet: described by Fanny · Butcher, 124; feted at 10lh anniversary of Poetry (1922), 119; photo., 123 Montgomery Ward & Co., see "A. Montgomery Ward's Mai l- Order Business'' Moody, \•Valtcr, director of Chicago Plan Comm. (1909), 136 Moore, Charles, writes text of 1909 Plan of Chicago, I 34

Ch icago History 253

Index, Volume II "More on the First Americans," by Dee Brown, book review, 249; see Adams, Alc.xander B.; Curtis, Edward S.; Editors of Time-Life; Mails, Thomas E.; Marshall, S. L. A Morris, Nelson: childhood and early career, 225; partnership with Nathaniel K. Fairbank (1880), 227; attitude toward business, 228; son Ira joins business, 229, photo., 230; su also "'Something More than Packers' Morton, Joy, helps CHS acquire Gunther collection, 92 "Mucha's Chicago Poster,'' article by Kathrine \-Vagner Seineke, 26: Alphonse Mucha meets Zdenka Cerny, cellist (1905), 26 1 photo., 27, their friendship, 28---29; Mucha's art nouveau, 26; Sarah Bernhardt, posttr, 28; Charles R. Crane becomes Mucha's patron, 26; Mucha lectures at Art I nstitute, 26, 29; A. V. Cerny family history, 28, photo., 29; Mucha's studio in Chicago (1907-1909), 29; portrait of Zdenka Cerny, 29-30, illus., front cover No. 1; Crane sponsors Mucha's "Slav Epic," 26, 30; Mucha's last visit to Chicago ( 1913), 30; photo., 30 Movie Theaters, in Chicago: Central Park, 1917 "movie palace,,, 206; Woodlawn, Karzas brothers' "movie palace," 206 Mumford, Lewis, opinion of 1909 Plan of Chicago, r 38 Munday, Charles B., associate of William Lorimer, 85 Mundelein, Archbishop George VV.: dedicates Rosary College (1922), r 19; opposes birth control clinic (1923), 247 Munroe, Charles A., leads fund raising for acquisition of Gunther collection (1922), 97 Museum of Science and Industry, see Kogan, Herman Music: "Sheik of Araby" heads best-selling song list (1922), 60; see also Band leaders and Bands, ''The Years of Splendor,''" 'Our Own' Mary Garden," and " The World's Most Beautiful Ba llrooms" "The Mysterious Great Chain," article by Isabel S. Grossner, 153: CHS acquires from Charles F. Gunther estate links supposedly used during Revolutionary War, 153; use of chains across Hudson River during Revolution, 153-54; Putnam Chain made and installed at West Point (1778), 153-54; chain raised (1783) and exhibited (1864), 154; iron links purchased from .B rooklyn Navy Yard and sold to collectors, 154-55; links not from the Putnam Chain, 155; true history of links a mystery, 155; photo., 1 54 }I

Nationa l Women's Party, opens campaign for equal rights , 247 Negroes: 1923: Dr. Gordon Jackson weds Mac Walker Robinson, 245 1 Improved Benevolent Order of the Elks pa rades during convention, 243; su also 11 Auntjemima," Bennett, Lerone, Jr., and "The World's Most Beautiful Ballrooms" Norton, Charles D.: and Merchants Club, 133; interests Daniel Burnham in plan for Chicago (1902), 134; and New York Regiona l Plan (1922), 136; dies (1923), 184;photo. , 139 Norwegian American Historical Assn. , appraised by Charles Beard, 125-26 O'Brien, Archbishop \-Villiam D ., photo., 75 O'Brien, William]., alderman, satirized by Finley Peter Dunne, 48, 50 Ogden, William B., and bridges across Chicago River, 198 Olander, Victor A., opposes industrial unionism (1923), 243 O lmsted, Frederick L.: su "A Reconsideration of the 1909 Plan of Chicago'' O'Neill, Mrs. Lottie Holman, first woman state legislator in Ill. (1923), leads mass meeting for equal rights, 182 O'Neill, Mrs. T. Emmet: chairman of Passavant Cotillion (1971), 74; daug h ter Margaret, 74 Open Lands Project, saves prairie land, 1 70, 1 71 Opera, see individual performers by name, "The Years of Splendor," and cc 'Our Own' Mary Garden" "'Our Own' Mary Garden," article by Richard F . Fletcher, 34: early years and training, 34, 36-38; early career, 36-40; ac ting ability, 38-40; 1910 season in Chicago, 40-43; controversial portrayals, 4142; later Chicago roles, 43-44; as manager of Chicago Opera Assn.

(1921-22), 44-4q; last Chicago appearance (1931), 46; dies (1967), 46; photos., 3, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46 "Packingtown,'' see" 'Something More than Packers''' Paepcke, Herman lumberman, dies (1922) 1 116 Page, Eleanor, ''The Passavant Cotillion-and Others," article, 68 "Painters at the Hall of Expositions: 1890," article by Joseph \A/. Faulkner, 14: impressionist paintings exhibited at "Crystal Pa lace" described and compared with other exhibitions, 14; illus., 16, 17; selected by Sara Hallowell, 14-16; critical reception and injunction against exhibit, 16; see also Palmer, Bertha l--lonorC Palmer, Bertha HonorC (Mrs. Potter Palmer) : meets Mary Cassatt, 14; photo., 15 Palmer, Mrs. Potter, I I: chairs opening ball at Trianon Ballroom (1922), 207; photo., 208 Papi Gennaro, conductor of Ravinia Opera, 1o "The Passavant Cotillion-and Others,., article by Eleanor Page, 68: first Passavant Cotillion (1949), 68; photo., 69; opposition to, 68, 70; Passavant Hospital Women's Board, 68-7 1; Marshall Field and Co, underwrites ball, 71; benefit to hospital, 72; cost of bowing in 1971 1 72; history of women's board, 72-73; changes since 1949, 73-74, photo. (1956), 70; ball described, 75; other charity balls: Amber Ball (Chicago Lithuanian Women's Club). 77 1 photo., 76, Christ Community Hospital, 77, Cordi-Marian Auxiliary, 77, photo., 74, Hinsdale Assembly, 77, Holy Family Hospital, 77, Links, 77, photo., 76 1 Marillac House, 77, Norshore Twelve, 77, Presentation Ball (lll. Club for Catholic Women), 77, photo. (1960), 75 1 St. H elena's \\!omen's Club, 77, White and Red Ball (Legion of Young Polish Women), 77 Passavant, Dr. \Villiam A .,Jr., addresses Passavant Hospital's ½'omen's Board (1897), 72 Perkins, Dwight H., and Cook Co. Forest Preserve System, 138 P ershing, Gen. John J., at Trianon Ballroom opening, 207 P eterkin, Daniel,Jr.: 68; daughter Joan, 68 1 71; wife Bessie, 71 Peterk in, Ju lia, photo., 123 Petraitis, Paul, "The Portrait Art on Calling Cards," article, 31; photos., 31, 32, 33

2 54 Chicago Hi story

Petrillo, James C., organizes free concerts in Grant Park, 12 Photography, see "The Portrait Art on Calling Cards" Piehl, Frank J., "Shall We Gather at the River," article, 196 Pihlfeldt, Thomas G., Chica~o bridge engineer, 203 Pike, Charles B. 1 former president of CHS, go Pike, Eugene R., Republican alderman, aids CHS, go Pinkerton Agency, guards Gunther collection for CIIS, 92, 93 Pinkerton, William Allan, dies (1923), 247 Plan of Chicago, see "A Reconsideration of the 1909 Plan of Chicago" Plankinton, John: partner of Philip D. Armour, 226; illus., 226 Plo\,•: see Deere, John ; Lane, John Polacco, Giorgio: conducts opera, 8, g; and Mary Garden, 44 "The Portrait Art on Calling Cards," by P au l Pctraitis: comments and photos., 31-33 Power, Chauncey, see "Heinrich Schliemann's Chicago Journal" Powers, John , alderman, described by Finley Peter Dunne, 50 Powcrs,John R. , The Lasl Catholic in America, reviewed , 250 Prairie, su "The Lost IJlinois Prairie" Prohibition: 1922: Casino Club raided, 60, New Year's Eve, 120, "Pussyfoot" John son, agent, leaves city, 60, still, photo., 121, Wind Blew Inn raided, 60; 1923: "beer war," 242, 243, New Year's Eve, 247 Prucha, Francis Paul, " American [ndian Peace Medals," article, 1o6 Pullman , George M., hosts Twentieth Century Club (1896), 38 Pullman Pa lace Car Co., 1894 strike, 218 Putnam Chain, 98; see also "The Mysterious Great Chain" Quaife, Dr. Milo M., evaluates Gunther collection (1920), 92 Radio: Lee DeForest predicts "phonofilm," 245; first broadcast from a courtroom, 223i fii-st regular news program , 60: royal wedding broadcast from England, 62; see also " The World's Most Beautiful Ballrooms'' Real Estate: rents (1923), 184; land values (1867), 175 "A Reconsidera tion of the 1909 Pian of Chica$o," article by I raj. Bach, 132: Burnham and Root, architects, 132;John VV. Root dies (1891), 132i Frederick L. Olmsted (photo., 133) and Daniel Burnham design Columbian Exposition, 132-33, photo., 135i Burnham begins to plan Chicago lakcfront , 133; his plans for other cities, 133; Merchants and Commercial clubs sponsor Chicago plan, 133-3 4, Plan of Chicago presented to city, 134; scope of plan, 134 1 illus., 137, 141, inside front cover No. 3; Chicago Plan Comm. appointed ( 1 909), 134-36; in flu• encc of plan on other cities, 136; portions of plan not carried out, 136-38, plan evaluated, 138; Bennett's contribution eva luated, 140; su also Norton, Charles D. R eid , Marga ret (Mrs. Bryan S.): and Passavant Cotillion, 71; son Bryan, Jr., 71 Reinec ke, Mrs. Mabel, first woman internal revenue collector (1923), 185 Reiner, Fritz, conductor, 13 Remmer, John, and Jll. Central Railroad, 180, 181 Republican a tional Convention (1908) 1 photo., 93 Restaurants, see "A 1 lalf Century of the Culinary Arts in Chicago" Rhymer, Mary Frances, ed., The Small House Halfway Up In the Next Block, reviewed, 1go Rhymer , P aul, author of l"ic and Sade (radio show), 190 Richberg, Donald R., executor of Gunther estate, 91 1 92, 96 Rodzinski, Artur, conductor, 13 Roosevelt, Theodore: entertains Alphonse Mucha, 26; opposes William Lorimer, 78-85 Root, Elihu: opposes William Lorimer, 81; phoJo., 84 Root , John W., partner of Daniel Burnham, 132 Rosenwald, Julius: philanthropist, 60 1 182; contributes to acquisition of Gunther collection, 92 Rothschild & Co., sells State St. store (1923), 247 Rue, Larry, reports I litler's beer-hall putsch, 245 Runnells Mrs. John S., and P assava nt Hospital, 72 Russell, 6harles Edward, exposes Beef Trust {1905), 231 Ryan , Capt. E. E. , escorts l lcinrich Schliemann, t 74-76 Sailing ships on the Great Lakes: AugusJa: 161-62 , collision, illus., 160; Clipper City, 159; David Dows, 162; Dean Richmond, 160 i Golden Age, 162; La Sallc's Griffon, 156; Luda Simpson, 164; Napoleon, 157; Nichols, 159; Osceola: 158 1 162 1 illus., 158; Our Son: 158 1 160, 164-65, photo., 165; Rouse Simmons: 162 1 photo., 163; Scott, 160j Skjoldmoen, 160; Sleipner, 160i Tra cy, 156; ~Vestward /lo , 156-57; see also "Chicago's Age of Sail" and "ShaJJ \,Ve Gather at the River" Sandburg, Carl: composes poem for Chicago Public Library (1923), 182; as described by Fanny Butcher, 124; at 10th anniversary of Poetry, J 19 ; photo., 123 Schliemann, 1 lcinrich, stt " Heinrich Schliemann's Chicago Journal', Schmidt, Dr. Otto, evaluates Gunther collection, 92 Schultz, John, Alotion H'ill Be Denied: A New Report on the Chicago Conspiraq Trial, reviewed, 91 Scopes , John T.: defended by Clare'nce Darrow, 223 Scinekc, Kathrine Wagner, "Mucha's Chicago Poster," article, !l6 Sevier, \Villiam S., calling-card phoJo., 33 "Shall \Ve Gather at the River," article by Frank J. Piehl, 196: early navigation on Chicago River, 196; conflict between street and river traffic, 196 1 198, 200, 203; canoe and ferry crossings, 196; earliest bridges (1832, 1833), 196; Dearborn St. drawbridge (1834): 198, illus., 197; pontoon bridge (1840), 198; float bridges, 198; Lake House Ferry: 198, 200 1 illus., 194; swing bridges, 200; tugboats, 200; Rush St. bridge: illus., cover No. 4 1 destroyed, 202, illus., 201; "Ten Minute Ordinance" (1867) 1 203; decline of river commerce, 203; trunnion bascu..le bridges: 203, replace earlier bridges, 203; Af~dusa Challmger: "hexes" bridges, 205, photo., 204 Shedd, John G.: backs aquarium in Grant Park, 247; president of Marshall Field & Co., 116; photo., 139 Sherman, John B., superintendent of Union Stock Yard: meets Heinrich Schliemann, 179; quoted on stockyards, 224; dies, 231; house. photo., 228; illus., 180; ste also" 'Something More than Packers'" Silvestro, Clement, director of CHS: 153; "The Candy Man's Mixed Bag," article, 86 Simpson, James, named president of Marshall Field & Co., 182 Sinclair, Upton , The Jungle affects public opinion, 231 Skinner elementary scltool, visited by Heinrich Schliemann, 180-81

Small, Len, governor: tried for embezzlement and acquitted (1921 ), 62; wife dies, 62; pardons men involved in 1921 trial (1923), 245 "'Something More than Packers'," article by Louise Carroll \Vade, 224: volume of business at Union Stock Yard (1880s), 224; early stockyards, 224; Union Stock Yard established (1865), 225; meat packers move near it, 225-26; enter dressed beef trade, 227; packers' attitudes toward their work, 227; toward their employees, 228; toward their sons, 228-29; charitahle contributions, 2â&#x20AC;˘2 9-30; Vest Committee investigation ( t 889), 231; scandal during Spanish-American War, 231; muckraking journalists (1904- 1906), 231; su also packers by name South Side: Bridgeport ( 1890s) as described by Finley Peter Dunne, 47-57; landowners oppose Chicago River bridge, 196 South VVater Produce Market: moved, 138; photo. (ca. 1900), 21 Sothern, Edward (actor), calling-card photo., 31 Sports: baseball: Cap Anson dies (1921), 62, bleachers collapse at Negro National League ball park (1923), 187, Judge K. M. Landis retires (1922) to 0ecome baseball commissioner, photo. , 61, Chicago Cubs: announce enlargement of ball park (1922) 1 119, photo., 118, win city series (1922), 119, White Sox: Charley Robertson pitches no-hitter (1922), 62, win opening game (1922), 119; bicycle race at Coliseum (1923), 183; football (1923): Red Grange stars, 245, Michigan and Ill. universities tied, 247; golf (1923): work begins on Ill. Country Club course, 242; Edith Cummings wins title, 243; racing ( 1923): Washington Park Club organized, 183, Hawthorne Racetrack opens, 187; su also Butkus, Dick; Evans, Chick Springer Heirs, Inc.: claimsite of Wilmington, Del. (1923) , 243; fraud admitted (1923), 243 Steamships: City of Grand Rapids, 203; Keystone Stale, illus., 164; lady Elgin: 161-62, illus., 161; Medusa Challenger: 205, photo, 204; North American: 203,pholo., 202; South American, 204; ~Villiam Nelson, 164- 65; su also tugboats Stevenson, Adlai, E., review of The Papers of ... , v. [, 191 Stock, Frederick: conductor, 4, 7, 10; photo., 7 Stockyards: Bull's Head, 224; Lake Shore Railroad, 224; su also Union Stock Yard Stokes, William, fund raiser for CHS (1921), 95 Storrs, Emery A., promotes philanthropy among packers, 229 Strauss, Joseph B., Chicago bridge designer, 203 Streeter, "Ma": sells food from houseboat (1922), 116; summons police to protect houseboat, 245, photo., 247 Sturges, Washington, calling-card photo., 31 Sweet, Forrest G., agent for Gunther family, 92, 96, 97 Swenie, Denis: fire chief, 54; photo. and painting, 55 Swift, Mrs. Alden B., opposes Passavant Cotillion, 68 Swift, Gustavus Franklin: childhood and early career, 226; moves to Union Stock Yard (1875), 227; enters dressed beef trade, 227; attitude toward workers, 228; philanthropy, 229-3oi death (1903), 231; wife Helen, quoted on family business, 229; son Louis enters business, 228; see also " 'Something More than Packers' 11 Taft, Lorado, sculptor: admired by Daniel Burnham, 132; "The Fountain of Time" unveiled (1922), 120, photo., 119 Taft, William H., opposes William Lorimer, 78- 85 Tarr, Joel A., "The Explulsion of Chicago's 'Blond Boss' from the Senate," article, 78 Taylor, Edward S., Lincoln Park commissioner (1892) 1 103- 4 "Ten-Minute Ordinance," 203 Theater: 1922, Frank Bacon dies, 120, Ruth Draper shows promise, 60; 1923: Easter week productions named, 1 85; see also Theaters, performers by name Theaters: Chicago theaters open in 1922-23 named, 12i Auditorium: Chicago Symphony Orchestra in, 4, photo., 8, Laurence Olivier and Vivian Leigh appear (1940), 13, opera in, 8-9, 10, restoration of, 13, Mary Garden sings (1910), 40; Avenue, Negro repertory at (1923) 1 183; Columbia, Mary Garden sings, 37; Little Theatre, Theodore Dreiser associated with{ 122; McVicker's: visited by Heinrich Schliemann (1867), 178, Bui ding, Gunther candy store in, 87-88 1 photo., inside back cover No. 2; Selwyn: Noel Coward at, 13 1 John Drew and Mrs. Leslie Carter open, inside front cover, No. 1; Studebaker, Theater Guild performs at, 12; see also Movie Theaters Thomas, Theodore, conductor: 4, 7, 132; Photos., 5, 6 Thompson, William Hale ("Big Bill''): attends opening of Aragon Ballroom, 209; defeated 62; I 19; 182; 185; photo., 183 Thurston the Magician: appears, 185; poster, 186 Transportation: in 1909 Plan of Chicago, 134 1 136, 138-40; t 922: passenger airline envisaged, 62 1 subway planned, 62 1 22nd automobile show opens, 60; 1923: Chicago, Aurora, and DeKalb Electric Railroad defunct, 182, dirigible service planned, 183-84, expansion of elevated lines announced, 245 1 traffic lights installed, 243 1 photo., 244 Tugboats: on Chicago River, 200, 202; photo., 201 Truth, Sojourner, calling-card photo., 32

Tuule, Emerson B., Commercial Club member, photo., 139 "Uncle Tom's Cabin": Gunther agents buy, 90; photo., 87 Union Stock Yard: described by Heinrich Schliemann, 179; JU also Armour & Co.," 'Something More than Packers'" Upham, Mrs. R. U., and Passavant l lospital Women's Board, 72 Valentino, Rudolf, appears at Trianon Ballroom (1923), 208 Vest Committee, investigates meat packers (1889), 231 Vogel, Virgil]., This Country Was Ours, revie\\.'ed, 249 Volunteer Fire Companies, see "Chicago's Rowdy Firefighters" Wacker, Charles 11.: heads Chicago Plan Comm., 134-36; J-Vacker's Afanual, 136; photo., 139 \\Tade, Louise Carroll," 'Something More than Packers,'" article, 224 Walker,John 11., opposes industrial unionism (1923), 243 Walsh, John R., Chicago banker, and William Lorimer, 78 Walska, Ganna (Mrs. Harold F. McCormick): cancels Chicago dCbut, 184; receives National \,Vomen's Party, 247 Ward, A. Montgomery: legal battle to prevent building in Grant Park, 136; caricature, 151; see also ''A. Montgomery Ward's Mail-Order Business'' Ward, Mrs. Montgomery, bequest to Northwestern Univ., 247 Warner, Mrs. Harry, at Trianon Ballroom opening (1922) 1 207 Wayman,John E.W., state's attorney, and William Lorimer, Bo Welk, Lawrence, at Trianon Ballroom, 206 1 211 1 212 Wells, Ida B., review of her autobiography, 191 \Vest Side: Commercial League (1922) 1 119; landowners oppose bridge across Chicago River, 198; political base of William Lorimer (1890s), 78 White, Charles A., Dem. assemblyman, accepts bribe from William Lorimer (1910), Bo White, F. Edson, named president of Armour & Co. (1923), 182 Whitman, Digby B., review of A Community in Search of Itself: A Case History of Cairo, Illinois, 188 Whitney, Emerson, and Aragon Ballroom, 215 Wille, Lois, Forever Open, Clear and Free, reviewed, 127 Willman, Edward, city engineer, 203 Wilson, Francis S., Clarence Darrow's law partner, 221 Wolf, Alexander, at opening of Aragon Ballroom, 209 Women: win right to serve on I ll. juries (1923), 185; see also women's organizations and women professionals by name Wood, Morrison, "A Half Century of the Culinary Arts in Chicago/' article, 18 Wood, William H., executor of Ira Couch will, 102 "The Work of Lerone Bennett, Jr.," book review by Rose Jourdain Hayes, 248 The World's Most Beautiful Ballrooms,,, article by Nancy Banks, 206: Karzas brothers: early careers, 206, Andrew Karzas described, 209 1 photo., 207, reasons for success, 211 1 Andrew Karzas dies, 212, William Karzas dies, 215; Aragon: described, 209, opens (1926), 209, photo., 213, radio broadcasts, 209 1 decline in ballroom dancing, 212, damaged by fire, 215 1 sold, 215, Wayne King's farewell, 206, conversions, 215, revival of bal.lroom dancing, 215; Trianon: described, 207, photo., 210 1 opening night (1922) 1 207 1 dress and behavior code, 208, Rudolf Valentino performs. 208, radio broadcasts begin, 209, decline of ballroom dancing, 2 12 1 picketed by civil rights groups, 212 1 closed, 215, demolished, 215; other public dancehalls in Chicago, 206 1 207; see also Bandleaders and Bands Wright, Frank Lloyd, Imperial Hotel in Tokyo survives earthquake (1922), 243 Wrigley Building, twin to original to be erected, 116 Wrigley, William Jr., contributes to acquisition of Gunther collection (1920), 92 "The Years of Splendor," article by Claudia Cassidy: highlights of Chicago's musical past, 4; Chicago Symphony Orchestra under Theodore Thomas (1891-1905) 1 4, photo., 6; on tour in 1890s, photo., 5; under Frederick Stock, 4-7, photo., 7; golden jubilee season (194041), 7; finances, 7-8; Mary Garden's season as directa of Lyric Opera ( 192 1-22), 8; Cleofome Campanini conducts Chicago Grand Opera (1910), 8; his funeral (1919) described, 8; first opera performed in Auditorium (1889) 1 9; opera moves to Civic Opera House-, 9; season of 192[30, 9-10; opera at Ravinia, 101 photo., 9; free concerts in Grant Par , 12; theater in Chicago, 1922-23 season, 12; later theater highlights, 12-13i performing arts in Chicago today, 13 Yerkes, Charles Tyson, allied with William Lorimer, 78 Zeigfeld, Florenz, Sr., dies, 187 Zochert, Donald, "Heinrich Schliemann's Chicago Journal,'' article, I 73

Chicago History 255

THE CH ICAGO HISTORICAL SOCIETY North Avenu e and Cl ark Street, Ch icago, Il lino is 60614 Teleph one: Mi c higa n 2- 4600

OFFICERS

Andrew McNally III, President Theodore Tieken, rst Vice-President James R. Getz, 2nd Vice-President Gardner H. Stern, Treasurer Clement M . Silvestro, Secretary and Director TRUSTEES

Bowen Blair Emmett Dedmon Stewart S. Dixon James R. Getz Philip W. Hummer Willard L. King Andrew McNally III Mrs. C. Phillip Miller

Bryan S. Reid, Jr. Nathan A. Scott, Jr. Gilbert H . Scribner, Jr. Harold Byron Smith, Jr. Hermon Dunlap Smith Gardner H. Stern Theodore Tieken Mrs. Philip K. Wrigley

M EMBERSHIP The Society is supported almost entirely by income from its endowment, by contributions, and by memberships. Membership is open to anyone interested in the Society's activities and objectives. Classes of membership a!1d dues are as follows: Annual, $15 a year; Life, $250 (one payment); Governing Life, $500 (one payment); Governing Annual, $100 (one payment) and $25 a year; and Patron, $1000 (one payment).

Members receive the Society's magazine, Chicago History, invitations to all special functions held by the Society, and periodic notice of new exhibitions. Members and their immediate farnilii:s are admitted free to the museum at all times.

Single copies of Chicago History, published semiannually, are $2 .25 by mail, $2 at newsstands and bookshops. Subscriptions are $10 for 4 issues.

256

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The ¥11.HI\Ot t11 E"'"Gr~c Xo. 3," whom ..-rU a.pproT"in~ f,m111:, Upon her M"OOrd doth ._.li.z., in well~taLlUht>il c.-him ;

The .. ~pu·r.u. \VAILf'IF:<••·" tni~ry b,uvt, ..,,.h:\t ,.hnJI wt ~11.y of them?

Otv"' F1a& Ov.r.\kTllt:"T" tlu·~· udor11. rui i!hjm•,: a pN:"ciou! g-cm.

They're £«if'1l(lc in nf'f'd, "'11 fril•ndl' i..u di-ed, wht-ne'er mi.,,fortu11u call.

J,~or neiUu,r ri,-lt- of lite <,r Jimb, 1'ftn •• Rt·io~Y.f.L's" bnnd appal.

"fheir rainbow &lrt.."'ni a.r~<illi thu ffa~, and ronqurrinx powt-r tli .. pln..v•.

1Vbile .. G. S. llu•B.\1to'" leatl" tb,•m on "'·ith wdl-Ot•.-cr¥in~ pnu~.

W e11 Ung our gallaot

.J,'frttl/fffl."1

llN'

pmi~. in

tneMl.ll'1'1

foll Md ~Lroog,

And wo be tu 1bt" J1,.l\rtlc111 fl<'11d, who n1id Lhc ,lnrknestt t"06Jnl, To eeck for plundi:r, nnd de:,.1roy our f)(':1<.'t"fu~ harpy home11.

Let M-.ic\ ••eel AnJ cheerful .Ml'tliut 1.h,• io1'm"& oov·• proloni,;:.

.

XI.

Our" l-'111&'-IC~" lhu'I in r,ha11urx (orm ,enjo,a exte.ndrd prai.,c, In IM'nioe e,·cr prc,mpt and trn,r,, ,r,,\('b e.nterpri...'"6 di,.-ploy~, ·rhc m:(ing ~IPfflt"IIIJJ to tlart•, t'Ol.lhl'!"'OU'I to a. nl&n.

Their di'\:•I~ 1bcir 1.1~•.fulnr,., Jei·l...re, when" $1"C'YE, G.1t.LB.. hNulA th;, ()b' tbr

\"&.n.

1~·~,,.,,,.•, it a J,rloriou" life., thatotb.er hCN't-4 n.,·~r know:

H ~b.-artu.

D.A.U.Y

Joua.,.u.'s PR.ISTINO

EsTABLlSB.MESTl

Chicago,

r Chicago Historical Society