Decriminalising the Ornament through Architectural Geometry

Constructed Histories

DECRIMINALISING THE ORNAMENT THROUGH ARCHITECTURAL GEOMETRY Chhavi Mehta Tutors: Shajay Bhooshan

Architectural Association School of Architecture London, March 2021

TABLE OF CONTENT

1.

Abstract

2.

Ornament and Crime

3.

Erasing the Ornament

4.

Importance of the Ornament

5.

Revival of the Ornament

6.

Architectural Geometry

7.

Redefining the Ornament through AG

7.1 KnitCandela

7.2 Thallus Installation

7.3 Tectonism

8.

Loos V/S Architectural Geometry

9.

Contemporary Purpose of Ornament

10. Conclusion 11. Bibliography 12. Image References

Keywords: Computational Design, Digital Fabrication, Ornamentation, Optimisation, Architectural Geometry, Tectonism

1. ABSTRACT The ornament in architecture has had a long and complex history. From being celebrated as the focal point of architecture in the Art Nouveau period to being treated like a crime in the Modernist era it is now taking its rightful place through architectural geometry.

The rise of computers, machines and fabrication techniques enabled ornamentation in architecture, making it easily accessible to everyone, though it remained superficial and “stuck-on”. It is only through the multi-objective and integrated design process of architectural geometry and imparting meaning to it through tectonism that ornament is being given a purpose of more than just beautification; it is finally being accredited.

More often than not, architectural geometry i.e. geometry that is structurally informed, construction aware, environmentally suited and materially optimised results in novel aesthetic qualities and spatial experiences which can be considered as a way of redefining ornamentation.

Since the main aspects of ornamentation that Loos talked about as crime are Human Effort, Cost of Production and Quantity of material; “ornamental” architectural geometry, through case studies, has been analysed in these aspects and emerged victoriously. Architectural geometry therefore can be used as an instrument to redefine the ornament and its purpose in a contemporary sense.

1

2. ORNAMENT AND CRIME Adolf Loos was an Austrian Architect who in 1910 wrote Ornament and Crime. His writing is a response to the Art Nouveau context in Vienna (figure 1, 2 & 3) at the time and he referred to ornamentation as a ‘backward’ and ‘degenerate’ activity. In the article, Loos talks about the reasons ornament is considered a crime and encourages the employment of smooth surfaces instead of ornamented ones.

Figure 1

He believed that ornamentation is expensive, labour intensive and uses more material than necessary and yet, its presence only causes the object to go out of style; ie to become obsolete sooner. Additionally, he wrote, “Human beings had come so far that ornament produced no feelings of pleasure in them”1 Therefore, ornamentation was conceived as unnecessary and the resources that contributed to its production were considered a waste, and thus a crime.

Figure 2

1 Adolf Loos, Ornament and Crime, (Penguin Classics, 2019) 98.

Figure 3

2

3. ERASING THE ORNAMENT

Ornament and Crime, and “Less is More”2 amongst others formed the foundation on which modernism came into being.

Ornament started being considered a taboo and the architecture that followed focused on overall form, space, structure and programme. (figure 4 & 5) Robert Venturi said “When modern architects righteously abandoned ornament on buildings, they unconsciously designed buildings that were ornament.”3 Since ornamentation is a form of expression, and architects being creatives have an innate desire to express themselves, the eradication of ornament only led to finding another mode of expression. In modernist architecture, this was through the use of form, innovation in materials, visual expression of the structure and minimalist principles. The effort that previously went into ornamentation now went into making the object appear simple.

Figure 4

2

Figure 5

Mies van der Rohe, 1947

3 Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown & Steven Izenour, Learning From Las Vegas, revised edition, (The MIT Press, 1977), 163.

3

Even though modernism was a movement that was against the conventional notion of ornamentation, it existed as a secondary emphasis after architectural space. For instance, Le Corbusier exposed the traces left behind by concrete framework (figure 6) as a way of reminding the viewers of the process of construction and expression of craftsmanship. And Mies van der Rohe uses materials like marble, red onyx and travertine as ornamental elements at the Barcelona Pavilion(figure 7).4 Additionally, with the rise of industrialisation and mass-production of machine-made ornament, it started being considered as banal and austere. One of the main attractions to the ornament during the years before modernism was that it was considered a luxury. It showcased close attention to detail through the act of making and evidenced the hours being invested in creating a piece. With the rise of industrialisation, this aspect was taken away and ornament became less desirable.5 Due to this change in perception, ornamentation lost its status as a luxury, and thus innovation in technology led to the decline of ornamentation.

Figure 6

Figure 7

4 Antoine Picon, Ornament: The Politics of Architecture and Subjectivity, (UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2013), 21.

5 Edwin Heathcote, Ornament is the language through which architecture communicates with a broader public, ( Architectural Review, 2015).

4. IMPORTANCE OF THE ORNAMENT The presence of ornament on an object imparts to it a humane quality. It exhibits a human-material link and illustrates the craft and effort that goes into its creation.6 Since laymen are not always able to understand tectonics, spatial design or the many technical aspects of architecture, it is through ornamental and aesthetic aspects that they learn to appreciate it. It is evident that “ornament is the language through which architecture communicates with a broader public”7 and the lack of ornament further alienates the public from the field of architecture.

Without the use of ornament, a number of buildings today like some shopping malls, departmental stores and banks can be classified as ‘blank’8. Since the social functionality of a space is determined by its communicative capacity and what it expresses, the lack of ornament makes it difficult to read and perceive space.9

6 Nanette Hoogslag & Sheena Calvert, “Decriminalising Ornament: The Pleasures of Pattern,” Journal of Illustration 6, 1 (2019) 7 Edwin Heathcote, Ornament is the language through which architecture communicates with a broader public, ( Architectural Review, 2015).

8

Farshid Moussavi, The Function of Ornament, (Actar, 2006).

9 Patrik Schumacher, “Tectonism in Architecture, Design and Fashion,” 3D-Printed Body Architecture 87, 1 (2017)

5. REVIVAL OF THE ORNAMENT Since ornamentation was considered a taboo amongst the architectural community, architects began trying to lend meaning to the ornamentation they employed. For example, FAT (Fashion Architecture Taste) engaged an artist in the production of their work such as the fairytale house of Essex (figure 8) and Herzog & de Meuron did the same with Thomas Ruff at the Eberswalde Library (figure 9). Through this, they were able to showcase encouragement of craftsmanship and dissociate themselves from the ornamentation. Thus legitimating the ornament and surpassing the concept of ornament as unnecessary; redefining it and their collaboration with the artist as an integral part of the conceptual design.

Figure 8

Figure 9

The further rise of fabrication methods like CNC cutting, milling, 3d printing etc made ornament cheap, quick and accessible. (figure 10) FAT believes the elimination of ornament (as seen as necessary by Loos) isn’t necessary in the context of their work because ornament is a crime only when it is a waste of time, effort and money but with the use of contemporary fabrication techniques, these factors were considerably reduced.

Though accessible, economical and somewhat purpose-driven, this ornamentation was still superfluous, almost stuck-on. It continued to define ornament in its conventional sense as “the elaboration of functionally complete objects for the sake of visual pleasure or cultural significance.”10

Figure 11

68.

10 Kyle Miller, “Organized Crime: The Role of Ornament in Contemporary Architecture,” (2011),

6. ARCHITECTURAL GEOMETRY

The rise of geometric computing provides tools and opportunities for increased efficiency and complexity in architectural design. Such geometry is conceptualised through analysis and optimisation, and realised by means of digital fabrication. This optimisation of geometry can be structural, material, environmental, financial or fabrication related among many others. This area of research is “situated at the border of applied geometry and architecture” and is therefore referred to as architectural geometry.11 Geometry that is structurally rationalised, environmentally suited, financially optimised, construction aware and designed to address specific constraints can be called architectural geometry.

7. REDEFINING THE ORNAMENT THROUGH ARCHITECTURAL GEOMETRY Much like the traces of formwork in the works of Le Corbusier, many digital fabrication methods expose through the object their act of making or method of production. This can be conveyed through its overall form, materiality and texture. (figure 11 & 12) This has historically been referred to as ‘faktura’ and has been known for adding character to an object.12 This itself can be considered ornamental and can be seen in many works including KnitCandela.

Many times, the constraints of the fabrication process lead to novel innovations and aesthetically pleasing results as in the case of the Thallus Installation. This can be considered as another manifestation of the faktura.

11 Helmut Pottmann, Axel Kilian & Michael Hofer, Advances in Architectural Geometry 2018, (Vienna: Klein Publishing GmbH (Ltd.), 2018), 3.

12 Patrik Schumacher, “Tectonism in Architecture, Design and Fashion,” 3D-Printed Body Architecture 87, 1 (2017)

Figure 11

Figure 12

7.1 KNITCANDELA KnitCandela is a 13 foot tall, double curved, thin-shell concrete structure known for its ultra-lightweight knitted formwork. It is a collaboration between Zaha Hadid Computation and Design Group (ZHCODE), Block Research Group and Architecture Extrapolated(R-EX).

The project is exemplary as it minimises the use of material as well as time, effort and money by exploiting new fabrication techniques along with the use of architectural geometry.The double-curved shell geometry is constructionaware and structurally optimised to avoid the awkward accumulation of material - instead, strength is achieved through the form itself.

The structure comprises two layers of fabric with fibre reinforced concrete cast on top. (figure 13) Pockets created between the two layers of fabric contain balloons that produce hollow space in the cast concrete. This leads to the creation of a waffle slab like structure; thus further reducing the amount of material used and the weight of the structure.13 Its fabrication technique involves utilising the KnitCrete formwork that consists of a 3d knitted textile as a stay-in-place shuttering which is then coated with a fast-drying cement paste to create a rigid mould for the concrete to be cast on.14 (figure 14) The use of this knitted formwork to create a concrete shell not only reduces the amount of material used to construct the structure but altogether 13 “Block Research Group,” accessed March 19, 2021, https://block.arch.ethz.ch/brg/project/knit-candela-muac-mexico-city.

14 “Block Research Group,” accessed March 19, 2021, https://block.arch.ethz.ch/brg/project/knit-candela-muac-mexico-city.

Figure 13

Figure 14

eliminates the need for bulky formwork, thus drastically reducing waste of material during construction.

The use of the fabric formwork also allows for a more streamlined process of fabrication, thus saving time. The knitted surface through its textile and pattern provides connections and openings as well as guidance and alignment for the cable net. (figure 15) The embodiment of construction intelligence into the textile eliminated the need for extensive labelling and detailed construction drawings, reduced alignment errors and expedited the construction process.15 The adoption of computationally designed knitted formwork and its production through industrial knitting machines further saves time. It only took 36 hours to produce the forwork on an industrial knitting machine compared to the 750 hours it would have taken if a CNC milled mould was used instead.

The optimisation of material used for and during construction, use of permanent fabric formwork and structural optimisation reduced the structures carbon footprint and its means of transportation, in two suitcases on a commercial flight, made it even more environmentally friendly.16 (figure 16)

Figure 15

Figure 16

15 Mariana Popescu, Matthias Rippmann, Tom Van Mele & Philippe Block, “KnitCandela: Challenging the construction, Logistics, Waste and Economy of Concrete-shell Formworks,” Fabricate 2020: Making Resilient Architecture, (2020):194-201.

16 Mariana Popescu, Matthias Rippmann, A Liew, Tom Van Mele & Philippe Block, “structure research: Betonschale mitgestrickter Schalung,” DETAIL structure 1, (2019): 10-11.

The use of architectural geometry, digital Fabrication techniques (like industrial machines for knitting), encoding information in the textile and simplified logistics of construction considerably reduce the human effort that goes into its production.

The most labour-intensive processes were the suspension and tensioning of the fabric into place and the casting of concrete on top. (figure 17) There is a displacement of human effort from manual labour on site, to time spent on research and development of architectural geometry and new fabrication techniques; which also contribute to the advancement of the industry.

The reduction of material and human labour along with simplified logistics (of transportation and on-site) reduce the overall cost of the project.

Thus, KnitCandela is optimised for the reduction of material, time, human effort, cost and carbon footprint. It is not only exemplary in technical aspects, but this integrated process results in a structure with an enhanced spatial experience and ornamental qualities.

The repetitive pattern of lines on the inside surface of the structure gives insight into the construction and fabrication process of the structure, acting as faktura.

The direction of the lines align with the placement and direction of the cable-net structure, thus implicitly expressing the structural properties of the concrete shell.

As the lines move from one opening to another, they express the radial symmetry of the form, articulate the structure and exaggerate its perceptual legibility, therefore fulfilling the purpose of the ornament from a communicative perspective. (figure 18)

Figure 17

Figure 18

7.2 THALLUS INSTALLATION

Thallus Installation is a collaboration between ZHCODE, Ai Build and Odico. It explores the possibilities of hybrid forms of fabrication and explores innovative solutions within its constraints.

It involves the printing of a 7km long continuous strip onto a ruled surface using a six-axis robotic 3D printing technology.17 (figure 19 & 20) This strip is structural in its performance and its continuous characteristic along with the way it repeatedly loops together is reflective of the integration of toolpath continuity with structural optimisation. The continuous strip is developed to work with the constraints and enhance the robotic fabrication process that is most efficient when moving continuously from start to end instead of calibrating itself at every start point, thus also reducing errors of alignment.

Figure 19

Figure 20

The project is also an investigation into the means of generating geometry through robotic-assisted design. The form of the strip is the result of a computational process that explores “differential growth and spacefilling methods.” The resultant form is an optimisation based on technical parameters such as density, fabrication and bundling parameters.18 (figure 21 to 28) The additive manufacturing process is automated and its toolpath, density of strip in an area and its directionality is also governed by physical factors such as proximity to an edge or boundary, structural requirements, robot comfort and direction of the ruling surfaces.19 17 https://ai-build.com/thallus.html, accessed March 19, 2021.

18 Zaha Hadid Design - Thallus for for White in the City Animation, 2017, YouTube.

19 Thallus, 2018, Vimeo.

Figure 21 to 28

Figure 29

Figure 30

Robotic hot-wire cutting is used to create a mould that the strip is printed on. (figure 29 & 30) The shape of the mould is dictated by the possibilities of the fabrication method.20 The resultant structure (figure 31 & 32) through its form expresses the relationship between generative design process and the employment of innovative solutions within the constraints of the fabrication process. The tool-path of 3d printing along with the overall form becomes an ornamental or characterising feature, thus faktura.

Structural optimisation has allowed for the minimal use of material by deploying it only in the areas where it is needed, thus also reducing cost of production. The aesthetic qualities arise from a well-integrated optimised design system and the ornament performs a dual structural function as well as an articulative one. It is neither additive nor unnecessary.

20 https://ai-build.com/thallus.html, accessed March 19, 2021.

Figure 31

Figure 32

7.3 TECTONISM

The design process of architectural geometry often results in a performative, functional, economical and elegantly integrated outcome where the boundaries between functional and aesthetical elements get blurred.

Instead of decorating already functional geometry through additive means of ornamentation, Architectural geometry develops a character through expressing its optimisation results or fabrication process and itself becomes communicative and ornamental.

This can be seen in the case of KnitCandela and Thallus Installation and it becomes evident that the exploitation of new digital fabrication techniques and computation provide new opportunities for tectonic articulation. This “stylistic heightening of engineering”21 is referred to as tectonism. It encourages the consideration of technical and communicative factors simultaneously; thus architects must consider another selection criteria while contemplating the parameters involved in the decision-making process.22

8. LOOS V/S ARCHITECTURAL GEOMETRY Loos called ornament a crime because of the excessive aspects of its production like human effort, cost of production and quantity of material.

Through the examples of KnitCandela and Thallus Installation, it is proven that ornamentation can be achieved through employing architectural geometry, digital fabrication techniques and thus, principles of tectonism. Ornament can be purposefully achieved while also optimising the excessive aspects that Loos was against.

Loos believes ornamentation requires a lot of unnecessary human effort which leads to the exploitation of craftsmen. He says they don’t get the value they deserve for their work and labour over objects that become obsolete quickly, thus rendering their efforts worthless.

But, architectural geometry can be optimised for fabrication to reduce the human labour that goes into production. Fabrication aware objects showcase a shift in focus from the production of individual objects to the prototyping process and optimisation of the design so it can be replicated/produced/ fabricated as many times as needed with minimal effort.

21 Patrik Schumacher, “Tectonism in Architecture, Design and Fashion,” 3D-Printed Body Architecture 87, 1 (2017), 109.

22 Patrik Schumacher, “Tectonism in Architecture, Design and Fashion,” 3D-Printed Body Architecture 87, 1 (2017)

The excessive use of material used to produce ornamentation and the cost it infers is of great concern to Loos. Through the use of computation techniques for structural optimisation and new fabrication techniques, architectural geometry can be made less material intense. Structurally optimised geometry can significantly reduce the amount of material needed in a structure by deploying it only where it is needed by working with the flow of forces and loads.23 Material can be saved not only in the structure itself but also in the construction process by eliminating formwork as can be seen in the case of KnitCandela.

Finally, Loos’ biggest concern about ornamentation was that such an object would go out of style sooner and become obsolete. But when designing with architectural geometry, the design and its intent is not focused on following a certain style, it is about its structural, material, economical and fabrication performance and its emergent form. The style is then not described by fixed notions of geometry or rules of expression. Instead, every object is rationalised to respond to a specific brief and set of constraints, which it reflects through its design - making it expressive and unique.

Optimisation techniques, digital fabrication and computational geometry have narrowed the gap between structural, performative, architectural and ornamental geometry and allows us to develop an architectural language that is both aesthetically expressive and functionally informed.24 Ironically, it was technology that led to the decline of the ornament during industrialisation as now, technology is the key catalyst of its revival through architectural geometry.

23 Block Research Group, “Redefining Structural Art: Strategies, necessities and opportunities,” (2020): 66-72.

24 Block Research Group, “Redefining Structural Art: Strategies, necessities and opportunities,” (2020): 66-72.

9. CONTEMPORARY PURPOSE OF ORNAMENT Though the process of conception of architectural geometry seems mostly technical by focusing on exploring emerging technologies, structural optimisation and constructability; the role of the architect extends further.

By employing tectonism, architects must also take into consideration the structure’s social function, spatial experience, communicative capacity and visual legibility. This can be done through strategic ornamentation; by choosing and selecting which aspects of engineering to heighten and by imparting meaning to them.

Thus, architectural geometry doesn’t have to be the output of a purely technical optimisation. It must also assume the many purposes of ornamentation, including that of communication and tectonic articulation. This gives rise to a well-integrated design process that is a more economical and elegant solution.25 The reason ornament was considered a crime by Loos was because it didn’t seem to serve any purpose, it was seen simply as a thing of beauty, something superfluous, an addition to make things aesthetic. It wasn’t able to justify its existence as it was separated from both its function and modes of making. Through the use of architectural geometry and digital fabrication, the contemporary ornament is directly linked to its mode of making and through tectonism, its expression can be associated with a function; thus decriminalising it.

This can be seen in the Beijing Daxing International Airport designed by Zaha Hadid Architects. The structure consists of six flowing forms, almost like columns that not only perform structurally but are also integral to the lightning strategy of the terminal. (figure 33) These columns act as skylights and are interspersed and separated by linear skylights.(figure 34) This network of skylights along with the expression of structure through lines in the ceiling act as a means of directing passengers towards a shared central courtyard (through lines in the ceiling) or to their departure gates (through linear skylights). (figure 35 & 36) This provides for an intuitive system for wayfinding and enhances cognitive mapping abilities in the space.26

25 Patrik Schumacher, “Tectonism in Architecture, Design and Fashion,” 3D-Printed Body Architecture 87, 1 (2017) 26 “ArchDaily,” accessed March 19, 2021, https://www.archdaily.com/925536/beijing-daxing-international-airport-zaha-hadid-architects?ad_medium=widget&ad_name=navigation-next.

This expression of structure and integration of lighting strategy through tectonism not only adds character and identity to the space but also helps an occupant navigate and orient themselves in space. Thus tectonism can be an instrument to the semiological project too.27

Figure 33

Figure 34

Figure 36

Figure 35

27 Patrik Schumacher on ‘Tectonism’ and the work of ZHCODE, 2018, YouTube.

10. CONCLUSION Analysing the title of the publication, Loos called it Ornament and Crime, not Ornament is Crime. It implies that ornament is not crime, but instead its methods of production and resources exploited were a crime. The purpose associated with the superficial ornament couldn’t justify its existence.

Therefore, it can be concluded that rather than the elimination of ornament, Loos was asking for its redefinition. For later, he admits that when talking about ornament, he means superfluous ornament. “I have freed mankind from superfluous ornament.”28 The use of architectural geometry and its methods of conception and fabrication along with the principles of tectonism can finally help architecture achieve the balance between aesthetic, performative and economical thus justifying the existence of the ornament. When an aesthetic quality emanates as a direct consequence of a multi-objective and integrated process of designing, such as that of architectural geometry, and when it has a purpose both functional and communicative, it is no longer superfluous, it is no longer a crime.

28 Adolf Loos, Trotzdem, 1900-1930, (Innsbruck: Brenner Verlag, 1931).

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY • Adolf Loos. Ornament and Crime. Penguin Classics, 2019.

• Adolf Loos. Trotzdem, 1900-1930. Innsbruck: Brenner Verlag, 1931.

• Antoine Picon. Ornament: The Politics of Architecture and Subjectivity.

UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2013.

• “ArchDaily.” Accessed March 19, 2021. https://www.archdaily. com/925536/beijing-daxing-international-airport-zaha-hadidarchitects?ad_medium=widget&ad_name=navigation-next.

• Block, Philippe. “Parametricism’s Structural Congeniality.” Parametricism 2.0: Rethinking Architecture’s Agenda for the 21st Century 86,(2016): 68-75.

• “Block Research Group.” Accessed March 19, 2021. https://block.arch. ethz.ch/brg/project/knit-candela-muac-mexico-city.

• Block Research Group. “Redefining Structural Art: Strategies, necessities and opportunities.” (2020): 66-72.

• Edwin Heathcote. Ornament is the language through which architecture communicates with a broader public. Architectural Review, 2015.

• Edwin Heathcote. The argument for ornament. Financial Times, 2008.

• Farshid Moussavi. The Function of Ornament. Actar, 2006.

• Helmut Pottmann, Axel Kilian & Michael Hofer. Advances in Architectural Geometry 2018. Vienna: Klein Publishing GmbH (Ltd.), 2018.

• https://ai-build.com/thallus.html. Accessed March 19, 2021.

• Mariana Popescu, Matthias Rippmann, Tom Van Mele & Philippe Block.

“KnitCandela: Challenging the construction, Logistics, Waste and Economy of Concrete-shell Formworks.” Fabricate 2020: Making Resilient Architecture, (2020): 194-201.

• Mariana Popescu, Matthias Rippmann, A Liew, Tom Van Mele & Philippe Block. “structure research:Betonschale mit gestrickter Schalung.” DETAIL structure 1, (2019): 10-11.

• Miller, Kyle. “Organized Crime: The Role of Ornament in Contemporary Architecture.” (2011) • Nanette Hoogslag & Sheena Calvert. “Decriminalising Ornament: The Pleasures of Pattern.” Journal of Illustration 6, 1 (2019) • Patrik Schumacher on ‘Tectonism’ and the work of ZHCODE. 2018.

YouTube.

• Schumacher, Patrik. “Tectonism in Architecture, Design and Fashion.”

3D-Printed Body Architecture 87, 1 (2017) • Thallus. 2018. Vimeo.

• Zaha Hadid Design - Thallus for for White in the City Animation. 2017.

YouTube.

12. IMAGE REFERENCES Figure 1: Victoria & Albert Museum. https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/ O59246/armchair-eckmann-otto/ Figure 2: Molly. Koloman Moser, Die Verwunschenen Prinzessinnen (The Enchanted Princesses), 1900. https://mollyandtheprincess.wordpress. com/2011/01/29/adolf-loos-and-the-enchanted-princesses/ Figure 3: Christian Stemper. Otto Wagner’s Stadtbahn Pavilion, detail. https://theculturetrip.com/europe/austria/articles/an-art-nouveauarchitecture-tour-of-vienna Figure 4: Author Unknown. https://www.phaidon.com/store/architecture/ ornament-is-crime-9780714874166/#:~:text=Ornament%20 is%20Crime%20Matt%20Gibberd%20and%20Albert%20 Hill&text=Ornament%20Is%20Crime%20is%20a,provoking%20 reappraisal%20of%20modernist%20architecture.&text=This%20book%20 is%20a%20visual,architectural%20movement%20in%20modern%20 history.

Figure 5: Allison Meier. Pages from Ornament is Crime: Modernist Architecture (photo of the book for Hyperallergic). https://hyperallergic. com/392740/ornament-is-a-crime-in-progress/ Figure 6: Unknown Author. Le Corbusier, Unité d’Habitation of Marseilles, 1952. Ornament: The Politics of Architecture and Subjectivity. Pg 22 Figure 7: Gili Merin. https://www.archdaily.com/109135/ad-classicsbarcelona-pavilion-mies-van-der-rohe Figure 8: Jack Hobhouse. https://www.dezeen.com/2015/05/15/housefor-essex-fat-grayson-perry-charles-holland-living-architecture-alain-debotton/ Figure 9: Christian Richters & Margherita Spiluttini. https://arquitecturaviva. com/works/biblioteca-de-la-escuela-tecnica-de-eberswalde-6 Figure 10: Unknown Author. Foreign Office Architects, John Lewis department store, Leicester, 2007. Ornament: The Politics of Architecture and Subjectivity. Pg 19

Figure 11: Author Unknown. Cirratus - 3D printed concrete vase. https:// www.patrikschumacher.com/Texts/Design%20as%20Second%20Nature. html Figure 12: Photo from personal archives (workshop 1 AADRL) Figure 13: Juan Pablo Allegre. https://www.zaha-hadid.com/design/ knitcandela/ Figure 14: Mariana Popescu. https://block.arch.ethz.ch/brg/project/knitcandela-muac-mexico-city Figure 15: Maria Verhulst. https://block.arch.ethz.ch/brg/project/knitcandela-muac-mexico-city Figure 16: Lex Reiter. https://block.arch.ethz.ch/brg/project/knit-candelamuac-mexico-city Figure 17: Mariana Popescu. https://block.arch.ethz.ch/brg/project/knitcandela-muac-mexico-city Figure 18: Philippe Block. https://block.arch.ethz.ch/brg/project/knitcandela-muac-mexico-city Figure 19: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 20: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 21: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 22: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 23: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 24: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4

Figure 25: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 26: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 27: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 28: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 29: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 30: Zaha Hadid Architects. Screenshot from Zaha Hadid Design Thallus for for White in the City Animation. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FnZiszi7aS4 Figure 31: Luke Hayes. https://www.zaha-hadid.com/design/thallusinstallation/ Figure 32: Luke Hayes. https://www.zaha-hadid.com/design/thallusinstallation/ Figure 33: Hufton+Crow. https://www.archdaily.com/925536/ beijing-daxing-international-airport-zaha-hadid-architects Figure 34: Hufton+Crow. https://www.archdaily.com/925536/ beijing-daxing-international-airport-zaha-hadid-architects Figure 35: Hufton+Crow. https://www.archdaily.com/925536/ beijing-daxing-international-airport-zaha-hadid-architects Figure 36: Hufton+Crow. https://www.archdaily.com/925536/ beijing-daxing-international-airport-zaha-hadid-architects