The Chelt Scientist ISSUE 6

Ch Sci

Contents Art by Jenny Huang, UC5

Team

14

Mysteries of the Mind Unveiled

16

Thallium: The Case of Zhu Ling and Her Tragedy

Charlene Kwan

Jenny Huang

Editors-in-Chief Giselle Chan Julie Suen

News Luna Belza-Garcia Portia Bolitho Giselle Chan Maddy Chan Stella Hu Joyce Lin Miriam Lozovsky Faith Moey Angelyn Ng Claudia Paasch Alicia Tsang

18

Anaesthetics: A Panacea for Pain

20

Feature: Prosthetic Limbs that Can Feel

Chloe Chan

Giselle Chan

22

The Science Behind Tanning Janice Law

24

Does the Colour Magenta Exist?

25

The Scientist who Named Vitamins: Casimir Funk

Jaime Chan

Claudia Paasch

Writers

26

Chloe Chan Giselle Chan Jaime Chan Kathryn Chan Jenny Huang Charlene Kwan Emily Lam Janice Law Abigail Lim Caitlyn Ng Neriah Ossei Claudia Paasch Laurie Porter Julie Suen Audrey Wan

Julie Suen

News

Why Space Needs Regulation

6

In brief: Chemistry

32

Evolution Enhancing Medicine for Humanity

7

In brief: Physics

8

In brief: Medicine

10

In brief: Technology

Prosthetic Limbs that Can Feel

36

Undoing the Artificial Ocean

36

Nanomedicine: The Future of Healthcare

Julie Suen

Special 34

A Visit from Harriet Lester, CLC Leaver Julie Suen

35

A Word from Our Leavers

39

Interview with Professor Newbury-Ecob

Abigail Lim, Caitlyn Ng

Articles

Feature: Nanomedicine: The Future of Healthcare Abigail Lim, Caitlyn Ng

Giselle Chan

26

Neriah Ossei

Kathryn Chan

Features

Illustrators

2

Audrey Wan

30

Graphic Designers

Claire Bilstein Jenny Huang Manon Lai Hung Hannah Lau Victoria Lee Faith Moey Ysabel Xu Maho Yonezawa Jojo Zeng

A Guide to Defend Yourself Against Cyber Threats

In brief: Biology

20 Catherine Katesmark Cheryl Lai Hannah Lau Sophia Lau Victoria Lee Sofia Wu Imogen Yen

29

4

Editors Giselle Chan Vanessa Fok Cynthia Honig Ehije Izzi-Engbeaya Nana Yaa Koduah-Sarpong Maegan Lee Evangeline Leung Caitlyn Ng Laura Nielsen Julie Suen Olivia Zhang

Feature: Undoing the Artificial Ocean

Siya Narayan, Vanessa Yip, Tina Jinzhang

Laurie Porter

42

Sitting Down with Miss Constantine, Dr. Starkey & Mrs. Pizii Giselle Chan, Julie Suen

12

How to Cheat Death Emily Lam

45

Hot from Instagram Giselle Chan, Julie Suen

Editor’s note M

ade with love by Giselle and Julie, a new issue is born! Based on the theme of youth leaders, we hope to spread word of what young scientists are doing today to start discussions on

unique topics at CLC. We would love to take this opportunity to shout out to Miss Constantine, a former CLC teacher and a figure of inspiration to future youth leaders.

As we flourish into ever-increasingly curious scientists, we are inspired by many: historical figures, prominent pioneers, but undoubtedly those that touch us the most are youth leaders. Perhaps it’s due to a factor of relatability: these fighters of plastic pollution (p. 26), engineers of next-gen prosthetic limbs (p.20) and pioneers of nano-medicine (p.36) are all of our generation; their achievements give hope and motivate us alike no other. With our issue centred around this, we hope to educate, to inspire, and to give rise to more youth leaders.

The publication of this issue is a product of the hard work of everyone who contributed along the way. We’re eternally grateful for every contribution and our readers: it is you who has made this possible!

The Editors, Julie and Giselle

Illustrated by Jenny Huang

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SCIENCE NEWS IN BRIEF

Biology ANIMAL STUDY

Animal’s Sense of Smell in Disease Detection

M

ost mammals have a better sense of smell than humans. We can only complain about the

pungent smell of garlic or body odour, while rats can use their sense of smell to detect food from more than 2km away! In this manner, primates (including humans) have been considered microsmatic species since the 19th century. This claim was based on evidence that humans have a relatively small olfactory bulb in the forebrain (where odours are processed). While dogs have 200 million olfactory receptors in their noses

Angelyn Ng SFC1

All kinds of disease can alter which VOCs are present and at what concentration. These molecules waft through the air until they encounter an odour receptor in a nose sensitive enough to perceive them. Upon analysis, the APOPO team discovered 13 VOCs unique to tuberculosis. And even when six VOCs are combined, the rats can easily evaluate 100 samples in just 20 minutes which will lead to a banana and avocado smoothie reward.

compared with human’s mere 5 million.

While numerous diseases such as tuberculosis can be identified by sputum samples under conventional microscopy, in some developing countries this method is only 40% accurate. The Belgian non-profit organization APOPO began as a programme that leverages rats’ abilities to detect land mines through smell. Recently, APOPO trained African giant pouched rats to identify tuberculosis by smell through an introduction to everyday human sounds and smells in developing countries.

As treatments improve, accurate and rapid diagnosis is of greatest importance. Between 2013 and 2023, the

The idea of animals sniffing out disease may sound unlikely at first, but the underlying mechanism is well established. The body produces an array of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in body fluids and breath, from bacteria, environmental contacts and more.

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APOPO programme screened nearly 1 million sputum samples and identified more than 30,000 cases of TB that had been missed by local clinics. The organization estimates that the rats have prevented almost 364,000 follow-on infections in family members or colleagues of the people who were found to have TB. APOPO hopes that this strategy will remain a second-line screening technology after conventional laboratory methods, but developing animal-based diagnostics is far from straightforward.

SCIENCE NEWS IN BRIEF

Biology GENEALOGY

New study reveal sled dog lineage!

Alicia Tsang UC5

T

hroughout history, dogs have always been a close companion of humans. After all, they have a reputation for being 'man's best friend'. Siberian huskies, in particular, are much adored for their playful nature and high stamina. Huskies have also played a crucial part in the 1925 serum run where many sled dogs traversed across Alaska to deliver antitoxins to citizens suffering from Diphtheria, a deadly bacterial infection. However, it has recently come to many breeders' attention that their beloved canines may not be 100% purebred.

For her research, Heather Huson, associated professor at Cornell College of Agriculture and Life Science, and other researchers collected and analysed genetic data from 346 dogs: registered Siberian huskies, Alaskan sled dogs, Chukota sled dogs, and Samoyeds ...Through their study, they discovered a gene flow from European breeds, such as golden retrievers, to Siberian huskies. This suggests that rather than Siberian Huskies sharing a common lineage with Alaskan huskies, the Alaskan husky DNA identified from genetic testing may have been detected due to crossbreeding. For example, a swift and agile Siberian Husky may be crossbred with an Alaskan malamute, who are renowned for their endurance, to produce offspring that are highly capable of pulling sledges through the rough Arctic terrain.

While this process does have its disadvantages, such as the high cost, crossbreeding dogs may have benefits too. For example, it increases the genetic diversity within species by introducing a larger gene pool. Thus, it reduces the possibility of pups suffering from inbred diseases, ensuring the animals remain healthy.

Geruntology

Live Hot Die Young

Portia Bolitho SFC1

We’ve all been told at least once to slather on sunscreen when the sun is blazing to protect our skin from wrinkles and sun damage. But what if I told you that it’s not just your skin feeling the heat? Recent research suggests that excessive heat could be accelerating our ageing from the inside out, too.

Heat is known to strain organs like the heart and kidneys, but it also causes an invisible strain at the molecular level. A study presented this November at the Gerontological Society of America’s annual scientific meeting reveals how rising temperatures can impact our biological age.

Professor Eun Young Choi of USC and her colleagues analyzed data on molecular markers of ageing, such as telomere length, from approximately 3,900 individuals aged 56 or older. By cross-referencing this data with temperature maps of the United States, they sought correlations between the number of hot days and the participants' molecular age. In particular, they examined days exceeding 26.7℃ and 32.2℃. After controlling for factors like smoking, race, and location, they found that those living in areas with more hot days still showed signs of higher molecular age markers than those who lived in cooler climates.

On average, for every 10% increase in the proportion of hot days, the participants' molecular age increased by 0.12 years. This means that persistent exposure to heat could age you from the inside out, even if you're taking measures to protect your skin.

As global temperatures rise, this research highlights the need for more than just sunscreen to protect our bodies. Chronic exposure to high temperatures doesn’t just affect how we look but speeds up our biological clock. So maybe think again about if your tan is worth it as this takes “live hot, die young” to a whole other level.

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SCIENCE NEWS IN BRIEF

Chemistry CHEMISTRY

‘One-Dimensional Gas’

P

rofessor Andrei Khlobystov and his team at the University of Nottingham have recently achieved a

remarkable breakthrough by creating a 'one-dimensional gas', - offering new insights into atomic interactions and the quantum world.

Claudia Paasch SFC2 Typically, gases move freely in 3 dimensions: up and down, left and right, and forward and backward. By successfully limiting their movement to a single dimension - along the length of the tube - researchers have created an environment where the rules of physics appear to behave differently. Described as a "traffic jam", atoms are forced to slow down as they can not pass each other. Now easier to observe, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) closely traces the atoms' movement and interactions. The spectral map reveals that the constrained atoms still behaved like a gas, filling all available space.

The TEM also allows researchers to observe the process of krypton atoms joining to form Kr₂ pairs, held together by the van der Waals interactions. This enables them to measure the van der Waals distance between two atoms in real space, a phenomenon difficult to observe in unconstrained atoms.

Future research will explore the effect of temperature on one-dimensional gas, observing the changes of state which demonstrates the relevance of these rules in one-

In this experiment, researchers trap a krypton atom inside each of the buckminsterfullerene molecules - spherical cages composed of 60 carbon atoms. These molecules are then sucked into a carbon nanotube, which is just 1.5 nanometres thick (slightly narrower than a single strand of DNA!). This is achieved through van der Waals forces, weak intermolecular forces of attraction that cause nearby molecules to attract. The tube is then heated to 1200°C, resulting in the cages to break down, leaving a single line of krypton atoms within the nanotube.

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dimensional space. Khlobystov anticipates that these studies will be "full of surprises" and sees this as an "exciting journey of discovery". This development shows the unexpected huge impact tiny particles can have on our understanding of the universe.

SCIENCE NEWS IN BRIEF

Physics Quantum Physics

Astrophysics

Advancements in Quantum Time Crystals

What is Dark Matter?

You might be wondering: what exactly are quantum time crystals? Simply put, they are systems of particles whose lowest energy state—unlike anything we observe in ordinary materials—requires repetitive motion. This concept is most often explored in condensed matter physics (the study of the physical properties and behaviours of solid and liquid matter) and was first theorized in 2012 by Frank Wilczek at MIT, one of the best universities for physics.

Time crystals have come a long way, having evolved from a theoretical idea to an experimental reality. The latest significant breakthrough occurred in February 2024, when a team from Dortmund University in Germany successfully created a highly robust time crystal using indium gallium arsenide. Remarkably, it remained stable for approximately 40 minutes—10 million times longer than previous experiments. According to Science Daily, this advancement not only confirmed the theoretical predictions made over a decade ago, but also opened up a network of opportunities for the practical application of time crystals in quantum technologies.

Some of the opportunities include Quantum computing and Quantum memory. Quantum computing is a type of computing that uses qubits (basic units of quantum information) to perform calculations, whilst Quantum memory is a system that stores quantum information in a stable form—using qubits. The incorporation of time crystals in these mechanisms are crucial.

Time crystals could potentially enhance the stability of qubits in quantum computing, resulting in reduced errors.

As for Quantum memory, time crystals could lead to improvement in quantum memory systems—where data can be stored for extended periods without errors!

This discovery exemplifies the ingenuity of modern physics, where exploring the “impossible” can lead to transformative technologies. As time crystals edge closer to daily practical applications, they redefine the boundaries of what science can truly achieve.

Miriam Lozovsky UC4

Dark matter has always been a ‘black hole’ that physicists longed to research more about; in short, it is an invisible and hypothetical form of matter that exerts gravitational attraction, but that does not interact with light or any other EM radiation.

Physicists today have very limited knowledge on dark matter, with understanding limited to facts like how dark matter can interact very weakly or not at all with ordinary matter. We don’t know the type of particle dark matter is, or whether there is dark antimatter.

You may then ask, how do we know of dark matter’s existence? Despite our limited specific knowledge of such matters, there is plenty of indirect evidence supporting this. For instance, gravitational effects of satellite and neighboring galaxies hint at the presence of additional mass as well as its distribution in a large halo beyond physical extents of gas, stars and dust! The effect of dark matter also is evident through gravitational lensing, where mass bends and distorts background starlight. We see its imprint in the cosmic microwave background, and hence use its existence to explain concepts like the physics of colliding galaxy clusters. It is also through these indirect measures from which we derived the few known characteristics of dark matter.

The European Council for Nuclear Research website provides explicit explanations for the difficulty surrounding research in dark matter, the principle reason being conspicuous: dark matter does not interact with EM force, meaning it is very hard to spot.

That does not, however, stop us from trying. An especially exciting progression was announced by the Berkeley Lab in August of 2024. The research is led by the US Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) and hunts for dark matter from a cavern one mile underground at Sanford Underground Research facility in South Dakota, with a UK team of around 60 researchers in 10 institutes, led by Imperial College London, contributing to this experiment.

New results from this most sensitive dark matter detector in the world, LUX-ZEPLIN(LZ) have put new limits on the potential properties of one of the leading dark matter candidates: weakly interacting massive particles, or WIMPs. Giselle Chan SFC1

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SCIENCE NEWS IN BRIEF

Medicine MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

NEURODEGENERATION

3D Printing in Medicine

Alzheimer's: A prion disease?

I

n 1996, Chuck Hull, often regarded as 'the inventor of 3D printing,' filed the first patent for stereolithography (SLA). He was instrumental in developing and commercializing both SLA and the STL format, which has become the most common file type used in 3D printing. Simply put, 3D printing is an additive process where material layers are built up to create a three-dimensional part. This technology is now widely used across various industries, including medicine.

In the pharmaceutical industry, 3D printing's ability to produce a broad range of structural designs allows for the achievement of specific drug release profiles and addresses challenges in drug delivery and development.

These capabilities are fully realized in the Melt Extrusion Decomposition (MED®) process, a rapidly advancing, end-to-end technology that continuously transforms powder feedstocks into a softened or molten state. This is followed by precise, layer-by-layer deposition to create objects with meticulously designed geometric structures. MED is particularly useful in developing products that contain new chemical entities (NCEs) as well as in managing highly differentiated lifecycle products that meet unmet medical and clinical needs.

MED technology offers several advantages. Firstly, it employs 3D Printing Formulation by Design (3DFbD®), a digital formulation process that moves away from traditional trial-and-error methods. This significantly enhances the efficiency and success rate of drug development while reducing both time and costs. Once a target pharmacokinetic (PK) profile is defined, it can be translated into a specific release profile. This information is then used to design tablet structures and select appropriate polymeric materials and excipients to fabricate prototypes. Secondly, MED includes a simplified continuous manufacturing process that extends from raw materials to finished tablets, eliminating the need for pre- and post-production processing. Additionally, its molecular design allows for the flexible adjustment of production capacity. This flexibility enables the technology to meet the demands for drugs needed in quantities ranging from millions for rare diseases to hundreds of millions for blockbuster products, thus ensuring a versatile supply chain.

Stella Hu SFC2

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A

lzheimer’s disease has been long established to not be a prion disease, meaning that it cannot be trasmitted through average, everyday contact.

However, there are certain aspects of Alzheimer’s that may get confused with a prion disease. Prion diseases involve two proteins that spread through tissue like a normal infection. These specific proteins are able to force normal proteins of the body to be folded abnormally, in order to imitate the prion proteins’ shape.

The two prion proteins responsible for Alzheimer’s were discovered to be amyloid beta plaques and tau tangles, the two of which work together to destroy the brain.

This is why Alzheimer’s disease is labelled as a doubleprion disorder (contains two destructive proteins).

Prion diseases are contagious, which is why Alzheimer’s is not fully categorised as a prion disease. But, is the answer really black and white? Although in natural environments Alzheimer’s is not contagious, there are still certain laboratory scenarios where the disease’s transmissibility could differ. For example, patients with a growth hormone deficiency require an invasive transplant, which has, in some cases, proven to be the cause for the contagious spread of Alzheimer’s disease in patients. However, through modern day advancements in biology and medicine, the growth hormones necessary are grown in a laboratory, terminating the need for a donor, and removing the risk of disease transmission.

Interestingly, as age increased, the protein tau had a decrease in relative abundance, which contradicted the previous belief of an increase in prion protein abundance with age. On average, tau protein abundances in a 40 year old patient were measured to be 32 times higher than those of a 90 year old patient.

This type of correlation is extremely rare in biological data, which could be the reason a variety of promising treatments have failed against Alzheimer’s disease in clinics.

Luna Belza-Garcia SFC1

SCIENCE NEWS IN BRIEF

Medicine The Contaminated Blood Scandal

A

Maddy Chan SFC2

fter decades of fighting, waiting and suffering, victims of the Infected Blood Scandal are finally getting answers with the

publication of the complete investigative report by the Infected Blood Inquiry in May. In the 1970s and 80s, the government and health authorities stood idly by as over 30,000 people became infected with viruses such as HIV and hepatitis (mainly hepatitis B and C), after receiving blood transfusions from the NHS. HIV impairs one’s immune system and increases vulnerability to everyday infections, causing lifethreatening AIDS in the long term. Meanwhile, untreated hepatitis is potentially fatal as it leads to liver failure and cancer.

The recipients included those who had bleeding disorders and required blood transfusions for the necessary clotting factor concentrates. The blood plasma has been pooled from paid donors that included high-risk groups of prisoners and drug-users. If one donor carried a virus, the whole batch became contaminated too. 3000 needless deaths occurred from infected blood products, with many more to come.

Yet, what infuriates victims and bereaved families was the inaction and lack of transparency of authorities. Since the mid-1940s, it was clear that blood transfusions had the potential to transmit ‘serum hepatitis’ as well as AIDS by 1982. Despite this, when the decision came to in July 1983, the government decided not to suspend the use of commercial blood products and failed to mitigate the risks. Patient safety was severely

compromised,

and

what

followed

was

even

more

condemnable: doctors used contaminated blood products knowingly!

This infected blood scandal is now regarded as the “biggest treatment disaster” of the NHS. A costly mistake that could have been largely avoided, we can only watch as the government scrambles to rectify this with large figures of money and hope that families and victims receive the justice they deserve.

Sickle Cell Disease ‘Cure’ Now Offered by NHS

Giselle Chan SFC1

Sickle cell disease is one of the most prominent medical conditions; this disease modifies blood cell shape into crescents and hinders blood flow. It also happens to be the UK’s fastest-growing genetic condition. Victims of this condition experience regular severe painful episodes and have a life expectancy up to 30 years shorter than the general population.

Recently, The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) has approved exagamglogene autotemcel (exacel) severe sickle cell disease treatment in older children and adults. NHS England said around 50 people per year would receive exa-cel! Exa-Cel is a form of one-time gene therapy treatment that uses CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology to modify patients' own blood-forming stem cells, therefore inducing healthy red blood cell production.

In clinical trials for exa-cel, sold under the brand name Casgevy, 96.6% of participants were functionally cured of sickle cell disease. This is symbolic of a medical forefront where more conditions can be tackled with knowledge and technology!

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SCIENCE NEWS IN BRIEF

Technology MACHINE LEARNING

Myth: AI is Unbiased

O

Faith Moey UC4

ne of the main aims of the creation of AI is to ensure its objectivity. Unfortunately, AI is still poisoned with the bias of its creators. New research published in ‘Nature’ has shown that Large Language Models (LLM’s) like

GPT4, have been outputting racist stereotypes to speakers of African American English (AAE). Although many believed companies had eradicated the racist stereotypes present in developing language models, this new study demonstrates that as overt racism has decreased significantly, they have become more covertly racist. The four researchers, Hoffman, Kalluri, Jurafsky and King, used ‘Matched Guise Technique’ to probe for prejudice. 2 prompts were given to 5 different LLM’s, one in Standard American English, and one in African American English.

In the picture above, the language model was given a text in Standard American English (in green) and asked if the speaker who said it was intelligent. The process was repeated but the text was in AAE (in purple).

It is merely suggested that the race of the speaker is not given, through the features of the stigmatized dialect that the prompt was given in. The models were asked to predict the characteristics of the speakers, allowing them to choose only from a group of adjectives associated with racist prejudice (taken from Princeton Trilogy studies). An appalling result showed that the speaker of the AAE prompt was predicted to have negative and stereotypical characteristics like lazy, ignorant etc. These are stereotypes about African Americans from before the Civil Rights Movement, and are ‘more negative than the most negative experimentally recorded human attitudes about African Americans’, as said by the study.

The researchers similarly analysed employability and criminality--- testing what the models predicted about which jobs SAE and AAE speakers would hold and what judicial outcomes were the most likely. In both cases, the results for AAE speakers were stereotypical and highly negative, and the differences were stark between the dialects.

Consequently, these covert racial biases could become problematic when companies use language models to make decisions on hiring or other uses of LLM’s in the general population. It is clear that AI is yet to be uninfluenced by the racial stereotypes that its creators perceive, but certain actions could be undertaken to minimize this, such as inputting proven or fact-checked studies rather than having creators input their subconsciously biased opinions into their algorithm, or utilizing creator triangulation to counterbalance any effects of bias.

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SCIENCE NEWS IN BRIEF

Technology BIOTECHNOLOGY

SilFoam: Life-Saving Bandage

S

Joyce Lin UC5

ilFoam, a recent creation in the University of Central Florida, has solved the abiding problem of fatal

In addition, SilFoam's adhesive property allows muscles,

haemorrhaging after deadly traumas like traffic collisions,

damaging the capillaries. Furthermore, the recovery is

serious workplace accidents, or weapon-caused injuries.

exothermic, in which the generated heat catalyses the

veins, and arteries to recover more rapidly without

process; on top of that, oxygen, the by-product, can escape via the spongy structure's pores.

Usually, fatalities occur due to heavy bleeding in the first 30 minutes to one hour without efficient life support.

Therefore, SilFoam aims to 'develop a straightforward solution that could have the haemostatic efficacy within that time,' says Kausik Mukhopadhyay, assistant professor of materials science and engineering at UCF and study coauthor.

Mukhopadhyay and the team have proved the product's promise by experimenting on realistic mannequins; simultaneously, it is evident that the process is noninvasive and mitigates psychological impacts on vets or surgeons. Moreover, it reduces leakage, can be stored at SilFoam is a liquid gel of silicon and oxygen delivered via a

room temperature, is cheap in material costs, is non-

special two-chambre syringe and quickly expands into a

toxic, durable, is accessible and appliable for little or

spongy foam, which covers up the wound and applies

untrained people to operate the syringe, and doesn't

pressure to constrain the haemorrhage. At the same time,

cause harm to the patient upon removal.

the silver oxide serves as an antibacterial agent.

Conclusively, UCF's creation of the non-invasive superbandage SilFoam is ultimately reliable, practical, and effective. It can become a universal tool to save countless lives suffering from severe traumas; perhaps the technology will be further developed for even more significant uses shortly.

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ARTICLES CRYONICS

How To Cheat Death Emily Lam SFC1

I

t seems that Captain America’s popsicle-fication in the Arctic and revival 70 years later may not be as far-fetched a story as we once thought. Welcome to the nuances of cryonics – the practice of preserving life by pausing the dying process with subfreezing temperatures.

What is death?

As our understanding of death progresses, its definition has shifted from a simple on/off switch determined by the cessation of heartbeat to a complex concept involving irreversible damage to the structures encoding memory and personality, otherwise referred to as ‘information-theoretic death’. When a human is pronounced dead by a clinician, they are still not in a state of ‘absolute’ death, but merely at a point where there are several processes that can be halted indefinitely, preserving that person into the future, where his condition can be treated or reversed. Death is a process, which can be put to a pause with cryonics – the lifeboat to tomorrow.

Quote: “cryonics represents the optimistic and courageous choice to embrace life, even in the face of death.”

How does it work?

The journey begins ideally up to seven days before a cryonicist’s death, with a standby team positioned nearby, ready to leap into action. Timing is crucial, as the earlier the procedure commences after cardiac arrest, the better the outcome.

Once legal death is declared, usually at the cessation of the heartbeat, the clock starts ticking. In the critical window of 0 to 2 hours, the patient undergoes stabilisation, where blood circulation and breathing are temporarily restored artificially to safeguard the brain. Next up is the pivotal stage of perfusion,

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ARTICLES CRYONICS occurring within 1 to 24 hours, where cryoprotectant solutions are introduced into the bloodstream, replacing the patient’s fluids. They are essentially a preservative cocktail of chemicals such as dimethyl sulfoxide (C2H6OS), ethylene glycol (C₂H6O₂), propylene glycol (C3H8O2) and glycerol (C₃H₈O₃) that prevent ice crystal formation so that the extent of tissue damage is reduced. This results in vitrification -- the tissue

At first glance, things seemed alright. Sure, there were a few cracks in the skin here and there, but nothing too concerning. But as the bodies started to thaw, the situation turned ugly. Cracks began to the snake across the warming flesh, slicing through skin and subcutaneous fat, right down to the muscles underneath. One patient displayed vermillion streaks across the skin following the path of the blood vessels

becomes a glass-like substance rather than crystalline ice, which helps preserve cellular structures more effectively. The patient then embarks on a chilling journey, quite literally, as they are cooled down to -196 degrees Celsius over the course of 5 to 7 days. This deep cooling solidifies the patient, effectively halting decomposition and suspending the dying process for

that ruptured. Two of the patients had ‘massive cutaneous ruptures over the pubis’ – the soft skin was apparently quite susceptible to cracking. External damage aside, it was the internal chaos that took the cake. Organs fractured left and right, blood vessels near the heart and lungs resembled what you would expect if you threw them in a blender… The third body thawed slower, resulting in minimal skin fractures and no

potential millennia. But their journey doesn’t end here: they are transferred to long-term care, stored at subfreezing temperatures using liquid nitrogen within a vacuum-insulated metal dewar to maintain the frigid environment, preserving their body for that fateful occasion of resurrection.

Too good to be true…

obvious burst blood vessels. However, the inside was in an even worse condition than the others: the spinal cord was snapped into three pieces and the heart was fractured. This tremendous tissue deterioration will require incredibly advanced medical technology to fix. Hopefully, nanotechnology will lead to the capability of intricate tissue repair and regeneration, possibly repairing

Something’s missing. It’s the final step to this procedure. How do we revive a cryopreserved

individual cells one molecule at a time.

This envisioned future of

human? The revival of the human body remains elusive, with no proven successful method in doing so. The feasibility of cryonics all hinges on future advancements in medical science and technology, leaving the dream of conquering death’s icy (pun not intended) grip to the realms of the future. The laws of physics, such as entropy, demand that the structure of the body will decompose eventually. If the medical technology of the future becomes sufficiently advanced, perhaps these bodies can be revived. But how much work will doctors have to do to fix you once you’re thawed? The answer lies in the condition of the bodies once they’re thawed. Strangely enough, there’s some information about this.

Back in 1983, Alcor – a cryonics organisation – had a pretty unusual task on their hands – they had to downsize three cryonauts, transitioning them from full bodies to just heads. The three corpses were removed from their Dewar capsules so that they could be decapitated with a chainsaw and stored separately.

Once the heads were sawed off and put away, Alcor employees rolled up their sleeves and began examining the bodies inside and out, leaving no detail undocumented.

nanomedicine is a prime candidate that could theoretically recover any cryopreserved human body where the structures encoding memory and personality remain intact.

Others envision some sort of cybernetic solution, wherein advanced imaging technology generate a 3D brain simulation that could run on computer hardware, offering an alternative path towards revival.

Back to the present As we stand at the convergence of science fiction and reality, the dream of conquering death’s grasp remains tethered to the ingenuity of future generations. The journey through cryonics has shone a light on both the promise and peril of the attempts to put a pause to death. While the concept of preserving life through subfreezing temperatures captivates us, the stark reality of tissue deterioration upon thawing reminds us of the formidable challenges we must overcome. Whether cryopreservation will redefine our understanding of human life or remains a tantalizing dream just out of reach, only time will tell…

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ARTICLES NEUROSCIENCE

Prepare to have your understanding of the human mind challenged as we explore three stories of strange neurological conditions. These medical mysteries not only reveal the bizarre workings of the brain, but also force us to grapple with deep philosophical questions about perception, awareness, and the nature of consciousness itself. Just how far do the mysteries of the mind extend?

Hands of untapped potential In 1980, the esteemed neurologist Oliver Sacks encountered the peculiar case of Madeline J - a woman afflicted with both blindness and cerebral palsy. She described her hands as ‘godforsaken lumps of dough’, unable to perform the most basic tasks. Though mildly spastic, they retained a degree of functionality.

To help her, Sacks explored similar cases where patients’ hands were also unable to function. He uncovered accounts of soldiers who experienced such phenomena after traumatic injuries, reporting that their hands felt ‘foreign’ and ‘lifeless’.

However, these patients had previously experienced normal hand function, whereas Madeline hadn’t ever. After further investigation, Sacks discovered the cause – Developmental Agnosia. Madeline perceived her hands to be completely useless, so her brain failed to develop neural pathways to them and she was unable to use her hands consciously. In her case, because it was impossible to command Madeline to ‘do it’ and expect her hands to respond, Sacks tried soliciting an impulse. One morning at breakfast, the nurses left her food slightly out of reach to provoke her into feeding herself.

Impatient and hungry, she miraculously grabbed the bagel and brought it to her mouth.

This single breakthrough was the key that unlocked Madeline's hidden artistic abilities. After 60 years of dormancy, her hands blossomed with unprecedented creativity. Madeline became locally renowned as the blind sculptor of St. Benedict's, inspiring all who beheld them. Who could have imagined such talent lay trapped in those "godforsaken lumps of dough"?

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ARTICLES NEUROSCIENCE

Phantom limbs – real or imagined?

In 1866, a gripping short story titled 'The Case of George Dedlow' was published in Atlantic Monthly, describing the haunting experience of 'phantom limb' pain. Dedlow, a soldier in the Civil War, had lost all four of his limbs, yet still felt sensations like clenching and burning in them.

Following the war, neurologist Silas Weir Mitchell explored this in great detail, cementing his reputation as the 'Father of Medical Neurology'. To this day, phantom limb pain continues to fascinate researchers and doctors – but what is the science behind this mysterious condition?

The answer lies in the brain's stubborn refusal to let go.

After an amputation, the brain keeps a 'map' of the missing limb despite its physical absence. Without the real sensations from the limb to update this ‘map’ it becomes scrambled,

misinterpreting

signals

and

triggering

excruciating pain.

Luckily, modern medicine has developed several effective treatments for phantom limb pain. Mirror therapy creates an illusion of the missing limb moving, helping to 'reset' the brain and reduce pain. Medications like Gabapentin have also proved useful in calming the pain signals from the affected nerves. Interestingly, there have been some eccentric firsthand accounts of the 'revival' processes. For example, one patient described how they must 'wake up' their phantom every morning – by flexing and slapping the stump – before they can put their prosthetic on and walk.

Mysteries of phantom limb pain are gradually being unravelled, yet it will forever remain a captivating enigma in the world of neuroscience.

Vision's Hidden Highways Phantom limbs reveal how the human brain can trick us into being aware of things that are not physically present.

However, the opposite phenomenon also occurs – responding to events without realising we are doing so.

Graham Young is a prime example of this bewildering condition known as "blindsight."

At the age of 8, Young suffered a bicycle accident that left him with a blind zone to the right of his central vision.

Yet 15 years later an optometrist discovered that Young could somehow detect visual movements and the orientation of objects within this blind area. Working with psychologists Larry Weiskrantz and Elizabeth Warrington, it became clear that Young perceived shapes, colours, and motion there, despite claiming he could see nothing.

How is this paradoxical state possible? The answer lies in the brain's dual visual pathways. The primary pathway processes visual information from the retina through to the primary visual cortex - the area associated with conscious sight. However, the brain also has secondary pathways that route visual data to other regions like the frontal and occipital lobes. In Young's case, damage to his primary visual cortex left him functionally blind but these alternative secondary pathways remained intact, allowing his brain to subconsciously process visual stimuli and prompt behavioural responses – and it was all in his subconscious mind! Indeed, sometimes, even when our eyes stop functioning, the brain still remains on the lookout.

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ARTICLES CHEMISTRY

Thallium - the Case of Zhu Ling and Her Tragedy Jenny Huang UC5 Thallium: heavy metal atomic number 81 - the ‘poisoner’s poison’. It is odourless, tasteless, colourless, able to inflict a slow-acting, excruciating death with less than a gram. It leaves no bruises or wounds but can enter the body through any form of inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion. It is hard for doctors to diagnose as it causes such a wide variety of symptoms. Simply put, thallium is the perfect murder weapon.

Would you ever use thallium on a person out of jealousy?

The case of Zhu Ling and her best friend epitomises this situation. Ling was transformed from being perfect and an undergraduate in China’s most prestigious university, to being paralysed with an IQ of a 6-year-old.

It was November 24th, 1994 at Tsinghua University, which consistently ranked first in China with an acceptance rate of 0.1%. One step into the campus, you would immediately be drowned in an air of pressure, prestige. Ling was no exception: a high-achieving student with an influential background, nicknamed ‘perfect Ling’. Ling was always punctual. Despite the immense backstabbing and betrayal between friends, she was never fazed. Intelligent and talented with an interest in the Guqin, she was ‘charismatic in a way money cannot buy’.

One could only imagine the shock when in mid-December 1994, she stopped showing up to class, when later her roommates found her twitching in stabbing pain, bald patches apparent on her head, clutching at clumps of hair. Within weeks she was reliant on her wheelchair. She was silent – face pale, lips purple – a ‘campus ghost’. Was the stress finally hitting the most promising girl in the school? Could it be alopecia?

Rumours circulated – none confirmed. She was hospitalised on March 6th at Peking University Third Hospital, but her condition deteriorated rapidly: simply touching the hospital bed could send her an electric shock of splitting pain. At this point, all of her hair was lost, her eyes bulging as she screamed, pleading while the doctor stared at her – helpless.

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TI 81

Thallium 204.38

One doctor knew it all: professor Li Shunwei saw the clear mees’ lines on her fingernails – a key indication for thallium poisoning, yet the hospital was unable to conduct any test to confirm due to the lack of equipment.

Bei Zhicheng was one of the undergraduates at Peking university. When he visited his best friend since high school, Ling’s condition terrified him. It is exactly the randomness which made it so bone-chilling. On April 10th, frustrated with the inability of the doctors, Bei gathered and translated all of Ling’s symptoms and posted them on medical forums. To his surprise, responses began pouring in within hours – everyone was in on this. From the 2000 emails they received from over 18 different countries, roughly 1/3 stated the same. Thallium poisoning. Graham Young was a serial killer who poisoned 70 people by putting thallium in their teacups, who all suffered an excruciating body degradation. Who would risk it all to poison a college student?

A police investigation finally began on May 7th. Over 20 thallium retailers they investigated, but all had no connections. Except for one: Tsinghua university chemistry department – there was thallium in the school of Ling. The poisoning was intentional. Someone must have had access to the department. There were 7 suspects: 2 professors, 3 female post-grads, 2 undergrads – 1 boy, 1 girl. The girl was Sun Wei: not only Ling’s roommate, but best friend. Sun was rich: her grandfather was a close friend of former Chinese leader Jiang Zemin, her father was a significant member of the democratic revolutionary committee. Meanwhile, Sun’s mother worked in the hospital Ling was staying in.

ARTICLES CHEMISTRY Prussian blue is a cure for thallium. Paint is created by this synthetic, dark blue pigmented powder used in famous paintings like the Great Wave off Kanagawa: cheap, nontoxic and the magic cure. To treat thallium poisoning, doctors need to prescribe pharmaceutical grade Prussian blue pigments, which bind to thallium, but they are impossible to find.

This rare supply is often kept by countries under close stockpile in case of a nuclear attack as it is also an antidote for radiation poisoning. Although this remedy was found, it was too late. If only the hospital was more cooperative, if only that doctor who knew the cure conducted treatment immediately, if only Sun’s mother did not interfere with the testing equipment, Ling would be perfectly healthy.

It was a slam dunk case! Sun was the missing piece of the puzzle. She had access to Ling – access to thallium. On April 28th, only Ling’s personal belongings were stolen: her contact lens, lipstick, shampoo – all gone. As her roommate, Sun had access to all her toiletries.

Disturbingly, she also checked out thallium books from the library prior to Ling’s poisoning.

Ling’s case was closed quietly. If only Ling had anyone else as her best friend: someone caring - compassionate, she could have avoided her fate, yet she did not. Ling was declared permanently disabled by the hospital.

Her parents could not do more than sit helplessly by their daughter’s side, gently holding her hands as years rushed past the hospital bed. 28 years later, Ling is still the same woman they have always known: intelligent and talented, even if all she could do was hold her mum’s hands tighter.

She died on the 22nd of December 2023 at the age of 50 after fighting all her life.

Yet there is hope. Some Chinese netizens discovered that Sun fled to Port Stephens in New South Wales, Australia.

She became Jasmine Sun, changed her date of birth and is living freely ever since. Ling’s parents were not fighting the battle alone: petitions had been signed by thousands and drew the attention of all Chinese, US and Australian media towards this cold case. As of now, Sun still received none of the punishments she deserves for ruining someone else's life.

Looking back at 1994, December 11th, Ling was performing the Guqin at the Tsinghua Chinese orchestra.

That night, she made sure everyone was entranced as her melodies danced from ear to ear from the sea of wellknown professors, to influential parents, scholars, students and finally Sun, who sat in the first row of the audience that night. Eyes hinted with jealousy, she clapped as her best friend bowed on stage instead of her.

Sun risked her own life simply to take someone down.

Were connections why Sun got away? If they are all that matters, Sun would never have killed Ling simply because Ling had everything Sun could not buy with money. Even so, jealousy should never be a motive to hate anyone, let alone killing them with this deceptional chemical weapon thallium.

Although Sun was questioned by the police for 8 hours straight, the police cleared her of any suspicion as she claimed to have ‘zero motive’.

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ARTICLES MEDICINE

Anaesthethics A Panacea for Pain

Chloe Chan SFC1

Anaesthesia, the practice of making one lose sensation of pain and even consciousness, is a practice essential to all doctors. It allows patients to wake up a few hours later completely fine, like they just had a nap. This is especially important to surgeons, but it is a mysterious phenomenon to most. Anaesthesia enables us to numb any pain and reduce suffering during visceral surgeries, through which many diseases are treated.

It almost seems unbelievable, magical even, to be able to achieve total absence of pain and suffering. It would have sounded absurd to our ancestors if you had told them that this was possible. However, evidence of anaesthetic practice can be traced back to thousands of years. For example, Hua Tuo, the Ancient Chinese physician, is famous for inventing the herbal concoction mafeisan, which has anaesthetic properties, to perform surgeries. Ancient Inca doctors and shamans recommended chewing coca leaves to provide pain relief. Greek and Roman physicians used opium as a pain reliever. However, neither coca nor opium are used anymore due to their addictive qualities.

In the late 19th century, when anaesthesia was not frequently used, surgeries were violent and tortuous for the patient.

Surgeries were often a last resort and the final attempt in saving lives. Doctors could only perform surface surgeries; any deep surgeries like operating on the skull, the chest and abdominal areas were never attempted. Cries from patients echoed in hospital corridors, and they were pinned to surgical tables using hooks and pulleys to stop them from moving.

Some doctors even bled their patients till they lost consciousness in order to perform the surgery. The suffering was intense.

In the winter of 1846, dentist William T.G. Morton used ether as an anaesthetic to aid surgeon John Warren in performing an operation to remove a lump under a patient’s jaw. This technique quickly spread to Europe and America.

Eventually, doctors used the discovery of ether, chloroform and other drugs to anaesthetize patients. Although chloroform is toxic and many other drugs were not very effective, these improvements in anaesthetic practices allowed greater explorations of surgical procedures in the ‘forbidden areas’.

Luckily, anaesthesia is now safe and used by many doctors worldwide. There are two types of anaesthesia: local anaesthesia and general anaesthesia. Local anaesthesia refers to numbing of a specific area, while general anaesthesia makes you temporarily unconscious, normally used in surgeries. Although both stop the patient from feeling pain, they have very different mechanisms.

Local anaesthesia works by blocking sodium channels in our nerves that sense pain. When our bodies feel a tactile sensation, like pressure or pain, sensory receptor cells on our skin are stimulated and sodium ions are sent to the affected area. As the charge of sodium ions reaches the threshold, sodium channels open, allowing more sodium ions to pass through. This triggers subsequent sodium channels, inducing a current large enough to generate an electric impulse that travels to the brain. By blocking these sodium channels, the electric signals that convey the sensation of pain do not reach the brain. Depending on the drug, they can also work by introducing an alternative charge that interrupts the sodium ions’ original flow.

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ARTICLES MEDICINE

Local anaesthesia is more widely used in real life than you might imagine. Before blood is taken for blood testing, nurses in NHS hospitals sometimes apply ‘the cream’. This cream contains a local anaesthetic, normally lidocaine. A clear plaster is put on the applied area so the cream stays on your skin for approximately one hour; this reduces the pain felt by younger children during blood extraction. Local anaesthesia may also be administered through injection on or near a tissue. For example, dentists may inject one or two shots of anaesthetics near where your wisdom tooth is being removed. Although side effects from local anaesthesia are uncommon if you are not allergic, the dentist may ask you to not eat or drink for a period of time after the surgery due to the numbing effect, which affects the body’s swallowing reflex.

General anaesthesia is a more complicated process. It involves four elements combined together to anaesthetize the patient: unconsciousness, sedation (not moving), analgesia (not feeling pain), and amnesia (not remembering). General anaesthesia depresses the CNS (central nervous system), which decreases heart rate, breathing rate and brain activity.

They do so by interfering with synapses which send neurotransmitters to the brain. There are two types of neurotransmitters involved. The first are excitatory neurotransmitters, which prompt electric impulses to be sent to the brain. Here, anaesthetics block the neurotransmitter glutamate from binding to its receptors, preventing an electric impulse from being sent. The second type of neurotransmitters are inhibitory neurotransmitters, which block electric impulses from being sent. For example, anaesthetics stimulate more GABA neurotransmitters (a type of inhibitory neurotransmitter) to be produced, hence also having an effect of stopping the electric impulse that carries the ‘pain signal’ from being sent.

However, different anaesthetics have different properties. For example, thiopental anaesthetics lower blood pressure, breathing rate, and cause the airways in the lungs to narrow, making it unsuitable for people with asthma. Etomidate anaesthetics, meanwhile, do not affect blood pressure as much and can be used for patients with low blood pressure.

Therefore, anaesthetists use different combinations of drugs to counteract the body’s automated responses to maintain a balanced anaesthesia. They take medical history and other factors into account as well, keeping patients in an unconscious and safe state throughout the surgery.

However, sudden depression of the CNS does cause the body to ‘think’ that you are in danger, leading to involuntary muscle movement and increased heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, similar to the ‘fight or flight response’.

Therefore, doctors can sometimes notice a pinky twitch during a surgery. The body’s natural reflexes may also cause food to come up to your throat or stomach acid to enter your lungs— which would definitely put you in more danger than intended. Therefore, patients are told not to eat or drink eight hours before a surgery to prevent this happening.

Advancements in anaesthetic practice have allowed pain to be greatly reduced in surgeries. Anaesthesia is often overlooked but doctors and scientists have worked really hard to develop these medical procedures in order to improve the patient’s comfortability in surgery. It is therefore thanks to the panacea for pain - anaesthesia - that patients can think of surgery as a nap.

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ARTICLES FEATURE

A background on prosthetic limbs

Giselle Chan SFC1

Globally, 1 million people a year become amputated, or lose their limbs, due to reasons such as diabetes mellitus, peripheral vascular disease, neuropathy, which is a type of nerve damage, and trauma. If health allows, these patients can utilize prosthetic limbs in replacement of their lost limb. Usually made of plastic, aluminum, titanium, and silicone, these limbs are attached to the patient’s body by suction or by being strapped to the stump of the missing limb. In some cases, surgery may even be used to attach the prosthetic limb directly to the bone.

Although a prosthetic limb allows amputated patients a long-time dream of moving normally again, it is indisputable that the experience takes a lot of getting used to, and after then, it will still not be quite the same. An article from the New York Times highlights a woman’s journey in adjusting to her prosthetic limb upon its installation. In the article, the woman points out challenges in not only initially adjusting to the prosthetic limb’s differing weight but also afterwards learning to walk again with the prosthetic. The woman further emphasises on emotional challenges associated with this journey as although, yes, the limb allows for walking, but senses will be lost, for example, the ability to feel different textures.

How can a limb enable you to feel? Artificial skin sensor systems!

Feeling through an artificial limb is a great engineering challenge, and to understand why, we need to go back and talk about how we feel. As described by Brain IEE, the current level of understanding involves receptors passing tactile information from the skin to the spinal cord and into the somatosensory regions of the cortex in our brain. If we delve deeper into the various receptors in our skin, types such as mechanoreceptors allow us to perceive sensations like pressure and texture whereas muscle spindles and Golgi tendons help us perceive position.

Specifically for upper limb amputees, peripheral nerves and feedback are disrupted at the receptor level, causing it to be more difficult to recover this sense of touch. As a sort of takeaway, it could be agreed upon that the sense of touch is really difficult to replicate.

Through tens of years in research, the more developed way of producing artificial skin now involves flexible electronics, in which there are digital versions of such receptors such as mechanoreceptors. These sensors translate pressure, temperature, or even texture into oscillatory spikes which is able to drive nerve stimulation and thus allow the perception of touch. Translating the sensory information into oscillatory spikes involve signal processing in which data gathered by the sensors is processed by a sophisticated system, and interpreted and translated. To drive nerve stimulation, these electrical signals are sent to the amputee’s remaining nerves. If we go back to upper limb prostheses, the challenge of translating the response into meaningful sensory information is larger than ever, and therefore is still being researched.

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ARTICLES FEATURE

Benjamin CK Tee and our learnings from him Behold.. One of the most impressive young scientists of our generation, who has taken it upon himself to produce these magical prosthetic limbs for millions of people, thus allowing them to regain the sense of touch!

Recognized by We Forum’s economic growth as one of the 10 young scientists tackling the world’s problems, Benjamin C.K. Tee is an impressive youngster designing these artificial skin sensor systems using his knowledge in biomedical robotics. He is carrying out the mighty technology that this article touched the surface of, researching how to further enhance this technology to be self-repairable and degradable. We Forum commends him in stating his research could benefit millions, as in the US alone there are 2.1 million people living with limb loss.

Benjamin CK Tee

Benjamin has since grown up, earning himself a PHD from the NUS graduate school, specializing in sharing this sense of touch to those who need it most. His legacy which started when he was merely a child serves to inspire many of us young scientists who yearn to make a change.

On top of the amazing accomplishments and drives of Benjamin, his origin story covered by MIT technology review is one worth noting. He covered the day he was first made curious about how things worked: “As a kid I was always curious about things, and I tended to break things,” says Benjamin Tee. “One of the things I broke was my greatgrandmother’s alarm clock—you know, back then it was a winding alarm clock, it was one of those really old antiques, and she got really upset when I broke it and I couldn’t fix it,” teaching us all a lesson in that curiosity is what brings us far.

Applications and future directions Benjamin CK Tee is merely one of the many pioneers in our world striving to improve our world. In the realm of prosthetic limbs, his research is allowing amputees to gain finer control over their prosthetic limbs and benefit from a more natural experience with the sense of touch, ultimately leading to an improved quality of life.

In terms of the future, researchers are exploring the possibility of integrating these artificial skin sensory systems with other technologies such as brain-computer interfaces to create more sophisticated prosthetics! Benjamin CK Tee, along with his fellow researchers, are currently working to overcome more challenges in this realm of prosthetics, including simplifying the system to allow easier manufacture, decreasing the cost of production, and increasing the skin system’s durability.

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ARTICLES BIOLOGY

The Science Behind Tanning Janice Law SFC1 The Effects of UV Radiation The effects of spending time in the sun are well-known to us: a tan, sunburn, premature aging, and even skin cancer are the obvious consequences of prolonged exposure to UV radiation from the sun. Despite these widely understood effects, the mechanisms by which the skin protects itself and the variations in these effects across different people remain unknown by most. Why do some people tan, while others just get sunburned? What is the science behind tanning?

Different Types of UV Radiation Under the umbrella term of "ultraviolet radiation," UV radiation is divided into three types based on their wavelength.

Ultraviolet A radiation (UVA) has a longer wavelength than ultraviolet B radiation (UVB), allowing it to penetrate deeper into the skin. UVA is associated with immediate tanning and sunburn, and in the long term, it causes premature aging of the skin and wrinkles. In contrast, UVB radiation is responsible for delayed tanning, sunburns, blisters, and contributes to the development of skin cancer over time.

UVC radiation, which has the shortest wavelength and highest energy of the three types, is blocked by the ozone layer and does not reach the Earth's surface, protecting us from potential burns from prolonged exposure. However, we can still be exposed to UVC through artificial sources such as lamps or lasers.

How Your Skin Reacts to UV Radiation When the skin is exposed to UV radiation, a series of protective mechanisms are activated as the skin enters "survival mode" to protect itself from harm. A hormone known as melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) is produced, which triggers the production of more melanin in cells called melanocytes.

How Your Skin Reacts to UV Radiation When the skin is exposed to UV radiation, a series of protective mechanisms are activated as the skin enters "survival mode" to protect itself from harm. A hormone known as melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) is produced, which triggers the production of more melanin in cells called melanocytes. Melanin is the pigment responsible for the natural color of your skin, and it also acts as protection by forming a barrier that absorbs UV light, thereby minimizing the damage done to the skin. As a result, over a longer period of exposure, the skin darkens because MSH causes the melanocytes to make more melanin to protect against UV radiation damage.

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ARTICLES BIOLOGY

However, when the melanocytes cannot work quickly enough to produce more melanin for a tan, the skin becomes burnt, resulting in the pink or bright red skin you might remember having after a sunny day.

The Consequences of Severe Sunburn Another inevitable part of having a severe sunburn is experiencing bits of skin flaking and peeling off. This phenomenon occurs because the skin swells and expands when it absorbs UV radiation, then contracts afterward. The outer layer of damaged and dead skin cells is removed by the body to aid in the healing process.

Over time, extended exposure to UV radiation reduces the elasticity of the skin, resulting in wrinkles and an older appearance.

Additionally, DNA mutations may occur, and a significant accumulation of these mutations can lead to the uncontrolled division of cells, ultimately resulting in skin cancer.

Busting the Myths of Tanning One common myth about tanning is that people with darker skin tones, due to their higher melanin content, have natural protection against sunburn and therefore do not need to apply sunscreen. While it is true that people with darker skin have more protection and are less susceptible to sunburn, they are not immune to the harmful effects of UV radiation. A study conducted in 2016 showed that nearly 66% of white people experienced at least one sunburn in the past year, compared to 35% of Hispanic people and only 11% of Black people. However, this does not mean that people with darker skin are not at risk. Although people with darker skin are less likely to develop skin cancer, they do face a higher death rate from it, likely due to later diagnoses influenced by medical bias.

The Importance of Sunscreen By now, you might be slightly intimidated by the harm that UV exposure poses on a daily basis. Fortunately, there is a simple solution to this problem: sunscreen! Applying sunscreen religiously, regardless of your skin tone or weather conditions, is an effective and wise method to mitigate the potential effects of UV radiation exposure. So make sure to apply sunscreen next time before you step out the door, even if it's not sunny!

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ARTICLES PHYSICS

Does The Colour Magenta Exist? Jaime Chan SFC1 The Visible Spectrum: Visible Colours Our earth contains electromagnetic radiation, which is a variety of different wavelengths of light. However, human eyes are only able to see a small portion of this spectrum, which we call the “visible spectrum.” This ranges from wavelengths roughly from 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red), and the range varies slightly depending on each person’s ability to see into the ultraviolet and infrared ranges of light.

The visible light spectrum is displayed above. Though, the colour magenta is nowhere to be seen. So, why do we see it?

The Colour Magenta Through the visible light spectrum, we can see that magenta does not have its own wavelength. However, on the colour wheel, it exists as a complementary colour of green.

Our eyes have receptors called cones in our eyes detecting short (S), medium (M) and long (L) wavelengths. These roughly correspond to the detection of red, green and blue colours, and the brain can detect the different colours due to the differences in information received from the three types of cones.

Through combining these colours, secondary colours can be created. For example, if the L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, the colour yellow will be seen, as yellow will slightly lean away from the green wavelength towards the longer wavelengths.

Magenta is a colour stimulated when the eye reports information from short wave (blue) cone cells and a sub-sensitivity of the long wave cones (red) which react secondary to the same colour but with little to no information from the middle wave cones (green). However, since there are no wavelengths of light bridging the gap between blue-violet short-wave light waves with red long-wave light waves, the brain creates a “new colour” to fill it in, interpreting the combination as either a magenta or purple hue depending on the proportionate intensity of the cone responses.

So, this purplish-pink “secondary” colour is actually an illusion that is created by our eyes as a reaction to the missing gap in wavelengths, which makes it a “nonexistent” colour, or an extra-spectral colour, meaning the colour cannot be found on the light spectrum.

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ARTICLES BIOLOGY

The Scientist who named Vitamins: Casimir Funk Claudia Paasch SFC2

We've all heard of vitamins, essential nutrients that keep our bodies strong and healthy, but do you know where that term came from?

Casimir Funk was a trailblazing biochemist in the world of health and nutrition, particularly known for coining the term 'vitamin'. His contributions greatly advanced our understanding of how certain dietary compounds are vital for our well-being, impacting nutrition and medicine.

It all began in the late 19th century when scientists were looking for the cause of the disease beriberi - now known as a vitamin B1 deficiency. Upon learning that diets containing brown rice instead of white rice were protective against this disease, he set upon on the journey of finding the chemical compound responsible for its protective properties. In 1912, Funk successfully isolated a substance containing a nitrogen compound called an amine and named it a "vital amine", or "vitamine". When scientists later discovered that not all vitamins contained an amine group, they shortened it to "vitamin".

Funk observed that certain diseases, like scurvy and rickets, were linked to deficiencies in specific dietary components. He proposed that these "substances preventing that special disease" were crucial for a healthy diet, correctly suggesting the importance of vitamins in preventing such conditions. The compound isolated is now known as vitamin B3 (niacin).

Although he wasn't the first to study such compounds, Funk was the first to identify these substances as essential for maintaining health.

Funk’s realisaton that these compounds not only cured deficiencies but also balanced diets laid the foundation for modern nutrition science and medicine. Over the next 35 years, scientists discovered the rest of the vitamins (13 in total), while Funk continued to work with vitamins for pharmaceutical companies throughout his career.

Today, vitamins are crucial in various medical treatments. For instance, vitamin C is essential for wound healing and immune function, while vitamin D is vital for bone health. Funk’s work helped shape our understanding of nutrition and continues to influence our approach to health and diet in medicine. So next time you hear about vitamins, remember Casimir Funk and his important contribution to keeping us all healthy!

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FEATURE SUSTAINABILITY

Undoing the Artificial Ocean Julie Suen SFC1

By 2048, there is going to be more plastic than fish in the sea.

The Life Cycle of Plastic Plastic is growing in supply due to the low cost of its raw material – natural gas. It is widely used because the material is durable, light and cheap. But a lot of times, plastic products are disposed of after a single use, like the crinkled Waitrose bag that you threw away just last weekend. As a result, plastic waste is growing and accumulating on the streets and in landfills. As the sun sets every day, and the land breeze sweeps the flimsy artificial wastes into the ocean, the sea becomes more and more concentrated with plastic. Little pieces of floating plastic are mistaken as food, while plastic bags become traps; the clownfish get strangled, the sea turtles starve, and the blue whales are poisoned to death.

Plastic strips marine animals of their home. Pathogenic bacteria can accumulate on and colonise plastic. If the contaminated plastic products rest on the coral reefs, the bacteria can attack the coral reefs, which can die.

Without coral reefs, 25% of all marine life lose their homes. Moreover, over a billion people live near coral reefs and depend on them for food, protection and jobs.

Not only would marine animals get displaced, people would also suffer from the consequences of plastic pollution.

A solution is required to change the sign of the inequality equation that by 2048, plastic > fish.

However, it is a near impossible job to get rid of all the plastic in the ocean, how do we begin?

Sungai Watch Enter Sungai Watch, a company based in Indonesia whose mission is “to protect and restore our world’s rivers by developing and designing simple technologies to stop the flow of plastic pollution from going into the ocean.” The company’s work includes installing barriers and doing emergency illegal landfill cleanups in Indonesia. Over 2.3 million kilograms of plastic have already been collected, with the help of 300 barriers.

260 villages have been cleaned since 2020. It all started with 3 passionate young siblings – Gary, Kelly and Sam Bencheghib.

Plastic is lethal because it eliminates a “good” bacteria.

Plastic blocks out sunlight and releases toxins, affecting the oxygen production and reproduction of a bacteria called prochlorococcus. It is the most abundant photosynthetic organism in the ocean and it underpins the oceanic food web. This means that it is the primary producer so if less of it is produced, less energy will be transferred to the consumers in the food chain. Hence the marine food chain will not withstand with plastic in the ocean.

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FEATURE SUSTAINABILITY

The Youth Leader At the age of 12, Sam started Make a Change Bali, a youthled organisation which holds weekly beach cleanups, with his siblings after moving to Indonesia from France. Now the organisation has upgraded to Make a Change World, and Sam, Kelly and Gary have been using their passion for filmmaking to spread awareness. They aim to inspire action against plastic pollution and other environmental issues that the world is facing.

In one of his many projects, Sam ran 3000 miles across the US from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The idea originates from the principle that in order to create a big change, we need to take on big challenges. On the journey, he met with 10,000 people whom he explained the impacts of plastic pollution face to face to. These people included politicians and students at schools and universities. People living in middle America are brought to be aware of plastic pollution happening in the remote oceans. Sam showed the world that nothing is impossible by running tirelessly through heatwaves and blizzards. Undoing the artificial ocean and reversing plastic pollution is possible if the people around the world are as determined as Sam.

It is not only designed to be comfortable and stylish, but also sustainable as it leaves behind no offcuts. The word “Ombak” means “a large wave” in Indonesian. This product embodies the vision that the team from Sungai Watch and Sungai Design want to achieve – a river cleaner than it was found.

The Ocean Cleanup Young leaders around the world are all fighting against plastic pollution. In the Netherlands, there is a company called The Ocean Cleanup whose aim is to have cleaned up 90% of floating ocean plastic around the world by 2040. The company designed an artificial coastline that

The Ombak Chair

traps floating plastics in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Garbage patches are especially large polluted areas of the ocean due to rotating ocean currents that pull wastes in. Because of these currents, the plastic waste will keep on circulating and breaking down into smaller and smaller pieces. Subsequently, it will be easier for marine animals to mistake them for food.

Therefore The Ocean Cleanup specifically targets this area. The company also intercepts plastic flowing from rivers in different locations around the world, (e.g.

Jamaica, USA, Vietnam), into the ocean using multiple technologies. At present, The Ocean cleanup has collected over 10 million kg of trash around the world.

After collecting plastic pollutants from the ocean, Sungai Watch hands them over to its sister company, Sungai Design. Plastic bags constitute about 36% of the plastic waste collected. Plastic wastes are washed, shredded, heatpressed, and restyled into hard and durable sheets. The sheets are then intricately carved, forming panels which are assembled into the final product – the Ombak chair, made by passionate and dedicated artisans from 2000 plastic bags.

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FEATURE SUSTAINABILITY

System 03, also known as Josh, is a 2.2 km long floating barrier. Capable of cleaning the area of a football field every 5 seconds, it consists of two wings that are 4 m

However, the problem is that every river is different, for example, the tidal patterns, width and depth are unique to every river. The solution that the company came up with is

deep, which skim the surface of the ocean for plastics. At the centre of the barrier is the retention zone - the big garbage bag that collects all the plastics.

to produce a variety of different models of interceptors so that the right solution can always be applied for every river.

The plastics float along the wings to the retention zone while the system is towed through the ocean by two vessels at low speed – less than 3 km/h or slower than average walking speed. Spots with the highest plastic density, called hotspots, are tracked down using computers. After 3 to 4 days, the retention zone becomes

For example, the Interceptor Original consists of a barrier that guides plastic carried by the water current up a conveyor belt into the collecting vessel – which can store up to 50 m3 of trash before being emptied.

full, and the garbage is unloaded onto the deck of one of the vessels. Based on their recycling streams, the plastics are sorted into different categories. Finally, the whole system is put back in the ocean and the garbage bag starts to fill up again.

Making the change

Student to CEO Boyan Slat came up with the idea to clean up the ocean after being horrified by encountering more plastic than fish whilst scuba diving in Greece when he was 16. This led him to research plastic pollution for a school project, in which he learnt about the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

After gaining support from a TEDx talk, the young boy dropped out of school and became the CEO and founder of The Ocean Cleanup.

Closing the tap According to The Ocean Cleanup, 1% of rivers in the world are responsible for 80% of all plastics going into the ocean. Rivers are arteries that transport plastic from land to sea, so it is essential to stop the flow of plastic before they get carried to sea.

28

More than 8 million tons of plastic are thrown into the ocean annually and the figure will only grow. If one person can initiate the collection of millions of kilograms of plastic, there is no reason why a group of people cannot make our ocean closer to plastic-less. Sam Bencheghib ran across the US at 22 years old to tell people about the growing problem of plastic pollution. He has seen the worst of the worst of rivers so he felt it was his mission to raise awareness among the people he met on his way of his run. He realised how hard it is to take the first step every morning, but he pushed himself to do it. Even when he was injured, he got out of bed and walked the miles with walking sticks. The steps that we can take to start making a change are many and easy, like avoiding singleuse plastic products. According to Sam, no idea is crazy enough to save the planet because we only have one planet. To Boyan, perseverance is the key to reach the goal. According to him, any sane person would have given up at many moments in cleaning up the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. But he never gave up and his goal never changed. Before system 03, there had been system 01 and system 02. The world needs to be aware of Sam and Boyan’s actions. The world needs to take up the responsibility that every citizen of earth has to consume less plastic. The world needs to make a change now and end plastic pollution in order to make our ocean natural again.

ARTICLES COMPUTER SCIENCE

Audrey Wan SFC1 It might be very obvious, but think about this: do you want your phone to be hacked? No, right? Neither do I. Hence allow me to use only 5 minutes of your time to protect you from the worst.

Here are some things you could do to protect yourself from cyber threats.

Set strong passwords! That’s what password manager is here for. Remember to set it to at least 10 characters and include upper, lower case letters, numbers and symbols.

For example m#P52s@ap$V. Update your software! Whenever your device notifies you to update it (from settings and not from suspicious websites), be sure to do so. Though some people (including me) dislike changes to the interface, like the ones in Apple updates, it is better to be safe than sorry.

Enable two-factor authentication! A password on its own could easily be deciphered by brute-force. To get more security, choose to use two-factor authentication and get a one-time code that only you can receive each time you log in along with your password.

Be cautious of pop-up ads! When you accidentally click on something on a website, it directs you to somewhere else. This could trigger a malware download. So, make sure you have turned on the ‘block pop-ups’ function in your settings. Most importantly, close the tab immediately if you get redirected to a suspicious website.

Sometimes, we are not even aware that our devices are under threat. Here are some signs that your device is.

Slow performance. Unless your computer is very old or contains many installed programs, this is a sign of a malware infection.

Unexpected pop-ups. Did you click on anything? If not, then that is suspicious.

Unfamiliar programs and files. Check your “Files” app on your phone, or “Finder”/”File Explorer” on your laptop.

Usually, they can be hidden in images or documents,

and even in seemingly innocuous files, such as exe. files.

Unusual activity. When you discover that something is off, immediately change your password and see whether you could activate 2FA or verification, so the hackers will not be able to access your account as easily.

After all, the chance of getting hacked is not 0%, but there are procedures that we could do if we really did get hacked.

Disconnect from the internet. Doing so prevents hackers from accessing more information about you.

Change your passwords. Recall all your most important accounts (those that contain confidential information) and immediately change the corresponding passwords.

Also, if there is an option to log out of all devices, I urge you to do so! Never use the same password or similar passwords for all of your accounts.

Use antivirus software. If you still have control of your device, run a security scan to detect the malicious software that is installed. However, bear in mind that they may not all be found.

Notify your friends and family. With the hacker gaining access to your accounts, your family and friends are also at risk, as their contacts are exposed to the hacker. So, it is crucial to tell them that anything that is sent from your account is not you!

Finally, here are some suggestions on apps to install on your devices.

These apps will help you detect and remove viruses and other kinds of malicious software from your device. For laptops, “Avast Free Antivirus” and “AVG AntiVirus Free” are free options. For mobile phones, “Norton Mobile Security” is a good choice.

“Malwarebytes” is a specialised malware removal tool that removes threats that a traditional antivirus software might miss.

Luckily, our school is well aware of the dangers of cyber threats and has equipped us with a firewall and cyber security training. However, if you think that you got hacked, the first thing to do ultimately is to reach out to the IT staff!

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ARTICLES BIOPHYSICS

Why Space Needs Regulation Neriah Ossei UC5 As a blood-red sun rose over the horizon, a Genovese seafarer peered to make sure what he was seeing was land. After almost ten weeks of sailing across what apparently was an endless ocean, who could blame him for doubting his own eyes? His sole mission was to discover extraordinary plants, animals and people, and to share this knowledge with the world. Little did he know these intentions would not align with the events that came after.

Contrary to NASA’s aim to "explore the unknown in air and space, innovate for the benefit of humanity, and inspire the world through discovery”[1], there were ambitions that involved colonizing planets, mining asteroids, and offering thrills for wealthy tourists bored with earthly travel. During the post-Columbus period, European merchants and adventurers dreamt of grabbing resource-rich territories from militarily weak nations, searching for gold and silver, exotic commodities like chocolate and sugar. While there would be an abundance of profitable resources at hand, the environmental damage behind the scenes was widespread, and unspoken of.

Yet the trend continues. The recent surge in the development of affordable, reusable rockets has brought space travel within the grasp of private enterprises. Since then the shift toward a low-regulation framework—intended to democratize access to space—has led to troubling consequences, among them, a propensity for unscrupulous and negligent practices.

30

ARTICLES BIOPHYSICS

Just as on Earth, the economic allure of cutting costs incentivised companies to dump waste directly into space rather than investing in proper disposal. This approach poses long-term environmental threats, particularly the proliferation of space debris—commonly referred to as "space junk." Scientists warn that fragments could eventually re-enter Earth's atmosphere, causing harm not only to the environment but also to humankind. Further, the increasing accessibility of space travel has given rise to space tourism, an industry that promises to captivate the affluent in the same way luxuries like potatoes and chocolate once provided an expensive thrill in 16thcentury Europe. Yet again, such a prospect raises serious concerns. Our last frontier, at the momentrelatively untouched by human activity, risks being degraded to serve a privileged minority, threatening to transform space into yet another casualty of exploitation.

Just as it may have been inconceivable to Columbus that the New World (1) would soon be filled with soldiers, cannons and military fortifications, there is a worrying trend towards the weaponization of space. Though the 1967 Outer Space Treaty sought to prevent this, it eventually proved ineffective; in 2019, the US was able to

It is clear that as we try to follow in the footsteps of Columbus in creating an age of discovery in space, we are more so following in the footsteps of the murderous

conquistadors,

environment-destroying

merciless

planters

pirates

that

and

followed.

Fortunately, there is still time to change course and avoid disaster by creating effective regulations that can stop space from being another battleground for companies and armies: we can ensure that space companies are responsible for removing space debris to preserve the ecosystem; we can encourage responsible behaviour by requirinng private space companies to pay the true cost of maintaining the space environment; we can even enact a new Treaty, preventing weapons from being installed in space. The window to preserve our last pristine environment is closing fast and we must act now to avoid making the same mistakes as our predecessors.⠀

create a Space Force with an explicit mission to secure the Nation's interests in, from, and to space. They would soon be joined by others staking their claims and protecting such claims by military force. Together with the development of unmanned military drones and AIcontrolled robots, the prospect of war in space is closer than ever.

(1) New World - a collective term to describe most of the land in the Western hemisphere, particularly, the Americas

31

ARTICLES MEDICINE

Evolution Enhancing Medicine for Humanity Kathryn Chan UC5

Darwin’s theory of evolution, simply put, is the process of natural selection. Since resources are limited, if there is a change in the environment, organisms with traits that favor survival and reproduction will thrive and produce more offspring, while those with unfavorable characteristics will eventually be filtered out and eliminated. This results in a population that is adaptable and able to stand the test of time.

Except, How is this relevant to medicine? Well, the theory of evolution has been applied in medicine by exploring how our evolutionary past has affected us. This is in order to develop more effective strategies for health issues, rather than simply analyzing the factors causing disease. To achieve this, Darwinian Medicine answers the question of why the body is not better designed—there is a conflict between our evolved biology and the modern environment.

For one, the increased risk of obesity can be explained. In history, substances like fats and sugars were in such short supply in the natural environment that our ancestors developed a preference for food with high calories to conserve energy for the day’s activities—the better their bodies converted food into energy and stored fat, the higher the chance of survival.

There was also a tendency to be sedentary for prolonged periods in the day to minimize the expenditure of calories. This lifestyle has become adopted and inherited in our genes as a result of natural selection, some more affected by this than others. Therefore, there is a higher chance for some to get atherosclerotic disease as well as obesity, and it is more difficult for them to maintain a healthy weight.

Another example of this is myopia, commonly known as short-sightedness, where light is focused in front of the retina due to an eyeball that is too long or a lens that is too curved. Studies have shown that rates of myopia have skyrocketed over the past three centuries, due to factors such as increased education and more time spent indoors. Most eyeball growth occurs in childhood years, and with increased education, close-range indoor activities like reading have led to the tendency for children’s eyes to focus at only the distance of a page.

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ARTICLES MEDICINE

This explains the recent myopia pandemic, as there is a discrepancy between previous lifestyles in outdoor environments in natural light and modern lifestyles being largely indoors.

Now that we understand the role evolution plays in certain medical conditions, how can we utilize this newfound knowledge, and use it to our advantage?

By recognizing how previous environmental conditions during evolution have led to issues in the body, allows treatment to be more focused and direct. Using the previous example of obesity, we can come up with strategies such as adopting a healthier diet, promoting nutritious foods, and reducing the consumption of high-calorie ones. An increase in exercise is also shown to be significant in preventing and treating obesity. Meanwhile, to control myopia, especially in children, it is highly encouraged to spend more time outdoors during the day and to use fewer electronic devices. This prevents the eyeball from further elongating in such a crucial stage of development.

But it doesn’t stop there. The approach of using evolutionary classification to compare the biology of different organisms has led to the development of new drugs to treat malaria. At first, it was difficult to develop drugs to kill the parasite Plasmodium falciparum that causes malaria, since the drugs developed were typically toxic to humans. Humans and P. falciparum are both eukaryotes (cells with distinct nuclei) and have had similar evolutionary pathways, so they share many aspects of their biology. However, in the 1970s, scientists found that P. falciparum cells contained apicoplasts (Non-photosynthetic plastids) that were closely related to the chloroplasts of plants, both of which humans do not have.

This discovery has revolutionized the search for chemotherapeutic agents (used to inhibit growth of cancer cells), to treat malarial infections, prompting the testing of new drugs which target the apicoplast, reducing the side effects on humans. Evidently, understanding evolutionary biology can aid researchers in seeking new drugs and treatments for diseases.

In conclusion, understanding the Theory of Evolution plays a significant role in medicine. It allows us to target the causes of flaws in the body or weaknesses in certain pathogens, so that we can develop treatments for different conditions more effectively. With all this in mind, we can only imagine the potential that its application in medicine has, when searching for solutions to upcoming pandemics.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------c a

f d

Fig. 1

b

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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TALKS BIOCHEMISTRY

A Visit from Harriet Lester, CLC Leaver The process of creating VitaeGum was long - the prototype testing failed as an ingredient was banned by the EU. In the second trial, the product did not look appealing. So, it took a lot of iterations for the gum to be developed. But it eventually got developed, and after visiting the refugee camp at Calais for a lot of times as a volunteer, Harriet had built trust with the refugees in order for the product to be accepted.

On the 7th of October, ex-CLC pupil Harriet Lester returned and gave a talk on her life story.

She had been taught chemistry by Dr Gamblin when she was at CLC, and she continued to pursue a career in the field of biology and chemistry, and in business as well.

Harriet’s work is extensive and affects people from all over the world. She co-founded VitaeGum

100,000 kg of VitaeGum was manufactured in

- a company which manufactures a vitamin-

the first batch! These were sent to refugees,

infused chewing gum for dental health treatment.

drug addiction facilities and the homeless. In

The innovative idea came from working at a

Ukraine, 400 packs were given out as Christmas

refugee camp at Calais. Harriet used to give out

gifts, and in Norway, it is still being given out

gum to the refugees, which was really well-

now!

received. Moreover, transferring gum from the manufacturing site to the refugees camps is very

Apart from being the co-founder of VitaeGum,

feasible due to the small size of the packs of gum.

Harriet

So Harriet worked out what can be put into gum

Lighthouse covid mega lab, the First Aid Support

that can help people’s teeth.

Team at Calais, and Reset Health, a company

had

been

involved

in

the

NHS

which delivers chronic care.

To me, Harriet Lester is a truly inspiring role model.

Her

originality,

persistence

and

compassion makes her a leader that the CLC community should look up to.

Julie Suen SFC1

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LEAVERS’ PAGE

Mrs Mech stands out prominently when asked to reflect on my science lessons at CLC. Over the past 2 years, her impact has transcended the A-Level syllabus, shaping not only my approach to learning but also my overall perspective. One of the most invaluable lessons that I have learned from Mrs Mech is the significance of grasping the boarder concept/ back bone within which specific concepts reside. Often when studying for exams whether its GCSEs or A-Levels we tend to drill our heads into the slightest of details, how to hit the points on the mark scheme. However, Mrs Mech focused on delivering the overarching principles and connections between topics and making sure that we understood it. Her approach of systematically integrating new concepts, the ‘tangents’ that we often go on, and discussions on science news not only facilitated a deeper understanding but has also been instrumental in broadening my intellectual curiosity and fostering a more meaningful engagement with the content.

Additionally, as part of Biology week last year Mrs Mech asked me to share my summer projects with younger years so that they could be motivated and participate in similar projects. I greatly appreciate the support that I have received from her.

Outside of academic lessons, Miss Phillips – my GCSE Chemistry teacher and my subject mentor - had played the most significant role on my university applications from working on my personal statement meticulously to her support and guidance in preparing for my Cambridge interview. Attending her biochemistry university classes not only extended my intellectual curiosity but significantly honed my problem-solving abilities. Engaging with university concepts, discussing super curricular readings and findings, and sharing my thought process when working through an interview question to receive hints and guidance proved to be one of the most effective preparatory experience. I am immensely grateful the role she has played in my academic development.

I developed a proper interest in science the summer before sixth form when I started reading snippets of ongoing research in the world. I then studied science A Levels which only made my interest grow, particularly because of my physics class! We had loads of discussions and asked all sorts of questions, and I was very lucky to have a group of friends that were equally as imaginative we thought up our own research projects and spent loads of time talking about pieces of research that fascinated us. Making CheltSci was of course a natural product of this and made us all the more excited to dream big. I now read Natural Sciences at Cambridge and famously refuse to specialise in my studies, so I’ve ended up studying chemistry, maths, computational biology and neurobiology. I find my degree more interesting with every lecture, and sometimes I hop around labs meeting researchers whose work I’ve admired since sixth form! I can’t say for certain what my future will look like - after completing my Masters, I intend on studying music for some time, then doing research projects and seeing where life takes me.

Vanessa Yip, Class of 2023

I have so many wonderful memories of learning science at CLC—it’s where my passion for the subject truly began. If I had to pick a standout moment, it would be testing the Van de Graaff generator during GCSE physics. Watching the static electricity make everyone’s hair stand on end was absolutely hilarious, but understanding the science behind it was even more fascinating. My advice to anyone interested in pursuing science is to discover what excites you most about the subject and stay resilient through the challenges—it’s so worth it!

Siya Narayan, Class of 2024

Tina JinZhang, Class of 2024

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ARTICLES FEATURE

Nanomedicine: the future of healthcare Abi Lim & Caitlin Ng SFC1 Over the last decade, nanotechnology has evolved from a theoretical concept into a driving force across various industries, including electronics and energy. Now, it’s making waves in healthcare. Materials on the nanoscale —one billionth of a metre—exhibit unique qualities that enable previously unimaginable applications. By manipulating matter, nanomedicine offers groundbreaking solutions to some of the world’s most pressing health challenges.

What is Nanomedicine?

Nanomedicine is defined as “the monitoring, repair, construction, and control of human biological systems at the molecular level, using engineered nanodevices and nanostructures”. (Science Direct, 2021) Nanoparticles are substances ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers (nm) in diameter– they are powerful tools in regenerative medicine, diagnostics, smart drug systems, and medicinal imagining. For instance, patients with severe cardiovascular diseases often face surgical operations with risks like inflammation and restenosis as well as a long recovery period becoming a huge burden.

Therefore, establishing innovative therapeutics for cardiovascular disease (CVD) that extend beyond conventional medication and surgical interventions deeming it a highly sought-after solution.

The Power of Nanoparticles Nanoparticles are substances whose diameter ranges from 1 to 100 nanometres hence, making them small enough to move relatively freely across biological barriers within the human body. Their unique size, structure, and chemical properties make them powerful tools for facilitating a range of applications, from drug delivery to regenerative medicine.

By combining organic and inorganic materials, hybrid nanoparticles are garnering attention for their ability to significantly enhance the effectiveness and precision of treatments — making them a game-changer in modern medicine (Choi, Kim, Ryu, & Kaushik, 2022) — while reducing toxicity.

Targeting and Delivery Mechanisms Nanoparticles can achieve targeted drug delivery by two main mechanisms: passive targeting, which relies on the natural distribution of nanoparticles in the body, and active targeting, which involves modifying the surface of the nanoparticles so that they can specifically bind to receptors or antigens present in target cells. This allows for drug delivery through the endothelial barrier, which is the main type of cell found in the inside lining of blood vessels, lymph vessels, and the heart, which usually blocks treatments. They help improve drug effectiveness, reduce toxicity, and enhance how drugs move around the body. The most recent development in nanoparticle creation involves the discipline of microfluidics a process that controls tiny amounts of fluids, allowing nanoparticles to selfassemble. This technique boosts the potential of nanoparticles to transform drug delivery. Other advantages include the rapid, consistent nanoparticle synthesis and the ability to create nano and micro-structures that can encapsulate drugs efficiently. However, aside from the benefits, the high costs of glass and silicon fabrication, along with challenges in scaling up production, remain a significant hurdle to overcome.

(Xu, Ho, Zhang, Bertrand, & Farokhzad, 2015)

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ARTICLES FEATURE

Innovative Young Researchers in Nanomedicine Among the trailblazers in nanomedicine, Sahar Mansoor, a young and innovative chemist from India, has completed groundbreaking work with cancer treatment on nanoparticle-based chemotherapy. One of the most difficult issues in cancer treatment has been the nonspecific targeting of cancer cells by conventional chemotherapy medications, which often harms healthy cells in the process. This causes various unwanted side effects, including fatigue, nausea, and a compromised immune system. Mansoor's work intends to address this issue by using nanoparticles to deliver chemotherapy medications directly to cancer cells while protecting healthy tissue. Mansoor's approach involves developing nanoparticles that are steered to only recognize and bind to cancer cells. These nanoparticles are designed to carry drugs for chemotherapy which can only be released when they reach the malignant areas. The extreme precision in targeting tumour cells is achieved by coating the nanoparticles with unique molecules, called ligands, that bind to receptors or antigens found only on the surface of cancer cells. This reduces damage to healthy cells while increasing the effectiveness of drugs. Nanoparticle research can revolutionise cancer treatment by enhancing therapy's effectiveness while decreasing the severe side effects associated with traditional chemotherapy. Mansoor's experimental nanoparticle research shows promise for clinical applications shortly, perhaps leading to more effective and patient-friendly cancer medicines. This marks a huge advancement in nanomedicine development and the future of oncology.

Emerging Nanoparticle Delivery systems in Clinical Trials Recent advancements in nanoparticle delivery systems have begun to make their way into clinical trials by incorporating a few active targeting nanoplatforms, making use of ligand-receptor interactions. For example, CALAA-01 is a targeted nanoparticle delivery system that is currently an experimental therapeutic for cancer. CALAA-01 enterprises a smallinterfering RNA (siRNA), a non-coding double stranded RNA that can regulate the expression of genes, that is directed against the M2 subunit of ribonucleotide reductase (RRM2), an essential enzyme in DNA evolution and development.

Entry of this anti-RRM2 siRNA into cells will downregulate the expression of RRM2 via RNA interference, thereby inhibiting DNA synthesis and killing the cells. In the CALAA-01 system, anti-RRM2 siRNA is associated with a human transferrin protein-targeting ligand, which will bind mostly to abnormal growths of tissue that could be benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous), as these abnormal growths overexpress the transferrin receptor. By doing this, the toxic siRNA will be targeted to enter cancer cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis (endocytosis is the process of substances being brought into the cell), rather than entering healthy somatic cells, achieving improved specificity compared to classic chemotherapy. These targeted nanoparticles, which circulate the body and localise tumours, have been administered to Melanoma, skin cancer, patients. A correlation was found in the tumour biopsies between the dose administered and the amounts of nanoparticles within the cell. Overall, nanoparticles make it possible for conventional nonspecific toxic substances to be highly targeted, reducing the adverse effects of cancer treatment.

Another noteworthy example of nanoformulation is CRLX101, which consists of a classic cytotoxic drug, camptothecin (CPT), conjugated to a cyclodextrin-polyethylene glycol (CD-PEG) copolymer. CPT is a natural alkaloid (alkaloid is a chemical found in plants that often acts as a drug), that has long been known to have anti-tumour properties by inhibiting topoisomerase 1, which is crucial for DNA replication, recombination, and transcription. The major challenge for developing CPT as an anti-cancer drug has been that it is highly hydrophobic and is susceptible to being hydrolyzed.

CRLX101 has been designed to overcome this pharmacokinetic difficulty. The hydrophilic CD-PEG copolymer will spontaneously self-assemble to form a 30-40 nm nanoparticle that envelopes the water-insoluble CPT inside, making the complex soluble in water. This assembly also impedes water from reaching and hydrolyzing CPT, thereby improving the stability of CPT. The improved biodistribution of therapeutic agents through passive targeting proves to be a major benefit of nanomedicine (Xu, Ho, Zhang, Bertrand, & Farokhzad, 2015). However, CRLX101 is a non-specific drug, meaning it doesn’t target one single part of the body or a particular type of cell, for cancer treatment therefore has not consistently shown significant improvements in survival or tumour shrinkage or demonstrated superior efficacy, raising concerns about practical benefits.

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ARTICLES FEATURE

Fionn Ferreira and Magnetic Nanoparticles Another young chemist who is making innovations in nanomedicine is Fionn Ferreira, an Irish researcher, well-known for his work on magnetic nanoparticles; he initially used them on purifying water but then applied his knowledge further leading to the discovery that these particles can also be used to purify the bloodstream, potentially treating poisoning and lowering cholesterol levels, representing a new approach at the intersection of environmental science and nanomedicine.

Ferreira’s research involved the use of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), made of magnetic elements such as cobalt, iron, and nickel, examples include magnetite (Fe3O4) (Munawar Khalil, 2017). Ferreira's theory requires using nanoparticles with magnetic properties to bind to potentially dangerous molecules in the bloodstream, such as heavy metals, chemicals, or pollutants. Once these particles are magnetically attached to the toxic substances, they may be safely removed from the body by applying an external magnetic field. This approach has the potential to cure acute poisoning and high cholesterol levels in people. Ferreira's research also investigates using magnetic nanoparticles to target cholesterol molecules. Targeting cholesterol directly in the bloodstream and removing it via magnetic filtration offers an alternative to existing cholesterol-lowering drugs while also providing immediate and effective treatments for patients at substantial risk of cardiovascular disease. Ferreira's research demonstrates the potential of nanoparticles in medical applications, potentially leading to the discovery of non-invasive therapies for blood toxicity-related illnesses, detoxification, and cholesterol treatment.

The Science Behind Magnetic Nanoparticles Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are typically made from magnetic elements such as cobalt, iron, and nickel, examples include magnetite (Fe3O4). These particles have superparamagnetic properties, meaning they are only magnetic in the presence of an external magnetic field. Magnetite, an example of an NP, has ferromagnetic properties meaning that it can be easily magnetised when put in a magnetic field but also easily unmagnetized when removed from a magnetic field. This enables precise control over the application of magnetic fields, ensuring that nanoparticles may be moved to specific places without residual magnetization that could cause clumping—an important characteristic when considering biological applications such as blood detoxification (Jiri Kudr, 2017). Furthermore, these magnetic nanoparticles often have high biocompatibility making them suitable for a wide range of applications like drug delivery and MRI scanning.

There are two ways to synthesize MNPs: modifying biomaterials like antibodies and oligonucleotides, short single strands of DNA or RNA, and the other being integrating non-organic components with other nanocomponents, creating hybrid nanoparticles and allowing them to have unique characteristics. Synthesised MNPs are then coated with specific ligands, antibodies, or peptides that ensure these nanoparticles only bind selectively to toxins or pathogens, ensuring precision and effectiveness. The combination of biocompatibility, precision, and adaptability characteristics of magnetic nanoparticles are a promising technology for advancing medical treatments and diagnostic techniques in the future.

Conclusion: The Future of Nanomedicine As we dive deeper into the world of nanoscience, we are offered insightful solutions to some of the most challenging medical conditions and diseases previously thought to be untreatable. Fascinatingly, nanoparticles are engineered at the molecular level allowing them to move efficiently within the human body causing the conduction of targeted treatments, increased drug solubility, reduced toxicity, and enhanced drug effectiveness making them an attractive option for a wide range of applications.

Looking ahead, the future of nanomedicine holds promise to vastly revolutionise healthcare, anticipating highly refined and personalised medicinal treatments in this rapidly growing field, lead by Ferreira and Mansoor, in which nanoparticles target specific infectious cells while having minimal influence on healthy tissues. The combination of nanotechnology, artificial intelligence, and big databases may enable early disease identification and real-time monitoring, improving patient outcomes, reducing invasiveness and lowering healthcare expenditures as these discoveries make their way from laboratories to clinics.

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INTERVIEW BIOLOGY

An Interview with Professor NewburyEcob Laurie Porter, SFC1

In October, I had the fascinating experience of interviewing Ruth Newbury-Ecob, a Professor of Genetics at University Hospitals in Bristol. She is currently researching congenital malformations, particularly of the heart and upper limb, as well as the underlying genetic causes of obesity. In the 1990s, she pioneered the research project that identified the first gene causing congenital heart disease and a new gene family, known as the Tbox genes.

Laurie: I was really interested to read about how you discovered the first gene causing congenital heart disease, and I wondered what the research process was that lead to those findings and what their implications were?

Professor Newbury-Ecob: When I first started with that study, I travelled around the world to collect blood samples from patients with those conditions. We brought the blood samples back and used DNA linkage which was, by modern standards, very crude DNA technology. At the time, it was being used to map where genes were located on the chromosomes. When it became possible to sequence cross genes, we did that. At the time it had to be done in sections (whereas now we sequence an entire genome) but back then you could only sequence small amounts at a time, then build up this map. With TBX5 we were looking for a gene where all family members had a particular variant in a particular part of the gene, so it was a real needle in a haystack kind of work.

Today, gene identification is a much more rapid process. Back then we had to show that a change in the DNA sequence actually did something, which was quite difficult given that this change would be happening in embryological development. We used zebra-fish embryos and knocked out the gene in the zebra-fish and showed that it caused congenital heart defects. That was then published in the 90s. TBX5 comes from a whole family of genes, all of which are very important developmental genes in very early patterning in the human embryo so are highly conserved and are fundamental. It was a very exciting time for me because I got to go to a very remote part of Canada to collect blood samples, up into the Rockies, to France, to Ireland, because they were such rare disorders. Now, they would just be posted.

Laurie: Very rewarding, I imagine?

Professor Newbury-Ecob: It was incredibly rewarding when we started to get answers and I think that’s what keeps us working in Genetics, that we get answers for families.

Laurie: What has been your experience working as a woman in stem since it's historically been such a male dominated field?

Professor Newbury-Ecob: It has its challenges! At times, I think we were invisible. I also started my family young and was a working mother which was a huge barrier because there was no part-time option, and I was expected to step up and do everything. There was always this feeling that you weren’t quite taken seriously, no matter how great your achievements. Occasionally people said things that wouldn’t be acceptable now. You would be asked about your personal circumstances, about your marriage, your children, what you do with your children when working, all questions that would never be asked to men. Generally, it was very tough and I think I was lucky, having grown up in a household full of strong women, to take the hit and keep going and to have mentors who supported me.

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INTERVIEW BIOLOGY

Even if everybody is on the same page, it's not a level playing field if you are a wife and mother. I couldn’t go away for international conferences unless I had childcare. I had to pay for full time childcare allowing me to work and study but there was a financial hit and my children might say I was quite an absent mother compared to how things would be today. Now, the university don’t schedule things before 10 in the morning or after 4 in the afternoon, to keep it family friendly, so things have definitely changed.

Laurie: You also study the genetic causes of obesity. I wondered what sort of research you have done and to what extent obesity is caused by genetic factors as opposed to environmental factors?

Professor Newbury-Ecob: There was a group in Bristol and we started some initial work to try and unpick the causes of severe childhood obesity. We were interested in the children who had extreme obesity but with parents of a normal BMI, and we did some early testing. When you look at genetic factors, there are children with extreme obesity with changes in genes that control pathways in the brain rather than the metabolic side of things. Some children excessively eat because they don’t have satiety – there are no messages coming from the brain to say “stop.”

I think it’s an interesting question because Steve O’Reilly has done a lot of twin studies where there is very high correlation between identical twins having similar BMIs in comparison to fraternal twins, which is strong evidence that obesity is genetic.

But it’s difficult because the public health message needs be around healthy eating. If you tell people things are genetic, they often become fatalistic about it, whereas if you tell someone they’re overweight because they eat too much, they’re more likely to do something about it. From a public health perspective, it’s probably better to think more about the environmental causes rather than genetics.

Laurie: In the future, how do you see the role of epigenetics as an aspect of genetics research, and is it something you consider in your own research?

Professor Newbury-Ecob: I think it's fascinating and is definitely one of the next steps. One of the things we noticed when first doing our studies on heart and limb is that there was a tendency for the abnormalities to get more severe with successive generations and there was a difference depending on whether the children were born to effective mother or fathers. If born to effective fathers, they often had the same pattern of severity whereas if born to effective mothers they had more severe abnormalities. It could be epigenetic but at the time we had very little ability to discover that. It’s a plausible explanation for so many aspects. You can look at epigenetics in terms of reproduction in respect to gametes and embryos, but also the environmental epigenetics.

Laurie: Genetic testing on an individual basis is very beneficial but also expensive, so do you see a future where genetic testing is more common and accessible?

Professor Newbury-Ecob: In fact, it depends on what you compare it with. When we were trying to persuade commissioners to buy genetic services, we came up with some examples of how genetic testing is actually quite cheap compared to the alternative. For a child with epilepsy, if you were to investigate them using the traditional route, you may need them to come and stay in hospital which is a cost, have a scan using an anaesthetic which is a cost and have various tests. We collected the cost and deduced that it was actually 10 times more expensive to do the traditional route than the genetic test, even if the genetic test was £1,000 and, of course, that cost is coming down. It’s the fact that it replaces these very expensive imaging and electrical tests, some of which are invasive as well as expensive.

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INTERVIEW BIOLOGY

The other thing is that after the genetic test, that’s it. It’s estimated it takes an average of 4 years for children to get their diagnoses when they have a rare disorder and they go through many different specialities and have lots of tests. If they have their DNA sequenced at the start of that, they get their diagnosis immediately. The cost has to be contextualised as to what you’d be doing if you didn’t do genetic testing.

The other side to that is that if you’re genetic testing for cancer which makes up about 50% of our work, we’re looking for conditions where people have about a 50-50 chance of having the condition. For every person you pick up, you’re discharging someone who’s normal. For example, with breast cancer, in which half the candidates don’t have the gene, you’re spending the money on genetic testing but you won’t be spending it on mammograms. That’s the material cost but there’s also the emotional impact. If you don’t have breast cancer, which is the case for 50% of the women who are tested, you can’t put a price on the reassurance of that knowledge, how it opens up the rest of your life with your family and the impact on your psychological wellbeing. The reporting of genetics in the media focuses around the high cost but when you compare it to interventions in other specialities, it’s actually pretty minimal.

Laurie: Presumably, for patients learning new information about their condition can be quite mentally challenging. How do you balance the importance of scientific discovery with the impact on patients?

Professor Newbury-Ecob: We’re clinicians, not scientists, so we’re used to working with patients and families. I find often at meetings with scientific colleagues, they talk about DNA samples and I remind them that we’re talking about people, which we have to remember. The Hippocratic oath and ‘do no harm’ is ever-present in our minds. I’ve just been discussing with the paediatricians about testing young people and the levels you should be communicating, how much a 10 or 11 year old can understand about medicine and genetics, what sort of explanation they require. I do a lot of drawing in my explanations, which is one of the reasons why I like seeing patients in the flesh rather than video calls.

Communication is absolutely vital. The 100,000s genome project was trying to kickstart public understanding of genetics and initiation of education around genetics so that when genetics is offered as a test in their care pathway they have some understanding. It’s also key that our colleagues know how to handle situations with genetics sensitively and empathically, because a genetic result is a very significant finding.

Throughout the interview, it became increasingly evident that the role of geneticists like Professor Newbury-Ecob is essential in discovering the causes behind conditions, as she did with the Tbox genes which cause congenital heart disease, despite the challenges. I was also reassured to hear that the field of genetics is developing, not only technology-wise but also in terms of the attitude to women and mothers in medicine. I came to appreciate how significant the quality of patient interaction is in allowing people to understand their condition and how the method of communication might look different for each patient and each condition. Professor Newbury-Ecob’s take on genetic testing was perhaps the most fascinating part for me as it completely changed my perception of it, from something expensive and complex to a valuable tool that provides swift answers for patients and their families.

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TEACHER INTERVIEW

Sitting Down with Miss Constantine, Dr. Starkey & Mrs. Pizii Giselle Chan and Julie Suen, SFC1 One of our most enjoyable moments while creating this magazine was sitting down with three of the amazing Science staff at CLC and having a deep chat. We’ve collated the most interesting bits of our conversation below in an interview format.

What inspired each of you to become a science teacher, and why your field especially?

Dr. Starkey: Upon completing university, I secured a position within the industry where I worked for approximately 8 years. I realized I could continue in this line of work for a very long time and yet leave no lasting impact. While it may sound self-centred, this realisation stemmed from the fact that my contributions were not making a significant difference. Besides, I’d always had an aspiration to become a teacher. Subsequently, I filled out an application at university and went into employment. Around eight years ago, I took the leap and transitioned from my industry role into pursuing a career in teaching, and that marked the beginning of my teaching journey.

Miss Constantine: I always had an interest in physics even from a very young age and it was the only science that truly inspired me. It was only later on in life did I enjoy the others -- after doing physics at university, I realized that the other sciences were intriguing too.

During my time in school I was always fascinated by physics. I always liked explaining things to my peers, helping them understand the science behind how physics works. I particularly enjoy learning about the history of physics, such as why people discovered it at a certain time, what technologies meant that you could discover it, or the people who discovered certain things and link it all together.

As university came, I had to make a decision between going into further physics, which I would have enjoyed very much, but would involve lots of mathematics at the same time. However thinking about the social interactions that would come from that major, I thought it would be more interesting to talk and teach people than to talk to the same four people or four walls, doing equations day by day.

Additionally when I did my teacher training, I excelled due to my background in physics. The degree encompassed extensive maths, programming and other similar subjects that were challenging but enjoyable. I found teaching physics to be not only pleasant but straightforward, which is one of the things that captures the meaningfulness behind teaching as a whole.

Mrs. Pizii: Similar to Dr Starkey, I hadn’t been teaching my whole career. I completed a year at medical school which I very much enjoyed, but realized I didn’t have the vocation to be a doctor, hence I returned to complete a degree in a different field.

After obtaining my degree, I ventured into the workforce. I pursued lucrative opportunities in the city and worked as a management consultant across various industries, but science always remained at the forefront of my mind. I leveraged my knowledge around science and innovation around biotechnology during my interview for the company I went to work for.

Throughout my career, I gained experience in the pharmaceuticals industry and collaborated with large industrial companies, such as Philips Lighting in the Netherlands. I witnessed fascinating aspects of these fields, but effectively found that the lifestyle was incompatible with family life.

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TEACHER INTERVIEW

Upon starting a family, I decided to reevaluate my career. My passion for science had always been a constant, having pursued science A-levels and a science degree. The skills I acquired during my studies proved applicable to a wide range of endeavors. My curiosity and interest in science have been lifelong, and I enjoy sharing that enthusiasm with others.

My experiences have shown me that a background in science can open many doors. It is not limited to traditional paths such as biology, physics, or engineering degrees. Rather, it reflects the individual's character and the diverse skills they have developed.

Do professors have a different relationship with students than teachers in school?

Dr. Starkey: At university, students have the opportunity to select topics of interest and choose their professors accordingly. However, seeking assistance requires proactive engagement during professors' office hours. I struggled with this aspect, as opposed to the school environment where teachers offer direct support. I recall waiting for two and a half hours to seek clarification from a professor on a topic I had been struggling with. Despite the challenge, this experience taught me the importance of being proactive. In today's digital age, many students opt to email their professors for help.

What technologies are there in development that could help people around the world, with specific examples from your field?

Miss Constantine: All technologies related to climate change, sustainability, and medicine could have significant impacts.

For instance, the increasing prevalence of electric cars is leading to a decline in petrol car production, signifying a major shift. Advancements in battery technology exemplify the intersection of physics, biology, chemistry, and engineering. A multidisciplinary approach involving biologists, physicists, engineers, and chemists is crucial, as no single field can address all challenges alone. These fields are all interconnected and collectively essential for progress.

Mrs. Pizii: I agree. The Institute of Physics has fundamental strategies for future scientific progress, and one of their key points is the importance of a multidisciplinary approach. For example, carbon capture, hydrogen fuel cells, and other technologies are vital, but they require collaboration between many fields. The future of science lies in working together.

Miss Constantine: Indeed, interdisciplinary collaboration is crucial. Scientific advancements often occur at the intersections of different fields. For example, a chemist with a narrow focus may be distant from practical applications, whereas collaboration with biology can lead directly to solutions. Hence, multidisciplinary teams are exceptionally powerful.

Dr. Starkey: Absolutely! Chemistry's toolkit is well-equipped. Our challenge now lies in resource management. Take rare earth metals in smartphones, for example—they're becoming scarce. We need to reduce usage and enhance recycling processes. While asteroid mining is an idea, prioritizing effective use of Earth's resources seems more practical.

Miss Constantine: The idea of mining asteroids is fascinating but impractical when we have Earth's resources. Effective management of these resources, like reducing and recycling rare earth metals in smartphones, should be our focus.

Instead of spending billions on space exploration, we should prioritize pressing issues like global sanitation. There’s an imbalance in priorities.

Dr. Starkey: I agree with you. And the challenges we face with things like rare earth metals and the environment are critical.

Coming back to medicine, do you think there’s a specific area with the greatest potential for breakthroughs, or do you think it’s all about interdisciplinary collaboration?

Miss Constantine: As a physicist, I think too many people don’t realize how important physics is in medicine.

Technologies like PET scans, X-rays, and radioactive tracers are all based on physics. There's a fascinating intersection happening in quantum biology, for example, where physicists are looking at the quantum properties of ion channels and proton pumping in DNA. These discoveries have significant implications for genetics, which ties directly into medicine.

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TEACHER INTERVIEW

Mrs. Pizii: Absolutely! Even something like photosynthesis is deeply tied to physics. The way plants absorb light is based on specific energy levels, and understanding that can help us solve bigger problems in energy and biology. The way plants can fix nitrogen from the air shows us how advanced nature’s solutions are. We’re trying to replicate these processes using industrial methods, but we still haven’t come close to the efficiency that nature has developed.

Dr. Starkey: I think as chemists and scientists and biologists, we've got a great teacher. And it's nature, nature just out there. Sweet peas can take nitrogen from the air, collect it with water, and fix it into ammonia. And what do we do? We are doing the harbour process: 450 degrees, 200 atmospheres, iron catalyst. That’s the beauty of interdisciplinary work.

Nature has been solving these problems for millions of years, and we’re just catching up. It’s a reminder that we have a lot to learn from each other and from the world around us. And science is sort of like this common language that we can use to communicate with each other.

What are your most treasured memories in CLC? Miss Constantine: So obviously, all lessons are great and all the people are great. But I think the things that are the best is hearing back from students. So, I got an email the other day from someone who's at Cambridge - Margaret. She went to do natural sciences, and she was going to do chemistry, even though she was always a physicist. And she's now going to do physics. It's really important to see the impact that you've made, and it doesn't mean that you have to go and do physics. It just means you have to do something you enjoy, like the people who then get back to you and visit. So I have a secret mission for my lessons, which I've managed to achieve quite well. It is to try and do physics experiments all around college. So we visited the organ and the gym, a different class went up into the pH and we held a 10 meter pendulum to find acceleration due to gravity. We've dropped stuff off the astronomy tower, we found the speed of sound, and we've used telescopes in the lower quad. So even though science can happen in a room, my secret mission, which I've pretty much aced, is to try and do fun practicals everywhere.

Dr. Starkey: For me it’s just kind of that trajectory. If you can take someone and just lift their eyes above the horizon, if I could just lift someone as high as a degree above the horizon that they are traveling a little bit, and then Ms Constantine adds a little bit to that trajectory. So instead of just bumping along and falling into chemistry because everything else fell off the back of the train, you actually have some sort of purpose.

What is one message you’d like to share with every student?

Miss Constantine: If it was to be a message for anyone, it’s that your voice is valuable, so recently I went to san Francisco with some people who won the Technovation competition. The problems they were trying to solve were as good as, if not better, than companies could do, and it’s just by trying and being passionate about something, that you can succeed. They won the competition, and the people that we met were from all backgrounds, all disciplines. People who did English literature degrees who work for Netflix, or who did engineering and is now working for a sales company, but the thing that was important to them was the fact that they were making a difference, and the people that they worked with. Also they had something they were passionate about, and it doesn’t matter what it is, but believe in yourself, and if something doesn’t work out, keep going, or try something else. Same with us in our lives, just give it a go, try it and do something different and not the same thing every day.

Dr Starkey: I am going to instil a quote, have you heard of Captain Disillusion on the internet? It just says, “Love with your heart and use your head for everything else”.

Mrs Pizii: I am just following what Ms Constantine said, feel the fear and do it anyway. And if you’re scared of it, all the better, because the reward will be great.

Miss Constantine: Sometimes you don’t have to be the best and the leader, you just have to do something you enjoy, and sometimes being the first, being the best, being the pioneer isn’t the role for everyone. It’s not that you can’t do it, it’s that you don’t want to, and that’s okay. It’s okay to do something that you really enjoy, it means that you can go skiing, spend time with family. But ultimately, just go for it.

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When asked to draw a scientist, school-age kids in the U.S. are drawing women. more than ever before.

In the 1960s, lesss than 1% of U.S. students depicted scientists as female. However, by 2016, the number had climbed to 34%, and is rising quicker than ever.

This shift mirrors real-world progress: between 1960 and 2013, percentage of women in science jobs grew from 28% to 49% in biological sciences, 8% to 35% in chemistry, and 3% to 11% in physics/astronomy.

Representation matters -- and the next generation is seeing the future differently.

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Are your earliest childhood memories still lurking in your mind - or gone forever?

Sigmund Freud came up with the theory of “infantile amnesia”, which was the theory that memories formed when we were infants are suppressed by the brain. Early stage research supports his theory - the brain can actually form memories before the age of 3, just not in the same way as how an adult brain forms memories, such that we cannot consciously access them.

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THE BACK PAGES

Send your attempts to thecheltscientist@gmail.com, the first person to complete each of the puzzles and send them in will receive a prize!

Book recommendations Physics : Physics of the Impossible Michio Kaku

Engineering : Modern Software Engineering David Farley

Biology : Silent Spring Rachel Carson

Biology : The Vital Question Nick Lane

Chemistry : The Poisoner’s

Medicine : Do No Harm Henry Marsh

Handbook Deborah Blum

Shoot your shot with these pick-up lines!

Call me the blood-brain barrier, because I’m very selective about who I let in, but you’ve made it through!

You must be glutamate, because you’re really getting me excited.

Are you cerebrospinal fluid? Because you’ve got my brain floating on cloud nine.

by @nowyouknowneuro

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THE BACK PAGES

Some Science Jokes!

Einstein developed a theory about space.

Did you hear about the girl who got cooled to absolute zero?

And it was about time too!

She’s 0K now!

Thank you to our writers, editors, graphic designers, illustrators, contributors, and most of all.. our readers! We could not have done it without you.

Bibliography: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1MVY39gG3ROQG1e4Qx-w7p1NFhfPrX_9hGp2vfPcJSRk/edit?usp=sharing

Contact us: If you have any questions or submissions, please feel free to contact us at: thecheltscientist@gmail.com Or find us on Instagram: @thecheltscientist

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