Editors-in-Chief
GiselleChan JulieSuen Writers ChloeChan
LunaBelza-Garcia
AbigailLim
LauriePorter
JulieSuen
AudreyWan
Editors
GiselleChan
VanessaFok
CynthiaHonig
EhijeIzzi-Engbeaya
NanaYaa Koduah-Sarpong
Maegan
EvangelineLeung
CaitlynNg
Laura
JulieSuen
Olivia
CatherineKatesmark
HannahLau
SophiaLau
VictoriaLee
Made with love by Giselle and Julie, a new issue is born! Based on the theme of youth leaders, we hope to spread word of what young scientists are doing today to start discussions on
unique topics at CLC We would love to take this opportunity to shout out to Miss Constantine, a former CLC teacher and a figure of inspiration to future youth leaders.
As we flourish into ever-increasingly curious scientists, we are inspired by many: historical figures, prominent pioneers, but undoubtedly those that touch us the most are youth leaders. Perhaps it’s due to a factor of relatability: these fighters of plastic pollution (p 26), engineers of next-gen prosthetic limbs (p.20) and pioneers of nano-medicine (p.36) are all of our generation; their achievements give hope and motivate us alike no other. With our issue centred around this, we hope to educate, to inspire, and to give rise to more youth leaders
The publication of this issue is a product of the hard work of everyone who contributed along the way. We’re eternally grateful for every contribution and our readers: it is you who has made this possible!
Most mammals have a better sense of smell than humans We can only complain about the
pungent smell of garlic or body odour, while rats can use their sense of smell to detect food from more than 2km away! In this manner, primates (including humans) have been considered microsmatic species since the 19th century. This claim was based on evidence that humans have a relatively small olfactory bulb in the forebrain (where odours are processed). While dogs have 200 million olfactory receptors in their noses compared with human’s mere 5 million
While numerous diseases such as tuberculosis can be identified by sputum samples under conventional microscopy, in some developing countries this method is only 40% accurate The Belgian non-profit organization APOPO began as a programme that leverages rats’ abilities to detect land mines through smell Recently, APOPO trained African giant pouched rats to identify tuberculosis by smell through an introduction to everyday human sounds and smells in developing countries
The idea of animals sniffing out disease may sound unlikely at first, but the underlying mechanism is well established The body produces an array of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in body fluids and breath, from bacteria, environmental contacts and more
Angelyn Ng SFC1
All kinds of disease can alter which VOCs are present and at what concentration. These molecules waft through the air until they encounter an odour receptor in a nose sensitive enough to perceive them. Upon analysis, the APOPO team discovered 13 VOCs unique to tuberculosis And even when six VOCs are combined, the rats can easily evaluate 100 samples in just 20 minutes which will lead to a banana and avocado smoothie reward
As treatments improve, accurate and rapid diagnosis is of greatest importance Between 2013 and 2023, the APOPO programme screened nearly 1 million sputum samples and identified more than 30,000 cases of TB that had been missed by local clinics The organization estimates that the rats have prevented almost 364,000 follow-on infections in family members or colleagues of the people who were found to have TB. APOPO hopes that this strategy will remain a second-line screening technology after conventional laboratory methods, but developing animal-based diagnostics is far from straightforward.
Throughout history, dogs have always been a close companion of humans After all, they have a reputation for being 'man's best friend' Siberian huskies, in particular, are much adored for their playful nature and Alicia Tsang UC5 high stamina. Huskies have also played a crucial part in the 1925 serum run where many sled dogs traversed across Alaska to deliver antitoxins to citizens suffering from Diphtheria, a deadly bacterial infection. However, it has recently come to many breeders' attention that their beloved canines may not be 100% purebred
For her research, Heather Huson, associated professor at Cornell College of Agriculture and Life Science, and other researchers collected and analysed genetic data from 346 dogs: registered Siberian huskies, Alaskan sled dogs, Chukota sled dogs, and Samoyeds Through their study, they discovered a gene flow from European breeds, such as golden retrievers, to Siberian huskies This suggests that rather than Siberian Huskies sharing a common lineage with Alaskan huskies, the Alaskan husky DNA identified from genetic testing may have been detected due to crossbreeding For example, a swift and agile Siberian Husky may be crossbred with an Alaskan malamute, who are renowned for their endurance, to produce offspring that are highly capable of pulling sledges through the rough Arctic terrain
While this process does have its disadvantages, such as the high cost, crossbreeding dogs may have benefits too For example, it increases the genetic diversity within species by introducing a larger gene pool Thus, it reduces the possibility of pups suffering from inbred diseases, ensuring the animals remain healthy
We’ve all been told at least once to slather on sunscreen when the sun is blazing to protect our skin from wrinkles and sun damage. But what if I told you that it’s not just your skin feeling the heat? Recent research suggests that excessive heat could be accelerating our ageing from the inside out, too
Heat is known to strain organs like the heart and kidneys, but it also causes an invisible strain at the molecular level. A study presented this November at the Gerontological Society of America’s annual scientific meeting reveals how rising temperatures can impact our biological age
Professor Eun Young Choi of USC and her colleagues analyzed data on molecular markers of ageing, such as telomere length, from approximately 3,900 individuals aged 56 or older By cross-referencing this data with temperature maps of the United States, they sought correlations between the number of hot days and the participants' molecular age. In particular, they examined days exceeding 267℃ and 322℃ After controlling for factors like smoking, race, and location, they found that those living in areas with more hot days still showed signs of higher molecular age markers than those who lived in cooler climates
On average, for every 10% increase in the proportion of hot days, the participants' molecular age increased by 0.12 years This means that persistent exposure to heat could age you from the inside out, even if you're taking measures to protect your skin
As global temperatures rise, this research highlights the need for more than just sunscreen to protect our bodies. Chronic exposure to high temperatures doesn’t just affect how we look but speeds up our biological clock So maybe think again about if your tan is worth it as this takes “live hot, die young” to a whole other level.
Professor Andrei Khlobystov and his team at the University of Nottingham have recently achieved a
remarkable breakthrough by creating a 'one-dimensional gas', - offering new insights into atomic interactions and the quantum world.
In this experiment, researchers trap a krypton atom inside each of the buckminsterfullerene molecules - spherical cages composed of 60 carbon atoms These molecules are then sucked into a carbon nanotube, which is just 1.5 nanometres thick (slightly narrower than a single strand of DNA!) This is achieved through van der Waals forces, weak intermolecular forces of attraction that cause nearby molecules to attract The tube is then heated to 1200°C, resulting in the cages to break down, leaving a single line of krypton atoms within the nanotube.
Claudia Paasch SFC2
Typically, gases move freely in 3 dimensions: up and down, left and right, and forward and backward. By successfully limiting their movement to a single dimension - along the length of the tube - researchers have created an environment where the rules of physics appear to behave differently Described as a "traffic jam", atoms are forced to slow down as they can not pass each other Now easier to observe, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) closely traces the atoms' movement and interactions The spectral map reveals that the constrained atoms still behaved like a gas, filling all available space
The TEM also allows researchers to observe the process of krypton atoms joining to form Kr₂ pairs, held together by the van der Waals interactions This enables them to measure the van der Waals distance between two atoms in real space, a phenomenon difficult to observe in unconstrained atoms
Future research will explore the effect of temperature on one-dimensional gas, observing the changes of state which demonstrates the relevance of these rules in onedimensional space Khlobystov anticipates that these studies will be "full of surprises" and sees this as an "exciting journey of discovery" This development shows the unexpected huge impact tiny particles can have on our understanding of the universe
You might be wondering: what exactly are quantum time crystals? Simply put, they are systems of particles whose lowest energy state unlike anything we observe in ordinary materials requires repetitive motion. This concept is most often explored in condensed matter physics (the study of the physical properties and behaviours of solid and liquid matter) and was first theorized in 2012 by Frank Wilczek at MIT, one of the best universities for physics
Time crystals have come a long way, having evolved from a theoretical idea to an experimental reality. The latest significant breakthrough occurred in February 2024, when a team from Dortmund University in Germany successfully created a highly robust time crystal using indium gallium arsenide. Remarkably, it remained stable for approximately 40 minutes 10 million times longer than previous experiments According to Science Daily, this advancement not only confirmed the theoretical predictions made over a decade ago, but also opened up a network of opportunities for the practical application of time crystals in quantum technologies
Some of the opportunities include Quantum computing and Quantum memory Quantum computing is a type of computing that uses qubits (basic units of quantum information) to perform calculations, whilst Quantum memory is a system that stores quantum information in a stable form using qubits The incorporation of time crystals in these mechanisms are crucial
Time crystals could potentially enhance the stability of qubits in quantum computing, resulting in reduced errors As for Quantum memory, time crystals could lead to improvement in quantum memory systems where data can be stored for extended periods without errors!
This discovery exemplifies the ingenuity of modern physics, where exploring the “impossible” can lead to transformative technologies. As time crystals edge closer to daily practical applications, they redefine the boundaries of what science can truly achieve
Miriam Lozovsky UC4
Dark matter has always been a ‘black hole’ that physicists longed to research more about; in short, it is an invisible and hypothetical form of matter that exerts gravitational attraction, but that does not interact with light or any other EM radiation.
Physicists today have very limited knowledge on dark matter, with understanding limited to facts like how dark matter can interact very weakly or not at all with ordinary matter We don’t know the type of particle dark matter is, or whether there is dark antimatter
You may then ask, how do we know of dark matter’s existence? Despite our limited specific knowledge of such matters, there is plenty of indirect evidence supporting this For instance, gravitational effects of satellite and neighboring galaxies hint at the presence of additional mass as well as its distribution in a large halo beyond physical extents of gas, stars and dust! The effect of dark matter also is evident through gravitational lensing, where mass bends and distorts background starlight. We see its imprint in the cosmic microwave background, and hence use its existence to explain concepts like the physics of colliding galaxy clusters It is also through these indirect measures from which we derived the few known characteristics of dark matter
The European Council for Nuclear Research website provides explicit explanations for the difficulty surrounding research in dark matter, the principle reason being conspicuous: dark matter does not interact with EM force, meaning it is very hard to spot
That does not, however, stop us from trying An especially exciting progression was announced by the Berkeley Lab in August of 2024 The research is led by the US Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) and hunts for dark matter from a cavern one mile underground at Sanford Underground Research facility in South Dakota, with a UK team of around 60 researchers in 10 institutes, led by Imperial College London, contributing to this experiment New results from this most sensitive dark matter detector in the world, LUX-ZEPLIN(LZ) have put new limits on the potential properties of one of the leading dark matter candidates: weakly interacting massive particles, or WIMPs
Giselle Chan SFC1
In 1996, Chuck Hull, often regarded as 'the inventor of 3D printing,' filed the first patent for
stereolithography (SLA) He was instrumental in developing and commercializing both SLA and the STL format, which has become the most common file type used in 3D printing Simply put, 3D printing is an additive process where material layers are built up to create a three-dimensional part. This technology is now widely used across various industries, including medicine
In the pharmaceutical industry, 3D printing's ability to produce a broad range of structural designs allows for the achievement of specific drug release profiles and addresses challenges in drug delivery and development These capabilities are fully realized in the Melt Extrusion Decomposition (MED®) process, a rapidly advancing, end-to-end technology that continuously transforms powder feedstocks into a softened or molten state This is followed by precise, layer-by-layer deposition to create objects with meticulously designed geometric structures MED is particularly useful in developing products that contain new chemical entities (NCEs) as well as in managing highly differentiated lifecycle products that meet unmet medical and clinical needs.
MED technology offers several advantages Firstly, it employs 3D Printing Formulation by Design (3DFbD®), a digital formulation process that moves away from traditional trial-and-error methods This significantly enhances the efficiency and success rate of drug development while reducing both time and costs Once a target pharmacokinetic (PK) profile is defined, it can be translated into a specific release profile This information is then used to design tablet structures and select appropriate polymeric materials and excipients to fabricate prototypes. Secondly, MED includes a simplified continuous manufacturing process that extends from raw materials to finished tablets, eliminating the need for pre- and post-production processing. Additionally, its molecular design allows for the flexible adjustment of production capacity This flexibility enables the technology to meet the demands for drugs needed in quantities ranging from millions for rare diseases to hundreds of millions for blockbuster products, thus ensuring a versatile supply chain
Stella Hu SFC2
Alzheimer’s disease has been long established to not be a prion disease, meaning that it cannot be
trasmitted through average, everyday contact
However, there are certain aspects of Alzheimer’s that may get confused with a prion disease Prion diseases involve two proteins that spread through tissue like a normal infection These specific proteins are able to force normal proteins of the body to be folded abnormally, in order to imitate the prion proteins’ shape
The two prion proteins responsible for Alzheimer’s were discovered to be amyloid beta plaques and tau tangles, the two of which work together to destroy the brain
This is why Alzheimer’s disease is labelled as a doubleprion disorder (contains two destructive proteins)
Prion diseases are contagious, which is why Alzheimer’s is not fully categorised as a prion disease But, is the answer really black and white? Although in natural environments Alzheimer’s is not contagious, there are still certain laboratory scenarios where the disease’s transmissibility could differ. For example, patients with a growth hormone deficiency require an invasive transplant, which has, in some cases, proven to be the cause for the contagious spread of Alzheimer’s disease in patients. However, through modern day advancements in biology and medicine, the growth hormones necessary are grown in a laboratory, terminating the need for a donor, and removing the risk of disease transmission.
Interestingly, as age increased, the protein tau had a decrease in relative abundance, which contradicted the previous belief of an increase in prion protein abundance with age On average, tau protein abundances in a 40 year old patient were measured to be 32 times higher than those of a 90 year old patient
This type of correlation is extremely rare in biological data, which could be the reason a variety of promising treatments have failed against Alzheimer’s disease in clinics
Luna Belza-Garcia SFC1
After decades of fighting, waiting and suffering, victims of the Infected Blood Scandal are finally getting answers with the
publication of the complete investigative report by the Infected Blood Inquiry in May In the 1970s and 80s, the government and health authorities stood idly by as over 30,000 people became infected with viruses such as HIV and hepatitis (mainly hepatitis B and C), after receiving blood transfusions from the NHS HIV impairs one’s immune system and increases vulnerability to everyday infections, causing lifethreatening AIDS in the long term Meanwhile, untreated hepatitis is potentially fatal as it leads to liver failure and cancer
The recipients included those who had bleeding disorders and required blood transfusions for the necessary clotting factor concentrates. The blood plasma has been pooled from paid donors that included high-risk groups of prisoners and drug-users. If one donor carried a virus, the whole batch became contaminated too. 3000 needless deaths occurred from infected blood products, with many more to come.
Yet, what infuriates victims and bereaved families was the inaction and lack of transparency of authorities. Since the mid-1940s, it was clear that blood transfusions had the potential to transmit ‘serum hepatitis’ as well as AIDS by 1982. Despite this, when the decision came to in July 1983, the government decided not to suspend the use of commercial blood products and failed to mitigate the risks. Patient safety was severely compromised, and what followed was even more condemnable: doctors used contaminated blood products knowingly!
This infected blood scandal is now regarded as the “biggest treatment disaster” of the NHS A costly mistake that could have been largely avoided, we can only watch as the government scrambles to rectify this with large figures of money and hope that families and victims receive the justice they deserve
Giselle Chan SFC1
Sickle cell disease is one of the most prominent medical conditions; this disease modifies blood cell shape into crescents and hinders blood flow It also happens to be the UK’s fastest-growing genetic condition Victims of this condition experience regular severe painful episodes and have a life expectancy up to 30 years shorter than the general population.
Recently, The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) has approved exagamglogene autotemcel (exacel) severe sickle cell disease treatment in older children and adults. NHS England said around 50 people per year would receive exa-cel! Exa-Cel is a form of one-time gene therapy treatment that uses CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology to modify patients' own blood-forming stem cells, therefore inducing healthy red blood cell production
In clinical trials for exa-cel, sold under the brand name Casgevy, 96 6% of participants were functionally cured of sickle cell disease. This is symbolic of a medical forefront where more conditions can be tackled with knowledge and technology!
One of the main aims of the creation of AI is to ensure its objectivity Unfortunately, AI is still poisoned with the bias of its creators New research published in ‘Nature’ has shown that Large Language Models (LLM’s) like Faith Moey UC4
GPT4, have been outputting racist stereotypes to speakers of African American English (AAE) Although many believed companies had eradicated the racist stereotypes present in developing language models, this new study demonstrates that as overt racism has decreased significantly, they have become more covertly racist The four researchers, Hoffman, Kalluri, Jurafsky and King, used ‘Matched Guise Technique’ to probe for prejudice 2 prompts were given to 5 different LLM’s, one in Standard American English, and one in African American English
In the picture above, the language model was given a text in Standard American English (in green) and asked if the speaker who said it was intelligent. The process was repeated but the text was in AAE (in purple).
It is merely suggested that the race of the speaker is not given, through the features of the stigmatized dialect that the prompt was given in. The models were asked to predict the characteristics of the speakers, allowing them to choose only from a group of adjectives associated with racist prejudice (taken from Princeton Trilogy studies). An appalling result showed that the speaker of the AAE prompt was predicted to have negative and stereotypical characteristics like lazy, ignorant etc. These are stereotypes about African Americans from before the Civil Rights Movement, and are ‘more negative than the most negative experimentally recorded human attitudes about African Americans’, as said by the study.
The researchers similarly analysed employability and criminality--- testing what the models predicted about which jobs SAE and AAE speakers would hold and what judicial outcomes were the most likely In both cases, the results for AAE speakers were stereotypical and highly negative, and the differences were stark between the dialects
Consequently, these covert racial biases could become problematic when companies use language models to make decisions on hiring or other uses of LLM’s in the general population It is clear that AI is yet to be uninfluenced by the racial stereotypes that its creators perceive, but certain actions could be undertaken to minimize this, such as inputting proven or fact-checked studies rather than having creators input their subconsciously biased opinions into their algorithm, or utilizing creator triangulation to counterbalance any effects of bias
SilFoam, a recent creation in the University of Central Florida, has solved the abiding problem of fatal
haemorrhaging after deadly traumas like traffic collisions, serious workplace accidents, or weapon-caused injuries
Usually, fatalities occur due to heavy bleeding in the first 30 minutes to one hour without efficient life support Therefore, SilFoam aims to 'develop a straightforward solution that could have the haemostatic efficacy within that time,' says Kausik Mukhopadhyay, assistant professor of materials science and engineering at UCF and study coauthor
SilFoam is a liquid gel of silicon and oxygen delivered via a special two-chambre syringe and quickly expands into a spongy foam, which covers up the wound and applies pressure to constrain the haemorrhage At the same time, the silver oxide serves as an antibacterial agent
Joyce Lin UC5
In addition, SilFoam's adhesive property allows muscles, veins, and arteries to recover more rapidly without damaging the capillaries. Furthermore, the recovery is exothermic, in which the generated heat catalyses the process; on top of that, oxygen, the by-product, can escape via the spongy structure's pores
Mukhopadhyay and the team have proved the product's promise by experimenting on realistic mannequins; simultaneously, it is evident that the process is noninvasive and mitigates psychological impacts on vets or surgeons Moreover, it reduces leakage, can be stored at room temperature, is cheap in material costs, is nontoxic, durable, is accessible and appliable for little or untrained people to operate the syringe, and doesn't cause harm to the patient upon removal.
Conclusively, UCF's creation of the non-invasive superbandage SilFoam is ultimately reliable, practical, and effective. It can become a universal tool to save countless lives suffering from severe traumas; perhaps the technology will be further developed for even more significant uses shortly
Emily Lam SFC1
t seems that Captain America’s popsicle-fication in the Arctic and revival 70 years later may not be as far-fetched a story as we once thought Welcome to the nuances of cryonics – the practice of preserving life by pausing the dying process with subfreezing temperatures
As our understanding of death progresses, its definition has shifted from a simple on/off switch determined by the cessation of heartbeat to a complex concept involving irreversible damage to the structures encoding memory and personality, otherwise referred to as ‘information-theoretic death’. When a human is pronounced dead by a clinician, they are still not in a state of ‘absolute’ death, but merely at a point where there are several processes that can be halted indefinitely, preserving that person into the future, where his condition can be treated or reversed. Death is a process, which can be put to a pause with cryonics – the lifeboat to tomorrow.
Quote: “cryonics represents the optimistic and courageous choice to embrace life, even in the face of death.”
The journey begins ideally up to seven days before a cryonicist’s death, with a standby team positioned nearby, ready to leap into action. Timing is crucial, as the earlier the procedure commences after cardiac arrest, the better the outcome. Once legal death is declared, usually at the cessation of the heartbeat, the clock starts ticking In the critical window of 0 to 2 hours, the patient undergoes stabilisation, where blood circulation and breathing are temporarily restored artificially to safeguard the brain Next up is the pivotal stage of perfusion,
occurring within 1 to 2 solutions are introduced the patient’s fluids The cocktail of chemicals (C2H6OS), ethylene gly (C3H8O2) and glycerol formation so that the reduced This results becomes a glass-like su ice, which helps pres effectively. The patien journey, quite literally, a degrees Celsius over th deep cooling solidifies decomposition and sus potential millennia. But they are transferred to l at subfreezing temperat within a vacuum-insulat maintain the frigid envir their body for that fatef resurrection.
Something’s missing It’s procedure How do we r human? The revival of th remains elusive, with no method in doing so The of cryonics all hinges on advancements in medica and technology, leaving of conquering death’s ic intended) grip to the rea future The laws of phys entropy, demand that th of the body will decomp eventually If the medica technology of the advanced, perhaps the how much work will do you’re thawed? The ans bodies once they’re tha some information about Back in 1983, Alcor –pretty unusual task o downsize three cryonau bodies to just heads. Th from their Dewar cap decapitated with a ch Once the heads were employees rolled up the the bodies inside a undocumented.
obvious burst blood vessels However, the inside was in an even worse condition than the others: the spinal cord was snapped into three pieces and the heart was fractured. This tremendous tissue deterioration will require incredibly advanced medical technology to fix. Hopefully, nanotechnology will lead to the capability of intricate tissue repair and regeneration, possibly repairing individual cells one
Prepare to have your understanding of the human mind challenged as we explore three stories of strange neurological conditions These medical mysteries not only reveal the bizarre workings of the brain, but also force us to grapple with deep philosophical questions about perception, awareness, and the nature of consciousness itself. Just how far do the mysteries of the mind extend?
In 1980, the esteemed neurologist Oliver Sacks encountered the peculiar case of Madeline J - a woman afflicted with both blindness and cerebral palsy. She described her hands as ‘godforsaken lumps of dough’, unable to perform the most basic tasks Though mildly spastic, they retained a degree of functionality
To help her, Sacks explored similar cases where patients’ hands were also unable to function He uncovered accounts of soldiers who experienced such phenomena after traumatic injuries, reporting that their hands felt ‘foreign’ and ‘lifeless’ However, these patients had previously experienced normal hand function, whereas Madeline hadn’t ever. After further investigation, Sacks discovered the cause – Developmental Agnosia Madeline perceived her hands to be completely useless, so her brain failed to develop neural pathways to them and she was unable to use her hands consciously In her case, because it was impossible to command Madeline to ‘do it’ and expect her hands to respond, Sacks tried soliciting an impulse One morning at breakfast, the nurses left her food slightly out of reach to provoke her into feeding herself Impatient and hungry, she miraculously grabbed the bagel and brought it to her mouth.
This single breakthrough was the key that unlocked Madeline's hidden artistic abilities After 60 years of dormancy, her hands blossomed with unprecedented creativity Madeline became locally renowned as the blind sculptor of St Benedict's, inspiring all who beheld them Who could have imagined such talent lay trapped in those "godforsaken lumps of dough"?
In 1866, a gripping short story titled 'The Case of George Dedlow' was published in Atlantic Monthly, describing the haunting experience of 'phantom limb' pain. Dedlow, a soldier in the Civil War, had lost all four of his limbs, yet still felt sensations like clenching and burning in them Following the war, neurologist Silas Weir Mitchell explored this in great detail, cementing his reputation as the 'Father of Medical Neurology'. To this day, phantom limb pain continues to fascinate researchers and doctors – but what is the science behind this mysterious condition?
The answer lies in the brain's stubborn refusal to let go. After an amputation, the brain keeps a 'map' of the missing limb despite its physical absence Without the real sensations from the limb to update this ‘map’ it becomes scrambled, misinterpreting signals and triggering excruciating pain
Luckily, modern medicine has developed several effective treatments for phantom limb pain Mirror therapy creates an illusion of the missing limb moving, helping to 'reset' the brain and reduce pain Medications like Gabapentin have also proved useful in calming the pain signals from the affected nerves. Interestingly, there have been some eccentric firsthand accounts of the 'revival' processes For example, one patient described how they must 'wake up' their phantom every morning – by flexing and slapping the stump – before they can put their prosthetic on and walk. Mysteries of phantom limb pain are gradually being unravelled, yet it will forever remain a captivating enigma
Phantom limbs reveal how the human brain can trick us into being aware of things that are not physically present. However, the opposite phenomenon also occurs –responding to events without realising we are doing so Graham Young is a prime example of this bewildering condition known as "blindsight "
At the age of 8, Young suffered a bicycle accident that left him with a blind zone to the right of his central vision Yet 15 years later an optometrist discovered that Young could somehow detect visual movements and the orientation of objects within this blind area. Working with psychologists Larry Weiskrantz and Elizabeth Warrington, it became clear that Young perceived shapes, colours, and motion there, despite claiming he could see nothing
How is this paradoxical state possible? The answer lies in the brain's dual visual pathways. The primary pathway processes visual information from the retina through to the primary visual cortex - the area associated with conscious sight However, the brain also has secondary pathways that route visual data to other regions like the frontal and occipital lobes. In Young's case, damage to his primary visual cortex left him functionally blind but these alternative secondary pathways remained intact, allowing his brain to subconsciously process visual stimuli and prompt behavioural responses – and it was all in his subconscious mind! Indeed, sometimes, even when our eyes stop functioning, the brain still remains on the lookout
Jenny Huang UC5
Thallium: heavy metal atomic number 81 - the ‘poisoner’s poison’. It is odourless, tasteless, colourless, able to inflict a slow-acting, excruciating death with less than a gram It leaves no bruises or wounds but can enter the body through any form of inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion It is hard for doctors to diagnose as it causes such a wide variety of symptoms. Simply put, thallium is the perfect murder weapon.
Would you ever use thallium on a person out of jealousy?
The case of Zhu Ling and her best friend epitomises this situation Ling was transformed from being perfect and an undergraduate in China’s most prestigious university, to being paralysed with an IQ of a 6-year-old
It was November 24th, 1994 at Tsinghua University, which consistently ranked first in China with an acceptance rate of 0 1% One step into the campus, you would immediately be drowned in an air of pressure, prestige Ling was no exception: a high-achieving student with an influential background, nicknamed ‘perfect Ling’. Ling was always punctual. Despite the immense backstabbing and betrayal between friends, she was never fazed Intelligent and talented with an interest in the Guqin, she was ‘charismatic in a way money cannot buy’
One could only imagine the shock when in mid-December 1994, she stopped showing up to class, when later her roommates found her twitching in stabbing pain, bald patches apparent on her head, clutching at clumps of hair. Within weeks she was reliant on her wheelchair She was silent – face pale, lips purple – a ‘campus ghost’ Was the stress finally hitting the most promising girl in the school? Could it be alopecia? Rumours circulated – none confirmed. She was hospitalised on March 6th at Peking University Third Hospital, but her condition deteriorated rapidly: simply touching the hospital bed could send her an electric shock of splitting pain At this point, all of her hair was lost, her eyes bulging as she screamed, pleading while the doctor stared at her – helpless.
Thallium 204.38
One doctor knew it all: professor Li Shunwei saw the clear mees’ lines on her fingernails – a key indication for thallium poisoning, yet the hospital was unable to conduct any test to confirm due to the lack of equipment
Bei Zhicheng was one of the undergraduates at Peking university When he visited his best friend since high school, Ling’s condition terrified him It is exactly the randomness which made it so bone-chilling On April 10th, frustrated with the inability of the doctors, Bei gathered and translated all of Ling’s symptoms and posted them on medical forums To his surprise, responses began pouring in within hours – everyone was in on this From the 2000 emails they received from over 18 different countries, roughly 1/3 stated the same Thallium poisoning Graham Young was a serial killer who poisoned 70 people by putting thallium in their teacups, who all suffered an excruciating body degradation. Who would risk it all to poison a college student?
A police investigation finally began on May 7th. Over 20 thallium retailers they investigated, but all had no connections. Except for one: Tsinghua university chemistry department – there was thallium in the school of Ling. The poisoning was intentional. Someone must have had access to the department. There were 7 suspects: 2 professors, 3 female post-grads, 2 undergrads – 1 boy, 1 girl. The girl was Sun Wei: not only Ling’s roommate, but best friend Sun was rich: her grandfather was a close friend of former Chinese leader Jiang Zemin, her father was a significant member of the democratic revolutionary committee Meanwhile, Sun’s mother worked in the hospital Ling was staying in
Prussian blue is a cure for thallium Paint is created by this synthetic, dark blue pigmented powder used in famous paintings like the Great Wave off Kanagawa: cheap, nontoxic and the magic cure To treat thallium poisoning, doctors need to prescribe pharmaceutical grade Prussian blue pigments, which bind to thallium, but they are impossible to find
This rare supply is often kept by countries under close stockpile in case of a nuclear attack as it is also an antidote for radiation poisoning Although this remedy was found, it was too late If only the hospital was more cooperative, if only that doctor who knew the cure conducted treatment immediately, if only Sun’s mother did not interfere with the testing equipment, Ling would be perfectly healthy
It was a slam dunk case! Sun was the missing piece of the puzzle She had access to Ling – access to thallium On April 28th, only Ling’s personal belongings were stolen: her contact lens, lipstick, shampoo – all gone As her roommate, Sun had access to all her toiletries Disturbingly, she also checked out thallium books from the library prior to Ling’s poisoning
Looking back at 1994, December 11th, Ling was performing the Guqin at the Tsinghua Chinese orchestra That night, she made sure everyone was entranced as her melodies danced from ear to ear from the sea of wellknown professors, to influential parents, scholars, students and finally Sun, who sat in the first row of the audience that night Eyes hinted with jealousy, she clapped as her best friend bowed on stage instead of her Sun risked her own life simply to take someone down
Although Sun was questioned by the police for 8 hours straight, the police cleared her of any suspicion as she claimed to have ‘zero motive’
Ling’s case was closed quietly If only Ling had anyone else as her best friend: someone caring - compassionate, she could have avoided her fate, yet she did not Ling was declared permanently disabled by the hospital
Her parents could not do more than sit helplessly by their daughter’s side, gently holding her hands as years rushed past the hospital bed 28 years later, Ling is still the same woman they have always known: intelligent and talented, even if all she could do was hold her mum’s hands tighter She died on the 22nd of December 2023 at the age of 50 after fighting all her life
Yet there is hope Some Chinese netizens discovered that Sun fled to Port Stephens in New South Wales, Australia She became Jasmine Sun, changed her date of birth and is living freely ever since Ling’s parents were not fighting the battle alone: petitions had been signed by thousands and drew the attention of all Chinese, US and Australian media towards this cold case. As of now, Sun still received none of the punishments she deserves for ruining someone else's life.
Were connections why Sun got away? If they are all that matters, Sun would never have killed Ling simply because Ling had everything Sun could not buy with money. Even so, jealousy should never be a motive to hate anyone, let alone killing them with this deceptional chemical weaponthallium.
Chloe Chan SFC1
Anaesthesia, the practice of making one lose sensation of pain and even consciousness, is a practice essential to all doctors It allows patients to wake up a few hours later completely fine, like they just had a nap This is especially important to surgeons, but it is a mysterious phenomenon to most Anaesthesia enables us to numb any pain and reduce suffering during visceral surgeries, through which many diseases are treated
It almost seems unbelievable, magical even, to be able to achieve total absence of pain and suffering It would have sounded absurd to our ancestors if you had told them that this was possible However, evidence of anaesthetic practice can be traced back to thousands of years For example, Hua Tuo, the Ancient Chinese physician, is famous for inventing the herbal concoction mafeisan, which has anaesthetic properties, to perform surgeries Ancient Inca doctors and shamans recommended chewing coca leaves to provide pain relief Greek and Roman physicians used opium as a pain reliever However, neither coca nor opium are used anymore due to their addictive qualities
In the late 19th century, when anaesthesia was not frequently used, surgeries were violent and tortuous for the patient. Surgeries were often a last resort and the final attempt in saving lives. Doctors could only perform surface surgeries; any deep surgeries like operating on the skull, the chest and abdominal areas were never attempted. Cries from patients echoed in hospital corridors, and they were pinned to surgical tables using hooks and pulleys to stop them from moving. Some doctors even bled their patients till they lost consciousness in order to perform the surgery. The suffering was intense.
In the winter of 1846, dentist William T G Morton used ether as an anaesthetic to aid surgeon John Warren in performing an operation to remove a lump under a patient’s jaw This technique quickly spread to Europe and America Eventually, doctors used the discovery of ether, chloroform and other drugs to anaesthetize patients Although chloroform is toxic and many other drugs were not very effective, these improvements in anaesthetic practices allowed greater explorations of surgical procedures in the ‘forbidden areas’
Luckily, anaesthesia is now safe and used by many doctors worldwide There are two types of anaesthesia: local anaesthesia and general anaesthesia Local anaesthesia refers to numbing of a specific area, while general anaesthesia makes you temporarily unconscious, normally used in surgeries Although both stop the patient from feeling pain, they have very different mechanisms
Local anaesthesia works by blocking sodium channels in our nerves that sense pain When our bodies feel a tactile sensation, like pressure or pain, sensory receptor cells on our skin are stimulated and sodium ions are sent to the affected area As the charge of sodium ions reaches the threshold, sodium channels open, allowing more sodium ions to pass through. This triggers subsequent sodium channels, inducing a current large enough to generate an electric impulse that travels to the brain. By blocking these sodium channels, the electric signals that convey the sensation of pain do not reach the brain. Depending on the drug, they can also work by introducing an alternative charge that interrupts the sodium ions’ original flow.
Local anaesthesia is more widely used in real life than you might imagine Before blood is taken for blood testing, nurses in NHS hospitals sometimes apply ‘the cream’ This cream contains a local anaesthetic, normally lidocaine A clear plaster is put on the applied area so the cream stays on your skin for approximately one hour; this reduces the pain felt by younger children during blood extraction Local anaesthesia may also be administered through injection on or near a tissue For example, dentists may inject one or two shots of anaesthetics near where your wisdom tooth is being removed Although side effects from local anaesthesia are uncommon if you are not allergic, the dentist may ask you to not eat or drink for a period of time after the surgery due to the numbing effect, which affects the body’s swallowing reflex
General anaesthesia is a more complicated process It involves four elements combined together to anaesthetize the patient: unconsciousness, sedation (not moving), analgesia (not feeling pain), and amnesia (not remembering) General anaesthesia depresses the CNS (central nervous system), which decreases heart rate, breathing rate and brain activity They do so by interfering with synapses which send neurotransmitters to the brain There are two types of neurotransmitters involved The first are excitatory neurotransmitters, which prompt electric impulses to be sent to the brain Here, anaesthetics block the neurotransmitter glutamate from binding to its receptors, preventing an electric impulse from being sent. The second type of neurotransmitters are inhibitory neurotransmitters, which block electric impulses from being sent. For example, anaesthetics stimulate more GABA neurotransmitters (a type of inhibitory neurotransmitter) to be produced, hence also having an effect of stopping the electric impulse that carries the ‘pain signal’ from being sent.
However, different anaesthetics have different properties. For example, thiopental anaesthetics lower blood pressure, breathing rate, and cause the airways in the lungs to narrow, making it unsuitable for people with asthma. Etomidate anaesthetics, meanwhile, do not affect blood pressure as much and can be used for patients with low blood pressure. Therefore, anaesthetists use different combinations of drugs to counteract the body’s automated responses to maintain a balanced anaesthesia. They take medical history and other factors into account as well, keeping patients in an unconscious and safe state throughout the surgery.
However, sudden depression of the CNS does cause the body to ‘think’ that you are in danger, leading to involuntary muscle movement and increased heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, similar to the ‘fight or flight response’ Therefore, doctors can sometimes notice a pinky twitch during a surgery The body’s natural reflexes may also cause food to come up to your throat or stomach acid to enter your lungs which would definitely put you in more danger than intended Therefore, patients are told not to eat or drink eight hours before a surgery to prevent this happening
Advancements in anaesthetic practice have allowed pain to be greatly reduced in surgeries Anaesthesia is often overlooked but doctors and scientists have worked really hard to develop these medical procedures in order to improve the patient’s comfortability in surgery It is therefore thanks to the panacea for pain - anaesthesia - that patients can think of surgery as a nap
Globally, 1 million people a year become amputated, or lose their limbs, due to reasons such as diabetes mellitus, peripheral vascular disease, neuropathy, which is a type of nerve damage, and trauma. If health allows, these patients can utilize prosthetic limbs in replacement of their lost limb. Usually made of plastic, aluminum, titanium, and silicone, these limbs are attached to the patient’s body by suction or by being strapped to the stump of the missing limb In some cases, surgery may even be used to attach the prosthetic limb directly to the bone
Although a prosthetic limb allows amputated patients a long-time dream of moving normally again, it is indisputable that the experience takes a lot of getting used to, and after then, it will still not be quite the same An article from the New York Times highlights a woman’s journey in adjusting to her prosthetic limb upon its installation. In the article, the woman points out challenges in not only initially adjusting to the prosthetic limb’s differing weight but also afterwards learning to walk again with the prosthetic. The woman further emphasises on emotional challenges associated with this journey as although, yes, the limb allows for walking, but senses will be lost, for example, the ability to feel different textures
How can a limb enable you
Feeling through an artificial limb is a great engineering challenge, and to understand why, we need to go back and talk about how we feel. As described by Brain IEE, the current level of understanding involves receptors passing tactile information from the skin to the spinal cord and into the somatosensory regions of the cortex in our brain. If we delve deeper into the various receptors in our skin, types such as mechanoreceptors allow us to perceive sensations like pressure and texture whereas muscle spindles and Golgi tendons help us perceive position. Specifically for upper limb amputees, peripheral nerves and feedback are disrupted at the receptor level, causing it to be more difficult to recover this sense of touch As a sort of takeaway, it could be agreed upon that the sense of touch is really difficult to replicate
Through tens of years in research, the more developed way of producing artificial skin now involves flexible electronics, in which there are digital versions of such receptors such as mechanoreceptors These sensors translate pressure, temperature, or even texture into oscillatory spikes which is able to drive nerve stimulation and thus allow the perception of touch Translating the sensory information into oscillatory spikes involve signal processing in which data gathered by the sensors is processed by a sophisticated system, and interpreted and translated To drive nerve stimulation, these electrical signals are sent to the amputee’s remaining nerves If we go back to upper limb prostheses, the challenge of translating the response into meaningful sensory information is larger than ever, and therefore is still being researched.
Behold.. One of the most impressive young scientists of our generation, who has taken it upon himself to produce these magical prosthetic limbs for millions of people, thus allowing them to regain the sense of touch!
Recognized by We Forum’s economic growth as one of the 10 young scientists tackling the world’s problems, Benjamin C K Tee is an impressive youngster designing these artificial skin sensor systems using his knowledge in biomedical robotics He is carrying out the mighty technology that this article touched the surface of, researching how to further enhance this technology to be self-repairable and degradable We Forum commends him in stating his research could benefit millions, as in the US alone there are 2.1 million people living with limb loss.
Benjamin has since grown up, earning himself a PHD from the NUS graduate school, specializing in sharing this sense of touch to those who need it most His legacy which started when he was merely a child serves to inspire many of us young scientists who yearn to make a change
On top of the amazing accomplishments and drives of Benjamin, his origin story covered by MIT technology review is one worth noting. He covered the day he was first made curious about how things worked: “As a kid I was always curious about things, and I tended to break things,” says Benjamin Tee. “One of the things I broke was my greatgrandmother’s alarm clock you know, back then it was a winding alarm clock, it was one of those really old antiques, and she got really upset when I broke it and I couldn’t fix it,” teaching us all a lesson in that curiosity is what brings us far
Benjamin CK Tee is merely one of the many pioneers in our world striving to improve our world In the realm of prosthetic limbs, his research is allowing amputees to gain finer control over their prosthetic limbs and benefit from a more natural experience with the sense of touch, ultimately leading to an improved quality of life
In terms of the future, researchers are exploring the possibility of integrating these artificial skin sensory systems with other technologies such as brain-computer interfaces to create more sophisticated prosthetics! Benjamin CK Tee, along with his fellow researchers, are currently working to overcome more challenges in this realm of prosthetics, including simplifying the system to allow easier manufacture, decreasing the cost of production, and increasing the skin system’s durability
Janice Law SFC1
TheEffectsofUVRadiation
The effects of spending time in the sun are well-known to us: a tan, sunburn, premature aging, and even skin cancer are the obvious consequences of prolonged exposure to UV radiation from the sun Despite these widely understood effects, the mechanisms by which the skin protects itself and the variations in these effects across different people remain unknown by most Why do some people tan, while others just get sunburned? What is the science behind tanning?
Under the umbrella term of "ultraviolet radiation," UV radiation is divided into three types based on their wavelength Ultraviolet A radiation (UVA) has a longer wavelength than ultraviolet B radiation (UVB), allowing it to penetrate deeper into the skin UVA is associated with immediate tanning and sunburn, and in the long term, it causes premature aging of theskinandwrinkles Incontrast,UVBradiationisresponsiblefordelayedtanning,sunburns,blisters,andcontributesto thedevelopmentofskincancerovertime
UVC radiation, which has the shortest wavelength and highest energy of the three types, is blocked by the ozone layer and does not reach the Earth's surface, protecting us from potential burns from prolonged exposure However, we can stillbeexposedtoUVCthroughartificialsourcessuchaslampsorlasers
HowYourSkinReactstoUVRadiation
When the skin is exposed to UV radiation, a series of protective mechanisms are activated as the skin enters "survival mode" to protect itself from harm A hormone known as melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) is produced, which triggerstheproductionofmoremelaninincellscalledmelanocytes
HowYourSkinReactstoUVRadiation
When the skin is exposed to UV radiation, a series of protective mechanisms are activated as the skin enters "survival mode" to protect itself from harm A hormone known as melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) is produced, which triggers the production of more melanin in cells called melanocytes Melanin is the pigment responsible for the natural color of your skin, and it also acts as protection by forming a barrier that absorbs UV light, thereby minimizing the damage done to the skin As a result, over a longer period of exposure, the skin darkens because MSH causes the melanocytes to make more melanin to protectagainstUVradiationdamage
However, when the melanocytes cannot work quickly enough to produce more melanin for a tan, the skin becomes burnt, resulting in the pink or bright red skin you might remember having after a sunny day.
Another inevitable part of having a severe sunburn is experiencing bits of skin flaking and peeling off This phenomenon occurs because the skin swells and expands when it absorbs UV radiation, then contracts afterward The outer layer of damaged and dead skin cells is removed by the body to aid in the healing process.
Over time, extended exposure to UV radiation reduces the elasticity of the skin, resulting in wrinkles and an older appearance
Additionally, DNA mutations may occur, and a significant accumulation of these mutations can lead to the uncontrolled division of cells, ultimately resulting in skin cancer
One common myth about tanning is that people with darker skin tones, due to their higher melanin content, have natural protection against sunburn and therefore do not need to apply sunscreen While it is true that people with darker skin have more protection and are less susceptible to sunburn, they are not immune to the harmful effects of UV radiation A study conducted in 2016 showed that nearly 66% of white people experienced at least one sunburn in the past year, compared to 35% of Hispanic people and only 11% of Black people However, this does not mean that people with darker skin are not at risk. Although people with darker skin are less likely to develop skin cancer, they do face a higher death rate from it, likely due to later diagnoses influenced by medical bias.
By now, you might be slightly intimidated by the harm that UV exposure poses on a daily basis Fortunately, there is a simple solution to this problem: sunscreen! Applying sunscreen religiously, regardless of your skin tone or weather conditions, is an effective and wise method to mitigate the potential effects of UV radiation exposure. So make sure to apply sunscreen next time before you step out the door, even if it's not sunny!
Our earth contains electromagnetic radiation, which is a variety of different wavelengths of light. However, human eyes are only able to see a small portion of this spectrum, which we call the “visible spectrum.” This ranges from wavelengths roughly from 400 nm (violet) to 700 nm (red), and the range varies slightly depending on each person’s ability to see into the ultraviolet and infrared ranges of light.
The visible light spectrum is displayed above Though, the colour magenta is nowhere to be seen So, why do we see it?
Through the visible light spectrum, we can see that magenta does not have its own wavelength. However, on the colour wheel, it exists as a complementary colour of green.
Our eyes have receptors called cones in our eyes detecting short (S), medium (M) and long (L) wavelengths. These roughly correspond to the detection of red, green and blue colours, and the brain can detect the different colours due to the differences in information received from the three types of cones.
Through combining these colours, secondary colours can be created For example, if the L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, the colour yellow will be seen, as yellow will slightly lean away from the green wavelength towards the longer wavelengths
Magenta is a colour stimulated when the eye reports information from short wave (blue) cone cells and a sub-sensitivity of the long wave cones (red) which react secondary to the same colour but with little to no information from the middle wave cones (green) However, since there are no wavelengths of light bridging the gap between blue-violet short-wave light waves with red long-wave light waves, the brain creates a “new colour” to fill it in, interpreting the combination as either a magenta or purple hue depending on the proportionate intensity of the cone responses
So, this purplish-pink “secondary” colour is actually an illusion that is created by our eyes as a reaction to the missing gap in wavelengths, which makes it a “nonexistent” colour, or an extra-spectral colour, meaning the colour cannot be found on the light spectrum
We've all heard of vitamins, essential nutrients that keep our bodies strong and healthy, but do you know where that term came from?
Casimir Funk was a trailblazing biochemist in the world of health and nutrition, particularly known for coining the term 'vitamin'. His contributions greatly advanced our understanding of how certain dietary compounds are vital for our well-being, impacting nutrition and medicine
It all began in the late 19th century when scientists were looking for the cause of the disease beriberi - now known as a vitamin B1 deficiency Upon learning that diets containing brown rice instead of white rice were protective against this disease, he set upon on the journey of finding the chemical compound responsible for its protective properties. In 1912, Funk successfully isolated a substance containing a nitrogen compound called an amine and named it a "vital amine", or "vitamine" When scientists later discovered that not all vitamins contained an amine group, they shortened it to "vitamin"
Funk observed that certain diseases, like scurvy and rickets, were linked to deficiencies in specific dietary components He proposed that these "substances preventing that special disease" were crucial for a healthy diet, correctly suggesting the importance of vitamins in preventing such conditions. The compound isolated is now known as vitamin B3 (niacin). Although he wasn't the first to study such compounds, Funk was the first to identify these substances as essential for maintaining health
Funk’s realisaton that these compounds not only cured deficiencies but also balanced diets laid the foundation for modern nutrition science and medicine Over the next 35 years, scientists discovered the rest of the vitamins (13 in total), while Funk continued to work with vitamins for pharmaceutical companies throughout his career
Today, vitamins are crucial in various medical treatments For instance, vitamin C is essential for wound healing and immune function, while vitamin D is vital for bone health Funk’s work helped shape our understanding of nutrition and continues to influence our approach to health and diet in medicine. So next time you hear about vitamins, remember Casimir Funk and his important contribution to keeping us all healthy!
Julie Suen SFC1
Plastic is growing in supply due to the low cost of its raw material – natural gas. It is widely used because the material is durable, light and cheap But a lot of times, plastic products are disposed of after a single use, like the crinkled Waitrose bag that you threw away just last weekend As a result, plastic waste is growing and accumulating on the streets and in landfills As the sun sets every day, and the land breeze sweeps the flimsy artificial wastes into the ocean, the sea becomes more and more concentrated with plastic Little pieces of floating plastic are mistaken as food, while plastic bags become traps; the clownfish get strangled, the sea turtles starve, and the blue whales are poisoned to death.
Plastic is lethal because it eliminates a “good” bacteria
Plastic blocks out sunlight and releases toxins, affecting the oxygen production and reproduction of a bacteria called prochlorococcus. It is the most abundant photosynthetic organism in the ocean and it underpins the oceanic food web This means that it is the primary producer so if less of it is produced, less energy will be transferred to the consumers in the food chain Hence the marine food chain will not withstand with plastic in the ocean
Plastic strips marine animals of their home Pathogenic bacteria can accumulate on and colonise plastic. If the contaminated plastic products rest on the coral reefs, the bacteria can attack the coral reefs, which can die Without coral reefs, 25% of all marine life lose their homes Moreover, over a billion people live near coral reefs and depend on them for food, protection and jobs. Not only would marine animals get displaced, people would also suffer from the consequences of plastic pollution
A solution is required to change the sign of the inequality equation that by 2048, plastic > fish However, it is a near impossible job to get rid of all the plastic in the ocean, how do we begin?
Enter Sungai Watch, a company based in Indonesia whose mission is “to protect and restore our world’s rivers by developing and designing simple technologies to stop the flow of plastic pollution from going into the ocean” The company’s work includes installing barriers and doing emergency illegal landfill cleanups in Indonesia Over 23 million kilograms of plastic have already been collected, with the help of 300 barriers. 260 villages have been cleaned since 2020 It all started with 3 passionate young siblings – Gary, Kelly and Sam Bencheghib
At the age of 12, Sam started Make a Change Bali, a youthled organisation which holds weekly beach cleanups, with his siblings after moving to Indonesia from France Now the organisation has upgraded to Make a Change World, and Sam, Kelly and Gary have been using their passion for filmmaking to spread awareness. They aim to inspire action against plastic pollution and other environmental issues that the world is facing
In one of his many projects, Sam ran 3000 miles across the US from the Atlantic to the Pacific The idea originates from the principle that in order to create a big change, we need to take on big challenges On the journey, he met with 10,000 people whom he explained the impacts of plastic pollution face to face to These people included politicians and students at schools and universities. People living in middle America are brought to be aware of plastic pollution happening in the remote oceans Sam showed the world that nothing is impossible by running tirelessly through
It is not only designed to be comfortable and stylish, but also sustainable as it leaves behind no offcuts The word “Ombak” means “a large wave” in Indonesian This product embodies the vision that the team from Sungai Watch and Sungai Design want to achieve – a river cleaner than it was found
Young leaders around the world are all fighting against plastic pollution. In the Netherlands, there is a company called The Ocean Cleanup whose aim is to have cleaned up 90% of floating ocean plastic around the world by 2040. The company designed an artificial coastline that traps floating plastics in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Garbage patches are especially large polluted areas of the ocean due to rotating ocean currents that pull wastes in Because of these currents, the plastic waste will keep on circulating and breaking down into smaller and smaller pieces Subsequently, it will be easier for marine animals to mistake them for food Therefore The Ocean Cleanup specifically targets this area The company also intercepts plastic flowing from rivers in different locations around the world, (e g Jamaica, USA, Vietnam), into the ocean using multiple technologies At present, The Ocean cleanup has collected over 10 million kg of trash around the world
After collecting plastic pollutants from the ocean, Sungai Watch hands them over to its sister company, Sungai Design Plastic bags constitute about 36% of the plastic waste collected Plastic wastes are washed, shredded, heatpressed, and restyled into hard and durable sheets The sheets are then intricately carved, forming panels which are assembled into the final product – the Ombak chair, made by passionate and dedicated artisans from 2000 plastic bags
System 03, also known as Josh, is a 2 2 km long floating barrier Capable of cleaning the area of a football field every 5 seconds, it consists of two wings that are 4 m deep, which skim the surface of the ocean for plastics At the centre of the barrier is the retention zone - the big garbage bag that collects all the plastics
The plastics float along the wings to the retention zone while the system is towed through the ocean by two vessels at low speed – less than 3 km/h or slower than average walking speed. Spots with the highest plastic density, called hotspots, are tracked down using computers. After 3 to 4 days, the retention zone becomes full, and the garbage is unloaded onto the deck of one of the vessels Based on their recycling streams, the plastics are sorted into different categories Finally, the whole system is put back in the ocean and the garbage bag starts to fill up again
However, the problem is that every river is different, for example, the tidal patterns, width and depth are unique to every river The solution that the company came up with is to produce a variety of different models of interceptors so that the right solution can always be applied for every river
For example, the Interceptor Original consists of a barrier that guides plastic carried by the water current up a conveyor belt into the collecting vessel – which can store up to 50 m3 of trash before being emptied.
Boyan Slat came up with the idea to clean up the ocean after being horrified by encountering more plastic than fish whilst scuba diving in Greece when he was 16 This led him to research plastic pollution for a school project, in which he learnt about the Great Pacific Garbage Patch After gaining support from a TEDx talk, the young boy dropped out of school and became the CEO and founder of The Ocean Cleanup
According to The Ocean Cleanup, 1% of rivers in the world are responsible for 80% of all plastics going into the ocean Rivers are arteries that transport plastic from land to sea, so it is essential to stop the flow of plastic before they get carried to sea
More than 8 million tons of plastic are thrown into the ocean annually and the figure will only grow If one person can initiate the collection of millions of kilograms of plastic, there is no reason why a group of people cannot make our ocean closer to plastic-less. Sam Bencheghib ran across the US at 22 years old to tell people about the growing problem of plastic pollution. He has seen the worst of the worst of rivers so he felt it was his mission to raise awareness among the people he met on his way of his run He realised how hard it is to take the first step every morning, but he pushed himself to do it Even when he was injured, he got out of bed and walked the miles with walking sticks The steps that we can take to start making a change are many and easy, like avoiding singleuse plastic products According to Sam, no idea is crazy enough to save the planet because we only have one planet To Boyan, perseverance is the key to reach the goal. According to him, any sane person would have given up at many moments in cleaning up the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. But he never gave up and his goal never changed. Before system 03, there had been system 01 and system 02. The world needs to be aware of Sam and Boyan’s actions The world needs to take up the responsibility that every citizen of earth has to consume less plastic The world needs to make a change now and end plastic pollution in order to make our ocean natural again
Hence allow me to use only 5 minutes of your time to protectyoufromtheworst.
Here are some things you could do to protect yourself fromcyberthreats.
Set strong passwords! That’s what password manager is herefor Remembertosetittoatleast10charactersand include upper, lower case letters, numbers and symbols Forexamplem#P52s@ap$V.
Update your software! Whenever your device notifies you to update it (from settings and not from suspicious websites), be sure to do so Though some people (including me) dislike changes to the interface, like the onesinAppleupdates,itisbettertobesafethansorry
Enabletwo-factorauthentication!Apasswordonitsown could easily be deciphered by brute-force To get more security, choose to use two-factor authentication and getaone-timecodethatonlyyoucanreceiveeachtime youloginalongwithyourpassword
Be cautious of pop-up ads! When you accidentally click onsomethingonawebsite,itdirectsyoutosomewhere else This could trigger a malware download So, make sure you have turned on the ‘block pop-ups’ function in your settings Most importantly close the tab immediately if you ge website.
Sometimes, we are not underthreat Hereareso Slow performance Unle contains many installed malwareinfection.
Unexpected pop-ups D thenthatissuspicious
Unfamiliarprogramsand your phone, or “Finder” Usually,theycanbehidd
andeveninseeminglyinnocuousfiles,suchasexe files
Unusualactivity Whenyoudiscoverthatsomethingis off, immediately change your password and see whetheryoucouldactivate2FAorverification,sothe hackerswillnotbeabletoaccessyouraccountaseasily
After all, the chance of getting hacked is not 0%, but thereareproceduresthatwecoulddoifwereallydid gethacked
Disconnect from the internet Doing so prevents hackersfromaccessingmoreinformationaboutyou
Changeyourpasswords Recallallyourmostimportant accounts (those that contain confidential information) andimmediatelychangethecorrespondingpasswords Also,ifthereisanoptiontologoutofalldevices,Iurge youtodoso!Neverusethesamepasswordorsimilar passwordsforallofyouraccounts
Useantivirussoftware Ifyoustillhavecontrolofyour device, run a security scan to detect the malicious software that is installed However, bear in mind that theymaynotallbefound
Notifyyourfriendsandfamily Withthehackergaining accesstoyouraccounts,yourfamilyandfriendsarealso atrisk,astheircontactsareexposedtothehacker So,it is crucial to tell them that anything that is sent from youraccountisnotyou!
Finally,herearesomesuggestionsonappstoinstallon yourdevices
Theseappswillhelpyoudetectandremovevirusesand otherkindsofmalicioussoftwarefromyourdevice.For laptops, “Avast Free Antivirus” and “AVG AntiVirus Free” are free options For mobile phones, “Norton MobileSecurity”isagoodchoice.
“Malwarebytes” is a specialised malware removal tool that removes threats that a traditional antivirus softwaremightmiss
Luckily,ourschooliswellawareofthedangersofcyber threatsandhasequippeduswithafirewallandcyber security training However, if you think that you got hacked,thefirstthingtodoultimatelyistoreachoutto theITstaff!
Neriah Ossei UC5
As a blood-red sun rose over the horizon, a Genovese seafarer peered to make sure what he was seeing was land After almost ten weeks of sailing across what apparently was an endless ocean, who could blame him for doubting his own eyes? His sole mission was to discover extraordinary plants, animals and people, and to share this knowledge with the world Little did he know these intentions would not align with the events that came after
Contrary to NASA’s aim to "explore the unknown in air and space, innovate for the benefit of humanity, and inspire the world through discovery”[1], there were ambitions that involved colonizing planets, mining asteroids, and offering thrills for wealthy tourists bored with earthly travel. During the post-Columbus period, European merchants and adventurers dreamt of grabbing resource-rich territories from militarily weak nations, searching for gold and silver, exotic commodities like chocolate and sugar. While there would be an abundance of profitable resources at hand, the environmental damage behind the scenes was widespread, and unspoken of.
Yet the trend continues The recent surge in the development of affordable, reusable rockets has brought space travel within the grasp of private enterprises Since then the shift toward a low-regulation framework intended to democratize access to space has led to troubling consequences, among them, a propensity for unscrupulous and negligent practices
Just as on Earth, the economic allure of cutting costs incentivised companies to dump waste directly into space rather than investing in proper disposal This approach poses long-term environmental threats, particularly the proliferation of space debris commonly referred to as "space junk " Scientists warn that fragments could eventually re-enter Earth's atmosphere, causing harm not only to the environment but also to humankind Further, the increasing accessibility of space travel has given rise to space tourism, an industry that promises to captivate the affluent in the same way luxuries like potatoes and chocolate once provided an expensive thrill in 16thcentury Europe. Yet again, such a prospect raises serious concerns. Our last frontier, at the momentrelatively untouched by human activity, risks being degraded to serve a privileged minority, threatening to transform space into yet another casualty of exploitation
Just as it may have been inconceivable to Columbus that the New World (1) would soon be filled with soldiers, cannons and military fortifications, there is a worrying trend towards the weaponization of space Though the 1967 Outer Space Treaty sought to prevent this, it eventually proved ineffective; in 2019, the US was able to create a Space Force with an explicit mission to secure the Nation's interests in, from, and to space. They would soon be joined by others staking their claims and protecting such claims by military force Together with the development of unmanned military drones and AIcontrolled robots, the prospect of war in space is closer than ever
It is clear that as we try to follow in the footsteps of Columbus in creating an age of discovery in space, we are more so following in the footsteps of the murderous conquistadors, merciless pirates and environment-destroying planters that followed Fortunately, there is still time to change course and avoid disaster by creating effective regulations that can stop space from being another battleground for companies and armies: we can ensure that space companies are responsible for removing space debris to preserve the ecosystem; we can encourage responsible behaviour by requirinng private space companies to pay the true cost of maintaining the space environment; we can even enact a new Treaty, preventing weapons from being installed in space The window to preserve our last pristine environment is closing fast and we must act now to avoid making the same mistakes as our predecessors ⠀
(1) New World - a collective term to describe most of the land in the Western hemisphere, particularly, the Americas
Kathryn Chan UC5
Darwin’s theory of evolution, simply put, is the process of natural selection. Since resources are limited, if there is a change in the environment, organisms with traits that favor survival and reproduction will thrive and produce more offspring, while those with unfavorable characteristics will eventually be filtered out and eliminated. This results in a population that is adaptable and able to stand the test of time.
Except, How is this relevant to medicine? Well, the theory of evolution has been applied in medicine by exploring how our evolutionary past has affected us. This is in order to develop more effective strategies for health issues, rather than simply analyzing the factors causing disease. To achieve this, Darwinian Medicine answers the question of why the body is not better designed there is a conflict between our evolved biology and the modern environment.
For one, the increased risk of obesity can be explained In history, substances like fats and sugars were in such short supply in the natural environment that our ancestors developed a preference for food with high calories to conserve energy for the day’s activities the better their bodies converted food into energy and stored fat, the higher the chance of survival There was also a tendency to be sedentary for prolonged periods in the day to minimize the expenditure of calories This lifestyle has become adopted and inherited in our genes as a result of natural selection, some more affected by this than others Therefore, there is a higher chance for some to get atherosclerotic disease as well as obesity, and it is more difficult for them to maintain a healthy weight
Another example of this is myopia, commonly known as short-sightedness, where light is focused in front of the retina due to an eyeball that is too long or a lens that is too curved Studies have shown that rates of myopia have skyrocketed over the past three centuries, due to factors such as increased education and more time spent indoors Most eyeball growth occurs in childhood years, and with increased education, close-range indoor activities like reading have led to the tendency for children’s eyes to focus at only the distance of a page
This explains the recent myopia pandemic, as there is a discrepancy between previous lifestyles in outdoor environments in natural light and modern lifestyles being largely indoors.
Now that we understand the role evolution plays in certain medical conditions, how can we utilize this newfound knowledge, and use it to our advantage?
By recognizing how previous environmental conditions during evolution have led to issues in the body, allows treatment to be more focused and direct Using the previous example of obesity, we can come up with strategies such as adopting a healthier diet, promoting nutritious foods, and reducing the consumption of high-calorie ones An increase in exercise is also shown to be significant in preventing and treating obesity. Meanwhile, to control myopia, especially in children, it is highly encouraged to spend more time outdoors during the day and to use fewer electronic devices This prevents the eyeball from further elongating in such a crucial stage of development
But it doesn’t stop there. The approach of using evolutionary classification to compare the biology of different organisms has led to the development of new drugs to treat malaria At first, it was difficult to develop drugs to kill the parasite Plasmodium falciparum that causes malaria, since the drugs developed were typically toxic to humans Humans and P falciparum are both eukaryotes (cells with distinct nuclei) and have had similar evolutionary pathways, so they share many aspects of their biology. However, in the 1970s, scientists found that P. falciparum cells contained apicoplasts (Non-photosynthetic plastids) that were closely related to the chloroplasts of plants, both of which humans do not have This discovery has revolutionized the search for chemotherapeutic agents (used to inhibit growth of cancer cells), to treat malarial infections, prompting the testing of new drugs which target the apicoplast, reducing the side effects on humans. Evidently, understanding evolutionary biology can aid researchers in seeking new drugs and treatments for diseases
In conclusion, understanding the Theory of Evolution plays a significant role in medicine It allows us to target the causes of flaws in the body or weaknesses in certain pathogens, so that we can develop treatments for different conditions more effectively. With all this in mind, we can only imagine the potential that its application in medicine has, when searching for solutions to upcoming pandemics
The process of creating VitaeGum was long - the prototype testing failed as an ingredient was banned by the EU. In the second trial, the product did not look appealing So, it took a lot of iterations for the gum to be developed But it eventually got developed, and after visiting the refugee camp at Calais for a lot of times as a volunteer, Harriet had built trust with the refugees in order for the product to be accepted.
On the 7th of October, ex-CLC pupil Harriet Lester returned and gave a talk on her life story. She had been taught chemistry by Dr Gamblin when she was at CLC, and she continued to pursue a career in the field of biology and chemistry, and in business as well
Harriet’s work is extensive and affects people from all over the world. She co-founded VitaeGum - a company which manufactures a vitamininfused chewing gum for dental health treatment. The innovative idea came from working at a refugee camp at Calais Harriet used to give out gum to the refugees, which was really wellreceived. Moreover, transferring gum from the manufacturing site to the refugees camps is very feasible due to the small size of the packs of gum So Harriet worked out what can be put into gum that can help people’s teeth.
100,000 kg of VitaeGum was manufactured in the first batch! These were sent to refugees, drug addiction facilities and the homeless In Ukraine, 400 packs were given out as Christmas gifts, and in Norway, it is still being given out now!
Apart from being the co-founder of VitaeGum, Harriet had been involved in the NHS Lighthouse covid mega lab, the First Aid Support Team at Calais, and Reset Health, a company which delivers chronic care.
To me, Harriet Lester is a truly inspiring role model. Her originality, persistence and compassion makes her a leader that the CLC community should look up to
Julie Suen SFC1
Mrs Mech stands out prominently when asked to reflect on my science lessons at CLC. Over the past 2 years, her impact has transcended the A-Level syllabus, shaping not only my approach to learning but also my overall perspective. One of the most invaluable lessons that I have learned from Mrs Mech is the significance of grasping the boarder concept/ back bone within which specific concepts reside. Often when studying for exams whether its GCSEs or A-Levels we tend to drill our heads into the slightest of details, how to hit the points on the mark scheme However, Mrs Mech focused on delivering the overarching principles and connections between topics and making sure that we understood it Her approach of systematically integrating new concepts, the ‘tangents’ that we often go on, and discussions on science news not only facilitated a deeper understanding but has also been instrumental in broadening my intellectual curiosity and fostering a more meaningful engagement with the content
Additionally, as part of Biology week last year Mrs Mech asked me to share my summer projects with younger years so that they could be motivated and participate in similar projects I greatly appreciate the support that I have received from her
Outside of academic lessons, Miss Phillips – my GCSE Chemistry teacher and my subject mentor - had played the most significant role on my university applications from working on my personal statement meticulously to her support and guidance in preparing for my Cambridge interview Attending her biochemistry university classes not only extended my intellectual curiosity but significantly honed my problem-solving abilities Engaging with university concepts, discussing super curricular readings and findings, and sharing my thought process when working through an interview question to receive hints and guidance proved to be one of the most effective preparatory experience. I am immensely grateful the role she has played in my academic development.
Tina JinZhang, Class of 2024
I developed a proper interest in science the summer before sixth form when I started reading snippets of ongoing research in the world I then studied science A Levels which only made my interest grow, particularly because of my physics class! We had loads of discussions and asked all sorts of questions, and I was very lucky to have a group of friends that were equally as imaginativewe thought up our own research projects and spent loads of time talking about pieces of research that fascinated us Making CheltSci was of course a natural product of this and made us all the more excited to dream big I now read Natural Sciences at Cambridge and famously refuse to specialise in my studies, so I’ve ended up studying chemistry, maths, computational biology and neurobiology I find my degree more interesting with every lecture, and sometimes I hop around labs meeting researchers whose work I’ve admired since sixth form! I can’t say for certain what my future will look like - after completing my Masters, I intend on studying music for some time, then doing research projects and seeing where life takes me.
I have so many wonderful memories of learning science at CLC it’s where my passion for the subject truly began If I had to pick a standout moment, it would be testing the Van de Graaff generator during GCSE physics Watching the static electricity make everyone’s hair stand on end was absolutely hilarious, but understanding the science behind it was even more fascinating. My advice to anyone interested in pursuing science is to discover what excites you most about the subject and stay resilient through the challenges it’s so worth it!
Siya Narayan, Class
Over the last decade, nanotechnology has evolved from a theoretical concept into a driving force across various industries, including electronics and energy Now, it’s making waves in healthcare Materials on the nanoscale one billionth of a metre exhibit unique qualities that enable previously unimaginable applications By manipulating matter, nanomedicine offers groundbreaking solutions to some of the world’s most pressing health challenges
What is Nanomedicine?
Nanomedicine is defined as “the monitoring, repair, construction, and control of human biological systems at the molecular level, using engineered nanodevices and nanostructures” (Science Direct, 2021) Nanoparticles are substances ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers (nm) in diameter– they are powerful tools in regenerative medicine, diagnostics, smart drug systems, and medicinal imagining For instance, patients with severe cardiovascular diseases often face surgical operations with risks like inflammation and restenosis as well as a long recovery period becoming a huge burden Therefore, establishing innovative therapeutics for cardiovascular disease (CVD) that extend beyond conventional medication and surgical interventions deeming it a highly sought-after solution.
The Power of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are substances whose diameter ranges from 1 to 100 nanometres hence, making them small enough to move relatively freely across biological barriers within the human body Their unique size, structure, and chemical properties make them powerful tools for facilitating a range of applications, from drug delivery to regenerative medicine By combining organic and inorganic materials, hybrid nanoparticles are garnering attention for their ability to significantly enhance the effectiveness and precision of treatments making them a game-changer in modern medicine (Choi, Kim, Ryu, & Kaushik, 2022) while reducing toxicity
Targeting and Delivery Mechanisms
Nanoparticles can achieve targeted drug delivery by two main mechanisms: passive targeting, which relies on the natural distribution of nanoparticles in the body, and active targeting, which involves modifying the surface of the nanoparticles so that they can specifically bind to receptors or antigens present in target cells This allows for drug delivery through the endothelial barrier, which is the main type of cell found in the inside lining of blood vessels, lymph vessels, and the heart, which usually blocks treatments They help improve drug effectiveness, reduce toxicity, and enhance how drugs
move around the body The most recent development in nanoparticle creation involves the discipline of microfluidicsa process that controls tiny amounts of fluids, allowing nanoparticles to selfassemble This technique boosts the potential of nanoparticles to transform drug delivery Other advantages include the rapid, consistent nanoparticle synthesis and the ability to create nano and micro-structures that can encapsulate drugs efficiently However, aside from the benefits, the high costs of glass and silicon fabrication, along with challenges in scaling up production, remain a significant hurdle to overcome (Xu, Ho, Zhang, Bertrand, & Farokhzad, 2015)
Among the trailblazers in nanomedicine, Sahar Mansoor, a young and innovative chemist from India, has completed groundbreaking work with cancer treatment on nanoparticle-based chemotherapy. One of the most difficult issues in cancer treatment has been the nonspecific targeting of cancer cells by conventional chemotherapy medications, which often harms healthy cells in the process This causes various unwanted side effects, including fatigue, nausea, and a compromised immune system. Mansoor's work intends to address this issue by using nanoparticles to deliver chemotherapy medications directly to cancer cells while protecting healthy tissue. Mansoor's approach involves developing nanoparticles that are steered to only recognize and bind to cancer cells These nanoparticles are designed to carry drugs for chemotherapy which can only be released when they reach the malignant areas The extreme precision in targeting tumour cells is achieved by coating the nanoparticles with unique molecules, called ligands, that bind to receptors or antigens found only on the surface of cancer cells. This reduces damage to healthy cells while increasing the effectiveness of drugs Nanoparticle research can revolutionise cancer treatment by enhancing therapy's effectiveness while decreasing the severe side effects associated with traditional chemotherapy Mansoor's experimental nanoparticle research shows promise for clinical applications shortly, perhaps leading to more effective and patient-friendly cancer medicines. This marks a huge advancement in nanomedicine development and the future of oncology.
Recent advancements in nanoparticle delivery systems have begun to make their way into clinical trials by incorporating a few active targeting nanoplatforms, making use of ligand-receptor interactions For example, CALAA-01 is a targeted nanoparticle delivery system that is currently an experimental therapeutic for cancer CALAA-01 enterprises a smallinterfering RNA (siRNA), a non-coding double stranded RNA that can regulate the expression of genes, that is directed against the M2 subunit of ribonucleotide reductase (RRM2), an essential enzyme in DNA evolution and development. Entry of this anti-RRM2 siRNA into cells will downregulate the expression of RRM2 via RNA interference, thereby inhibiting DNA synthesis and killing the cells In the CALAA-01 system, anti-RRM2 siRNA is associated with a human transferrin protein-targeting ligand, which will bind mostly to abnormal growths of tissue that could be benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous), as these abnormal growths overexpress the transferrin receptor. By doing this, the toxic siRNA will be targeted to enter cancer cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis (endocytosis is the process of substances being brought into the cell), rather than entering healthy somatic cells, achieving improved specificity compared to classic chemotherapy These targeted nanoparticles, which circulate the body and localise tumours, have been administered to Melanoma, skin cancer, patients. A correlation was found in the tumour biopsies between the dose administered and the amounts of nanoparticles within the cell Overall, nanoparticles make it possible for conventional nonspecific toxic substances to be highly targeted, reducing the adverse effects of cancer treatment
Another noteworthy example of nanoformulation is CRLX101, which consists of a classic cytotoxic drug, camptothecin (CPT), conjugated to a cyclodextrin-polyethylene glycol (CD-PEG) copolymer CPT is a natural alkaloid (alkaloid is a chemical found in plants that often acts as a drug), that has long been known to have anti-tumour properties by inhibiting topoisomerase 1, which is crucial for DNA replication, recombination, and transcription The major challenge for developing CPT as an anti-cancer drug has been that it is highly hydrophobic and is susceptible to being hydrolyzed. CRLX101 has been designed to overcome this pharmacokinetic difficulty The hydrophilic CD-PEG copolymer will spontaneously self-assemble to form a 30-40 nm nanoparticle that envelopes the water-insoluble CPT inside, making the complex soluble in water This assembly also impedes water from reaching and hydrolyzing CPT, thereby improving the stability of CPT. The improved biodistribution of therapeutic agents through passive targeting proves to be a major benefit of nanomedicine (Xu, Ho, Zhang, Bertrand, & Farokhzad, 2015) However, CRLX101 is a non-specific drug, meaning it doesn’t target one single part of the body or a particular type of cell, for cancer treatment therefore has not consistently shown significant improvements in survival or tumour shrinkage or demonstrated superior efficacy, raising concerns about practical benefits.
Fionn Ferreira and Magnetic Nanoparticles
Another young chemist who is making innovations in nanomedicine is Fionn an Irish researcher, well-known for his work on magnetic nanoparticles; he in used them on purifying water but then applied his knowledge further leading discovery that these particles can also be used to purify the bloodstream, po treating poisoning and lowering cholesterol levels, representing a new appro the intersection of environmental science and nanomedicine
Ferreira’s research involved the use of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), mad and nickel, examples include magnetite (Fe3O4) (Munawar Khalil, 2017) Fe with magnetic properties to bind to potentially dangerous molecules in chemicals, or pollutants Once these particles are magnetically attached to removed from the body by applying an external magnetic field. This approa and high cholesterol levels in people Ferreira's research also investigates using magnetic nanoparticles to target cholesterol molecules Targeting cholesterol directly in the bloodstream and removing it via magnetic filtration offers an alternative to existing cholesterol-lowering drugs while also providing immediate and effective treatments for patients at substantial risk of cardiovascular disease. Ferreira's research demonstrates the potential of nanoparticles in medical applications, potentially leading to the discovery of non-invasive therapies for blood toxicity-related illnesses, detoxification, and cholesterol treatment
The Science Behind Magnetic Nanoparticles
Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are typically made from magnetic elements such as cobalt, iron, and nickel, examples include magnetite (Fe3O4) These particles have superparamagnetic properties, meaning they are only magnetic in the presence of an external magnetic field. Magnetite, an example of an NP, has ferromagnetic properties meaning that it can be easily magnetised when put in a magnetic field but also easily unmagnetized when removed from a magnetic field This enables precise control over the application of magnetic fields, ensuring that nanoparticles may be moved to specific places without residual magnetization that could cause clumping an important characteristic when considering biological applications such as blood detoxification (Jiri Kudr, 2017). Furthermore, these magnetic nanoparticles often have high biocompatibility making them
There are two ways to synthesize MN strands of DNA or RNA, and the other b hybrid nanoparticles and allowing them ligands, antibodies, or peptides that ens precision and effectiveness The combin nanoparticles are a promising technology
Conclusion: The Future of Nanomedicin
As we dive deeper into the world of na medical conditions and diseases previou molecular level allowing them to move e increased drug solubility, reduced toxicit range of applications.
Looking ahead, the future of nanomedici anticipating highly refined and personalis field, lead by Ferreira and Mansoor, in wh while having minimal influence on health artificial intelligence, and big databases m real-time monitoring, improving patient o lowering healthcare expenditures as thes laboratories to clinics.
Laurie Porter, SFC1
In October, I had the fascinating experience of interviewing Ruth Newbury-Ecob, a Professor of Genetics at University Hospitals in Bristol. She is currently researching congenital malformations, particularly of the heart and upper limb, as well as the underlying genetic causes of obesity. In the 1990s, she pioneered the research project that identified the first gene causing congenital heart disease and a new gene family, known as the Tbox genes.
Laurie: I was really interested to read about how you discovered the first gene causing congenital heart disease, and I wondered what the research process was that lead to those findings and what their implications were?
Professor Newbury-Ecob: When I first started with that study, I travelled around the world to collect blood samples from patients with those conditions We brought the blood samples back and used DNA linkage which was, by modern standards, very crude DNA technology. At the time, it was being used to map where genes were located on the chromosomes When it became possible to sequence cross genes, we did that At the time it had to be done in sections (whereas now we sequence an entire genome) but back then you could only sequence small amounts at a time, then build up this map With TBX5 we were looking for a gene where all family members had a particular variant in a particular part of the gene, so it was a real needle in a haystack kind of work.
Today, gene identification is a much more rapid process Back then we had to show that a change in the DNA sequence actually did something, which was quite difficult given that this change would be happening in embryological development. We used zebra-fish embryos and knocked out the gene in the zebra-fish and showed that it caused congenital heart defects That was then published in the 90s TBX5 comes from a whole family of genes, all of which are very important developmental genes in very early patterning in the human embryo so are highly conserved and are fundamental It was a very exciting time for me because I got to go to a very remote part of Canada to collect blood samples, up into the Rockies, to France, to Ireland, because they were such rare disorders. Now, they would just be posted
Laurie: Very rewarding, I imagine?
Professor Newbury-Ecob: It was incredibly rewarding when we started to get answers and I think that’s what keeps us working in Genetics, that we get answers for families
Laurie: What has been your experience working as a woman in stem since it's historically been such a male dominated field?
Professor Newbury-Ecob: It has its challenges! At times, I think we were invisible I also started my family young and was a working mother which was a huge barrier because there was no part-time option, and I was expected to step up and do everything There was always this feeling that you weren’t quite taken seriously, no matter how great your achievements Occasionally people said things that wouldn’t be acceptable now You would be asked about your personal circumstances, about your marriage, your children, what you do with your children when working, all questions that would never be asked to men. Generally, it was very tough and I think I was lucky, having grown up in a household full of strong women, to take the hit and keep going and to have mentors who supported me
Even if everybody is on the same page, it's not a level playing field if you are a wife and mother I couldn’t go away for international conferences unless I had childcare I had to pay fo full time childcare allowing me to work and study but there wa a financial hit and my children might say I was quite an absen the university don’t schedule things before 10 in the morning things have definitely changed
Laurie: You also study the genetic causes of obesity. I wond extent obesity is caused by genetic factors as opposed to envir
Professor Newbury-Ecob: There was a group in Bristol and we started some initial work to try and unpick the causes of severe childhood obesity. We were interested in the children who had extreme obesity but with parents of a normal BMI, and we did some early testing When you look at genetic factors, there are children with extreme obesity with changes in genes that control pathways in the brain rather than the metabolic side of things Some children excessively eat because they don’t have satiety – there are no messages coming from the brain to say “stop ”
I think it’s an interesting question because Steve O’Reilly has done a lot of twin studies where there is very high correlation between identical twins having similar BMIs in comparison to fraternal twins, which is strong evidence that obesity is genetic
But it’s difficult because the public health message needs be around healthy eating If you tell people things are genetic, they often become fatalistic about it, whereas if you tell someone they’re overweight because they eat too much, they’re more likely to do something about it From a public health perspective, it’s probably better to think more about the environmental causes rather than genetics.
Laurie: In the future, how do you see the role of epigenetics as an aspect of genetics research, and is it something you consider in your own research?
Professor Newbury-Ecob: I think it's fascinating and is definitely one of the next steps One of the things we noticed when first doing our studies on heart and limb is that there was a tendency for the abnormalities to get more severe with successive generations and there was a difference depending on whether the children were born to effective mother or fathers. If born to effective fathers, they often had the same pattern of severity whereas if born to effective mothers they had more severe abnormalities It could be epigenetic but at the time we had very little ability to discover that It’s a plausible explanation for so many aspects You can look at epigenetics in terms of reproduction in respect to gametes and embryos, but also the environmental epigenetics
Laurie: Genetic testing on an individual basis is very beneficial but also expensive, so do you see a future where genetic testing is more common and accessible?
Professor Newbury-Ecob: In fact, it depends on what you compare it with. When we were trying to persuade commissioners to buy genetic services, we came up with some examples of how genetic testing is actually quite cheap compared to the alternative. For a child with epilepsy, if you were to investigate them using the traditional route, you may need them to come and stay in hospital which is a cost, have a scan using an anaesthetic which is a cost and have various tests We collected the cost and deduced that it was actually 10 times more expensive to do the traditional route than the genetic test, even if the genetic test was £1,000 and, of course, that cost is coming down It’s the fact that it replaces these very expensive imaging and electrical tests, some of which are invasive as well as expensive.
The other thing is that after the genetic test, that’s it. It’s estimated it takes an average of 4 years for children to get their diagnoses when they have a rare disorder and they go through many different specialities and have lots of tests. If they have their DNA sequenced at the start of that, they get their diagnosis immediately The cost has to be contextualised as to what you’d be doing if you didn’t do genetic testing
The other side to that is that if you’re genetic testing for cancer which makes up about 50% of our work, we’re looking for conditions where people have about a 50-50 chance of having the condition For every person you pick up, you’re discharging someone who’s normal For example, with breast cancer, in which half the candidates don’t have the gene, you’re spending the money on genetic testing but you won’t be spending it on mammograms. That’s the material cost but there’s also the emotional impact. If you don’t have breast cancer, which is the case for 50% of the women who are tested, you can’t put a price on the reassurance of that knowledge, how it opens up the rest of your life with your family and the impact on your psychological wellbeing The reporting of genetics in the media focuses around the high cost but when you compare it to interventions in other specialities, it’s actually pretty minimal.
Laurie: Presumably, for patients learning new information about their condition can be quite mentally challenging How do you balance the importance of scientific discovery with the impact on patients?
Professor Newbury-Ecob: We’re clinicians, not scientists, so we’re used to working with patients and families. I find often at meetings with scientific colleagues, they talk about DNA samples and I remind them that we’re talking about people, which we have to remember The Hippocratic oath and ‘do no harm’ is ever-present in our minds I’ve just been discussing with the paediatricians about testing young people and the levels you should be communicating, how much a 10 or 11 year old can understand about medicine and genetics, what sort of explanation they require. I do a lot of drawing in my explanations, which is one of the reasons why I like seeing patients in the flesh rather than video calls Communication is absolutely vital The 100,000s genome project was trying to kickstart public understanding of genetics and initiation of education around genetics so that when genetics is offered as a test in their care pathway they have some understanding. It’s also key that our colleagues know how to handle situations with genetics sensitively and empathically, because a genetic result is a very significant finding
Throughout the interview, it became increasingly evident that the role of geneticists like Professor Newbury-Ecob is essential in discovering the causes behind conditions, as she did with the Tbox genes which cause congenital heart disease, despite the challenges I was also reassured to hear that the field of genetics is developing, not only technology-wise but also in terms of the attitude to women and mothers in medicine I came to appreciate how significant the quality of patient interaction is in allowing people to understand their condition and how the method of communication might look different for each patient and each condition Professor Newbury-Ecob’s take on genetic testing was perhaps the most fascinating part for me as it completely changed my perception of it, from something expensive and complex to a valuable tool that provides swift answers for patients and their families
Giselle Chan and Julie Suen, SFC1
One of our most enjoyable moments while creating this magazine was sitting down with three of the amazing Science staff at CLC and having a deep chat We’ve collated the most interesting bits of our conversation below in an interview format.
Dr. Starkey: Upon completing university, I secured a position within the industry where I worked for approximately 8 years. I realized I could continue in this line of work for a very long time and yet leave no lasting impact. While it may sound self-centred, this realisation stemmed from the fact that my contributions were not making a significant difference Besides, I’d always had an aspiration to become a teacher Subsequently, I filled out an application at university and went into employment. Around eight years ago, I took the leap and transitioned from my industry role into pursuing a career in teaching, and that marked the beginning of my teaching journey.
Miss Constantine: I always had an interest in physics even from a very young age and it was the only science that truly inspired me. It was only later on in life did I enjoy the others -- after doing physics at university, I realized that the other sciences were intriguing too.
During my time in school I was always fascinated by physics I always liked explaining things to my peers, helping them understand the science behind how physics works I particularly enjoy learning about the history of physics, such as why people discovered it at a certain time, what technologies meant that you could discover it, or the people who discovered certain things and link it all together
As university came, I had to make a decision between going into further physics, which I would have enjoyed very much, but would involve lots of mathematics at the same time. However thinking about the social interactions that would come from that major, I thought it would be more interesting to talk and teach people than to talk to the same four people or four walls, doing equations day by day
Additionally when I did my teacher training, I excelled due to my background in physics. The degree encompassed extensive maths, programming and other similar subjects that were challenging but enjoyable I found teaching physics to be not only pleasant but straightforward, which is one of the things that captures the meaningfulness behind teaching as a whole
Mrs Pizii: Similar to Dr Starkey, I hadn’t been teaching my whole career I completed a year at medical school which I very much enjoyed, but realized I didn’t have the vocation to be a doctor, hence I returned to complete a degree in a different field
After obtaining my degree, I ventured into the workforce I pursued lucrative opportunities in the city and worked as a management consultant across various industries, but science always remained at the forefront of my mind I leveraged my knowledge around science and innovation around biotechnology during my interview for the company I went to work for.
Throughout my career, I gained experience in the pharmaceuticals industry and collaborated with large industrial companies, such as Philips Lighting in the Netherlands I witnessed fascinating aspects of these fields, but effectively found that the lifestyle was incompatible with family life.
Upon starting a family, I decided to reevaluate my career. My passion for science had always been a constant, having pursued science A-levels and a science degree The skills I acquired during my studies proved applicable to a wide range of endeavors My curiosity and interest in science have been lifelong, and I enjoy sharing that enthusiasm with others My experiences have shown me that a background in science can open many doors It is not limited to traditional paths such as biology, physics, or engineering degrees. Rather, it reflects the individual's character and the diverse skills they have developed
Do professors have a different relationship with students than teachers in school?
Dr. Starkey: At university, students have the opportunity to select topics of interest and choose their professors accordingly However, seeking assistance requires proactive engagement during professors' office hours I struggled with this aspect, as opposed to the school environment where teachers offer direct support I recall waiting for two and a half hours to seek clarification from a professor on a topic I had been struggling with Despite the challenge, this experience taught me the importance of being proactive. In today's digital age, many students opt to email their professors for help.
What technologies are there in development that could help people around the world, with specific examples from your field?
Miss Constantine: All technologies related to climate change, sustainability, and medicine could have significant impacts For instance, the increasing prevalence of electric cars is leading to a decline in petrol car production, signifying a major shift. Advancements in battery technology exemplify the intersection of physics, biology, chemistry, and engineering. A multidisciplinary approach involving biologists, physicists, engineers, and chemists is crucial, as no single field can address all challenges alone These fields are all interconnected and collectively essential for progress
Mrs. Pizii: I agree. The Institute of Physics has fundamental strategies for future scientific progress, and one of their key points is the importance of a multidisciplinary approach For example, carbon capture, hydrogen fuel cells, and other technologies are vital, but they require collaboration between many fields The future of science lies in working together
Miss Constantine: Indeed, interdisciplinary collaboration is crucial. Scientific advancements often occur at the intersections of different fields For example, a chemist with a narrow focus may be distant from practical applications, whereas collaboration with biology can lead directly to solutions Hence, multidisciplinary teams are exceptionally powerful.
Dr. Starkey: Absolutely! Chemistry's toolkit is well-equipped Our challenge now lies in resource management Take rare earth metals in smartphones, for example they're becoming scarce We need to reduce usage and enhance recycling processes. While asteroid mining is an idea, prioritizing effective use of Earth's resources seems more practical.
Miss Constantine: The idea of mining asteroids is fascinating but impractical when we have Earth's resources Effective management of these resources, like reducing and recycling rare earth metals in smartphones, should be our focus Instead of spending billions on space exploration, we should prioritize pressing issues like global sanitation. There’s an imbalance in priorities.
Dr Starkey: I agree with you And the challenges we face with things like rare earth metals and the environment are critical.
Coming back to medicine, do you think there’s a specific area with the greatest potential for breakthroughs, or do you think it’s all about interdisciplinary collaboration?
Miss Constantine: As a physicist, I think too many people don’t realize how important physics is in medicine. Technologies like PET scans, X-rays, and radioactive tracers are all based on physics There's a fascinating intersection happening in quantum biology, for example, where physicists are looking at the quantum properties of ion channels and proton pumping in DNA These discoveries have significant implications for genetics, which ties directly into medicine
Mrs. Pizii: Absolutely! Even something like photosynthesis is deeply tied to physics. The way plants absorb light is based on specific energy levels, and understanding that can help us solve bigger problems in energy and biology The way plants can fix nitrogen from the air shows us how advanced nature’s solutions are We’re trying to replicate these processes using industrial methods, but we still haven’t come close to the efficiency that nature has developed
Dr. Starkey: I think as chemists and scientists and biologists, we've got a great teacher And it's nature, nature just out there Sweet peas can take nitrogen from the air, collect it with water, and fix it into ammonia And what do we do? We are doing the harbour process: 450 degrees, 200 atmospheres, iron catalyst That’s the beauty of interdisciplinary work Nature has been solving these problems for millions of years, and we’re just catching up. It’s a reminder that we have a lot to learn from each other and from the world around us. And science is sort of like this common language that we can use to communicate with each other
Miss Constantine: So obviously, all lessons are great and all the people are great But I think the things that are the best is hearing back from students So, I got an email the other day from someone who's at Cambridge - Margaret She went to do natural sciences, and she was going to do chemistry, even though she was always a physicist And she's now going to do physics. It's really important to see the impact that you've made, and it doesn't mean that you have to go and do physics It just means you have to do something you enjoy, like the people who then get back to you and visit So I have a secret mission for my lessons, which I've managed to achieve quite well It is to try and do physics experiments all around college So we visited the organ and the gym, a different class went up into the pH and we held a 10 meter pendulum to find acceleration due to gravity. We've dropped stuff off the astronomy tower, we found the speed of sound, and we've used telescopes in the lower quad So even though science can happen in a room, my secret mission, which I've pretty much aced, is to try and do fun practicals everywhere
Dr. Starkey: For me it’s just kind of that trajectory. If you can take someone and just lift their eyes above the horizon, if I could just lift someone as high as a degree above the horizon that they are traveling a little bit, and then Ms Constantine adds a little bit to that trajectory So instead of just bumping along and falling into chemistry because everything else fell off the back of the train, you actually have some sort of purpose
Miss Constantine: If it was to be a message for anyone, it’s that your voice is valuable, so recently I went to san Francisco with some people who won the Technovation competition The problems they were trying to solve were as good as, if not better, than companies could do, and it’s just by trying and being passionate about something, that you can succeed They won the competition, and the people that we met were from all backgrounds, all disciplines People who did English literature degrees who work for Netflix, or who did engineering and is now working for a sales company, but the thing that was important to them was the fact that they were making a difference, and the people that they worked with Also they had something they were passionate about and it doesn’t matter what it is but believe in yourself, and if something doesn’t work out, keep going, or try so try it and do something different and not the same thing every da
Dr Starkey: I am going to instil a quote, have you heard of Captai your heart and use your head for everything else”
Mrs Pizii: I am just following what Ms Constantine said, feel the f better, because the reward will be great
Miss Constantine: Sometimes you don’t have to be the best and t and sometimes being the first, being the best, being the pioneer i it’s that you don’t want to, and that’s okay It’s okay to do someth skiing, spend time with family But ultimately, just go for it
When asked to draw a scientist, school-age kids in the U.S. are drawing women. more than ever before.
In the 1960s, lesss than 1% of U.S. students depicted scientists as female. However, by 2016, the number had climbed to 34%, and is rising quicker than ever.
This shift mirrors real-world progress: between 1960 and 2013, percentage of women in science jobs grew from 28% to 49% in biological sciences, 8% to 35% in chemistry, and 3% to 11% in physics/astronomy.
Representation matters -- and the next generation is seeing the future differently. by @femalequotient
Are your earliest childhood memories still lurking in your mind - or gone forever?
Sigmund Freud came up with the theory of “infantile amnesia”, which was the theory that memories formed when we were infants are suppressed by the brain. Early stage research supports his theory - the brain can actually form memories before the age of 3, just not in the same way as how an adult brain forms memories, such that we cannot consciously access them
Ongoing research is aiming to understand more about the mystery surrounding infantile amnesia, like figuring out if infantile memories could be reaccessed in our later lives
by @sciencemagazine
Bibliography: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1MVY39gG3ROQG1e4Qx-w7p1NFhfPrX 9hGp2vfPcJSRk/edit?usp=sharing
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