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Test Bank for Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience, 3rd E

Test Bank for Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience, 3rd Edition E. Bruce Goldstein To download the complete and accurate content document, go to: https://testbankbell.com/download/test-bank-for-cognitive-psychology-connecting-min d-research-and-everyday-experience-3rd-edition-e-bruce-goldstein/

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Chapter 7: Long-Term Memory—Encoding and Retrieval Chapter Outline Encoding: Getting Information into Long-Term Memory Maintenance Rehearsal and Elaborative Rehearsal Levels-of-Processing Theory The Basic Levels of Processing Demonstration: Remembering Lists Method: Varying Depth of Processing The Difficulty in Defining Depth of Processing Research Showing that Encoding Influences Retrieval Placing Words in a Complex Sentence Forming Visual Images Linking Words to Yourself Generating Information Organizing Information Demonstration: Reading a List Testing Getting Information Out of Memory Retrieval Cues Method: Cued Recall Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval Encoding Specificity State-Dependent Learning Transfer-Appropriate Processing How to Study More Effectively Elaborate Generate and Test Organize Take Breaks Match Learning and Testing Conditions Avoid “Illusions of Learning” Memory and the Brain Experience Causes Change at the Synapse Where Does Memory Occur in the Brain?

Forming New Memories in the Brain: The Process of Consolidation New Memories Are Fragile, but Become Stabilized by Consolidation The Standard Model of Consolidation The Multiple Trace Hypothesis Something to consider: Are Memories Ever “Permanent”?

Method: Fear Conditioning

CogLabs: Levels of Processing; Encoding Specificity; Von Restorff Effect (see Chapter 4)

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Web Links Levels of Processing Demonstrations of levels-of-processing and transfer-appropriate processing. http://www.mtsu.edu/~sschmidt/Cognitive/LOP/LOP.html#1.Demonstration Study Strategies A multitude of study strategies; could promote a discussion evaluating the merits of the site based on the research in this chapter. http://www.studygs.net/ Dissecting H.M.’s Brain An article about scientists dissecting H.M.’s brain to learn more about how memory works. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/health/22brain.html Sleep and Memory Consolidation Video describing research strategies for studying the impact of sleep on memory consolidation using starlings. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJWxALeKHXc Memory and PTSD Recent work linking memory consolidation to treatment of PTSD. http://www.nature-nurture.org/index.php/ptsd/applications-to-traumaticrecall/consolidation-and-extinction/

Discussion Questions 1. Students are often fascinated by the way mood and emotions influence memory. Explore this topic in greater detail. Some possibilities include the following: - Students might report specific instances where a certain memory “evokes” a strong feeling of the mood in which it was encoded. Can they find common threads between memories that are mood-dependent? What is the significance of their ideas on an understanding of human memory?

- Students might consider the kinds of experiences or stimuli that more easily include mood as part of memory (e.g., a song from a particular time or place in their lives). What is learned about memory from a consideration of these kinds of memories?

- Have students consider instances where emotion is likely to be present (e.g., witnessing a crime) and how memory is likely to be influenced by such emotions. How should such memories be interpreted?

2. Students often depend heavily on text ancillaries or instructors to give them their study strategies, hints to help them remember material, and so forth. Ask students to think about what research on the generation effect and work of Mantyla (1986) on retrieval cues suggests about this dependency. How should instructors try to discourage it? Can students think of reasons why instructors might be reluctant to give less assistance?

3. The text builds a strong connection between the lessons of memory research and developing successful learning strategies. Students often find it helpful to share specific successes and 136

frustrations about failures in their studying habits. Have students report individual experiences.

Focus the discussion on having them apply what they’ve learned from the text toward improving their study habits.

This activity could be significantly expanded where students are asked to reflect on their performance on a recent exam (not necessarily from your course) and to apply their new knowledge of memory to potentially avoid some kinds of memory failures in the future. Ask students to reflect on the following: What were they thinking at the time of the exam? Is there an identifiable memory failure that occurred? Is that failure a result of a less than optimal study habit? What insights are provided by having an understanding of memory?

Demonstrations 1. To show the failure of maintenance rehearsal in transferring information into long-term memory, ask several students (at one time) to volunteer to draw the face of a U.S. penny from memory on the board. The resulting variety in their depictions nicely illustrates the ineffectiveness of remembering information that you can argue has had an enormous amount of repeated perceptions but, unless a person is a coin collector, most people do not elaboratively process the details of such information. (Reference: Rubin, D.C., & Contis, T.C. (1983). A schema for common cents. Memory and Cognition, 11, 335-341.)

2. Discuss how the memory system uses organization to access information.

Read the following list of items to the class: bus, pear, car, fox, cherry, taxi, bear, orange, truck, lion, grape, sheep, van, apple, ape, plum, hen, boat Ask students to immediately write down as many of the items as possible. Following recall, read the list again and ask students to report if they remembered the words in the same order they were initially presented. Many students may notice that similar items (category members) are grouped together when remembered. Discuss this mechanism of “spontaneous organization” and what is learned about memory.

3. Conduct a levels-of-processing experiment. The text describes processing levels including shallow (e.g., counting the number of vowels in words) and deep (e.g., naming antonyms of words). Develop two lists of 20 common words for which students can conduct shallow and deep levels of encoding. Give different encoding instructions for each list and ask them to recall the words following the presentation of each of the lists. Have students compare memory performance for the two types of encoding, and discuss the results in light of the levels-ofprocessing theory.

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CogLab Instructor’s Material:

Levels of Processing Introduction In the 1970s, Craik and Lockhart expanded on the area of memory with their levels-ofprocessing framework. They believed that the type of processing of information was related to one’s ability to remember information. According to them, memory was a result of a successive series of analyses, each at a deeper level than the previous one. A shallow level of processing could focus on how a word sounds; a deeper level on the meaning of a word. They assumed that the deeper the level of processing, the more durable the resulting memory, hence rehearsal was unimportant. If processing occurs at different levels, testing may be best through incidental learning rather than intentional learning.

Part I Student Projects and Critical Thinking Exercises 1) According to Alan Baddeley, the levels-of-processing framework is an extension of his working memory model. Have students review the literature on both Baddeley’s working memory model and levels of processing to see how they are similar and how they are different. a. Students can critically analyze the idea that Baddeley’s model is an integrative memory model and write a paper summarizing their findings. This could be an APA-formatted paper.

2) Brain imaging research suggests that different brain areas may be activated during different types of tasks, suggesting localization of function. Have students review the literature for evidence of localization of function during levels-of-processing tasks. a. Have them consider other potentially important factors, like modality (does visually presented material get processed in different areas than verbally presented stimuli?), speed of processing (if the task is automatic, does it get processed in a different area as a controlled task?), or gender (are similar brain areas activated in males compared to females during the tasks?)

Part II Possible Test Questions Basic or Introductory Questions 1. How did the three different tasks represent the three levels of processing?

Answer: Analyzing the consonants and vowels represented shallow processing, rhyming represented medium processing, and judging whether it is a synonym is a deeper level of processing.

2. On average, which of the three tasks should have taken you longer to respond to?

Answer: It should have taken you longer to process the synonym questions, compared to rhyming and determining if the letters were consonants or vowels.

3. According to the results of this study, which of the three sets of words should you have had the best memory for? Why? 138

Answer: Memory should have been best for the words where you judged whether they were synonyms because this was the deepest level of processing.

4. In your neuropsychology class, you are struggling with the multiple choice exams your professor gives. You are used to factual questions, but Dr. Brown is giving applied questions. Why might you have trouble with an applied exam when you have been memorizing definitions?

Answer: Factual multiple choice questions take a more shallow level of processing than applied questions because you have to understand the theory or concept to apply it to a situation. Factual questions are simple memorization of a definition.

5. When you get your test results back from your first psychology exam, you almost start to cry because you thought you aced that exam. You go to the professor and tell him that you studied for over 10 hours, going over and over the definitions, but you still did so poorly. Use the results of this lab to explain what might have happened.

Answer: Going over definitions within a textbook is a shallow method of studying, and the test may have asked for deeper processing, like critical thinking and application. Even with the rehearsal, you were not able to increase your memory for the material.

Research/Cognition-Based Questions 1. What would be the independent variable in this CogLab? What are the levels of the independent variable? What is the dependent variable?

Answer: The independent variable is the type of task. There are three levels to this independent variable: determining the pattern of consonants and vowels, rhyming, and determining if the words are synonyms. The dependent variable is the number of words remembered.

2. Both rehearsal and levels of processing are examples of elaboration models. How are they similar and how are they different.

Answer: Both the elaboration model and levels-of-processing framework explain ways to improve memory. They are different in that one can rehearse at a shallow level, but memory is not improved, suggesting that levels of processing may be more important than rehearsal for improving memory.

Advanced Questions 1. How is the level-of-processing framework related to the elaboration model?

Answer: Elaboration is a memory mnemonic related to improved performance. With elaboration, there is a deeper level of processing for a word, concept, or idea. The level-ofprocessing framework is an example of an elaboration model.

2. You are taking a sociology class but are not doing well in it. There are so many long words that you find it hard to read and comprehend the text. How could you use the results of this study to improve your performance in your sociology class?

Answer: You probably skim over the long words when you should look them up in the dictionary as you are reading. By looking up their definitions, it improves your comprehension of the material and your memory should be better for the information.

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Discussion Questions 1. Discuss some of the occupations that could benefit from the results of this experiment?

Think about professions where memory is a key part of job responsibility or livelihood.

Answer: Some of the professions where memory might help could be waiter/waitress, university professor (student names), lawyer (remembering case precedence and facts), doctor, salesperson, and many more.

2. Discuss how the self-reference effect could be an expansion of the levels-of-processing framework.

Answer: If we are asked to remember a set of items, recall is higher when we process them as they relate to ourselves. Since our self-schema is an elaborate and organized system, we can encode information related to ourselves much more than information about other topics. Hence, relating items to ourselves is a deeper level of processing.

Part III Group or Online Projects 1. An interesting thing about experiments performed in a laboratory is that sometimes they don’t have ecological validity or value in the real world. As a group, have students test this cognitive concept in a real-world setting or discuss experiences they have had with better memory and deeper processing of information. a. Have them think about how rehearsal is related to levels of processing. b. If you are doing this in a classroom, you might have the groups think about a way they could test this concept within the classroom or on campus.

2. In the 1960s, the most common view of memory was that there were different memory stores. The levels-of-processing framework suggested that the type of processing might be more important than the hypothetical store that retained the information. Have students get into classroom or online groups and review this transition from memory stores to levels of processing. a. Have them think about the studies that were being conducted and what the results were. Also, when there is a shift in the literature, one model can’t always explain some anomalies—is that true in this shift? b. They could discuss it in class or online and come to an acceptable conclusion.

You could have them hypothesize about it before researching it.

Part IV Multiple Choice Questions 1) Which of the following is an example of deep processing used in the Levels of Processing CogLab? a. Rhyming two words together b. Determining if the letters were consonants or vowels c. Determining if the words were synonyms d. Determining if the word was written in uppercase or lowercase letters (c)

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2) Which of the three levels of processing produced a greater memory for the words? a. Shallow level b. Medium level c. Deep level d. Shallow and deep were the same (c) 3) Which of the three tasks took longer to perform in the Levels of Processing CogLab? a. Rhyming two words together b. Determining if the letters were consonants or vowels c. Determining if the words were synonyms d. Determining if the word was written in uppercase or lowercase letters (c)

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CogLab Instructor’s Material:

Encoding Specificity Introduction The encoding specificity principle addresses the interaction between the cue or properties of the environment during encoding, with the cue or properties of the environment present during memory retrieval. Memory can be enhanced if the cue during encoding matches the cue during retrieval, unless the material to be remembered is overlearned. Knowing this about our memory systems may help a student’s studying and test-taking habits.

Part I Student Projects and Critical Thinking Exercises 1) During class, have your students use objects around the classroom as cues for specific words to be remembered. Have a list of 10 words ready to read to them. After reading one word, have them pick a cue object in the room that will help them remember the word. For example, if the word is "secretary," they may look at the desk at the front of the room as a cue to remember "secretary." a. They could write down their cue object to help them remember what their cue is.

Go through the list twice so they can practice. You can test their memory for the list of words periodically. b. Have them record the number of words that they remember at each retrieval session. After testing their memory a couple of times, move to another classroom, if possible (if that is not possible, try removing the cue items or moving them around). Have them compare their memory for the list of words while in the classroom that those words were encoded in to the novel environment.

2) Encoding specificity is more than just a physical cue triggering memories but can include feeling and mood. Have students design an experimental methodology or research proposal that would be able to test the effects of mood on memory recall. a. Give them the example that when people are suffering from a migraine headache, they tend to remember the negative aspects of an autobiographical memory but recall more positive aspects of that same event when they are not in pain. b. Have them think about applications for these differences in memory recall.

3) Odor cues can play a powerful part in remembering specific people, places, feelings or events. Have students think about ways that smells are used to influence behaviors. a. This critical thinking exercise can include influences on humans or other animals (for example, using liver treats to train your dog to perform tricks, smelling your girlfriend's cologne may trigger positive feelings). (See potential reference at the end of manual.)

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Part II Possible Test Questions Basic or Introductory Questions 1) Why do you think that having a weak cue at the test phase improves the memory for a word that had a weak cue during study compared to a strong cue?

Answer: The idea behind encoding specificity is that encoding matches retrieval. Although strong cues may seem to trigger a word more readily, if the cues do not match, then memory is impaired.

2) You are having trouble remembering your high school prom, although you know that you had a good time and it has only been two years. What could you do to try to remember your prom night?

Answer: One way of sparking memories of events in your past is to go to the place where they occurred. To remember prom night, go back where it was held. In this way, encoding of the memories matches the retrieval of them.

3) While walking your dog, you see a strange dog running around. You think you remember seeing this dog before, but you are not sure. As you round the corner, you run into a woman from your neighborhood looking for her dog. You suddenly remember that you saw that woman walking the strange dog you saw earlier in the week. What was missing when you were trying to remember whether or not you recognized the stray dog?

Answer: The woman acted as a cue for you for the dog. When she was absent, you weren’t able to remember where you saw the dog, but seeing her triggered the memory of her walking the strange dog earlier.

4) While shopping for new cologne for your father for Christmas, you smell something that you recognize but you can’t quite place. You find that you are having memory flashbacks of sitting around a fire and drinking apple cider with friends. As you look around, you notice a candle burning and recognize it as the smell you detected. Explain how a candle that you have never seen before could be related to the memory flashbacks with your friends.

Answer: The smell of the candle triggered these memories because of its relationship with the encoded environment that the memories were formed in. Maybe a similar candle was burning when you were with your friends, so it is related with the learning of a memory. Being exposed to the same or similar smell triggered your memory of that night.

5) You are at a huge fraternity party and you see a girl playing beach volleyball that you think you recognize. You are not able to talk to her, but it bugs you that you can’t remember where you know her from. On Monday morning, as you walk into biology class, you see the same girl sitting in front of you. You feel a bit stupid that you didn’t remember her at the party because she has sat in front of you for two months now. Now that you have done this lab, how would you explain your memory problem?

Answer: Your memory of the girl was closely related to a specific environment of the classroom, and although she seemed familiar, you had trouble recognizing her because your memory retrieval was not tested in the classroom. You were tested in another environment.

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Advanced Questions 1) While taking your psychology test, you notice that the girl beside you is singing a song about the different brain parts. After doing this lab, what could you infer about her encoding methods during her studying?

Answer: You could infer that she encoded the information about the different brain areas through a song, so she is trying to match the retrieval style with that to improve her memory. The song acts as a strong cue for the memories of the brain areas.

2) You find the morning of test day that the classroom has been changed from your regular classroom to one that you have never been in. How do you think this will affect your test performance?

Answer: Since your learning of class material happened in a specific room, a number of cues around the room may trigger memories. If you move rooms for a test, unless you have overlearned the material, it will have an effect on your ability to retrieve memories. The environment of the encoding should match the retrieval environment.

3) Your mother is making your favorite pie for dessert, but she ran out of ingredients and asks you to go to the store for her. She only needs eggs, milk, white sugar, and cinnamon, so you don’t write it down. When you get to the store, you remember the milk, cinnamon, and sugar but can’t remember what the last thing was. Just then, a woman walks in wearing the same shirt that your mother was wearing, and you suddenly remember the eggs.

Answer: The shirt acted as a cue for your mother, which triggered the memory of the eggs because the retrieval environment seemed closer to the encoding environment where the list was learned. Perhaps the shirt cued a picture of your mother telling you what she needed, which improved your memory for eggs.

Discussion Questions 1) Now that you know that the environment and conditions where information is learned plays an important role on memory recall or recognition, discuss some of the important factors to keep in mind if you were trying to study more effectively for a test.

Answer: When coming up with answers, students have to be aware that that the encoding conditions and retrieval conditions should be similar. This can include the following: environment (classroom), study habits (drinking a coffee or eating food), mood, cues or examples encoded, or people present.

2) Discuss how encoding specificity could be used to explain why using self-referent examples improve memory for to-be-learned material. Discuss any possible drawbacks with using your own examples over ones that teachers provide for you.

Answer: Researchers suggest that when people make up examples that mean something to their own experiences and knowledge, they tend to be stronger cues. If the goal was to make stronger cues during studying so that retrieval would be easier, then using personal examples would be a good technique. Students, however, may discuss some problems such as not being able to come up with a strong example, which may be worse than not having a cue at all. If the teacher provides the example, one might be more confident that it is a good one. They may also discuss the importance of the strength of the cue at the time of testing.

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Part III Group or Online Projects 1) Break students down into small groups or as an online discussion and have them think about and discuss their ideas about how memory is relied upon in the legal system, from the initial stage of identification to the prosecution of a criminal. a. Have them think about the possible problems and errors made in respect to encoding specificity as well as the end results of these errors (potentially an innocent person being put into jail). If we know that there is an emphasis placed on memory in some areas of our society, what restrictions or guidelines could be used to emphasize or increase accuracy?

2) Have students think about and discuss different examples when the encoding specificity principle affected their memory recollection. Have them discuss the impact of these errors and how they could have prevented them from happening. a. If they cannot come up with an example immediately, give them hints about studying, recalling autobiographical memories, or remembering people in different contexts.

Part IV Multiple Choice Questions 1) According to the encoding specificity effect, memory recall is best when a. encoding context matches retrieval context. b. encoding context is novel compared to retrieval context. c. encoding context is novel compared to retrieval context. d. none of the above is correct (a) 2) What specific kind of memory task does the encoding specificity effect work best with? a. Recognition memory tests b. Matching c. True or false d. Recall memory tests (d) 3) While studying for a biology test, you make up a rhyme to remember taxonomical information. What should you do when you are taking the test? a. Try to remember what you read while studying b. Silently sing the song to yourself that you studied with c. Take your time taking the test d. Nothing will help you when you take the test (b)

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Test Bank for Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience, 3rd E

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