Digital media and tools, prospects and practice

D V N L Chandrabhanu Guided by Nitin Raje

To amma, appa and harshith

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CONTENTS Acknowledgements

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List of figures and tables

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Chapter 0 : Brief introduction to digital technology

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Chapter 1 : Introduction

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Chapter 2 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an Architectural project • What is design?

• Nature of activity • How a Design activity is carried out?

• Aspects of Design work • Steps and processes involved in Design work

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Chapter 3 : Prospects of digital technologies in the development of an Architectural project • General voices on digital media and tools • The human brain VS Technology • Prospects in terms of aspects of Design work

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Chapter 4 : Digital technology and the Architecture design practice • Inferences and conclusions

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Appendix 1 : Survey findings

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Appendix 2 : Theoretical design process models

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Appendix 3 : Comparative tabulation of different Softwares used by an Architect

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Bibliography

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The following thesis has been introspective journey of understanding Architecture and its process and in understanding the different tools and techniques with a more emphasis on digital tools and media.

Therefore, I am grateful to my school K D Ambani Vidyamandir, for taking basic level computer courses seriously to build foundations among students. Then I would like to thank my guide Nitin Raje for guiding me and helping me frame the thesis.

Then I would like to thank Shubhra Raje, Puneet Mehrotra, Smeet Vyas, Soham Nilkanth, Surya Kakani, Shehzad Irani, Ankon Mitra, Nisarg Shah, Hiren Patel and Siddharth Panigrahi for contributing in the survey.

Also among my peer group, I would like to convey my gratitude to Viral Lalwani for her constant support. Also I would like to convey my sincere gratitude to the batch of 2017, school of architecture, for their co-operation and for giving me an opportunity to go back to the basic understandings of what is design.

I would also like to thank Jagadeesh Gorle, for his constant interest in the thesis and for sharing his thoughts and ideas regarding architecture and for the amazing COVER PAGE.

LIST OF FIGURES 1. Research question 2. Summary of architecture as a profession with respect to the design tasks 3. Properties of a software tool, Malcolm McCullough, Abstracting Craft 4. Re-distribution of design effort with use of computer-aided design methods 5. Re-use of data in an integrated sequence of analyses 6. Report by Autodesk 7. Elements of an interactive computer graphics system 8. Diagram showing the number of tools used in different stages of design work.

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LIST OF TABLES 1. Requirements of design 2. What is design?

3. Architectural design process 4. Aspects of Architectural Design Work 5. Aspects of Architectural design work 6. Staff-time distribution over different activities, 1950 survey by AIA over 3000 US offices.

7. Design representation and their purpose adapted from Lorraine Farrelly, Basics Arcchitecture-Representation techniques 8. Phases of Architectural Design Work 9. RIBA workplan 10. Chapter-0 and Chapter-2 Summary 11. Adapted from Ken Sander’s task/software table (The digital Architect) 12. Analog media VS Digital media 13. Ken Sanders, tasks and tools of the Architect.

14. “The Language of Digital Media” 15. Descriptions of building description 16. Prospects of digital tools and media, in terms of time, skill, labor and management 17. Prospects of digital tools and media in different aspects of design work 18. Comparative table of firms in terms of different tools used in different stages.

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CHAPTER 0 BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY This chapter introduces what is technology and digital technology and gives a gist of the capabilities of the current technologies available to us.

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According to Harvey Brooks and Daniel Bell technology is…

“…the use of scientific knowledge to specify ways of doing things in a reproducible manner.”

Many a times the words technology and tools are used as interchangeable words. But in a way they are very different from each other. According to the definitions of Steve Barth (Reflexions)

and

“Technologies” are systems imposed by the organization that often constrain, disempower and depersonalize knowledge work.

“Tools” are extensions of our hands, as much as the hammers or knives of traditional work.

They reinforce ownership, craftsmanship, stewardship and professional identity.

To elaborate more upon the definitions, let us look at the example of an earthen pot. The goal is to make an earthen pot, and maybe in the process of achieving this goal, one might face problems in between that would be needed to be solved in order to achieve the goal. In order to achieve this goal one would have to perform certain activities/tasks. Therefore, in order to achieve this goal and solve problems that arise in the process one would use either tools or technology. For that matter, we can consider hands as the most basic tool with which we would perform different activities, like kneading the clay, throwing a pot over a wheel etc. There can be certain tasks, which may not be able to perform with the hands, so one may use certain tools as the extensions of the hand depending on the task that needs to be performed, like a sponge to smooth the surface, or a tool that would help mold the clay in a particular manner more efficiently. Therefore, we can consider potter’s wheel as a tool, because it is in a way extension of the hand to constantly turn the wheel, if the wheel is operated by hand.

Now there would many different ways to achieve the same goal of making an earthen pot which would depend on tools. For example, if the only tool that is available were the HANDS, then we would be able to make a pot either by coiling or pinching. Here coiling and pinching come under what is called the TECHNIQUE. If there is another tool that is for example, a knife, then the technique will change and now one can make an earthen pot using slab work. The same tool can be used to achieve the goal using different techniques, but a technique would be determining what the outcome is. In almost all the cases, similar technique would mean that outcome would have certain characteristic is constant and also in the range of outcomes produced. For example, if slabwork is used as a technique then one may not be able to make big pots. Similar example can be found in the essay Laws of form by Hugh Whitehead (2003).

“One of the best sculpting material is clay; the results are free form and have no descriptive geometry. However, when clay is placed on a potter’s wheel, it inherits geometry from the mechanism that drives the wheel and a highly geometric form is produced.”

Which is why in 1964, sociologist Jacques Ellul had warned that,

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“Technique has taken over all of man’s activities, not just his productive activity”.

If we now go back to the potter’s wheel. The potter’s wheel needs constant motion. So to achieve this task instead of rotating it manually, we use an external element like a motor to achieve that constant motion; this is where TECHNOLOGY comes into picture. We just have to switch on a button and forget about the motion, and focus more on the throwing part. This is why Steve Barth defines technology as something constrains, disempowers and depersonalizes knowledge work, as while trying to achieve my goal to make an earthen pot I may not now have to THINK about how to rotate the wheel as that part is being taken care by the technology. Taking this example further if we were to say that the Earthen pot is now being 3D printed, then my knowledge about the actual throwing of a pot on a wheel would be useless and now the TOOLS in order to achieve the goal would be completely different. My tool would be softwares (Computer as a tool) that help me build the model of the pot that would be 3D printed.

Ironically, technology use scientific knowledge to disempower knowledge work!

Over the years technology (i.e. the use of already established principles or knowledge to produce an outcome) has developed quite a lot to an extent that the disempowering of knowledge work, has actually lead to the development of technology as a very different domain of science which is independent of the other branches. Also technology has disintegrated into different realms, like construction, digital/computer, electronics etc. Out of these realms digital technology is a major realm which in the current scenario is being used almost in all departments including medicine, agriculture, communication, disaster management, etc. including art and architecture.

Digitization is nothing but the recording of information in binary code of combinations of the digits 0 and 1, also called bits, and this information is compressed and stored in small devices that can now be easily preserved and transported. Now we have many devices that can run a set of complex operations on the digitally stored information to create different outcomes in the digital form itself. The computers are one of the major devices that use digital technology. These days there are many other electronic devices that support digital technology like mobile phones, tablets etc. Therefore, it is important to know, what a computer is.

Based upon the definition by William J Mitchell, in his book,

“Computer-aided Architecture design” , computers may be desccribed as electronic devices which are capable of storing data in an internal memory, and of following stored sets of instructions (known as programs) to operate upon data in order to produce desired results.”

Therefore, according to this definition a computer can be as basic as a calculator that receives information by pressing buttons and it performs the operations based on the instructions already programmed in it and produces the result in the form of information displayed (as that of pressing the buttons).

ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER

1. Hardware – The component of a computer through which data can be inputted in the computer, like keyboard, monitor, graphic card, motherboard, sound card etc.

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2. Software – It is the information processed by a computers systems, programs and data. It consists of program, libraries and related non-executable data.

3. Monitor/Display unit – It is an output device that displays information in a pictorial form using pixels.

4. Central Processing Unit – This unit is responsible for channelizing data and information into different devices and programs. It retrieves, interprets, and executes instructions from the program stored in memory.

5. Data – The whole digitization is that, the data is converted into digital format, in the form of binary language. Therefore, any data that needs to be processed by the computers needs to be in the digital format. There are now many devices that easily convert data into the digital format, like for example, cameras, audio recorders, etc.

CAPABILITIES OF A COMPUTER

1. Data processing – data processing is the process of handling very large quantities of data and the performance of relatively simple operations such as storage, retrieval, sorting, tabulating, and printing out in specified formats. Example, DBMS ( Database Management Systems)

2. Data analysis - data processing combined with numerical computation becomes very useful in data analysis. Some types of analysis done by the computer are factor analysis, cluster analysis, and multi-dimensional scaling.

3. Person-machine systems – Computers now have a evolved a lot to become very interactive. The hardware now can take lots of inputs starting from voice recognition to fingerprint sensors.

4. Process control – The capabilities of computers to handle and control complex mechanical and electrical systems like for example, elevator and air-conditioning systems and many more.

5. Computer graphics and image processing – The capabilities of computers regarding computer graphics and image processing have reached from cathode ray tube display to the extent of virtual reality and immersive technology.

6. Artificial Intelligence - The ability that is built within the computers to perform various tasks normally requiring human intelligence. The basic example of artificial intelligence could be simple basic calculations. Nowadays computers are programmed to perform many complex tasks like visual perception, voice recognition, translation between languages etc.

7. Computer-aided design – All the above capabilities can be potentially be used to generate designs for various systems. For example, designing circuit layouts.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION : DIGITAL MEDIA AND TOOLS, PROSPECTS AND PRACTICE Now that the capabilities of technologies has been noted, what could be their impact in architectural design processes.

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BUILDING TYPE

BUILDING LAYER

CONCLUSION

PRIMTIVE CAVE DWELLINGS

(FOUND) SHELTER protection from inclement weather, wild beasts and other enemies

The need for shelter was realized

SHEEP SKIN TENTS

(BUILT) SHELTER protection from inclement weather, wild beasts and other enemies

The idea of CREATING/BUILDING a shelter, through which the basics of structures was realized, as in CREATING A SPACE, by making a FRAME and then adding an infill (SHEEP SKIN).

TRABEATED GREEK ARCHITECTURE

STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

Adapting the structural system of a particular and imitating the same system in another material to build large scale buildings. But the limitation of just structural system also limited the building typology.

MONUMENTAL EGYPTIANS PYRAMIDS

LABOUR

Involvement of huge amount of labor to build very huge projects.

ASSYRIAN PALACES

INTERIOR DECORATIONS

Involving artisans and painters as part of the building construction team.

BABYLONIAN BRICK STRUCTURES

MATERIAL DEPENDENT STRUCTURAL SYSTEM – VAULTS AND ARCHES

Evolving structural system according to the materials available.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

ENGINEERING PRINCIPLLES IN STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Incorporating complex engineering principles considering the limitations of materials available and the scale of space required.

TABLE 1 : Evolution of Building and construction as a PROFESSION

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Therefore, in the light of technologies, William Mitchell states that,

“Computer technology is revolutionizing the way that architectural design is done, but the theoretical presuppositions underlying computer-aided architectural systems are rarely made explicit – and when they are, they often turn out to be shaky and inconsistent.”

Architectural design profession is still struggling to completely accept digital technology or design task automation in many aspects. As Hugh Whiteman points out that clay as a material can be limited to strict geometry by using certain type of tool then, does the same apply to architectural design and practice as well, if digital technologies are considered as tools.

“The making of architecture involves political, social, technical, economic, aesthetic, ethical and ecological questions: to what extent are all of these relevant to education? The problem remains even if one defines architecture as an art, for the art of building and planning certainly requires a broad understanding that at least does not exclude any of the dimensions just mentioned. Yet the best way to make people sensitive to the aesthetic qualities of architecture may not be to start with economy. From this point of view, during architectural education, student should have to have enough background for technique, mathematic, engineering, art, technology, economy, law, sociology and psychology.”

Therefore, the tools and techniques that are being used have changed; does that mean that the digital technology influences the design processes or how design work takes place? More important question to ask is have we incorporated such technologies to perform certain design functions (which is the purpose of any technology)? Even more important question is to what extent have we actually used these technologies? And if we have not been able to use these technologies, then what is the probable reason in doing so? (Figure-1)

RESEARCH AIM To investigate the role of digital tools and media in the way architect’s design and deliver built environments, by evaluating their scope in architectural design processes and how these tools and media are incorporated in design work, in relation to different stages, i.e. from the introduction of the project till the completion of the project.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What is the scope of digital tools and media in design work?

2. Till what extent and how are these digital tools and media being incorporated by the current practioners in India?

3. If not fully digitized, what could be the possible reasons for the same?

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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS There are many digital technologies that have currently evolved enough to be easily accessible to everyone. These technologies available can be used in various domains starting from DESIGN to OCCUPANCY. Although for this thesis the technologies for DESIGN are only considered and they can be categorized in terms of:

1. Design – From basic CAD systems to BIM to VR etc., also electronic publishing.

2. Collaboration – Video conferencing, email, FTP (File Transfer Protocol) technology, project collaboration websites/extranets, project collaboration solutions etc.

3. Telecommunications – Fibre-optics capability, built-in wiring for Internet access, wiring for high-speed networks, LAN and WAN connectivity, Satellite accessibility, ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) etc.

Also in terms of pracitces, different types of practices are considered in order to observe any variations in terms of the technologies with respect to type of firm/practice.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH Nowadays digital technologies are being used widely in every aspect of our lives. These technologies have evolved so much that they have affected the way we build and design our environments. But we (human) for some reasons are still connected to the primitive tools and techniques; therefore, the thesis could provide a base for the discussion to be taken forward to if we ever achieve the cybernetics vision to attain complete digitization. Or even if we achieve the fully digitized vision, then what are the possibilities we can use these technologies according the task that we wish to perform, rather than the technology dictating the way in which we perform those tasks.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND STRUCTURE Part 1: (Literature Review) Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project The idea of digital technology is about understanding functions and procedures as discussed before, therefore, this part is about understanding the functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project. This part also deals with the understanding of these procedures also in terms of inputs for each phase or stage and the actors involved.

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1. What is design?

2. Architectural design as a function of Art VS. Architecture as a function of Science

3. Architecture as a process

4. Aspects of design work

5. Steps and processes involved in Architecture design work

Part 2: (Literature Review) After establishing the different stages of architectural design, this part looks into how the processes involved in each task can be performed using digital tools and media in order to understand the prospects of these technologies in architectural design.

1. Voices on digital tools and media

2. The human brain vs digital technology

3. Prospects in terms of aspects of design work

Part 3: (Surveys and Interviews) As ken Sanders puts it, today the technology that is available to the architects is also available to other people also including the client, the consultants etc.; however the pace of technology within the architecture has been certainly developing at a slower pace than the other professions and that the process of architectural design and documentation still has not radically changed from twenty years ago (Ken Sanders, 1996).

Therefore, this part ivestigates the processes of architecture design work of some typical practicing firms in India, with respect to the framework established in the previous parts.

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FIGURE 1 : Research Question

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CHAPTER 2 CHARACTERISTIC STEPS, FUNCTIONS AND PROCEDURES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECT The idea of digital technology is about understanding functions and procedures as discussed before, therefore, this part is about understanding the functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project. This part also deals with the understanding of these procedures also in terms of inputs for each phase or stage and the actors involved.

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DAVID PYE’S 6 requirements of design

VITRUVIUS’S requirements of design

It must correctly embody the essential principle of arrangement.

UTILITAS

The components of the device must be geometrically related – in extent and position – to each other and to the objects, in whatever particular ways suit these particular result objects and this particular result.

The components must be strong enough to transmit and resist forces as the intended result requires.

FIRMITAS

Access must be provided The appearance of the device must be acceptable.

VENUSTAS

The cost of the result must be acceptable.

TABLE 2 : Requirements of design

Part 1 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

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verb 1. Decide upon the look and functioning of (a building, garment, or other object), by

making a detailed drawing of it.

2. from Latin designare (designate) which means to “mark out” and “to choose”.

But when design is considered as a noun, the definition changes to: noun

1. A plan or drawing produced to show the look and function or workings of a building, garment, or other object before it is made.

2. A decorative pattern

Which indicates that design in many cases can easily be confused with ‘Art’. Also on the extreme end, like designing something which involves complex technologies, for example designing a rocket maybe considered as ’Science’. As David Pye puts it design and its making are two of the principle human activities which are informed both by art and by science. He further explains in his book, “nature of design “,

“The thing which sharply distinguishes useful design from such arts as painting and sculpture is that the practitioner of design has limits set upon his freedom of choice. A painter can choose any imaginable shape. A designer cannot.”

These limitations that David Pye is talking about are set by the FUNCTION of the object that is being designed. In this aspect even paintings and sculptures which are generally considered as pieces of art can be considered as design. For example, the paintings and murals in religious institutions like churches. There the limits of the object might be considered as the area where the painting has to be made, which might be the ceiling, wall, window etc. In some the limits might be the content of the piece itself.

Similarly, design, cannot be thought in terms of FUNCTION alone. Thinking in terms of Function would mean that the object or product is thought only in terms of the scientific principle that serves the particular function. This is where David Pye’s definition of invention as the process of discovering a principle (SCIENCE), that would perform a given FUNCTION, whereas design as the process of applying that principle becomes important.

Therefore, in order to understand the nature of tasks (SCIENCE or ART) involved in any design activity, first design as a process is explained in the following section.

What is Design?

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DESIGN PROCESS - AN ART OR A SCIENCE? process Noun : a series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end.

In the previous section, what is design and how design is different from art and science has been elaborated. Therefore, in order to understand design as a process, Bryan Lawson’s description of what is design can be noted, which is ,

“It requires problem finding, and problem solving, deduction and the drawing of inferences,

Induction and the creating of new ideas, analysis and synthesis. Above all design requires the

making of judgments and the taking of balanced decisions often in an ethical and moral context.”

-Bryan Lawson, How designers think The above description of design, in a way states the different steps, or tasks and processes involved in order to achieve a final outcome, which is the design itself. Therefore, according to Cooper and Mallick design process can also be viewed as a management function, which is extremely important to design tasks and to the design outcome. These definitions might illustrated by taking an example of an earthen pot, which let us say has been observed to break, after a certain amount of water. Therefore, in this situation: Final design outcome/intention - An earthen pot which contains water.

Problem finding – In the above situation, there could be many reasons for which the pot breaks, digging deep into these reasons will let us identify the PROBLEM. Therefore, problem finding is the essential task performed while designing that actually gives hints on what exactly needs to be deigned. Therefore, in the above case if the problem is identified with the form of the pot, then someone may work on designing the form of pots that can sustain maximum pressures.

If someone identifies the problem with the clay with which the pot has been made, then that person would work on designing clay to serve the purpose better. Similarly, there may be someone who would say that the problem is with the atmosphere in which the pot has been placed, therefore, he/she may work on designing micro-climates.

Deduction and drawing of inferences – Once the problem has been identified, the next step is to deduce and draw inferences for the problem.

Problem solving – The inferences drawn from above will give hints on designing elements/components, the quality of design lies in how the problem has been solved.

Part 1 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

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Analysis – Consistent analysis needs to be done in order to test whether the solutions are actually solving the problem. Analysis can be done in many ways. Take for example a sculptor, who is working on a part that needs to be placed in a larger piece, while sculpting that part he would first take the min and max dimensions, this is the first part of analysis. The second part of analysis comes when the sculptor has put the basic dimensions in place and while adding more details, he would constantly check if the added details comply with the overall piece. For this he would constantly put the piece and try to gauge if all other aspects are satisfied. The activity of testing the design and gauging the results falls under analysis.

Similarly, in the case of the earthen pot, analysis could be made in terms of the form and shape of the pot, according to which some limiting dimensions (factors) (for example, the mouth versus the height of the pot ratio) can be set and the designer could then play within those limits.

Synthesis – There are many ways to solve a problem. The problem could be dealt as a whole or as individual parts. Synthesis is the stage where the designer grapples with how the whole works as a system to solve the problem or how individual parts come together to work as whole.

The designer of the earthen pot could choose to work on the entire pot as a whole at a go, or may choose to work different parts and then put them together.

Induction and the creating of new ideas – This is the stage where the designer adds the X-factor. Once everything required for the problem to be solved are in place, the designer may choose to induce new ideas or new ideas of creating the same thing satisfying all the criteria.

If we now start listing down the tasks that need to be performed from the above example, it will be as follows:

• Identification of the problem Observations

Trial and error Simulations

• Drawing of inferences

• Identification of Elements/components

• Identification of limiting factors

• Playing within the limiting factors

• Establishing Parts-to-whole relationships

• Establishing Parts-to-parts relationships

Nature of Activity 23

TO CHOOSE (ART) “the expression or application of human creative skill and imagination, typically in a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power.”

WHAT IS DESIGN?

TO MARK OUT (SCIENCE) “the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment”

Design can be seen in the perspective of art, because the designer has to make choices.

Design(ARTIFICIAL) is always an outcome of a choice. If something is created/made without choices then that is considered as NATURAL. Therefore, designed elements can sometimes be considered as art, as they have been designed (i.e. chosen among certain alternatives) in order to express or has an APPLICATION/FUNCTION i.e. beyond the logic of alternatives.

STEP 1 Problem finding/Goal finding

STEP 5 Synthesis

STEP 6 Induction and the creating of new ideas

STEP 2 Deduction and drawing of inferences As David Pye states, it is the LIMITS that the practitioner sets upon his FREEDOM OF CHOICE, which distinguishes design from arts. These limits set up the nonnegotiables of any design.

STEP 3 Problem – solving

STEP 4 Analysis

TABLE 3 : What is design?

Part 1 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

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These tasks or actions may be considered as the steps taken to achieve a final outcome.

This constitutes the design process. Therefore, the following points can be taken into account to summarise the understanding of what is design.

1. Design needs to be understood as an activity which is informed by both art and science, but shouldn’t be confused with either being completely art or being completely as science.

2. Therefore, the activity of designing involves both aspects of art and science, which can be seen in the table 3.

Table 3 also summarizes the steps involved in any design activity in terms of the nature of process (choice or marking out/creation of alternatives) followed in each of these steps.

HOW DESIGN ACTIVITY IS CARRIED OUT In order to understand how design activity is carried out, it is useful to carry forward William Mitchell’s (1977) consideration of architectural design as a special kind of problem-solving process, which can also be seen in the previous definition by Bryan Lawson (1980).

Therefore, according to William MItchell, to solve a design problem, a designer would need the following aspects:

1. Set of CONSTRAINTS and/or OBJECTIVES - which define a GOAL, set of acceptable soultions.

2. SOLUTION GENERATION PROCEDURE - which produces a set of potential solutions for consideration which may or may not intersect the GOAL.

3. A DATA STRUCTURE - which consists of variables describing the relevant properties of potential solutions.

4. A set of OPERATORS - which may be applied to variables to change the state of the data structure, along with the CONSTRAINTS, to produce potential solutions.

How Design Activity is carried out?

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WHAT IS ARCHITECTURE DESIGN WORK? EXAMPLE - Le Corbusier’s Venice hospital STEPS UNDERTAKEN

TASK

PROCESS

The hospital is viewed less as an instrument for the efficient technical practice and institutional delivery of medicine than as part of the city, where patients and visitors alike can partake in something that, as closely as possible under the circumstances, approximates urban life.

Setting up of the design goals/vision

INCEPTION

Venice is formed by her plan of water, “which is “one of the most favorable sustaining elements for architecture,…. It is like a cardiac system, pure, perfect in its workings. Nothing is straight…. The plazas are imposing reservoirs, lakes to accommodate the throngs

understanding the context.

ASSIMILATION

And so the idea for the hospital’s circulation and public spaces came into being……

Initial ideas

CONCEPT DESIGN

The extremely profound and swift evolution of modern medicine, combined with the growing obligation to offer equally modern services to the sick, are two factors, among others, which hasten the obsolescence of existing hospitals……In particular, Le Corbusier and his collaborators were concerned with the intensive care and accommodation of hospitalized patients as well as with ambulatory and outpatient care and the most appropriate environment for this service.

Understanding the requirements

FEASIBILITY

A three-level hierarchy of spaces and activity areas was fashioned out of the program of uses. At the most fundamental level was the unite’ lit, or “bed unit,” sometimes referred to as la cellule, “the cell”

Developing design ideas

DEVELOPMENT

This consisted of a private 3-meter and 3meter space at the disposal of the patient, complete with necessary accommodations, a hanging garden, and the possibility of altering the ambient lighting of the space through the use of colored panels

Detailing design

DETAIL DESIGN

Further on in the process the plan becomes far more differentiated as specific site requirements begin to make their presence felt and as the interpretation of the morphology of Venice comes into play.

Instead of having the appearance of happenstance interstitial realms, the public spaces – “the domain of the upright man”now take on a more positive and consciously arranged pattern

Putting things together and preparing the final project brief

INTEGRATION

It is also a facility that appears to blend in with the city, not through superficial imitation but through thorough reckoning with the morphology of surrounding areas, adapted to different institutional purposes.

DECLARATIVE LOGIC (X- factor)

COMMUNICATION

TABLE 4 : Architecutral Design Process

Part 1 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

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The process of making or building of built environments is different for different scales of the built forms that the designer is dealing with. The making of built-forms may involve so many people, both the actors and the stakeholders i.e. the residents of the built form, and also may deal with much complex systems as compared to an earthen pot. So, it is first important to understand the processes and steps involved in the making of a building.

For that let us take an example of a very descriptive design process of Le Corbusier’s Venice hospital. This project can be considered as the ideal traditional way of designing buildings and can also be taken as an example for designing with others, due to the death of the architect after the 1st phase of the project. And the entire project was lead by Guillermo Jullian de la Fuente. (Table 4) The conclusions from this example can be drawn as follows :

1. There is the “to and fro” movement between areas of concern.

2. There seems to be periods of unfettered speculation, followed by more sober and con

templative episodes during which the designer “takes stock of the situation.”

3. Each episode seems to have a particular orientation that preoccupies the designer.

Architectural design process were always considered to be creative processes, which are dependent on many factors. Designing built environments may deal with many complex systems and principles, that the architect must be informed with, in order to deliver a good design. Therefore, depending on different scenarios or systems that the project deals with, there can be different approaches to different design problems. Some of the design process approaches, as mentioned

by William Mitchell, can be seen in the appendix.

However, these processes mostly talk about just the design development and very little about the making of the built environment. Therefore, if we consider the design process as something that starts right from the introduction or acquisition of the project to the execution and occupation of the built environment, then the design process can be considered in terms of different stages. So, there are two aspects of design process models,

Theoretical design process models – developed to generate thinking and creative methods that can establish a solution which leads the design activity. (Roozenburg and Eekels, 1995, p.94).

Practical design process models – Practical design process models have been described

as phased models, which are based on the ideas of functional structure and embodiment design.

Many people and institutions have tried to define design processes differently, ever since the 1960s, as the profession of architecture started to develop within its domain. Also as the profession of architecture started evolving over time, the process of design activity has also kept on changing, therefore, to understand to the current state of architecture design process, the evolution of architecture as a profession can be taken into consideration (fig. 2).

How Design Activity is carried out?

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CLIENT DESIGNER CONSULTANT CONTRACTOR LABOUR

EXPRESSION/ REPRESENTATION

DESIGNER

CLIENT

CONSULTANT CONTRACTOR LABOUR

EXPRESSION/ REPRESENTATION

EXPRESSION/ REPRESENTATION

CLIENT

DESIGNER

CONTRACTOR

CONSULTANT

LABOUR

ORGANISATION

EXPRESSION/ REPRESENTATION

EXPRESSION/ REPRESENTATION

CONTRACTOR

DESIGNER

CLIENT

LABOUR

INTEGRATION

EXPRESSION/ REPRESENTATION

ORGANISATION

CONSULTANT

FIGURE 2 : Summary of architecture as a profession w.r.t to design tasks

Part 1 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

28

INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF THE PROFESSION Fig. 2 shows how the architecture as a profession emerged from the 15th century guild systems to the 21st century design consultancies and architectural institutions across the world by the second half of the 19th century like the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA, 1834), the Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects (1837), Central Society of French Architects (1840), and the American Institute of Architects (1857). These institutions arose out of the inadequacy of the caveat emptor (the buyer alone is responsible for checking the quality and suitability of goods before a purchase is made) in the professional marketplace and the motivation to clearly distinguish between professional and commercial services (William Mitchell, p70, 1977) Therefore, the institutionalization of the profession, gave rise to the following factors that are required for the development of an architectural project.

DESIGN LITERACY The process of architecture design has also evolved with respect to the evolution of the profession. In the 15th Century building team, the design as well as the construction was taken care by individual craft guilds, who were appointed by the client. On the contrary in the present structure, design work has been made seen to be seen to be drifting away from construction work, as many other factors started playing major role in the designing of built environments. To which Ken Sanders adds that designing buildings is a more difficult, complex problem than engineering them. Therefore, design as an activity has now become a separate aspect with its own pre-requisite skill sets, which involve the tasks and processes discussed in the previous sections.

Design literacy includes the knowledge about the following:

• • •

1. Design-TOOLS - In the initial chapters, the definiton of tools was looked into. But tools can be of variour types and can be used to perform various tasks. But there is a characteristic for a tool to be a design tool which to according to Ken Sanders, can be defined if it follows: A design tool must be used by the designer, not a surrogate A design tool must allow the designer to define relationships between design components that affect the performance or appearance of the design, relative to explicit or implied criteria A design tool must provide interactive (preferably dynamic) feedback concerning the performance or appearance of a design as the designer modifies its geometry 2. Design medium - McCullough defines medium as something that is required to give any work substance. It is something that plays very important in mediating the action of our hands, eyes and tools. The word ‘medium’ can have many meanings, in terms of design it signifies a class of tools and raw materials.

Aspects of Design Work 29

ASPECTS OF DESIGN WORK

DESCRIPTION

FACTORS

DESIGN LITERACY

Knowledge about design tools, media, processes and functions.

DESIGN TOOLS DESIGN MEDIUM DESIGN FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES

DESIGN INTEGRATION

Ability to integrate different systems and data in the design.

DATA BASES

DESIGN ORGANIZATION

Ability to organize the design work depending on various factors.

SIZE INTERNAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE BREADTH OF INTEGRATION OF ACTIVITIES BUILDING TYPE SPECIALIZATION

DESIGN REPRESENTATION

Ability to communicate and visualize design ideas.

GRAPHICS

TABLE 5 : Aspects of Architectural Design Work

WORKING DRAWINGS

17.9 %

DESIGN

15.2 %

“OVERALL ACTIVITIES”

11.5 %

ADMINISTRATION

10.7 %

FIELD SUPERVISION

9.7 %

CLIENT RELATIONS

9.2 %

SPECIFICATIONS

6.4 %

TABLE 6 : Staff-time distribution over different activities, 1950 survey by AIA over 3000 US offices, sourced from William Mitchell’s Computer - Aided Architecture Design

Part 1 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

30

Properties of a design medium as stated by Malcolm McCullough are as follows:

1. Engagement –

- a medium must have sufficient effect on the senses in order to command

our attention. It must stir our imagination.

- It must be dense – creating possibilities

2. Affordance – the workable capacities of a medium 3. Constraint - A medium due to its properties of affordance has certain

constraints as well, which also determine the boundaries of design.

Affordance and constraints shape expression, and they do so in the process of giving form. Form establishes boundaries. A medium shapes the structure of expression.

3. Design Processes and Functions - Another skill set of the architect includes the part where the architect has knowledge about which type of process to use with which tool, and also how to organize the design work depending on the same. A brief description of different design processes can be referred to in the appendix. Also, for most part of the design processes and functions includes the generation of alternatives with respect to certain constraints marked out depending on the design problem.

DESIGN INTEGRATION Unlike the earlier guild system, where the design as well as the construction responsibility was taken care by individual guilds, the building team today is separated between the design team and the construction team. Therefore, design integration is an important aspect because, as a designer it is very important to take into consideration different determinants of build environment, like for example, the structural system, the building systems and services, the environmental and energy aspects of the building etc. in order to deliver a good quality design. How the design integration takes place is entirely dependent on the individual architect or the internal organization of the firm.

Therefore, in terms of design integration, DATA plays a very important role.

DESIGN ORGANIZATION Depending on the type and size of the projects and the nature of projects, different types of design organizations have emerged over the years. Some of the characteristics of architectural design organizations are as follows (William Mitchell, p71, Computer-aided Architecture Design):

Aspects of Design Work 31

REPRESENTATION

TYPES

PURPOSE

SKETCHING

Conceptual

To clearly and concisely communicate design intention

Analytical

Used to analyze a building, space or component

Observational

Exploration of aspects of buildings, materials or space in detail

Ground floor plan

To show the access and the relationship to the exterior space

Floor plans

To indicate connections between the building levels

Location plan

To indicate the slope of the roof and overhang

Site plan

To describe a building within the context of its site

Sections

To communicate the connection between the inside and the outside of a building

Elevations

The vertical plane of building or space

Perspective

To view from a particular point

Axonometric

Gives an understanding of both the plan and the building’s internal and external elevations.

Isometric

To make the technical representation of an axonometric view slightly more accessible and more of a perspective representation.

Fly-through views

To understand all the three-dimensional spaces

Wire

Transparent images to see the building as a three-dimensional outline

Interior views

To describe an interior space

Sectional perspective

Composite representation of section and perspective drawing, to reveal connections as well as workability

Spatial sequences

To explain an important aspect of design such as a route through the building or the means to access it.

Photomontage image

To convince the viewer that the architecture can respond to its site ad context effectively.

Collage

Abstract representation of an idea, which is suggestive of a reality.

Concept

To describe an idea in simple terms in order to clearly communicate the underlying architectural concept

Development

To solve and explore three-dimensional problems

Illuminated

To highlight particular aspects of a design

Presentation

For public consultation and an overview of the finished project.

DRAWING

3D IMAGES

MODEL

TABLE 7 : Design Representation and their purpose, adapted from Lorraine Farrelly, Basics Architecture – Representational techniques

Part 1 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

32

1. Size

2. Internal organization structure- There are two types of organization: a. Vertical structure

b. Horizontal structure

3. Breadth of integration of activities 4. Building type specialization

Also when it comes to design organization, it is important to consider the time and staff, because organization is all about managing the work force, skill/effort and the time taken. The distribution of time with respect to different stages of design based on surveys conducted by different Archtiectural organizations has been summarised in the table.

DESIGN EXPRESSION AND REPRESENTATION The separation of the design work with the construction work means that now communication between the two aspects becomes really important in order to deliver a good quality built environment. With the evolution of different skill sets and need to integrate so many complicated systems into the designing of built environments demands a strong need to visualize and represent all these systems together. This aspect also deals what type of representation to use to communicate which aspect of design and how to arrive to these representations. A detailed description of different medium of design representation can be referred in the book by Lorraine Farrelly, Basics Architecture – Representational techniques. The book also mentions that the type of design representation in terms of the following aspects:

1. FEASIBILITY STUDY - preliminary study undertaken to determine and document a project’s viability. The results of this study are used to determine whether or not to proceed with the project.

2. PRESENTATION - these drawings are inteneded for a client audience. These drawings need to have an impact, be accessible, easy to understand and communicate the scheme concepts clearly.

3. WORKING DRAWINGS - These drawings are used to build a piece of architecture, issued at a point when the scheme is agreed. These drawings need to have a coordinated production information (CPI).

4. SPECIALIZED DRAWINGS - allows the manuacture of particular, perhaps bespoke, items by a supplier.

Aspects of Design Work 33

STEPS AND PROCESSES INVOLVED IN DESIGN WORK The institutionalization of the architect’s role within the building team has also resulted in the considerable standardization of tasks and phases, wherein each phase caters to the general responsibilities of the architect, so the details and terminology may vary in different areas.

There are many institutes that have come up with different models depicting the different phases of design. Considering the previous example, the steps involved in designing and making of any built environment can be seen to in agreement with the RIBA work plan. As the RIBA outline plan of work establishes a workable sequence of stages by architects (Liu, Chung-hung, An exploratory stud of design processes). Also each phase of work plan is formed to the requirements of the given work processes. The model is also very linear and takes into consideration viewpoints of design, management, engineering and construction (RIBA, 1973), subdividing the work into stages that follow one after the other. It is more of guidance than a method that needs to be followed. It is just a model that depicts the stages of design and not the creative method (practical design process model).

The different task requirement and processes in each stage can be summarised in the following tables.

PHASE

DESCRIPTION

THE BRIEFING PHASE

in which feasibility and other preliminary research studies are conducted, and a program of requirements for the proposed building is produced and agreed upon.

THE SKETCH DESIGN PHASE

in which design alternatives are explored, and a final design Is developed and agreed upon.

THE CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS PHASE

In which detailed design decisions are made, and working drawings and specifications for the proposed building are produced. This phase normally concludes with the calling of bids from construction contractors to undertake the work described in the drawings and specifications, and the award of the contract to the successful bidder.

THE CONSTRUCTION SUPREVISION PHASE

In which the architect monitors the contractor’s operations.

TABLE 8: Phases of Architectural Design Work

Part 1 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

34

BRIEFING STAGE ACTION / DELIVERABLE

TASKS INVOLVED

TASK REQUIREMENT

PROCESS

INCEPTION

Outlining the brief and objectives

General understanding of the design problem at hand

Analysis

Previous references or case studies of a similar condition (if possible)

Strategy

Site and project information to outline the project constraints

Data collection

Project objectives and aspiration

Feasibility study

FEASIBILITY

Review of the site and project information

SKETCH PLANS STAGE ACTION / DELIVERABLE

TASKS INVOLVED

TASK REQUIREMENT

PROCESS

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

Descriptions of building geometry

Shape / Spatial reference

Drawing

Dimensional information

Drawing

Locational information

Drawing

Relational information

Drawing

Building/building elements geometry

Set operations

Established relations between different building elements/ components

Topological operations

Floor plan layout

Synthesis

Three- dimensional Spatial synthesis

Synthesis

Descriptions of the building geometry and topology

Analysis

Descriptions of building topology

SCHEME DESIGN

Overall design synthesis

Evaluation of the outline proposal with respect to the project strategies

Steps and Processes involved in Design Work 35

DEVELOPMENT STAGE ACTION / DELIVERABLE

TASKS INVOLVED

TASK REQUIREMENT

PROCESS

DETAIL DESIGN

Detailing

Detailed information about building and construction elements

Assimilation

Knowledge about how the different elements would come together / built.

Simulation

Inclusion of Structural systems and building services and systems

Synthesis

PRODUCTION INFORMATION

Construction Specifications

Detail design

Assimilation and Consultation

BILLS OF QUANTITIES

Calculation of quantities

Production information

Enumeration

TENDER ACTION

Tweaking of the design in accordance to the budget and other constraints

Detail design and bills of quantities

Refinement

SITE OPERATIONS STAGE ACTION / DELIVERABLE

TASKS INVOLVED

TASK REQUIREMENT

PROCESS

PROJECT PLANNING

Planning

Construction information

Planning

OPERATIONS ON SITE

Supervision

On-going construction information

Supervision

Resolution of design queries as they arise

On-going construction information

Resolution and Clarification

Handover of building

Completion of the building in accordance to the client approval and satisfaction

COMPLETION

Conclusion of contract FEEDBACK

Part 1 : Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

36

WORK STAGE

PROCESS

ACTION/ DELIVERABLES

CORE OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION EXCHANGES (at stage completion)

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

• • • • •

• Strategic brief • Initial project brief

FEASIBILITY

• Initial project brief • Feasibility studies • Review of Site information

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

• • • •

SCHEME DESIGN

• Project strategies in accordance with Design Programme • Final project brief

DETAIL DESIGN

• Developed design including co-ordinated and updated proposals for structural design.

• Outline specifications • Cost information • Project strategies in accordance with design programme

• Developed design, including the coordinated architectural, structural and building services design • Updated cost information

• Technical design in accordance with design responsibility matrix • Project strategies to include all architectural, structural and building services information, specialist subcontractor design • Specifications in accordance with design programme • Offsite manufacturing and onsite Construction in accordance with Construction Programme.

• Resolution of Design queries from site as they arise.

• Handover of building and conclusion of building contract • Undertake In Use services in accordance with Schedule of Services

• Completed Technical design of the project • ‘As-constructed’ information • Updated As-constructed’ information.

• As-constructed’ information updated in response to ongoing client Feedback • Maintenance or operational developments.

SKETCH DESIGN

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS

GENERAL STUDY

DEVELOPMENT

PRODUCTION INFORMATION BILLS OF QUANTITIES

Strategic brief Project objectives Quality objectives Project outcomes Project aspirations

Concept design Structural design Building services systems Outline specifications

• Concept design including outline proposals outline structural and building services design • Associated project strategies • Preliminary cost information • Final project brief

TENDER ACTION

SITE OPERATIONS

COMMUNICATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATIONS ON SITE

COMPLETION

FEEDBACK

TABLE 9 : RIBA Workplan

Steps and Processes involved in Design Work 37

38

CHAPTER 3 PROSPECTS OF DIGITAL TOOLS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECT After establishing the different stages of architectural design, this part looks into how the processes involved in each task can be performed using digital tools and media into to understand the prospects of these technologies in architectural design.

39

1500s

1800s MEDIA

TECHNOLOGY

The media has evolved quite a lot with respect to the technology available. The evolution of media can also be directly related to the advancements in other areas like computation and communication systems etc.

COMPUTATION Computing tool refers to any tool that computes any required function. Performing several functions in combination within a single machine, gives rise to the computational processes. Starting from basic computation like addtion substraction, the computations tool have developed to adapt capabilities like interpretation and selection as well. (Bush, As we may think)

INFORMATION SYSTEMS One of the greatest advantage that technology has oered is the capability to store and retrieve data whenever and wherever needed. Now we have a huge array of information systems in which data can be categorised and retrieved in various formats and types and also can be converted from one type to another depending on the compactibility.

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Technology has a major to play in the communcation systems. It is because of these technologies that we can be connected to anyone and from anywhere.

40

1900s

2000s

41

General Voices on Digital tools and media In the very first chapter, the whole idea of digitization and capabilities of a computer were introduced.

1945

Vannevar Bush, “As we may think” “The scientist, however, is not the only person who manipulates data and examines the world about him by the use of logical processes, although he sometimes preserves this appearance by adopting into the fold anyone who becomes logical, much in the manner in which a British labor leader is elevated to knighthood.

Whenever logical processes of thought are employed – that is, whenever thought for a time runs along an accepted groovethere is, an opportunity for the machine.“

On future of machines and task automation

1950

Lady Lovelace’s objection “The Analytical Engine has no pretentions to originate anything.

It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform…. We may say most aptly that the Analytical Engine weaves algebraical patterns just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves…..”

Machines cannot THINK

1950

Alan Turing’s counter argument as put by William Mitchell “Lady Lovelace’s argument appears to be based on the fallacious assumption that ‘as soon as a fact is presented to a mind all consequences of that fact spring into the mind simultaneously with it’. Knowledge of a generative system defining a set of potential design solutions, solution criteria to be applied, and an automatically-executable procedure will not guarantee that the result produced by execution of that procedure will not appear original and surprising. The larger the set of potential solutions, the more complex the solution criteria, the more intricate and sophisticated the solution generation procedure, the more likely it is that we will ask in surprise of a computer system, “How did it ‘think’ of that?”

Part 2 : Prospects of Digital Tools

42

The OUTPUT generated depends on the INPUT and the PROCESS

in the development of an

Architectural Project

1997

Account of Gehry’s experience Computer as a DESIGN TOOL

“Initially, Gehry was resistant to using the computer in his design process. The program seemed to limit architecture to symmetries, mirror imagery, and “simple Euclidean geometries,” as Glymph put it but questions of how to visualize gestural moves resulting in sculptural three-dimensional forms while retaining the immediacy of a sketch, or how to translate them into a very large scale, were unresolved. “I just don’t like the images of the computer,” Gehry said, “But as soon as I found a way to use it to build, then I connected.”

1997

Ken Sanders Incorporation of Digital Technologies in Architectural Practices

“Although its impact at times seems revolutionary, technological change has within the architectural profession at a slower pace than many technology evangelists expected in the early 1980s.

In those days, some experts predicted totally digital, “paperless” practices by the mid-1990s. Certainly, a few firms are close to realizing, if not the paperless practice, at least the digital practice.

But most architects have implemented computer tools within their firms more cautiously. Architects are certainly using new computer tools and delivering new digital products to clients, but the process of architectural design and documentation still has not radically changed from twenty years ago.”

“Without exception, using a computer always means to activate an algorithmic procedure as mediator between input and output.

Therefore, the abstract model of the Turing enables the shift of awareness from the machine towards the principle represented by the machine. As Kalay has pointed out before, the mere use of computers in architecture does not change the way of production. What is needed is a conscious consideration of the machine in order to be able to reinvent the design process in architecture and use the computer creatively. This is, what the Turing model stands for.”

General Voices on Digital Tools and Media 43

CHAPTER 0: A brief introduction to digital technology

CHAPTER 2: Characteristic steps, functions and procedures in the development of an architectural project

DATA PROCESSING – is the process of handling very large quantities of data and the performance of relatively simple operations such as • STORAGE • RETRIEVAL • SORTING • TABULATING • PRINTING OUT

SCIENCE Architectural Design work can be considered to be taking place in terms of functions and procedures.

The design process can be apparently considered as a PROBLEM – SOLVING process which involves the generation of different alternatives for the problem.

List of processes in the development of an architectural project can be listed as follows: • DRAWING • DATA COLLECTION • TOPOLOGICAL OPERATIONS • SET OPERATIONS • ANALYSIS • SIMULATION • STRATEGIZE • SYNTHESIS • ASSIMILATION • SUPERVISION • PLANNING • REFINEMENT • ENUMERATION • CONSULTATION

DATA ANALYSIS – data processing combined with numerical computation ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE – the capabilities of data processing combined with data analysis add to the artificial of the computer.

ART Art is the CHOICE made by the designer. A problem can have multiple solutions, it is the choice of the designer that is regarded as the ‘ART’.

TABLE 10 : Chapter-0 and Chapter-2 SUMMARY

Part 2 : Prospects of Digital Tools

44

in the development of an

Architectural Project

THE HUMAN BRAIN VS TECHNOLOGY We can now see that there are multiple attitudes towards incorporating digital technologies and multiple ways of using of them within the design process. Also, in the very first chapter we have seen the capabilities of computer. Summary of both of these chapters can be seen in table 10.

It will be very useful to now compare the capabilities of human brain with respect to the capabilities of the technology in order to understand the prospects of these technologies in different tasks. According to an article by ANYA KAMENETZ, there are few aspects of the human brain that cannot be mimicked by any technology, which are as follows:

1. Unstructured problem-solving vs structured problem-solving – solving problems in which rules currently do not exist.

2. Acquiring and processing new information, deciding what is relevant in a flood of undefined phenomena.

3. Non- routine physical work - In other words, what’s left for humans, after the robots have conquered everything, is low-skilled physical jobs and highly skilled, complex mental jobs.

4. Being human - Expressing empathy, making people feel good, taking care of others, being artistic and creative for the sake of creativity, expressing emotions and vulnerability in a relatable way, making people laugh.

“The human mind does not work that way. It operates by association. With one item in its grasp, it snaps instantly to the next that is suggested by association of thoughts, in accordance with some intricate web of trails carried by the cells of the brain. It has other characteristics, of course; trails that are not frequently followed are prone to fade, items are not fully permanent, memory is transitory. Yet the speed of action, the intricacy of trails, the detail of mental pictures, is awe-inspiring beyond all else in nature. “

Even though we haven’t yet been able to develop our technologies to an extent of replicate the human brain, however, certainly there are many tasks, requiring physical labor as well as human intelligence that can be performed with the available technologies. Therefore, the following sections will look into how these tasks can be benefitted using these technologies.

The Human Brain Vs Technology 45

FIGURE 3 : Properties of a software tool, Malcolm McCullogh, Abstracting Craft

Spreadsheets

Word processing

Flat file database

Relational database

Slide preparation

Project scheduling

Contact management

Calendar

Multimedia

E-mail

Messaging

Internet browsing

Illustration software

Two-dimensional CAD

Three-dimensional CAD

Visualization

Animation

Virtual reality

Desktop publishing

SKETCH PLAN

Design Drafting

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTATION

Specification

SITE OPERATIONS

Project management Business

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTATION

Estimating Business development Interiors

BRIEFING

Administrative Personal Contracts

TABLE 11 : Adapted from Ken Sanders’ task/software table (The Digital Architect)

Part 2 : Prospects of Digital Tools

46

in the development of an

Architectural Project

DIGITAL LITERACY In the previous chapter, different aspects of design work were discussed, therefore, in this chapter the prospects of digital technologies within these aspects will be discussed. It was established that design literacy includes the knowledge about the following:

DIGITAL TOOLS In the previous chapters we had looked into what are tools. In order to compare normal tools and digtial tools, it is useful to note the properties of any tool. Therefore, as stated by Malcolm McCullough in his book Abstracting Craft,

“A software tool gives visible form and pyhsical action to a logical operation. Like a physical tool, it modifies the effect of your hand, which it accomplishes by modifying the function of the nonphysical but visible cursor that you operate with the physical pointing device(i.e., the mouse).”

thereby establishing certain properties of a SOFTWARE tool, which are as follows and can also be related to normal tools in figure 2:

1. Usually belongs to a SET

2. Visually represents a FUNCTION

3. May be ACTIVATED AT ANY TIME

4. May combine with other TOOLS

5. Applies DIRECTLY TO ARTIFACT

When it comes to computer as a TOOL, he later adds that,

“ultimately the computer is a means for combining the skillful hand with the reasoning mind......

Our use of computers ought not be so for automating tasks as for abstracting craft.”

Therefore, it can be seen that the tool, whether digtial tool or not is a tool to perform certain activity, without affecting the nature of activity, however, the key aspect would lie in terms of how an individual uses these tools, which is true for any tool. Table 11 (adapted from Ken Sanders book, The Digtial Architect), puts together the different digital tools used in different tasks that are performed in different stages of Architectural Design Work.

Prospects in

terms of

Aspects of Design Work 47

ANALOG MEDIA

DIGITAL MEDIA

Contents are fixed

Contents are not fixed

Contents are isolated from each other

Contents are linked

Labor intensive and clear division of labor

Anyone can perform any activity

Order in reading contents

No order required in reading contents

Inability to collaborate

Can be collaborated

TABLE 12 : Analog media VS Digital Media. Source: https://junoindisorder.wordpress.com/2014/02/03/the-difference-between-the-analog-and-digital-media/

TASK

PHYSICAL TOOL

PHYSICAL MEDIA

DIGITAL TOOL

DIGITAL MEDIA

SKETCHES

Felt pen

Napkin, trace

Image editing

Bitmap

DIAGRAMS

Magic marker

Vellum, trace

Illustration

2D graphics

MODEL BUILDING

Exacto knife, saw, glue

Foamcare, wood, whiteboard

3D CAD

3D surfaces, solids

VISUALIZATION

Camera

Prints, slides

Rendering, animation

Bitmap, digital video

GRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION

Pen, pencil

Vellum, mylar

2D/3D CAD

Model drawings, plot drawings

WRITTEN DOCUMENTATION

Pen, pencil, typewriter

8.5 X 11 paper

Word processing

Text streams

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

Pen, pencil, typewriter

8.5 X 11 paper

Spreadsheets, databases

Tables, lists

PUBLICATION

All

8.5 X 11 paper

Desktop publishing

Composite documents

PRESENTATION

Bookshelf

All

Multimedia

All

RESOURCE ACCESS

Bookshelf

Product catalogs, binders, brochures

On-line services, CDROM

All

COMMUNICATION

Phone, mail, FedEx

All

FAX, e-mail, voice/data messaging

All, digital voice

ARCHIVE STORAGE

Tubes, boxes, microfiche

All

Archiving software

Magnetic tape, optical disks

TABLE 13 : Ken Sanders, Tasks and Tools of the Architect

Part 2 : Prospects of Digital Tools

48

in the development of an

Architectural Project

“The digital tool is not the instrument of abstraction, of a final transcendance of the design; it simply increases the range of an exploration of dimensional changes as well as perceptual

and visual changes.” (Migayrou, 2001, p 9)

DIGITAL MEDIA

“A richer medium invites interpretation…. In the case of craft, interpretations focus specifically on the way in which content takes form. With art, however, the relation of form and content varies constantly. Computing transforms this relation too: the same content (bits) may take many different forms quite easily, and it may do so after the fact.”

The above statement by McCullough states that the fact that due to computation (here he is specifically talking about computation only and not digital media), the contents of the medium i.e. the bits keep on constantly varying, which is why the relation between the form and content, if the computer is considered as a medium constantly varies. Whereas on the contrary, when it comes to digital media, he comments that the relation between form and content is again overturned. One of reasons for this to happen can be related to the properties of bits as observed by Negroponte:

1. They commingle, intrinsically producing the condition known as MULTIMEDIA

2. That some bits exist specifically to tell you how to use other bits.

McLuhan points out that each medium, independent of the content it mediates, has its own intrinsic effects which are its unique message (mesasge is the medium). The same applies to digital media as well, which is why Mitchell and McCullough categorize tools by the dimension of the media, which is as follows:

1. One - dimensional media - words, texts, and sounds 2. Two - dimensional media - images, drafted lines, polygons, plans and maps.

3. Three - dimensional media - lines in space, surfaces, renderings and assemblies of solids

4. Multi - dimensional media - motion models, animation and hypermedia

Therefore, in terms of digital media, the input and output devices and the interfaces become very important as they determine the three factors of medium as discussed in the previous chapter which are the engagement, affordance and constraints.

Prospects in

terms of

Aspects of Design Work 49

TASK

MEDIUM

CAPABILITIES

INPUT DEVICES

Digital text

• • •

Ability to drag and drop text selections Built-in spelling and grammar checkers.

Fonts and styles

• Keyboard/ typing devices • Optical character recognition

Spread sheets

Digital numbers

•

Protection of individual cells within a spreadsheet Protection of the format Can convey information graphically

• Keyboard/ typing devices • Databases

Databases

Lists and tables

Can handle one-to-many relationships between different sets of information.

Ability to search for, find, assemble, and report information

• Keyboard/ typing devices

Better precision Tools for information reuse Fast display algorithm that deal with large sets of data They display order – sequential list of elements Precise location of geometry by using predefined grid and ability to snap and alignment.

Basic transformational operations like mirror, rotate, scale etc.

Additional editing operations like drag, trim, fillet etc.

Keyboard/ typing devices Pointing and selecting devices – Mouse, stylus, crosshair, light pen

CLASS OF TOOLS

RAW MATERIAL

WRITTEN DOCUMENTATION

Word Processing

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

• • • •

GRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION

2D/3D CAD

2D graphics: • Points • Lines • Multi-lines • Enclosed shapes • Arcs • Circles • Ellipses • Curves • Text

• • • • • • •

SKETCHES

Image editing

Bitmap: • Gray-scale images • 8-bit color images • 24-bit color images • 32-bit CMYK images

• Manipulation of the appearance of digital images.

• Cropping and resizing images • Adjusting contrast, brightness, clarity, fuzziness, color balance of an image • Image layering • Compression algorithm • High resolution image capture • Color consistency among different color schemes

• Optical scanning devices

MODEL BUILDING

3D CAD

3D surfaces, solids: • Cubes • Cones • Cylinders • Gables • Pyramids • Wedges

• New 3D can be constructed using basic operations on both the 2dimensional elements (rotating, sweeping, loft etc.) as well as 3 dimensional elements.( merge, subtract, intersect etc.)

• 3 Dimensional coordinate systems • Local coordinate system • Hidden-line drawings

• 3 Dimensional input devices like 3 D scanners

VISUALIZATION

Rendering

Bitmap

• Ability to view a digital model in the traditional perspective projection.

• Several camera controls like, lens value, locating camera by tracking, or by dollying.

Animation

Digital video

• • • • • • •

Multimedia

All

• Linear sequences of digital images for playback on a computer.

• Simple tools to script and choreograph the motion of elements – grow, shrink, fade in, fade out – based on the timeline.

• Can assemble a variety of digital source material into the same document or presentation • Interactive in nature

PRESENTATION

The illusion of motion Interpolation between key-frames 3 Dimensional morphing technique Recording to a videotape Motion blur and frame interlacing Video compression Virtual reality

TABLE 14 : Adapted from Ken Sanders chapter on ‘The Language of Digital Media’

Part 2 : Prospects of Digital Tools

50

in the development of an

Architectural Project

As noted in the previous chapter that medium in terms of design can be broadly classified as either class of tools and raw material. The same can be applied to digital media as well, which can be noted in table 11 and 12.

With the advancements in technologies there is now a wide range of input and output devices.

For more details regarding the advancement in various input and output devices can be looked into, William Mitchell’s book, Computer-aided Architecture Design.

DIGITAL DESIGN PROCESSES The impact of task digitization on the design processes can be considerably said to be more evident than the other aspects. Because design processes also involve the factors of TIME and SKILL/LABOR. In terms of labor combined with time (Man Hour), computer-aided design processes has been observed to have reduced quite a lot of Man hours in the later and crucial stages of the design process as compared to the conventional design processes (William Mitchell, p88, Computeraided Architecture Design), which can also be seen in the following figure.

Man Hours

Also in terms of management of the design process becomes easier as the management pyramid can easily be flattened (Digital organization).

Conventional

Computer - aided

Briefing

Sketch design

Detail design

Produc- Consttion ruction

Use

FIGURE 4 : Redistribution of design effort with use of computer-aided design methods, William Mitchell, p88, Computer-Aided Architecture Design

Prospects in

terms of

Aspects of Design Work 51

Input

Daylight analysis subroutines

Daylight analysis

Artificial Lighting analysis subroutines

Artificial Lighting analysis

Data base

Heating and cooling load analysis

Heating and cooling load analysis subroutines

Acoustic analysis

Acoustic analysis subroutines

FIGURE 5 : Re-use of data in an integrated sequence of analyses performed by the Cambridge Environmental Model, William Mitchell, p88, Computer-Aided Architecture Design

DESCRIPTIONS OF BUILDING DESIGNS ELEMENTS

1. Abstract geometric entities - square, circle, cubic modules etc.

2. Functional elements – rooms 3. Physical components – columns, beams and slabs.

ATTRIBUTES

1. Geometric - dimensions, location etc .

2. Physical – weight, thermal conductivity 3. Economic – cost, availability

RELATIONS

The type of relations that need to be described depend upon the task at hand.

SUBSETS AND HIERARCHIES FACTORING OF DATA

Eliminates repetition

USE OF MATHEMATICAL AND LOGICAL FORMALISMS

Very often, it is useful to express building descriptions in terms of the conventions of some established mathematical or logical formalism.

TABLE 15 : Descriptions of building designs, adapted from William Mitchell’s book Computer - aided Architecture Design

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in the development of an

Architectural Project

DIGITAL INTEGRATION One of the main capabilities of a computer as noted in the first chapter is that of data processing, which increases the potentials of integration within the architectural design. The main aspect of computer-aided design is develops the capability of data processing and data analysis is the fact that the computer works on a comprehensive and integrated system of data bases and data structures.

The prospect of computer-aided data bases in developing design integration has been demonstrated by Mitchell in figure 4.

In terms of data structures for architectural design, can be considered on the basis of (William Mitchell, p111, Computer-Aided Architecture Design):

1. Non – geometric building descriptions

2. Descriptions of building geometry

3. Standard element and detail library files

4. Site descriptions

Therefore, these data structures are easy to process with the aid of a computer; the analysis becomes easier to conduct. Generally, in the conventional design processes the analysis part is left out for the later of design development (step 4, table 3). But with the aid of these technologies the analysis part can start from the very conceptual stages as the data is already fed and ready to be processed to perform the analysis. In the contemporary architecture practices, a stark aspect of digital integration can be seen in terms of relationship between the architectural form and construction right from the conceptual stage (Peter Szalapaj, 2005, p17).

Making the contemporary architecture design process follow an approach like that of Louis Kahn, who dimensioned prefabricated concrete part in relation to the radius of action of a builder’s crane – the extension of the human arm.(Tietz, 1999, p71)

DIGITAL ORGANIZATION As discussed in the previous chapter any organization of the architectural practice, is characterized by the following factors. The prospects of digital technology with the design organization can be observed individually in each of these characteristics (William Mitchell, 1977, p70).

Therefore, the potentials offered by the digital technologies offered in terms of the characteristics of Architectural organizations according to William Mitchell are as follows:

Prospects in

terms of

Aspects of Design Work 53

The inefficiency problem, report by Autodesk on BIM The 4 traps : TRAP 1: A limited, two-dimensional view • As a project increases in complexity, the advantages of model-based design become more apparent. A rich model enables you to more easily address competing design parameters, making it possible for you to quickly test the viability of different approaches early in the design phase, so you can spot and correct errors that may cost you dearly further down the line.

• Designers, engineers and other stakeholders can share this model throughout the lifecycle of the project and, eventually, the constructed asset. As designers and engineers develop the project design, the model data grows richer.

TRAP 2: Design in isolation • The components of a building or infrastructure project only makes sense when they come together, so why design them in isolation?

• Improved collaboration with team members from various disciplines at the earliest phases of the project can better ensure your designs are feasible from the outset, helping to improve the overall quality of the project.

• With a cloud-based 3D model, you have one central place to work through the design, and everyone collaborates on the same model in real time. Since any user can access the model, from anywhere you no longer have to be located in the same room as your colleagues to collaborate.

TRAP 3: Uninspiring, Incomprehensible presentations • “In a world where 3D gaming and CGI movies are commonplace, 2D drawings can appear lackluster and, for those outside of the industry, downright perplexing.

• No matter how small your firm, rich designs models make it possible for you to create full 3D renderings and interactive experiences to better show stakeholders and the public what your final designs will look like.

• For stakeholders meetings and presentations to the public, you can overlay a 3D design on a model of existing conditions to create a realistic depiction of what your building or infrastructure will look like in situ.

TRAP 4: Design divorced from reality • Conventional topographic surveys take time, while inputting this data in design programs can take even longer. This means, as a designer, you don’t always have the clearest picture of your project’s reality.

• As a designer and engineer , this helps you improve the quality of your project deliverables by allowing you to build your design model based on the real-world conditions and environments of your project. Having a clearer, more realistic understanding of your project from the beginning helps extend your project dollars to work smarter, faster and cheaper.

FIGURE 6 : Report by Autodesk

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54

in the development of an

Architectural Project

1. Size – Size is an important consideration in assessing the feasibility of production of computer-aided design systems into an organization, with a large volume of work, may be in a better position than a smaller firm to acquire and amortize expensive equipment, and to absorb software development costs. It may be appropriate for smaller organizations to form consortia to acquire equipment and to spread development costs.

2. Internal organization structure – There are two types of organization:-

a. Vertical structure – Within a vertical organizational structure, it is a common pattern to introduce independent, highly specialized programs and systems for use by specialized departments. This may improve the performance of individual departments, but generally does little to facilitate overall co-ordination and integration of a project.

b. Horizontal structure – A single computer system designed to handle the project data base throughout all phases, from inception to completion of a project. All special ized programs extract required input data from this common computer-stored data base, and return results to it.

3. Breadth of integration of activities – There are various pressures that are calling on the traditional scope of activities of actors in the design and construction process, which are demands for greater speed and tighter cost control, more complex brief, and the growing sophistication of construction technology. When attempting the introduction of new technologies and methods into the design and construction process, breadth of integration of the organizations involved is a critically important consideration.

4. Building type specialization – Many of the computer – aided architectural design systems that have been developed were produced for use by specialized organization and are quite specifically oriented towards a particular building type. Examples, the Harness hospital design system and SSHA housing design system. Very few systems are completely general in their scope of application.

Therefore, the prospects of digital technologies with respect to the organization lies in the way these technologies are used in reducing the time and effort in whichever activities needed, without commprimising on the quality of design delivered.

Prospects in

terms of

Aspects of Design Work 55

Graphic input device(s)

Keyboard input device(s)

Input handler

Input routines

Application program

Non-input/output routines

Application data structure

Output routines

Transformations

Lines and Text

Concatenation

Transformation and clipping

Display generation

Display

FIGURE 7: Elements of an interactive computer graphics system (after Newman and Sproull, 1974), sourced from William MitchellComputer-aided Architecture Design

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56

in the development of an

Architectural Project

DIGITAL REPRESENTATION Design representation is considered as digital representation when a designer uses the MEDIUM of computing environments to produce output in the form of drawings or models that are used either in the analysis for further design development or for presentation.

In the previous different types of representations and their purpose has been listed out. And also it has been established that when digital technologies, any working methodology becomes algorithmic in nature, which has an INPUT, that undergoes a PROCESS to produce a desired OUTPUT. In terms of digital representation i.e. the GRAPHICS, similar algorithmic pattern is followed which is illustrated in the figure.

Also, digital technology capabilities allow the re-use of the same data to produce many different representations. A comparative table of all the common softwares added in the appendix, which shows the wide range of data that any usual CAD software can handle and also the wide range of capabilities offers it. For example, in many general practices the plan made in any 2D CAD software is used to generate the 3D model, or in the contrary the 3D model can itself generate the 2D drawings required, which is generally not possible in the conventional methods of drafting and model-making.

Therefore, there are so many ways in which digital technology can be seen as a prospect in terms of design representation. But using these technologies efficiently is where the role of the architect in the current era comes into picture. One of such examples has been quoted by Peter Szalapaj in his book “Contemporary architecture and the digital design process” (2005)

“For designers, information is significant as soon as it is captured (i.e. there is an intuitive meaning of the gesture within the mind of the designer, but outside of the digital environment), and coherence of this information with dimensional graphical input devices.

Means for their integration with modeling systems are presently still missing, but when developed will bring new design possibilities. Offices such as those of Frank Gehry are developing their own strategies for integrated design, in which new types of graphical input device are incorporated into creative software environments.”

Prospects in

terms of

Aspects of Design Work 57

PHASE

TIME

SKILL (DESIGN)

LABOR

MANAGEMENT

THE BRIEFING PHASE 9.2% THE SKETCH DESIGN PHASE 15.2 % THE CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS PHASE

THE CONSTRUCTION SUPREVISION PHASE

17.9%

9.7%

TABLE 16: Prospects of Digital tools and media, in terms of time, skill, labor and management at different phases of design work .

The darker blue indicates maximum advantage.

ASPECTS OF DESIGN WORK

FACTORS

PROSPECTS IN TERMS OF TIME

DIGITAL LITERACY

SKILL

LABOR

MANA GEME NT

DIGITAL TOOLS DIGITAL MEDIUM DIGITAL FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES

DIGITAL INTEGRATION

DATA BASES

DIGITAL ORGANIZATION

SIZE

INTERNAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE BREADTH OF INTEGRATION OF ACTIVITIES BUILDING TYPE SPECIALIZATION DIGITAL REPRESENTATION

GRAPHICS

TABLE 17: Prospects of Digital tools and media, in different aspects of design work.

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58

in the development of an

Architectural Project

Therefore, the following tables list down the prospects of digital technologies in the four aspects of design work in terms of:

1. Time – Due to the capabilities of better communication and collaboration of these tools and media, the time aspect can be achieved and can play major role in situations where no more productivity improvements can be achieved, so that the quality is not compromised.

2. Skill required – There are situations where digital tools and media can aid in terms of skills required, because digital tools do not require so much of skills in terms of using them. Whereas the conventional tools need certain skills without which the design task cannot be performed. In such situations the role of the architect shifts to something of a facilitator or an organizer.

4. Labor – The ability of computer to store, retrieve and process all sorts of data reduces huge amount of labor.

5. Management – The management aspect combines all the above aspects. It is about managing the tasks based on the time, skill and labor required.

Prospects in

terms of

Aspects of Design Work 59

60

CHAPTER 4 DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY AND THE ARCHITECTURE DESIGN PRACTICE As seen in the previous chapters, that the institutionalization of the architect has made the profession shape in a certain way, that has redefined architecture more of a PRACTICE than a CRAFT. As ken Sanders puts it, today the technology that is available to the architects is also available to other people also including the client, the consultants etc.; however the pace of technology within the architecture has been certainly developing at a slower pace than the other professions and that the process of architectural design and documentation still has not radically changed from twenty years ago (Ken Sanders, 1996).

61

As seen in the previous chapters, that the institutionalization of the architect has made the profession shape in a certain way, that has redefined architecture more of a PRACTICE than a CRAFT. As ken Sanders puts it, today the technology that is available to the architects is also available to other people also including the client, the consultants etc.; however the pace of technology within the architecture has been certainly developing at a slower pace than the other professions and that the process of architectural design and documentation still has not radically changed from twenty years ago (Ken Sanders, 1996).

Reasons for the considerable slow pace of technology implementation over the past decade can be due to following reasons (Ken Sanders, 1996).

• Designing buildings is a more difficult, complex problem than engineering them. The functional requirements of architectural design tools are necessarily more demanding than those of engineers.

• Robust, easy-to-use tools, especially for high-end applications such as Computer-aideddesign (CAD), visualization, and image editing, have taken longer than once predicted to arrive in affordable, easy-to-use packages.

• Just when desktop computing technology was maturing, the global recession of the late 1980s and early 1990s reduced the purchasing power of many architectural firms and slowed their capital investment in new hardware and software.

• Unlike engineering schools, most architectural schools during the 1980s did not emphasize technology in their curricula, and those that did concentrated on high-end research and software development rather than present-day practical applications.

• Hundreds of incompatible data formats invented by software developers, and thousands of organizational guidelines invented by architects, have created a digital Tower of Babel within the building design and construction industry.

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62

Therefore, the following part is about looking into how

1. The processes of development of an architectural project are incorporated within the PRACTICE.

2. The prospect of digital technology within the architectural processes has been translated into the PRACTICE.

The methodology used to investigate into these aspects is as follows:

THE SURVEY The survey looks into the design processes of some of the typical practicing architectural firms in India with respect to the different stages of design, starting from the conceptual to the construction and feedback phase and the different tools and technology used within each of these stages and the nature of collaboration with the consultants, clients and the contractors. Along with factors like, the size of the firm, type of projects handled etc.

THE QUESTIONARE USED DESIGN STUDIES

1. What all studies or analysis was done before the initial design conceptualization?

(If yes)

2.What all mediums were used to do the studies?

INITIAL DESIGN CONCEPTUALISATION

1. What mediums were used to express/put down initial design concepts?

2. Were there any references chosen?

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

1. How was the design developed from the conceptual stage to architectural level?

2. What mediums were used to develop the design further?

3. What all aspects were considered to develop the design further?

63

A BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS4

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

B

C

D

E

F

G

AVG

Strategic brief

1

4

1

2

Project objectives

3

4

2

3

Quality objectives

3

4

2

3

Project outcomes

3

2

4

2

3

Project aspirations

3

2

4

2

3 1

Initial project brief

1

1

1

4

1

1

Feasibility studies

1

3

3

4

4

2

2

3

Review of Site information

1

3

3

4

4

2

2

3

Concept design

3

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

Structural design

3

1

2

4

3

1

2

2

Building services systems

2

1

2

4

3

1

2

2

Outline specifications

1

1

1

4

1

2

1

2

Project Strategies

3

4

4

4

3

1

3

3

Design programme

3

4

4

4

3

4

3

3

Final project brief

1

1

1

4

1

1

1

1

Detail design

3

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

Production information

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

1

Bills of quantities

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

Tender action

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Technical design

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Design responsibility matrix

1

“As constructed” information

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Resolution of queries

1

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

TABLE 18: Comparative table of Firms in terms of different tools used in different stages.

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64

H

CLIENT MEETINGS

1. How frequently were clients involved during the design development phase?

2. How was the client meetings conducted?

3. What mediums were used to present the design ideas to the clients?

COLLABORATION

1. How many people/organized was the project collaborated with?

2. How was the project members collaborated?

CONSTRUCTION PHASE

1. How was the construction phase carried out?

2. What all medium were used to produce the construction drawing

The records of these surveys can be referred to in the appendix arranged in an ascending order of the firm size.

SAMPLE FIRMS

SIZE (APPROX.)

Types of projects handled

FIRM A

1

All

FIRM B

3

Mostly housing

FIRM C

4

Mostly residential

FIRM D

6

Residential, institutional, offices

FIRM E

7

Tensile structures

FIRM F

10

All

FIRM G

30

All, Ori-tecture

FIRM H

100

Housing Developer Company

65

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

BRIEFING

11

12

13

14

15

SKETCH PLANS

16

17

18

19

DEVELOPMENT

20

21

SITE OPERATIONS

FIGURE 8: Diagram showing the number of tools used in different stages of design work

1

2

3

4

BRIEFING

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

SKETCH PLANS

13

14

15

16

17

18

DEVELOPMENT

19

20

21

SITE OPERATIONS

FIGURE 9: Diagram showing the amount of representation medium (drawings, diagrams, models etc) used in different stages of design work

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66

BASIS OF OBSERVATIONS The observations have been compiled keeping the framework established in the previous chapter i.e.

1. Literacy - driven - The observations have been made in terms of the different tools and media used at different stages of architecture design work.

3. Organization - driven - The observations in terms of size of different firms in relation to the number of digital tools (softwares) incorporated at each stage.

4. Representation - driven - The observations made in terms of average number of representation media used with respect to the different stages and the tools used.

2. Integration - driven - The observations in this aspect are more related to the relation between the client, consultants, contractor and the quality surveyor with respect to the different stages.

OBSERVATIONS

1. Table 18 is a compiled table of all the sample firms in terms of number of tools used at different stages, which is translated in figure as a graph. Therefore, most number of tools or softwares are used within the initial stages of design i.e. the sketch plan stage and then the briefing. Also it was observed in the previous chapter that in these stages the maximum percentage of skill and labor are consumed.

2. Also, it is mostly the smaller firms that use the maximum number of tools as compared to the relatively larger firms.

3. In terms of the media, in almost all the firms, by the sketch plan stage the firms have shifted to digital media from the analog medium.

4. In almost all the cases, generally, the consultants and contractors were collaborated

only after the sketch plan stage.

67

LITERACY Architecture design work involves various tasks which require different skill set at each stage.

Therefore, it becomes very crucial to have knowledge about the tools and media used including the various processes and their resultant output in the form of design representation or visualization.

In most of the interviews, it was observed that generally in the initial stages of conceptual design, working with the conventional tools of sketching, doodling etc. was used, as the traditional tools offered easy flow of thoughts into action (Reflection-in-action).

But generally, reflection-in-action is associated only with the traditional tools. But in reality the reflection-in-action is true for any tool for that matter. It depends on how fluent one is with the tool. And the fluency is achieved by understanding the tool and media that one intends to use for the task at hand. And this is true for the traditional tools as well. For example, even in traditional tools one needs to know where to use charcoal for example, or else, pen and ink.

Also, in the table it has been observed that in the development stages, where the task is better defined than the other stages, which is just to prepare construction drawings, the tools and media used were also very clear and constant among all the firms. This may imply two things about the relation between task and tool:

1. The task was very well-defined that it becomes very obvious to choose the tool used.

2. The limitations of the tool govern the task in which the tool is used.

Also, apart from having knowledge about the available tools and media, it is important to also have knowledge about the processes used. As it can be observed in FIRM A, that the design process involved the use of different representation mediums from the very conceptual stages, therefore, which meant the use tools accordingly. Similarly, in the case of FIRM E, where the firm deals with mostly tensile structures, has a clear design process and uses the tools accordingly to cope up with time factor, although at each stage more than one tool are used.

INTEGRATION In the tables it can be observed in almost all the cases design integration in terms of structural consultancy etc. are incorporated only after the conceptual stages. On the contrary, in one or two of the small firms, the integration and collaboration with the consultants starts from the conceptual stage itself, which helps in balancing the effort/time aspect very well.

From the surveys, in most of the firms, the main reason to jump from conventional techniques to digital tools in the later stages is for the ease of collaboration and consultation, with the other actors involved in the design and construction process.

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68

However, in terms of integration, the digital technologies have not been incorporated to their full potential (as per the previous chapter) which could be one of the reasons of integration only in the later stages of design.

“The uses for an animate approach to architecture might be in its conception and design while more conventional tools remain in force for modelling and fabrication.” (lynn, 2001, p

258)

ORGANIZATION The role of an architect has always been uncertain and keeps on changing from person-person, firm-firm and project-project. This can also observed in terms of the nature of activity that design is. Therefore, in such situations there can be two possibilities:

1. The designer takes up different roles, and tries to master each role.

2. The designer takes up the role of a facilitator/manager, whose sole responsibility is assigning responsibilities/tasks to either different people or tools.

“The revolution has been, in part, precipitated by three things: the speed of technological development as described in Moore’s law; the transmissibility of digital information breaking down traditional boundaries of time and space; and the seemingly infinite forms that information can take.” (Lindsey, 2001, p48)

Therefore, it is now a fact that there is a pressure on Architectural firms to re-organize in order to incorporate the fact that such technologies exist and be aware of the capabilities offered by these technologies.

REPRESENTATION The aspects of representation can be also linked to Literacy that talks about digital tools and media. With the development of digital technologies, as discussed in the previous chapters there are lots of possibilities for representation as well.

Design representation also implies design visualization, because in order to represent any idea the designer must first visualize the idea. Therefore, if we were to assume the paperless dream and the digital medium is the only option, then in order to produce representation as sharp as the representation produces using the traditional techniques, then it is first very important to be able to visualize spaces using digital medium.

The inability to visualize spaces in this medium can be one of the reasons why the firm jumps from one software to another and ends up using so many softwares (tools) to perform a single task, especially during the design development.

Inferences and Conclusions 69

APPENDIX 1 SURVEY FINDINGS

APPENDIX 1 - SURVEY READINGS Following are the compilation of the readings from the survey conducted, in the form of yes/no tables, to enable comparisions amongst the different firms.

TEXT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

SKETCH

DIAGRAM

DRAWNG

3-D DRAWING

MODEL

IMAGE

MEDIUM

Strategic brief

DIGITAL

Project objectives

HAND

Quality objectives

HAND

Project outcomes

HAND

Project aspirations

HAND

Initial project brief

DIGITAL

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Concept design

DIGITAL(REVIT, PHOTOSHOP)

Structural design

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Building services systems

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL(REVIT, PHOTOSHOP)

Design programme

DIGITAL(REVIT, PHOTOSHOP)

Final project brief

DIGITAL

Detail design

DIGITAL(REVIT, PHOTOSHOP)

Production information

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Tender action

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Technical design

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Design responsibility matrix OPERATION ON SITE

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

72

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL(REVIT)

Resolution of queries

VERBAL/VOICE CALL/EMAIL

NUMBER OF TOOLS USED TO PERFORM THE TASK

FIRM A

CLIENT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

ARCHITECT

CONSULTANTS

QUALITY SURVEYER

MAIN CONTRACTOR

MEDIUM OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE

Strategic brief

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Project objectives

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Quality objectives

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Project outcomes

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Project aspirations

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Initial project brief

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL COPY

Feasibility studies

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL COPY

Review of Site information

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL COPY

Concept design

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Structural design

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL )

Building services systems

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Outline specifications

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Project Strategies

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Design programme

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Final project brief

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Detail design

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Production information

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Bills of quantities

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Tender action

PRINTS

Technical design

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Design responsibility matrix

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

“As constructed” information

PHYSICAL/DIGITAL

Resolution of queries

TELECOMMUNICA TIONS/ EMAIL

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

73

TEXT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

WORKING DRAWINGS

SKETCH

DIAGRAM

DRAWNG

3-D DRAWING

MODEL

IMAGE

MEDIUM

Strategic brief

WRITTEN

Project objectives

HAND

Quality objectives

HAND

Project outcomes

HAND

Project aspirations

HAND

Initial project brief

WRITTEN

Feasibility studies

HAND

Review of Site information

HAND

Concept design

HAND

Structural design

HAND

Building services systems

HAND

Outline specifications

HAND

Project Strategies

HAND

Design programme

HAND

Final project brief

PRINT

Detail design

HAND

Production information

HAND

Bills of quantities

SITE OPERATIONS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

Tender action

HAND

Technical design

HAND

Design responsibility matrix OPERATION ON SITE

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

74

“As constructed” information

HAND

Resolution of queries

VERBAL/VOICE CALL

NUMBER OF TOOLS USED*

FIRM B

CLIENT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

ARCHITECT

CONSULTANTS (ARCHITECT)

QUALITY SURVEYER

MAIN CONTRACTOR

MEDIUM OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE

Strategic brief

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Project objectives

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Quality objectives

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Project outcomes

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Project aspirations

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Initial project brief

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Feasibility studies

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Review of Site information

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Concept design

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Structural design

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Building services systems

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Outline specifications

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Project Strategies

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Design programme

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Final project brief

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Detail design

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Production information

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Bills of quantities

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Tender action

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Technical design

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Design responsibility matrix

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

“As constructed” information

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Resolution of queries

TELEPHONE/ PHYSICAL

COMPLE-TION

TELEPHONE/ PHYSICAL

FEEDBACK

TELEPHONE/ PHYSICAL

75

TEXT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

SKETCH

DIAGRAM

DRAWNG

3-D DRAWING

MODEL

IMAGE

MEDIUM

Strategic brief

DIGITAL

Project objectives

HAND/DIGTIAL (SKETCHUP)

Quality objectives

HAND/DIGTIAL (SKETCHUP)

Project outcomes

HAND/DIGTIAL (SKETCHUP)

Project aspirations

HAND/DIGTIAL (SKETCHUP)

Initial project brief

DIGITAL

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Concept design

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Structural design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Building services systems

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL (EXCEL)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Design programme

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Final project brief

DIGITAL

Detail design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Production information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL

Tender action

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Technical design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Design responsibility matrix OPERATION ON SITE

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

76

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Resolution of queries

VERBAL/VOICE CALL/EMAIL/WHATSAPP

NUMBER OF TOOLS USED TO PERFORM THE TASK

FIRM C

CLIENT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

ARCHITECT

CONSULTANTS

QUALITY SURVEYER

MAIN CONTRACTOR

MEDIUM OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE

Strategic brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Project objectives

PRINTS

Quality objectives

PRINTS

Project outcomes

PRINTS

Project aspirations

PRINTS

Initial project brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Feasibility studies

PRINTS

Review of Site information

PRINTS

Concept design

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Structural design

PRINTS

Building services systems

PRINTS

Outline specifications

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Design programme

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Final project brief

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Detail design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Production information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Tender action

PRINTS

Technical design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Design responsibility matrix

DIGITAL – (LAN)

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Resolution of queries

DIGITAL/VOICECALL

COMPLE-TION

DIGITAL – (LAN)

FEEDBACK

DIGITAL/VOICECALL

77

TEXT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

SKETCH

DIAGRAM

DRAWNG

3-D DRAWING

MODEL

IMAGE

MEDIUM

Strategic brief

DIGITAL

Project objectives

HAND

Quality objectives

HAND

Project outcomes

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP)

Project aspirations

DIGITAL MODEL SKETCHUP

Initial project brief

DIGITAL

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Concept design

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Structural design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Building services systems

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL (EXCEL)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Design programme

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Final project brief

DIGITAL

Detail design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Production information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL

Tender action

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Technical design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Design responsibility matrix OPERATION ON SITE

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

78

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD)

Resolution of queries

VERBAL/VOICE CALL/EMAIL/WHATSAPP

NUMBER OF TOOLS USED TO PERFORM THE TASK

FIRM D

CLIENT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

ARCHITECT

CONSULTANTS

QUALITY SURVEYER

MAIN CONTRACTOR

MEDIUM OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE

Strategic brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Project objectives

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Quality objectives

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Project outcomes

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Project aspirations

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Initial project brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Concept design

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Structural design

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Building services systems

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Design programme

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Final project brief

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Detail design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Production information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Tender action

PRINTS

Technical design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Design responsibility matrix

DIGITAL – (LAN)

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Resolution of queries

DIGITAL – (LAN)

COMPLE-TION

DIGITAL – (LAN)

FEEDBACK

DIGITAL – (LAN)

79

TEXT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

SKETCH

DIAGRAM

DRAWNG

3-D DRAWING

MODEL

IMAGE

MEDIUM

Strategic brief

DIGITAL (ixcube 4-10, sap2000, sketchup/rhino)

Project objectives

DIGITAL

Quality objectives

DIGITAL

Project outcomes

DIGITAL

Project aspirations

DIGITAL

Initial project brief

DIGITAL

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL

Review of Site information

DIGITAL

Concept design

DIGITAL

Structural design

DIGTIAL

Building services systems

DIGITAL

Outline specifications

DIGITAL

Project Strategies

DIGITAL

Design programme

DIGITAL

Final project brief

DIGITAL

Detail design

DIGITAL

Production information

DIGITAL

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL

Tender action

DIGITAL

Technical design

DIGITAL

Design responsibility matrix OPERATION ON SITE

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

80

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL

Resolution of queries

VERBAL/VOICE CALL/EMAIL/WHATSAPP

NUMBER OF TOOLS USED TO PERFORM THE TASK

FIRM E

CLIENT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

ARCHITECT

CONSULTANTS

QUALITY SURVEYER

MAIN CONTRACTOR

MEDIUM OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE

Strategic brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Project objectives

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Quality objectives

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Project outcomes

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Project aspirations

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Initial project brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Concept design

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Structural design

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Building services systems

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Design programme

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Final project brief

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Detail design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Production information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Tender action

PRINTS

Technical design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Design responsibility matrix

DIGITAL – (LAN)

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Resolution of queries

DIGITAL – (LAN)

COMPLE-TION

DIGITAL – (LAN)

FEEDBACK

DIGITAL – (LAN)

81

TEXT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

SKETCH

DIAGRAM

DRAWNG

3-D DRAWING

MODEL

IMAGE

MEDIUM

Strategic brief

DIGITAL

Project objectives

HAND

Quality objectives

HAND

Project outcomes

HAND)

Project aspirations

HAND

Initial project brief

DIGITAL

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD lt, PHOTOSHOP)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD lt, PHOTOSHOP)

Concept design

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD lt, PHOTOSHOP)

Structural design

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD lt, PHOTOSHOP

Building services systems

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD lt, PHOTOSHOP

Outline specifications

DIGITAL (EXCEL)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Design programme

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, AUTOCAD, PHOTOSHOP)

Final project brief

DIGITAL

Detail design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD lt)

Production information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD lt)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL

Tender action

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD lt)

Technical design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD lt)

Design responsibility matrix OPERATION ON SITE

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

82

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD lt)

Resolution of queries

VERBAL/VOICE CALL/EMAIL/WHATSAPP

NUMBER OF TOOLS USED TO PERFORM THE TASK

FIRM F

CLIENT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

ARCHITECT

CONSULTANTS

QUALITY SURVEYER

MAIN CONTRACTOR

MEDIUM OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE

Strategic brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Project objectives

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Quality objectives

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Project outcomes

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Project aspirations

ORIGINAL PHYSICAL COPY

Initial project brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Concept design

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Structural design

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Building services systems

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Design programme

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Final project brief

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Detail design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Production information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Tender action

PRINTS

Technical design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Design responsibility matrix

DIGITAL – (LAN)

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Resolution of queries

DIGITAL – (LAN)

COMPLE-TION

DIGITAL – (LAN)

FEEDBACK

DIGITAL – (LAN)

83

TEXT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

SKETCH

DIAGRAM

DRAWNG

3-D DRAWING

MODEL

IMAGE

MEDIUM

Strategic brief

DIGITAL

Project objectives

HAND/DIGITAL/PHYSICAL MODEL

Quality objectives

HAND/DIGITAL/PHYSICAL MODEL

Project outcomes

HAND/DIGITAL/PHYSICAL MODEL

Project aspirations

DIGITAL MODEL SKETCHUP

Initial project brief

DIGITAL

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL (RHINO, MESHAB)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL (RHINO, MESHAB)

Concept design

DIGITAL(SKETCHUP, LUMION, PHOTOSHOP)

Structural design

DIGITAL (REVIT)

Building services systems

DIGITAL (REVIT)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL(COREL DRAW, PHOTOSHOP, LUMION)

Design programme

DIGITAL(COREL DRAW, PHOTOSHOP, LUMION)

Final project brief

DIGITAL

Detail design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Production information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL

Tender action

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Technical design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Design responsibility matrix OPERATION ON SITE

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

84

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Resolution of queries

VERBAL/VOICE CALL/EMAIL/WHATSAPP

NUMBER OF TOOLS USED TO PERFORM THE TASK

FIRM G

CLIENT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

ARCHITECT

CONSULTANTS

QUALITY SURVEYER

MAIN CONTRACTOR

MEDIUM OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE

Strategic brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Project objectives

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Quality objectives

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Project outcomes

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Project aspirations

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Initial project brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Concept design

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Structural design

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Building services systems

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Design programme

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Final project brief

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Detail design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Production information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Tender action

PRINTS

Technical design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Design responsibility matrix

DIGITAL – (LAN)

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Resolution of queries

DIGITAL – (LAN)

COMPLE-TION

DIGITAL – (LAN)

FEEDBACK

DIGITAL – (LAN)

85

TEXT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

SKETCH

DIAGRAM

DRAWNG

3-D DRAWING

MODEL

IMAGE

MEDIUM

Strategic brief Project objectives Quality objectives Project outcomes Project aspirations

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

COMPLE-TION FEEDBACK

86

Initial project brief Feasibility studies

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Concept design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT, PHOTOSHOP)

Structural design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Building services systems

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL (EXCEL)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT, PHOTOSHOP)

Design programme

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD, REVIT, PHOTOSHOP)

Final project brief

DIGITAL

Detail design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD/ REVIT)

Production information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD/REVIT)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL

Tender action

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD/REVIT)

Technical design

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD/REVIT)

Design responsibility matrix

DIGITAL

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL (AUTOCAD/REVIT)

Resolution of queries

VERBAL/VOICE CALL/EMAIL/WHATSAPP

NUMBER OF TOOLS USED TO PERFORM THE TASK

FIRM H

CLIENT

BRIEFING

ASSIMILATION

INCEPTION

FEASIBILITY

SKETCH PLANS

GENERAL STUDY

OUTLINE PROPOSALS

SCHEME DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

SITE OPERATIONS

WORKING DRAWINGS

COMMUNCATION

PROJECT PLANNING

OPERATION ON SITE

ARCHITECT

CONSULTANTS

QUALITY SURVEYER

MAIN CONTRACTOR

MEDIUM OF INFORMATION EXCHANGE

Strategic brief Project objectives

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Quality objectives

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Project outcomes

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Project aspirations

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Initial project brief

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Feasibility studies

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Review of Site information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Concept design

DIGITAL PRESENTATION

Structural design

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Building services systems

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Outline specifications

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Project Strategies

DIGITAL – (WWW/IT)

Design programme

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Final project brief

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Detail design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Production information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Bills of quantities

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Tender action

PRINTS

Technical design

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Design responsibility matrix

DIGITAL – (LAN)

“As constructed” information

DIGITAL – (LAN)

Resolution of queries

DIGITAL – (LAN)

COMPLE-TION

DIGITAL – (LAN)

FEEDBACK

DIGITAL – (LAN)

87

88

APPENDIX 2 THEORETICAL DESIGN PROCESSE MODELS

89

GENERATIVE DESIGN It is a process where individual elements and systems are treated separately and then iterations (based on certain parameters) are made individually and the best suited iteration is selected and then put together as a uniform system. This makes the process a sequential process, where each individual element is considered as a design problem that needs to be solved. Parametric may be considered to be subset of what generative design process is.

ITERATIVE DESIGN Iterative design may be defined as a process where different iterations (multiple options) are worked on simultaneously and after reaching certain level of resolution the options are compared and analyzed and then the best option out of all is selected and further worked upon.

90

PARALLEL DESIGN This is the process where many design aspects are thought of simultaneously.

ITERATIVE DESIGN This design process is quite evident in most of the examples. McKim calls this as the ETC cycle, where, E is the expression of design ideas, T is the testing or evaluation, and C is the cycle in which alternative design strategies are generated (McKim, 1980, p. 135).

91

92

BIBLIOGRAPHY Published books

1. Mitchell, William J. (William John). Computer-Aided Architectural Design. Chapman & Hall, 1979.

2. McCullough, Malcolm. Abstracting Craft: the Practiced Digital Hand. MIT Press, 1998.

3. Szalapaj, Peter. Contemporary Architecture and the Digital Design Process. 2005.

4. Sanders, Ken. The Digital Architect - A Common Sense Guide to Using Computer Technology in Design Practice. John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 1996.

5. Pye, David. The Nature of Design. Studio Vista, 1972.

6. Kolarevic, Branko. Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manufacturing. Taylor & Francis, 2003.

7. Lawson, Bryan. How Designers Think the Design Process Demystified. Butterworth, 1991.

8. Farrelly, Lorraine. Representational Techniques. AVA Academia, 2008.

Journals

1. Bush, Vannevar. “As We May Think.” ACM SIGPC Notes, vol. 1, no. 4, Jan. 1979, pp. 36–44., doi:10.1145/1113634.1113638

2. Stockli, Tobi, and Bendicht Weber . “The Challenge of Tools for the Architect.”Https:// Lasur.epfl.ch/Files/Content/Sites/lasur2/Files/Images/Stories/editions_du_lasur_pdf/AC/

AC%20Vol%208%20No.3/STOCKLIandWEBER_en.Pdf, Mar. 1992, www.bing.com/ cr?IG=148769CDCEE44CF08E0EDA85DFA30072&CID=2FAC984D634468F9384F9307624 269E6&rd=1&h=EPVuFgTinzKKO61OuGc7vQuoMy6qBrJHa Jd-N0kIeg&v=1&r=https%3a%2f%2flasur.epfl.ch%2ffiles%2fcontent%2fsites%2fla sur2%2ffiles%2fImages%2fstories%2feditions_du_lasur_pdf%2fAC% 2fAC%2520Vol%25208%2520No.3%2fSTOCKLIandWEBER_en.pdf&p=DevEx,5057.1.

3. Chung-Hung, Lin. “An Exploratory Study of Design Processes.” International Journal of Arts and Commerce, vol. 3, no. 1, Jan. 2014

Website

1. Timeline: Digital Technology and Preservation, www.dpworkshop.org/dpm-eng/timel line/viewall.html

2. Rate Limited, cad.softwareinsider.com/compare/5-30-116/AutoCAD-vs-Design CAD-3D-Max-vs-Rhinoceros 95