The Technology and Business of Mobile Communications
An Introduction
Mythri Hunukumbure
Samsung R&D Institute, UK
Justin P. Coon
Oxford University and Oriel College, UK
Ben Allen
University of Oxford, UK
Tony Vernon
Vector Sum Consulting Ltd, UK
This edition first published 2022
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hunukumbure, Mythri, 1972- author.
Title: The technology and business of mobile telecommunications : an introduction / Mythri Hunukumbure, Justin P. Coon, Ben Allen, Tony Vernon.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021020796 (print) | LCCN 2021020797 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119130291 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119130307 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119130314 (epub) | ISBN 9781119130345 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Mobile communication systems. | Cell phone services industry.
Classification: LCC TK5103.2 .H85 2022 (print) | LCC TK5103.2 (ebook) | DDC 621.384--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021020796
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021020797
Cover image: © Tony Vernon
Cover design by Wiley
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To Dilshani, Kaveesha and Nethaya and to my parents Leela and Jayatissa
To my mother, Jennifer Hill, and my father, Bob Coon
To Louisa, Nicholas and Bethany and my whole family, friends and colleagues past and present
For Christopher, Marcus and Caitlin
–Mythri Hunukumbure
–Justin P. Coon
–Ben Allen
–Tony Vernon
Contents
Foreword xv
Preface xvii
About the Authors xix
Acknowledgements xxi
List of Abbreviations xxiii
1 A Technology that Changed the World 1
1.1 Social and Economic Impact of Mobile Communications 2
1.1.1 Social Impact 3
1.1.2 Economic Impact 5
1.2 A Brief History of Mobile (Cellular) Communications 8
1.3 The Journey of Mobile Communications as Seen from User and Operator Perspectives 18
References 20
2 The Mobile Telecoms Ecosystem 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Telecommunications Ecosystem 24
2.3 Regulation and Spectrum 26
2.3 Standardisation 27
2.4 Research 28
2.5 End Users 30
2.6 The Role of Operators (Carriers) 30
2.7 The Role of Vendors/Manufacturers 31
2.8 The Role of Standard Bodies and Regulators 31
2.9 Telecoms Ecosystem Dynamics and Behaviour 32
2.10 5G Ecosystem 35
2.10.1 Datacentres 36
2.10.2 RF Chip and Component Manufacturers 36
2.10.3 Telecom Operators (Carriers) 36
2.10.4 Infrastructure Service Providers 36
2.10.5 Gaming 37
2.10.6 Over The Top (OTT) 37
2.10.7 Low-Cost Processing Unit Manufacturer 37
2.10.8 Investors 38
2.10.9 Potential Disruptions in the 5G EcoSystem 38
2.11 Summary 41 References 41
3 The Business of a Mobile Operator 43
3.1 Business Challenges Faced by Operators 43
3.1.1 Third-Party Costs 43
3.1.2 Radio Access Network Costs 45
3.1.3 Transmission Costs 49
3.1.4 Physical Locations 53
3.1.5 Power Costs for Multiple Technologies 54
3.2 MVNOs – Mobile Virtual Network Operators 55
3.2.1 Economics of an MVNO 56
3.2.2 Modelling MVNOs and SPs 59
3.3 Operator Business around International Roaming 63
3.3.1 The EU Roaming Regulation ‘Roam like at Home’ 64
3.3.2 Covid-19 Impact on Roaming Revenues 66
3.4 The Likely Operator Business Models in 5G 66
3.5 Conclusion 69 References 69
4 Why Standards Matter 73
4.1 The Creation of a New ‘G’ 74
4.1.1 Research 74
4.1.2 Standardisation 75
4.1.3 Commercialisation 77
4.1.4 Continued Innovation 79
4.1.5 Intellectual Property as a Metric and Political Currency 81
4.2 Shifting Political Power and the Making of an Ecosystem 81
4.2.1 2G GSM – Europe Leads 82
4.2.2 3G UMTS – Universal (Except Not Quite) 85
4.2.3 4G EPS – Avoiding Old Mistakes (and Making New Ones?) 89
4.2.4 5G NR – New World Order? 94
4.3 Future Standards 97 References 99
5 The Mobile Network 101
5.1 Mobile Network Architecture 101
5.2 The Radio Access Network (RAN) 103
5.2.1 Synchronisation 104
5.2.2 Broadcast Messages 104
5.2.3 Paging 104
5.2.4 Random Access 105
5.2.5 Scheduling 105
5.2.6 Power Control 106
5.2.7 Handover 106
5.2.8 Link Adaptation 108
5.2.9 HARQ, Error Correction 108
5.2.10 MIMO Techniques 109
5.2.11 The Control/data Channels and Reference Signals 109
5.3 The Core Network (CN) 110
5.3.1 Circuit Switching and Packet Switching Networks 110
5.3.2 Tunnelling and Encapsulation 111
5.4 The Protocol Stack 112
5.4.1 The OSI Model of 7 Layer Protocol Stack 113
5.4.2 Protocol Stacks for Mobile Communications 115
5.5 The 2G Network 118
5.5.1 The Network Architecture of 2G 118
5.5.2 The GSM Frame Structure 120
5.5.3 GSM (And GPRS) RAN Features 122
5.5.4 2G Evolutions 124
5.6 The 3G Network 124
5.6.1 The UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) 125
5.6.2 UTRAN Features 129
5.6.3 The IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) 130
5.6.4 Issues with the UMTS Air Interface 131
5.6.5 3G Evolution to HSPA 132
5.7 The 4G Network 133
5.7.1 LTE System Architecture 134
5.7.2 LTE Protocol Layers 136
5.7.3 LTE Multiple Access Schemes 139
5.7.4 LTE Frame Structures 142
5.7.5 LTE Reference Signals 144
5.7.6 LTE main RAN procedures 144
5.7.7 Main Features of Subsequent LTE Releases 148
5.8 The 5G Network 150
5.8.1 5G Deployment Options 152
5.8.2 5G System Architecture 153
5.8.3 Spectrum Options for 5G 154
5.8.4 5G-NR Protocol Layers 155
5.8.5 The 5G-NR Air Interface 158
5.8.6 5G-NR RAN procedures 160
5.8.7 5G-NR Reference Signals 161
5.8.8 5G Core – Concepts and Functionalities 162
5.9 The Centralisation and Virtualisation of the Mobile Network 163
5.9.1 The Centralised RAN (C-RAN) 164
Contents x
5.9.2 NFV (Virtualised Network Functions) and SDN (Software Defined Networking) Concepts 166
5.10 Conclusions 169
References 170
6 Basics of Network Dimensioning and Planning 173
6.1 Properties of Signal Strength, Noise and Interference 174
6.2 The Link Budget and Coverage Dimensioning 178
6.2.1 The Transmit Power 178
6.2.2 The Antenna Gains 178
6.2.3 Transmit and Receive Diversity Gains 179
6.2.4 The EIRP 179
6.2.5 Modelling the Path Loss 180
6.2.6 Modelling the Log Normal Fade Margin 183
6.2.7 The FFM 184
6.2.8 Building Penetration Loss 185
6.2.9 Building the Link Budget 185
6.3 Capacity Dimensioning 187
6.3.1 The Capacity Demand Estimation Process 188
6.3.2 Capacity Demand Estimation – Worked Example 189
6.3.3 Resource Provision – Worked Example 194
6.4 The Dimensioning of Backhaul Links 199
6.4.1 LTE Backhaul Provision – General Aspects 200
6.4.2 LTE Backhaul Provision – Capacity Aspects 201
6.4.3 New Developments in Backhaul/fronthaul Provision 207
6.5 The Network Planning Process 208
6.5.1 The Network Area Maps 208
6.5.2 Site Placement and Antenna Radiation Patterns 209
6.5.3 Traffic Modelling and Capacity Provision Information 210
6.5.4 Fine Tuning and Optimisation 212
6.6 A Look at 5G Networks 213
References 216
7 Spectrum – The Life Blood of Radio Communications 219
7.1 Introduction 219
7.2 Spectrum Management and Its Objectives 219
7.2.1 The Role of the ITU 220
7.2.2 Regional Bodies 221
7.2.3 National Regulators and Their Roles 222
7.2.4 The Spectrum Management Process 223
7.3 Spectrum Allocations 225
7.4 Spectrum Assignment 225
7.4.1 Administrative Assignments 226
7.4.2 Market Based Mechanisms 226
7.5 Spectrum Licensing 228
7.5.1 Spectrum for Mobile Services 228
7.5.2 Dimensions of Spectrum Sharing 233
7.6 Spectrum Bands Considered for 5G 235
7.6.1 Example Illustration of Spectrum Deployment Strategy for MNOs 236
7.6.2 Local Access Spectrum 237
References 238
8 Fundamentals of Digital Communication 241
8.1 Basic Digital Communication System Overview 241
8.2 Encoding Information 243
8.2.1 Sampling 243
8.2.2 Source Coding 245
8.2.3 Channel Coding 246
8.3 Signal Representation and Modulation 251
8.3.1 Mapping Bits to Signals 253
8.3.2 Signal Spectrum 256
8.4 Signal Demodulation and Detection 257
8.4.1 System Model and Sources of Noise 257
8.4.2 Demodulation 258
8.4.3 Detection 260
8.5 Performance Analysis 260
8.5.1 Capacity 260
8.5.2 Bit-error Rate and Symbol-error Rate 262
8.6 Communication Through Dispersive Channels 264
8.6.1 Time-domain Equalisation and Detection 264
8.6.2 Frequency-domain Equalisation 267
8.7 Multiple Access: A Second Look 272
8.7.1 CDMA and 3G 272
8.7.2 OFDMA/SC-FDMA and 4G 275
8.7.3 NOMA and 5G 277
8.8 System Impairments 278
8.8.1 Carrier Phase Estimation 279
8.8.2 Timing Recovery 280
8.8.3 Channel Estimation 280
8.9 Further Reading 282
Notes 282
References 283
9 Early Technical Challenges and Innovative Solutions 285
9.1 Wireless Channels: The Challenge 285
9.1.1 Propagation 285
9.1.2 Fading and Multipath 287
9.1.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Fading Channels 293
9.2 Multicarrier Modulation: A Second Look 295
9.2.1 Coded OFDM 295
9.2.2 Capacity and Adaptive Modulation 295
9.3 Diversity 297
9.3.1 Macro Diversity 297
9.3.2 Time Diversity 298
9.3.3 Frequency Diversity 300
9.3.4 Spatial Diversity 300
9.4 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) 307
9.4.1 Capacity 308
9.4.2 MIMO Transmission Techniques 309
9.4.3 MIMO Reception Techniques 311
9.4.4 MIMO vs Multicarrier 312
9.4.5 Multi-User and Massive MIMO 313
References 315
10 Small Cells – an Evolution or a Revolution? 317
10.1 Introduction 317
10.2 Small Cells Concept Formation 319
10.3 Multi-tier Cellular Networks/HetNets Architecture 320
10.3.1 Interference Management 320
10.3.2 Mobility Management 321
10.3.3 Backhaul 322
10.4 Interference Management and Modelling in Small cell/HetNets 322
10.4.1 Interference Management 322
10.4.2 Interference Modelling 325
10.5 Mobility Management 329
10.6 Backhaul 332
10.7 Small-Cell Deployment 335
10.8 Future Evolution of Small Cells 339
10.9 Conclusion 342
References 342
11 Today’s and Tomorrow’s Challenges 345
11.1 The Capacity Crunch 345
11.1.1 A Historical Perspective 345
11.1.2 Methods for Capacity Enhancement 346
11.1.3 Impact on Transport and Core Networks 349
11.1.4 Complementary Technologies 352
11.2 Increasing Network Complexity 354
11.2.1 The Self-Organising Networks 355
11.2.2 Network Automation in 5G 359
11.2.3 The Business Rationale for Network Automation 361
11.3 The Need for Greener and Lower EMF Networks 362
11.3.1 Greener Mobile Networks 362
11.3.3 Green Manufacturing and Recycling 364
11.3.4 Applications of Mobile Networks for Energy Reduction 364
11.3.5 Electromagnetic Field Exposure and Mobile Networks 365
11.4 Covering the Unserved and Under-served Regions 368
11.4.1 New Access Technologies 368
11.4.2 Initiatives Driven by Government Funding and Policy 371 Reference 373
12 The Changing Face of Mobile Communications 377
12.1 Changes with Centralisation and Virtualisation of the Mobile Network 377
12.2 Supporting Multiple Vertical Industries through 5G 380
12.2.1 Automotive Sector 380
12.2.2 Smart City 383
12.2.3 Industry 4.0 386
12.2.4 Critical Communications Sector 388
12.2.5 Other Vertical Areas under Development 391
12.3 The Continuous Evolution of the Mobile Device 393
12.4 What Will 6G Look Like? 395
12.4.1 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence 395
12.4.2 Blockchain and the Internet of Things 396
12.4.3 Evolutions in Cloud and Edge Computing 397
12.4.4 Advanced Hybrid Beamforming 398
12.4.5 New Modulation Schemes 399
12.4.6 Tera-Hertz (Thz) Communications 399
12.4.7 Orbital Angular Momentum 401
12.4.8 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 401
12.4.9 Quantum Technology 401 References 402
Index 407
Foreword
I am thrilled to have been invited to write the foreword to this text as the authors are former doctoral students of mine. This book expertly draws together the technology and business of mobile communications. Whilst both the technical and business elements are thought by many to be highly complex in their own right, and may only be grasped by ‘experts’, this text renders both as readily accessible to those with an understanding of the basic concepts and an interest in the subject matter. This text is further commendable since it is rare that a single volume seamlessly tackles both technical and business elements in such a way that the reader with a background in either is readily drawn to appreciate the other.
Cellular or mobile communication technologies and their capabilities have evolved rapidly over the last 40 years, with 5 generations (the’G’) of research, standardisation, product development, and roll-out now serving more than 14 billion devices. With each transition between the generations, users have benefited from an evolution in connectivity performance and new service offerings. This rapid growth is not solely driven by innovation, but, as a sound economic case is a key requirement given the level of investment required.
The authors of this book, with their doctoral research contributing to wireless communications and enriched by their industrial and academic contributions, have brought together this textbook as a one-stop reference of the journey through the 5 generations of cellular, as well as what is to follow. The breadth of knowledge and experience from the team provides a rich narrative on the mobile telecommunications ecosystem, including spectrum, standards, costing and disruptors, alongside network architecture design. An accessible explanation of the Radio Access Network (RAN) and the mechanisms of call setup, control and mobility complements the former. This is followed by highlights of numerous technology evolutions, including antenna arrays, interference management, network planning, electromagnetic field safety and development of greener technology. The final chapter takes a look forwards in terms of applications in the vertical industrials as well as the application of machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI), and higher frequency bands (Tera-Hertz) as we enter the era of 6G R&D.
At the time of writing, 5G mobile technologies are being rolled out and becoming embedded in mobile communications networks in many countries. This text provides a gateway into 5G technologies and networks such as the ‘core’ and RAN and also details forthcoming network technologies such a Cloud-RAN, Network Function Virtualisation (NFV) and Software Defined Networks (SDN). An in-depth look into techno-economic aspects of the emerging 5G verticals is also covered, where the related-use cases underpin the economic outlook for 5G networks and associated businesses.
It is also an exciting and pivotal time for mobile communications research. As 5G networks are being established, research into 6G is underway with increasing intensity. This includes identifying key challenges and technologies for addressing them, hence providing momentum for further research and development. This book also provides further details of some of the key potential technological enablers for 6G.
For those entering the field of mobile communications, this book provides a valuable resource to capture four decades of cellular development. For those already working in this domain, a handy reference.
I commend this book and sincerely hope you enjoy the read, as I have done.
Professor
Mark
Mark
Beach Professor of Radio Systems Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering University of Bristol
Preface
Mobile communications is one of the most rapidly evolving technical fields, with a new generation of mobile communications appearing every 10 years or so. For a new entrant to this field, be it as a post-graduate student or an industry employee, keeping pace with the current developments in their specialisation becomes the priority. While this is critically important, it can obscure or delay development of an overall understanding of the different components of this wide ecosystem and their interactions. Having this overall view of how the different pieces of this complex ‘jigsaw puzzle’ fit together can be really useful when they want to navigate beyond their specialised area.
The intention of this book is to provide such an overall view of the Mobile ecosystem and show the interactions of individual components, their evolutions and future directions in an introductory manner. The authors and the specialised chapter contributors use their knowledge and wide experience in industry, academia and regulatory domains to provide a broad encapsulation of all the critical components in this field. Special care has been taken to acknowledge that all readers of this book will not have a deep technical background or the requirement to master all the technical details of this field. A separate chapter sequence for following this book while omitting the deep technical details and focussing more on the business aspects has been suggested in the introduction (Chapter 1).
In a book covering a broad array of topics and a target audience with a wide span of interests in mobile communications, it is not possible to delve deeper into a single topic. Ample references, which provide in-depth coverage of particular topics, have been provided particularly in deeply technical chapters. All efforts have been taken to capture the latest developments in each of the topics at the time of writing. However, in such a dynamic field as mobile communications, the lead time in bringing written content to print can mean that the ‘latest’ has moved a few notches forward. We have also captured many web resources as citations, especially in chapters looking at the latest and future technology trends, where printed and published citation options are somewhat in short supply. We have reviewed the chapter contents several times to remove any errors or inconsistencies but if a reader finds any such inconsistencies we would be very happy to be notified of such. This will help us to improve any subsequent editions or prints of this book.
We hope that this book will become a useful resource to aspiring practitioners in this highly dynamic and exciting field of mobile communications.
Mythri, Justin, Ben and Tony.
About the Authors
Mythri Hunukumbure
Dr. Mythri Hunukumbure obtained his BSc (Eng) degree with first-class honours from the University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka in 1998 and MSc and PhD degrees in Telecommunication Engineering from the University of Bristol in 2000 and 2004 respectively. He is currently a Principal Research Engineer and a Project Lead at the Samsung Electronics R&D Institute, UK. In an industry career spanning over 15 years, he has contributed to, and later led, mobile communication research, standardisation and product development activities. Whilst at Samsung, he has participated in flagship EU projects mmMAGIC, ONE5G and 5G LOCUS as a work package leader. He is also actively contributing to 3GPP RAN1 and SA2 standardisation topics, securing vital IPR. He has filed around 50 patents to date and has also published extensively in leading conferences and journals, receiving the best paper award at the World Telecommunications Congress (WTC) in 2012.
Justin P. Coon
Professor Justin P. Coon received a BSc degree (with distinction) in electrical engineering from the Calhoun Honours College, Clemson University, USA and a PhD in communications from the University of Bristol, UK in 2000 and 2005, respectively. From 2004 until 2013, he held various technical and management positions at Toshiba Research Europe Ltd. (TREL). Prof. Coon also held a Reader position in the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering at the University of Bristol from 2012 until 2013. In 2013, he took a faculty position at Oxford University with a Tutorial Fellowship at Oriel College. Prof. Coon is a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematics and Its Applications (FIMA) and a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). He is also a regular consultant to industry.
Ben Allen
Dr. Ben Allen completed his MSc and PhD degrees at the University of Bristol in 1997 and 2001 respectively. His career has spanned academia and industry, most recently as a Royal Society Industry Fellow with the University of Oxford and Network Rail. He has been the lead for several R&D activities involving telecoms for railways, several of which exhibited state-of-the-art advances. He has published numerous papers and
several books on radio and telecommunications research developments. Dr. Allen is a Chartered Engineer, Fellow of the Institution of Engineering & Technology, Institute of Telecommunications Professionals and the Higher Education Academy.
Tony Vernon
Dr. Vernon graduated from the University of Glasgow in 1987 with a Joint Honours in Electronic Engineering with Physics. After a few years in the cellular industry, he obtained chartered status and, in 2002, received a PhD in Mobile Telecoms from the University of Bristol. His main interests and career contributions lie in the planning and optimisation of digital mobile networks ranging from the dawn of 2G in 1991 to 5G in 2021. With 6G on the horizon, Dr. Vernon's focus has moved to the vehicular channel (V2X) and the future use of soon-to-be-ubiquitous mobile broadband networks for national and public-access broadcasting. He is based on the Scottish Outer Hebridean island of South Uist and is thus passionate about expanding 4G and 5G mobile broadband connectivity to rural and remote areas.
Acknowledgements
This book has truly been a collective effort, with the authors and contributors providing expertise and resources from a wide array of specialisations within mobile communications. The authors would like to jointly thank Wiley publishers, especially Sandra Grayson, Juliet Booker and Britta Ramaraj, for their continued support throughout this project. The authors also acknowledge the three specialised chapters provided by the contributors, which really widen the scope of this book:
Daniel Warren (Samsung Research UK): Chapter 4: Why Standards Matter?
Abhaya Sumanasena (Real Wireless): Chapter 7: Spectrum – the life blood of radio communications
Jie Zhang (University of Sheffield and Ranplan) and Haonan Hu (Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications): Chapter 10: Small Cells – an evolution or a revolution?
The authors fondly reminisce of the opportunity they had to pursue further studies at the Electrical and Electronics Department, the University of Bristol, all these years ago. They gratefully recall the guidance they received from their common PhD supervisor Dr. Mark Beach and also thank him for providing an insightful foreword to this book.
Mythri Hunukumbure wishes to acknowledge Samsung Electronics R&D Institute UK and thanks his colleagues for their fellowship and support. He also acknowledges the European Commission funded 5G research projects mmMAGIC, ONE5G and 5G LOCUS where the cutting-edge research conducted has helped him to grow his expertise and knowledge in this field. He wishes to thank Fujitsu Labs of Europe and the University of Bristol where he previously worked. Last, but not least, he is so grateful for the support he has received from his family members and friends here in the UK and in Sri Lanka without which this book would not have been possible.
J. P. Coon would like to acknowledge Oxford University and, in particular, the Department of Engineering Science, for providing an atmosphere of academic freedom that has allowed him to follow his curiosities over the past decade. He also wishes to thank Oriel College, in its 695th year of existence, for continuing to be such a welcoming and collegiate seat of learning and fellowship. Additionally, he gratefully acknowledges the support of EPSRC, the US ARO, the John Fell Fund, Toshiba Europe Ltd, and Moogsoft, which has enabled him to explore many exciting areas of research during the writing of this book.
Acknowledgements
Ben Allen particularly wishes to thank Dr. Mythri Hunukumbure for organising this book, as well as Drs. Justin Coon and Tony Vernon for their substantial contributions and fellowship over the years. He also gratefully acknowledges those who have contributed both directly and indirectly to this text, without which this book would not have come to fruition. Finally, he wishes to thank his family for their enduring love and support. Thank you!
Tony Vernon would like to thank, first and foremost, Dr. Mythri Hunukumbure for his unstinting patience, understanding and encouragement over the five-year gestation of this book, and Drs. Justin Coon and Ben Allen for their expert contributions and fellowship during some personally difficult years spent together at Bristol University. Grateful thanks are also due to Professors Mark Beach and Joe McGeehan, who took a gamble on a chap who had failed first-time round, but came good on his second chance. Finally, he pays tribute to all of the great engineering managers he has had over the course of a three-decade career; most notable in this number is Phil Cornforth, currently VP Emerging Technologies with Deutsche Telecom, whose 'servant-not-master' example he has always tried to follow.
List of Abbreviations
6G 6th Generation
5G 5th Generation
4G 4th Generation
3G 3rd Generation
2G 2nd Generation
1G 1st Generation
3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
8-PSK 8-Phase Shift Keying
AAA Authentication, Authorisation and Accounting
ABS Almost Blank Sub-frames
AI Artificial Intelligence
AMF Access and Mobility Function
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System
ANDSF Access Network Discovery and Selection Function
ANR Automatic Neighbour Relation
API Application Programming Interfaces
AR Augmented Reality
ARPU Average Revenue Per User
AUSF Authentication Server Function
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise
B2B Business to business
BBU Baseband Processing Unit
BER Bit Error Rate
BiTA Blockchain in Transport Alliance
BJCR Bahl-Cocke-Jelinek-Raviv
bps bits per second
BSC Base Station Controller
BSS Base Station Subsystem
BTS Base Transceiver Station
BWP Bandwidth Parts
CA Carrier Aggregation
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
List of Abbreviations
CBRS Citizen’s Broadband Radio Service
CDF Cumulative Distribution Function
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
C-ITS Co-operative Intelligent Transport Systems
CLSP Close-loop Spatial Multiplexing
CN Core Network
CO Central Office
CoMP Coordinated Multipoint
COTS commercial off-the-shelf
CP Control Plane
CPE Common Phase Error
CPRI Common Public Radio Interface
CQI Channel Quality Indicator
C-RAN Cloud Radio Access Network
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
CRE Cell Range Expansion
CRS Common Reference Signal
CU Centralised Unit
D2D Device to Device
DAB Digital Audio Broadcasting
DAS Distributed Antenna Systems
DC Dual Connectivity
DEM Digital Evaluation Model
DFD Division Free Duplex
DFE Decision Feedback Equalizer
DFP Dynamic Frequency Planning
DRX Discontinuous Reception Cycle
DSCs Drone Small Cells
DSP Digital Signal Processing
DSRC Dedicated Short Range Communications
DSSS Direct-sequence spread spectrum
DTM Digital Terrain Model
DU Dense Urban
DVB Digital Video Broadcasting
DWDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
EB Exabyte
ECC Electronic Communications Committee
EDGE Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
EEA European Economic Area
Eicic Enhanced Inter-cell Interference Coordination
EMF Electromagnetic Field
EPC Evolved Packet Core
ESN Emergency Services Network
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
E-UTRAN Evolved UTRAN
EV-DO Evolution Data Only
EV-DO Evolution Data Optimised
FAT Frequency Allocation Table
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FD Full Duplex
FDD Frequency Division Duplexing
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
FFM Fast Fade Margin
FFR Fractional Frequency Reuse
FOMA Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access
FPS Full Power Sub-frames
FRAND Fair, Reasonable and Non-Discriminatory
FSPL Free-space Path Loss
FTP File Transfer Protocol
FTTH fibre-to-th-home
FWA Fixed Wireless Access
GAN Generic Access Network
Gbps gigabits per second
GBT Guaranteed Bit Rate
GCF Global Certification Forum
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node
GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
GPRS General Packet Radio System
GSM Groupe Spécial Mobile
HARQ Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request
HEO High Elliptical Satellite
GSMA Global System for Mobile Communications
GSS GPRS sub-system
HAP High Altitude Platforms
H-CRAN Heterogeneous Cloud Radio Access Network
HDD Hard Disk Drive
HetNet Heterogeneous Network
HH Horizontal to Horizontal
HLR Home Location Register
HeNB Home eNodeB
HM Hysteresis Margin
HNB Home NodeB
HOFs Hand Over Failures
HSS Home Subscription Server
HSDPA High Speed Downlink Packet Access
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
HSUPA High Speed Uplink Packet Access
IAB Integrated Access and Backhaul
ICIC Inter-cell Interference Coordination
List of Abbreviations
List of Abbreviations
ICNIRP International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection
ICO Intelligent Cell Optimisation
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IFFT Inverse Fast Fourier Transform
IMS IP Multimedia Sub-system
IP Internet Protocol
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
IoT Internet of Things
ISD Inter-site Distance
ISG Industry Specification Group
ISI Inter-Symbol Interference
ITU International Telecommunication Union
kbps kilobits per second
KPI Key Performance Indicator
LA Location Area
LAA Licensed Assisted Access
LAMM Linear Angular Momentum Multiplexing
LAPD-m Link Adaptation Channel D – mobile
LDC Local Data Centre
LDPC Low-density parity check
LEO Low Earth Orbits
LLC Logical Link Layer
LMR Land Mobile Radio
LNA Low-noise amplifier
LNFM log normal fade margin
LOS Line of Sight
LSAS Large-scale Antenna Systems
LTE Long Term Evolution
MAC Medium Access Control
MANO Management and Network Orchestration
MC-PTT Mission Critical Push To Talk
MCS Modulation and Coding Scheme
MEC Multi-access Edge Computing
MIB Master Information Block
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
ML Machine Learning
MLB Mobility Load Balancing
MM Mobility Management
MMDS Multi-point Microwave Distribution Systems
MME Mobility Management Entities
M2M Machine to Machine
MMSE Minimum mean-square error
mMTC massive Machine Type Communication
MORAN Multi Operator Radio Access Networks
MRC Maximum Ratio Combining
MRO Mobility Robustness Optimisation
MRP Market Representation Partner
MRRC Maximum Ratio Receiver Combining
MSC Mobile Switching Centre
MUD Multi User Detection
MVNO Mobile virtual network operator
N3IWF Non-3GPP Interworking Function
NaaS Network as a Service
NAS Non-Access Stratum
NCS Network Slice Controller
NB-IoT Narrow Band Internet of Things
NEF Network Exposure Function
NFV Network Function Virtualisation
NFVI Network Function Virtualisation Infra-structure
NLOS Non-line of Sight
NMT Nordic Mobile Telephones
NOMA Non-orthogonal multiple access
NRZ Non-return-to-zero
NSA Non-StandAlone
NSS Network and Switching Sub-System
NTN Non-Terrestrial Networks
OAI Open Air Interface
OAM Orbital Angular Momentum
OBSAI Open Base Station Architecture Initiative
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
O&M Operations and Maintenance
ONF Open Networking Foundation
OOK on off keying
OPEX Operational Expenditure
OSI Open Systems Interconnection
OSS Operations Support Systems
OTT over-the-top
OVSF Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor
OWB Optical Wireless Broadband
P2P Point-to-point
P2MP Point-to-multipoint
PaaS Platform as a Servide
PAPR Peak-to-average Power Ratio
PBCH Physical Broadcast Channel
PCEF Policy and Charging Enforcement Function
PCF Policy Control Function
PCI Physical Cell Identity
PCRF Policy Control and Charging Rules Function
PDF Probability Density Function
PDSCH Physical Downlink Shared Channel
List of Abbreviations
List of Abbreviations
PDU Protocol Data Unit
PF Proportional Fair
PL Path Loss
PLE Path Loss Exponent
PLL Phase Locked Loop
PLMN Public Land Mobile Networks
PN Pseudo Noise
PNDS Packet Data Networks
PoP Point of Presence
PPC Policy and Charging Control
PRB Physical Resource Block
PRS Positioning Reference Signal
P-SCH Primary Synchronisation Channel
PSK Phase Shift Keying
PSS Primary Synchronisation Signal
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Networks
PUSH Physical Uplink Shared Channel
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QFI Quality of Service Flow Identifier
QPSK Quadrature Phase-shift Keying
QoE Quality of Experience
QoS Quality of Service
RA Routing Area
RACH Random Access Channel
RAN radio access network
RDC Regional Data Centre
RE resource element
RED Radio Equipment Directive
RGC Rural Gigabit Connectivity
RIP Received Interference Power
RLAH Roam Like At Home
RLF Radio Link Failure
RNC Radio Network Controller
ROI Return on Investment
RPE Radiation Pattern Envelope
RPS Reduced Power Sub-frames
RRH Remote Radio Head
RRM Radio Resource Management
RRPS Ranplan Radio Propagation Simulator
RSPG Radio Spectrum Policy Group
RSQ Received Signal Quality
RSS Received Signal Strengths
RU Rural
RWP Random Waypoint
SA StandAlone
SAE System Architecture Evolution
SAW Stop and Wait
SBA Service-Based Architecture
SC Small Cell
SC-FDE Single Carrier with Frequency Domain Equalisation
SC-FDMA Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access
SCH Synchronisation Channel
SDN Software Defined Network
SER Symbol Error Rate
SGW Serving Gateways
SGSN Serving and Gateway Support Nodes
SIB System Information Block
SIC Successive Interference Cancellation
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
SINR Signal to Noise Ratio
SMF Session Management Function
SON Self Organised Networks
SSB Synchronisation Signal Blocks
SSD Solid-State Drive
S-SCH Secondary Synchronisation Channel
SSS Secondary Synchronisation Signal
SU Suburban
SVD Singular Value Decomposition
TACS Total Access Communication System
TCH Traffic Channels
TCO Total Cost of Ownership
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
TDD Time Division Duplex
TDE Time-Domain Equalisation
TDMA time Division Multiple Access
TD-SCDMA Time Division – Synchronous CDMA
TEID Tunnel End-point ID
TETRA Terrestrial Trunked Radio
TMA Tower Mount Amplifier
TNGF Trusted Non-3GPP Gateway Function
TPS Transmit Power Control
TRAU Transcoder/Rate Adaptor Unit
TSG Technical Specification Groups
TTT Time to Trigger
U Urban
UAVs Unmanned Ariel Vehicles
UDP User Datagram Protocol
UE User Equipment
UMB Ultra-Mobile Broadband
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
List of Abbreviations
