Teaching and learning English interculturally av Dypedahl og Lund (red.) (utdrag) by Cappelen Damm

Teaching and Learning

English Interculturally

ISBN 978-82-02-89532-7

2. edition, 1. print 2026

The material in this publication is protected under the provisions of the Norwegian Copyright Act. Copying or distribution of the material is allowed only to the extent permitted by law or permitted through an agreement with Kopinor, the Norwegian copyright licensing organization, or by specific agreement with Cappelen Damm AS. Any use of the publication, either in part or in its entirety, as input in or as a training corpus for generative AI models and/or applications that can create text, images, film, sound or other content is not permitted without the express written permission of the rightsholders.

Use of the publication’s material in violation of the law or specific agreements pertaining to the publication may lead to confiscation, liability for damages and/or punishment in the form of fines or imprisonment.

Cover design: Roy Søbstad

Typesetting: Bøk Oslo AS

Printing and binding: Merkur Grafisk AS

The paper in Cappelen Damm's books is sourced from sustainable forestry. None of the products contribute to deforestation or degradation of the forests. Cappelen Damm works to reduce the environmental impact of their books as much as possible.

For further information about Cappelen Damm's environmental efforts – please scan the QR code:

www.cda.no akademisk@cappelendamm.no

Preface

Intercultural competence has become increasingly important in today’s world. This is acknowledged in LK20, where this aspect of the teaching and learning of English is emphasized even more than in earlier curricula. The cross-curricular topics in LK20, public health and life management, democracy and citizenship and sustainable development, also require attention to intercultural issues.

The main objective for learners is to develop communicative competence in English. Since English can be used to communicate with people all over the world, it is obvious that communicative competence needs to be combined with intercultural competence. However, intercultural competence is not only necessary in international encounters. In LK20, the aim is to relate to different ways of living, thinking and communicating in general, regardless of linguistic and cultural background. In this anthology, we therefore consider intercultural competence to be relevant to all communication between people.

A main idea in this anthology is that intercultural learning can happen in conjunction with any other aspect of the teaching and learning of English. The different chapters exemplify this, as they link intercultural issues to work with language, literature and cultural topics. In addition, there are chapters that discuss intercultural learning in relation to work with picturebooks, film and multilingualism.

This second edition has two entirely new chapters, one on critical literacy, and one on the use of video games for intercultural learning. The final chapter discusses issues related to assessment of intercultural competence. It is co-authored with Professor Michael Byram, the most influential scholar in this field in Europe, and we are very grateful that he wanted to be part of our team.

Magne Dypedahl Ragnhild Elisabeth Lund

Intercultural Learning and Global Citizenship in the English Language Classroom

Magne Dypedahl, University of South-Eastern Norway, and Ragnhild Elisabeth Lund, University of South-Eastern Norway

We must learn to live together as brothers, or perish together as fools.

Martin Luther King Jr.

Introduction

There are many reasons why teachers and students need to concern themselves with intercultural learning and issues related to citizenship, democracy and cultural diversity in the English language classroom. One obvious reason lies in the fact that, when students learn – and start to use – English, they will come into contact with people from all parts of the world. In order to be able to communicate successfully at home and abroad, more than just language skills are needed. It is also necessary to know how to deal with possible challenges when it comes to the ways in which people speak, write, think and behave.

Another reason lies in the quote that introduces this chapter. Martin Luther King Jr.’s speech was delivered more than six decades ago, but his message is as relevant as ever. In line with King’s sentiments, steering doc-

uments issued by the Norwegian education authorities focus on global citizenship and respect for others in general. Section 1 in the Norwegian Education Act (2024) states that learners “shall develop knowledge, skills and attitudes that equip them with life skills end enable them to participate in working life and society” (1.3.). Other aims for education and training specified in this Act are to “open doors to the world and the future” and to “provide insight into cultural diversity and show respect for individual beliefs, […] promote democracy, gender equality and scientific thinking” (1.3.). In the newest national curriculum (LK20), one of the topics common to all subjects is “democracy and citizenship”, and one of the aims is to prepare students “for participating in democratic processes” (Ministry of Education and Research, 2017).

The core elements in English in the national curriculum show how the study of a foreign language can have a particularly important role to play here:

By reflecting on, interpreting and critically assessing different types of texts in English, the pupils shall acquire language and knowledge of culture and society. Thus the pupils will develop intercultural competence enabling them to deal with different ways of living, ways of thinking and communication patterns. They shall build the foundation for seeing their own identity and others’ identities in a multilingual and multicultural context. (Ministry of Education and Research)

The emphasis on citizenship, democracy and cultural diversity in Norwegian education links up with similar measures internationally. The Council of Europe and UNESCO, for example, have issued numerous publications that emphasize the importance of intercultural competence and also provide guidance as to how such competence can be developed in schools (see for example UNESCO, 2006, 2013, 2022; Council of Europe, 2001, 2016, 2018). How, then, can teachers and students work with intercultural learning in English? One of the aims of this book is to show how an intercultural dimension can be added to most daily activities in the English language classroom. The main thing to remember is to use every opportunity to show complexity and discuss ambiguity, and to explore any situation from multiple perspectives. An important aspect of this is to consider one’s own perspective, and to “unthink” and “rethink” pre-established beliefs (Dervin, 2023). Critical literacy practices, as described in this book, can be applied to any teaching and learning situation, and different reflection

tools can be used, for example when investigating situations of interaction in terms of the communication styles or mindsets involved. But the book also provides information as to how intercultural learning can be linked more specifically to different aspects of the subject, such as work with grammar and vocabulary, literary texts, picturebooks, films, gaming and cultural topics, as well as how to assess intercultural competence. This chapter, however, will look more closely at ways in which the central concepts in this book, namely culture, context and intercultural competence, can be understood.

The tradition of dealing with culture in foreign language education

Including cultural issues in a foreign language curriculum is not a new thing. Traditionally, however, focus has been on providing learners with some knowledge about the history, institutions and the arts of a specific country or specific countries. Prominence has often been given to literature. This tradition can be traced back to the teaching of classical languages (Latin and Greek), where the main purpose was not to develop the students’ practical language skills, but rather to provide them with an “entrance ticket to the universal culture of the European educated elite” (Kramsch, 1997, p. 5).

Knowledge about a country’s history, institutions, literature and the arts, often referred to as big C culture, was instrumental in building European nation-states during the 19th century. Naturally, states still promote knowledge about these aspects of a country’s heritage, in order to maintain a common memory and common frames of reference among their citizens. In foreign language education, it has also been customary to focus on big C cultural topics (Fantini, 2014, p. 270).

In the 1960s and 70s, more emphasis was given to the development of learners’ practical language skills, and teaching came to center more around language that could be used in situations of everyday communication. As a consequence, it also became common to provide learners with insights into the everyday practices and the dos and don’ts of one or more nations where the language was spoken. Information about common practices was often referred to as everyday or small c culture. The idea was to show learners what to expect in different communication situations, and

enable them to adjust their verbal as well as non-verbal behavior accordingly. In textbooks for the teaching of English, emphasis was most often on politeness, which could boil down to the need to remember to say “please” and “thank you”, and how to behave in a queue. Here is a rather humorous example from This Way 7:

In other countries people fight to get on to a bus. In England the Englishman always forms a queue, even if he is alone. Outside cinemas the biggest notice does not tell you the name of the film, it tells you where to queue. At weekends Londoners, for example, queue up at a bus stop, travel to the river, queue up for a boat, then queue up for tea, then queue up for ice cream, then queue up to go home again. (Mellgren et al., 1972, p. 163)

It is worth noticing that both the big C and the small c approaches to culture have traditionally been nation-specific, and the term target culture has often been used to refer to a country where the language was spoken. Less attention has been given to knowledge about cultural diversity within nations, cultural issues across national borders, and to the relationship between language and context.

What is context?

Although the tradition of including cultural issues in foreign language education is a long one, these issues have not necessarily been related to other aspects of language learning. Linguistic elements such as vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation have mostly been dealt with separately from the contexts in which these elements can be used and understood (see Stern, 1983, p 191). In the 1980s, however, foreign language scholars started to develop what came to be known as the communicative approach to foreign language education. A basic tenet here was to develop the learners’ ability to use the foreign language in social contexts, in culturally acceptable and appropriate ways. The Council of Europe (1991) publication Threshold Level 1990 used the notion of socio-cultural competence and underlined the need for learners to familiarize themselves with topics such as “social conventions and rituals” and “politeness conventions”, as well as other aspects of everyday life and interaction (pp. 103–109).

At the same time, research indicated that it is not enough for language users simply to know about topics such as these to be able to communicate

appropriately. Halliday and Hasan (1985) argued that language – or text –and context are, in fact, two sides of the same coin, and that language only makes sense when it is placed within a context or situation. This means that in order to understand something that is said or written, we must be able to interpret and understand the context in which it occurs. For example, if we meet the single letter P in a context where parking a car is relevant, our previous knowledge of such contexts will help us interpret P as a meaningful text (Widdowson, 1995, p. 163). If we hear the words “I love you!” our interpretation of the context will certainly determine how we understand and react to the message.

This interpretation of a text – something that is said or written – works on a number of levels. First, we may try to make sense of the text based on how we have interpreted similar situations previously. Then, we also need to take the particular context into consideration, which includes factors such as time, place, the objectives of the text and the participants. In a context that we are familiar with, we are usually able to anticipate the kinds of meaning and the kinds of language that will be exchanged. This can make communication easier. If we are not familiar with the context, this can make communication more challenging. Interlocutors who share the same knowledge of the context in question will naturally have better chances of understanding one another than interlocutors who do not (Scollon et al., 2011, p. 26).

Knowledge of contexts initially comes from our upbringing and the way we are socialized into the world. Language plays a key role in this, as our caregivers use language to communicate knowledge, beliefs, values and norms. In this way, we also learn how language is supposed to be used in different situations. However, it is important to remember that people who grow up with the same language, in the same country, may still learn quite different things. Moreover, as we grow and develop, we come into contact with new groups of people, new places and new areas of life. In this way, it can be argued that we are all part of several different communities and thus influenced by many cultures. In terms of language as well as behavior, we learn to navigate quite effortlessly between them.

This means that it can be useful for learners to reflect on the way they engage in different types of communication in their native language, depending on who they are talking to, when and where the conversation takes place and for which purpose. Situations with friends on the football field, with grandparents on Christmas Eve and at the doctor’s office can

be examples here. The latter example can be described as asymmetrical interaction on a micro level (see Ten Thije, 2020, p. 39), which in this case is inevitable. However, a critical perspective on asymmetric relationships on all levels and across languages and societies is important in order to discuss issues such as power and injustice (see Chapter 4).

When we use our native language, we are hardly aware of the way in which prior knowledge of context helps us communicate and make sense of what is being said or written. The reason is that the knowledge and skills that we acquire as part of our upbringing are usually invisible to us. We may perceive our own ways of speaking, communicating and interpreting the world not only as normal and natural, but in fact as the only possible ones (see Kramsch, 1997, p. 4). Therefore, in order to learn how to relate to people who have other ways of being and of interpreting the world, we need to realize that our own and others’ ways of seeing the world are culturally determined and certainly not the only possible ones.

While it seems obvious that learners of a foreign language need to concern themselves with the contexts in which language can be used, a central question remains: Which contexts should learners work with? English is spoken in all corners of the world, and the variety in cultural background and mindsets among the users of the language even in one single community is immense. How can the teaching of English possibly address such a challenge?

The traditional focus on specific English-speaking countries is an issue that needs consideration here. First of all, there are many English-speaking countries to choose from. Which country or region should be given priority? Secondly, there is always a risk of focusing on the typical, sometimes stereotypical, behaviors of the most dominant group of native speakers of the language (see Kramsch, 2013, p. 66). Last, but not least, there are more non-native than native speakers of English in the world today, and many people question the relevance of the native speaker as a point of reference for learners of a foreign language (see Davies, 2013, p. 19). The national curriculum acknowledges these perspectives by referring to “the Englishspeaking world” and to English as a world language, or lingua franca.

The answer, then, is to investigate and try to learn from any context of language use that the learners encounter. Learners should be asked to explore and reflect on new contexts in comparison to familiar contexts, to examine their own understandings critically, and also to try to relate the possible new insights to other situations and settings. Obviously, contexts

within English-speaking countries are as relevant as any others in this respect. This point will be discussed further in Chapter 9.

To sum up, learners of English can relate to the complex issue of language and context in the following ways: They need to be made aware that the knowledge and the mindsets that they bring with them to a communication situation will influence the way they interpret what is being said or written. They should also learn to accept that other people bring other mindsets and communication styles to the situation. At the same time, they should be made aware of the fact that people are individuals and free agents who make their own choices regardless of background. Cultural background is only one factor that can affect interaction between people.

What is culture?

The word culture is understood and used in many ways. In everyday language, for example, when we say that we are “interested in culture”, it typically refers to big C cultural topics such as literature, the arts and history. When learning about or visiting a foreign country, it is also natural to focus on aspects of history and on cultural phenomena that the country in question promotes as part of its cultural heritage. As mentioned above, it has been common to distinguish between this understanding of culture and small c culture, which refers to aspects of a community’s “way of life”. Definitions of culture as a “way of life” typically involve values, attitudes, beliefs, norms and practices that people acquire, or at least need to relate to as members of society (see Lustig & Koester, 1999, p. 28). It can be seen as the knowledge we need in order to “play the game of life” in a given society (see Gudykunst, 1998, p. 42).

It is important to be aware of the influence from our backgrounds that we bring into the context of a communication situation. Our upbringing and background can be said to provide us with a “perceptual lens” through which we see and make sense of the outside world. According to the linguists George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (2003), people understand events, speech acts and physical phenomena differently, influenced by the “model of their mind” (p. 29).

Such lenses or models may be difficult to identify and describe, and they should definitely not be regarded as static. We need to recognize that there are competing and conflicting values, beliefs, norms and practices within any group of people or community. The Council of Europe publication

Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture, for example, bases its policy for a democratic future on the assumption that “cultures are internally heterogeneous, contested, dynamic and constantly changing …” (2018, Volume 1, p. 31).

The Council of Europe (2018) states further that “individuals have complex affiliations to various cultures” (p. 31). “Various cultures” means that we are all members of different groups and communities: at home, at work and in our leisure time. Consequently, we can say that each one of us is influenced by several group memberships or cultures. In this sense, culture does not refer to geography or national borders, but to any type of affiliation with a group of people. Nationality is often one important affiliation, but so are affiliations related to family background, leisure time interests, education, profession, age, gender, sexuality and religion. If we are told that British people, for example, tend to speak and act in a certain way, this may not be true for the particular British person that we are in contact with. In addition to individual characteristics, the person can be influenced by many other affiliations than a national “British culture” when it comes to his or her language and behavior.

This understanding of culture differs from the traditional way of dealing with culture in foreign language education, as we have seen. Here, culture has often been understood as rather fixed traits that apply equally to all members of a particular group, most often to the members of a specific nation. Defining culture along national lines is understandable, given our desire to categorize the world around us in order to understand it. However, this can easily end up as an essentialist view of culture because it tends to reduce all members of a nation to one essence, or one identity (see Dervin, 2016, p. 78). Nations encompass an infinite number of communities with different cultural habits and ways of seeing the world, and reducing people’s cultural background to a limited number of easily identifiable traits may in turn lead to stereotyping (see Holliday et al., 2017, p. 26).

When it comes to language education today, it makes sense to adopt an interpersonal and contextual approach to any communication situation. Since communication takes place between individuals (and not between cultures), we should always make an effort to interpret our interlocutor’s behavior and language in terms of individual, and not collective, characteristics (Scollon et al., 2011, p. 17). Likewise, we should be careful not to use someone’s cultural background to predict behavior in concrete situations. Still, awareness that people, at least to some degree, have different mind-

sets and ways of communicating can be useful when two or more people interact and communicate. This includes awareness of one’s own mindsets and communication patterns, which we tend to ignore or not think about, as well as those of others.

In order to develop context awareness along with language awareness, the study of culture is as important as ever. For this purpose, both culturespecific examples and knowledge about culture in general can be useful (see Gudykunst et al., 1996, p. viii). The aim is to develop the general ability to interact with others, which we can call intercultural competence.

What is intercultural competence?

The term intercultural emerged in the 1950s as a response to the need to increase dialogue and cooperation between members of different nations. Still, it was not until the 1980s that both intercultural education and intercultural communication really emerged as separate fields of research and scholarship (see Kramsch, 2013, p. 13). Since then, there has been a boom in interest in intercultural issues in a range of different areas, not least in the world of business. A number of different but related terms have been used to describe the need for cooperation skills, such as global competence, multicultural competence, cross-cultural competence, transcultural competence, cross-cultural awareness, intercultural sensitivity and global citizenship (see Fantini, 2009, p. 457).

In foreign language education, the notion of intercultural competence developed alongside the new focus on communicative competence in the 1980s and 90s. Therefore, the term intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is sometimes used (Byram et al., 2013, p. 251). It is also possible to regard intercultural competence as an integral aspect of communicative competence and not as a concept that is added on. This approach is consistent with the discussion of culture above and can be a good starting point for integrating intercultural learning in the English language classroom. The Council of Europe publication mentioned above (2018, Volume 1) states that “every interpersonal situation is potentially an intercultural situation” (p. 31). Here, intercultural communication is understood as any dialogue in which tension may occur as a result of different “lenses”. This leaves us with a very different understanding of the term intercultural compared to traditional, cross-national interpretations. Taking this into account, a possible definition of intercultural competence is “the ability to

relate constructively to people who have mindsets and/or communication styles that are different from one’s own” (Dypedahl, 2019, p. 102). This represents a dynamic approach to intercultural communication, which means that the focus is on what you can do constructively in any given situation, regardless of cultural background. The same focus on process and dynamic interaction is also one of the rationales behind the term interculturality (see Dervin, 2016, 2023). Others focus on lifelong learning when defining the term: “Intercultural competence is the lifelong process of developing targeted knowledge, skills and attitudes leading to behavior and communication that are both effective and appropriate in intercultural interactions” (Deardorrf, 2006, 2015).

It should be noted that numerous and seemingly conflicting theories on the development of intercultural competence and intercultural communication can be challenging for both students and teachers. This has caused Liisa Salo-Lee (2020) to ask some central questions: “What kinds of cultural analyses would comprehensively describe the inherent complexities involved in any intercultural encounter today?” and “How can intercultural communication researchers learn from each other in academic contexts?” (p. 120). The answer can be to make use of knowledge from a number of disciplines and scholars – called an integrative, multidisciplinary approach to intercultural communication – and to view it as “learning, with intercultural dialogue at its core” (p. 121). This notion of intercultural dialogue has gained ground in recent years. It focuses on the fact that engagement with others is a constant activity between individuals and groups at all levels of society. Meaning is never fixed but constantly negotiated in such encounters, and the point is to “learn and share in the face of difference” (UNESCO, 2020, p. 10). Work with intercultural dialogue can – and probably should – be linked to global challenges, as UNESCO (2022) claims that 89% of all current conflicts occur in countries where such dialogues are not prevalent. In order to “learn and share” on an individual level, interlocutors need to be curious, they must listen and ask questions, and they must be aware of power relations. They must be willing to leave their own comfort zone and to “open the door to the other” (Dervin & Jacobsson, 2022).

With this understanding, intercultural interaction is an everyday occurrence, and it can apply to diversity in general, whether it is a difference of political views, family backgrounds, or life situations. In this way, intercultural competence can be linked directly to democratic citizenship both locally and globally.