historically, on their predecessors, including World Fairs, Expos, mega sport events, before attention turns to the biennale, art exhibitions, and ‘Year of’ celebrations. Whatever their focus, arts and culture when showcased as part of ‘events’:
‘[p]rovide context and colour; a means to broaden and diversify audiences; and engage with the host communities. They offer the opportunity to place the UK [in this case] on an international stage, providing a global platform for our world-class cultural and creative talents. They contribute to civic society, national identity, local pride and, importantly, they add a sense of celebration and fun to the event.’ (Kings Cultural Institute, 2013:3)
2.0 World Fairs and Expos: Showcasing National Cultures In the late nineteenth century across Europe, the state intervened in the creation of new holidays, festivities and national symbols, designed to engage the public imagination and secure ‘popular resonance’ (Hobsbawn, 1983b: 264) for its activities. Official public ceremonies (e.g. Bastille Day) and events were important in legitimating state power, often celebrating the idea of the nation. Through hosting World Fairs, Expositions and, latterly mega sport events such as the Olympic Games (see below), the state showcased its progress, prosperity and political influence (Roche, 2001). Roche argues that these events had their origins in nineteenth century ‘invented traditions’ (Hobsbawn, 1983a), held in order to promote international public culture, cultural citizenship and supranational values. Historically, dominant institutions of the state and power elites determined the desired version of nationalism and public culture created and showcased by their events, such as World Fairs and Expositions. In the nineteenth century, these events were exhibitions displaying industrial, scientific and cultural items and represented opportunities for promotion of the merits of advanced, elite actors from ‘developed’ imperial powerhouses, as opposed to providing opportunities for people-to-people contact which underpins contemporary cultural relations practice. Britain’s Great Exhibition in 1851 (often known as the Crystal Palace Exhibition) attracted six million visitors and reflected an acceptance that exhibitions could allow Britain to showcase its industrial, scientific and cultural strengths to an international audience (Gold & Gold, 2005). Subsequent World Fairs (the American term), Expositions (European term) and Exhibitions (British term) build on the success of the Crystal Palace Exhibition and included new features such as exhibits from more countries, discrete ‘themed’ pavilions, a more significant artistic component and entertainment zones (Roche, 2001). US World Fairs were predominantly privately operated whereas their European variants were largely government-sponsored. To that extent, the European events
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