Defning (Mega) Events: A Review of Evidence
Print ISBN : 978-1-903978-80-1
Electronic : 978-1-903978-81-8
This report was written by Professor Gayle McPherson. It comprises an element of the work undertaken in response to a consultancy brief looking at integrated event planning for Edinburgh Festivals Peak Season.
Executive Summary
This evidence review looks at the ways in which larger scale public festivals and events might be defned, to inform consideration of what comparators might be relevant to the conceptualisation and development of the Edinburgh Festivals peak season, comprising six festivals in August.
Defnitions
• Approaching this task, the review traces the development of typographical approaches to large events, outlining understandings of hallmark, special and mega events in academic and policy literature.
• Ritchie (1984) proposed the defnition of ‘hallmark events’ as: ‘one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and proftability of a tourism destination. Others later proposed that ‘permanence and periodicity’ are a requirement as ‘one-time events cannot achieve all the pertinent goals’. Edinburgh Festivals represent a good example of a hallmark event because of the inseparability between event and the place that hosts it.
• Jago and Shaw (1998) demonstrate the challenges of establishing a designation for special events that encompasses all such happenings. There is signifcant crossover in the features defning events at diferent scales.1
• Müller describes mega events as ‘ambulatory occasions of a fxed duration that attract a large number of visitors, have a large-mediated reach, come with large costs and have large impacts on the built environment and the population’ (Müller, 215:638). His defnition allows fexibility within this framing through calibrations to accommodate major, mega and giga events. The defnition embraces both cultural and sporting occasions.
• Mobility (ambulatory-ness) is a key element of Müller’s approach, thus events which recur in the same location are not included. Such fxity is, however, accounted for in understandings of hallmark events. Thus, these events are distinguished from mega events by their association with a specifc place. As Getz et al., observe, ‘it is inconceivable that a hallmark event would be moved to another destination’ (Getz et al. 2012:58). Further, the embeddedness of hallmark events afords the potential to maximise benefts to local communities and institutions though processes of gradual accumulation (Getz et al. 2012:50).
Public Policy Focus
• There is an evident preference for mega events in some local and national strategy and policy (e.g., DCMS, 2017). The potential benefts of hosting larger scale events can be signifcant; they may accrue in areas such as soft power (e.g., Grix & Houlihan, 2014; also Welsh Government 2022; New Zealand Government, n.d. for recognition in policy/strategy) or inward investment (Jones & Lyon, 2022; Absalyamov, 2015). However, the benefts of large-scale events (particularly mega events) can be outweighed by signifcant challenges and downsides including restrictions, impositions and cost borne by the local population (e.g., Gogishvili, 2018; Smith & McGillivray, 2022; Humphreys & Prokopowicz, 2015).
1 See Table I for a brief summary of comparable features across a range of well-known events subdivided by type: e.g. Mega, Hallmark, Signature).
• A brief look at some of the defnitions/ approaches to defning large scale events in a number of policy contexts (e.g., Scotland, Wales, New Zealand, Australia) shows the range of approaches taken and suggests the advantages of a broader and more fexible approach to defning events at the strategic level. So doing, has benefts when it comes to thinking about how and why hosting an event will be benefcial and, for identifying the metrics and approaches to evidence these.
Indicators of Impacts
• How event impacts are measured is important to consider. Inclusion of indicators which evidence and evaluate the social and cultural impacts of such events is required. From a purely economic perspective, mega/very large events can be difcult to justify (e.g., Müller et al. 2022; Murray, 2023). However, drawing in cultural, social and other factors (e.g., Müller et al. 2022; Mair et al. 2023; Hell & McPherson, 2022; OECD, 2023) assists in providing a fuller, more nuanced picture of event outcomes, benefts and assists in identifying the mechanisms through which these have been achieved.
• Emphasis on the potential economic benefts of event hosting is somewhat fawed in that it does not sufciently account for social, cultural and other benefts that might be as - or more – signifcant and durable for the communities in which events are hosted than any fnancial gains.
• Foley, et al., (2009) also stress that a focus on distinctiveness might usefully be replaced by an emphasis on social and cultural legacy that outlasts the ephemeral economic boost of the mega-event.
In Conclusion
• The question of whether Edinburgh Festivals can be a mega-event if it is recurrent and in the same place each year with a signifcant economic impact continues to dominate the discussion. A key consideration should be the symbolic signifcance of the event, tied to Scotland’s brand identity, soft power strategy, public value to the city and country and ability to attract inward investment, tourism and international students. Scotland is able to sell all these, in part, on the attributes and success of the cultural and public value of Edinburgh Festivals.
• The implications of the foregoing for Edinburgh’s festivals relates, we conclude, to the way in which the festivals designate/ position themselves to refect their uniqueness, iconic status, and signifcance beyond the local and national realms. While the term mega event may be an imperfect ft, there are arguments to support bringing Edinburgh’s festivals into this space. The term Signature Event as introduced by EventScotland could be better activated and elevated in status, to give Edinburgh Festivals the opportunity to present themselves in a manner that recognises their national and international importance and impact. This is not clearly articulated beyond the Perfect Stage document (2015) and it is perhaps necessary for this term to be elevated in importance in the latest renewal of the national events strategy.
• Lastly, the table below summarises the event types by category of mega-events, hallmark events and signature events, with the metrics and reach so it is easily comparable for Edinburgh Festivals to see how they ft alongside other events of similar size and bigger.
Table 1: Event Types and Reach / Metrics Summary (lURLs on page 7 for each statistic below - referance number in brackets for each URL)
Mega events
1. https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14380212
2. https://olympics.com/ioc/news/tokyo-2020-organising-committee-publishes-fnal-bal anced-budget
3. https://olympics.com/ioc/news/olympic-games tokyo-2020-watched-by-more-than3-billion-people
4. https://www.svgeurope.org/blog/headlines/olympics-2021-the-host-broadcast-facts and-fgures-for tv-coverage-of the-worlds-biggest-athletics-show/
5. https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/57281128
6. https://olympics.com/ioc/news/spirit-of volunteering-continues-in-tokyo
7. https://olympics.com/ioc/news/tokyo-2020-organising-committee-publishes-fnal-bal anced-budget
8. https://olympics.com/ioc/overview
9. https://olympics.com/ioc/news/a-year-after the-games-a-new-life-begins-for tokyo2020-venues
10. https://www.uitp.org/news/how the-2020-olympics-mobilise-tokyo/
11. https://publications.ffa.com/en/annual-report-2022/fnances/2019-2022-cycle-in-re view/2019-2022-revenue/
12. https://publications.ffa.com/en/annual-report-2020/2020-fnancials-and-2022budget/2022-budget/
13. https://publications.ffa.com/en/annual-report-2022/tournaments-and-events/ffaworld-cup-quatar-2022/ffa-world-cup-qatar-2022-in-numbers/
14. https://www.forbes.com/sites/bradadgate/2022/11/14/the-2022-ffa-mens world-cupby the-numbers/
15. https://www.ffa.com/en/articles/match-schedule-en
16. https://www.ffa.com/en/volunteers/articles/volunteer-experience-world-cup-qatar-2022
17. https://www.globaldata.com/store/report/ffa-world-cup-business-analysis/
18. https://www.ffa.com/en/tournaments/mens/worldcup
19. https://inside.ffa.com/tournaments/mens/worldcup/qatar2022/news/legacy-in-ac tion-qatar-2022s-state-of the-art transport-systems
20 https://www.sportspromedia.com/stadiums-and-venues/2023-ffa-womens world-cupaustralia-new-zealand-ticket-sales-attendance-records/
21. https://publications.ffa.com/en/annual-report-2021/2021-fnancials-and-2023budget/2023-budget/
22. https://www.euromonitor.com/press/press-releases/july-20232/wom ens world-cup-2023-viewership-to-cross-2-billion-double-from-2019-euromonitor-in ternational
23. https://inside.ffa.com/tournaments/womens/womensworldcup/australia-new-zea land2023/media-releases/fnal-broadcast-deals-concluded-for the-ffa-womens world-cup-2023
24. https://www.ffa.com/en/articles/ffa-womens world-cup-australia-and-new-zealand2023-match-schedule-football-soccer
25. https://www.ffa.com/en/tournaments/womens/womensworldcup/australia-new-zea land2023/articles/ffa-unveils vibrant volunteer-uniform-for-ffa-womens world-cup-2023
26. https://time.com/6303306/womens world-cup-sponsorship-revenue/
27. https://inside.ffa.com/womens-football
28. https://www.friendsofootballnz.com/2023/07/22/going-to-a-game-at the-ffa-wom ens world-cup-here-are-some-tips-for-fans/
Table 1: Event Types and Reach / Metrics Summary (continued) (lURLs on page 9 for each statistic below - referance number in brackets for each URL)
Hallmark Events Glastonbury
Hallmark Events
1. https://www.bristolpost.co.uk/whats-on/music-nightlife/glastonbury-festi val-2023-how-resale-8347893
2. https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/the-price-of-glastonbury-festival/
3. https://www.recordoftheday.com/on-the-move/news-press/record-breaking-digi tal-audiences-for-glastonbury-2023-on-the-bbc
4. https://www.glastonburyfestivals.co.uk/information/media/broadcaster-inter net-and-flming-access-policy/
5. https://www.timeout.com/uk/news/heres-how to-legally-get-into-glastonbury with out-a-ticket-110922
6. https://www.theguardian.com/media/2002/jun/25/marketingandpr
7. https://www.okaybliss.net/glastonbury-owner/
8. https://www.glastonburyfestivals.co.uk/information/getting-here/
9. https://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/atoz/faq_and_facts and_fgures.html
10. https://variety.com/2023/tv/global/wimbledon-bbc-viewership-1235672039/
11. https://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/atoz/tv schedules.html
12. https://www.topendsports.com/events/tennis-grand-slam/wimbledon/events.htm
13. https://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/news/articles/2024-05-02/work_at wimbledon. html
14. https://www.ns-businesshub.com/business/wimbledon-2019-sponsors/
15. https://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/atoz/about aeltc.html
16. https://www.wimbledon.com/en_GB/atoz/getting_here.html
Festival ‘22
Film Festival ‘22
Andrews ‘22
1.0 Introduction
Events have long been part of our social and cultural landscapes on local, national and international stages (Roche, 2000; Hall, 2006; Jago et al., 2010; Foley, et al. 2012; Evans, 2019). In our current era of global media and digital networks, particular types of events have, arguably, emerged at the forefront of a crowded feld. For example, the Department of Culture, Media and Sport’s (DCMS) 2017 UK Mega Events Policy Framework lists the sporting mega events that have recently been successfully hosted in the UK, proposing that ‘[i]n an increasingly competitive bidding landscape, the UK’s competitive advantage lies in the quality and innovation of its product, and in the prestige, reputation and popularity of its events’ (DCMS, 2017).
Events have increasingly emerged as platforms for driving societal change and development. Notably, the value to be accrued from the staging of events – particularly those delivered on a larger scale – has often been viewed in relation to economic benefts (e.g., DCMS, 2022; Foley, et al. 2012; Al Jazeera, 2023); although Grix (nd.) has called these ‘notoriously difcult to measure’. More recently, scholars and stakeholders have both recognised, and begun to grapple with, the nuance and challenges in the feld. Among these, discussion of how we might seek to defne and diferentiate between events has developed considerably and, the (potential) challenges and drawbacks that can accompany the staging of a (mega) event have emerged has a signifcant vector of discovery. Additionally, the necessity to demonstrate wider public and cultural value along with the social impact from events has been recognised alongside the potential benefts of increasing focus on cultural events within the mega event space (e.g. Garcia, 2021. Also see: Chalip, 2006; OECD, 2023). Foley, et al., (2009) also stress that a focus on distinctiveness might usefully be replaced by an emphasis on social and cultural legacy that outlasts the ephemeral economic boost of the megaevent (Also see: Misener & Mason, 2009; Hell & McPherson, 2022).
This evidence review discusses the defnitions and roles of special, hallmark and mega events. It explores the benefts of defning events for policy and political purposes and, the measurement and evaluation approaches that are used to capture the impact, output and outcomes of events. Foremost international examples of dedicated event strategies that contribute to a country’s (or city’s) use of both cultural and sporting events as part of their soft power strategies and international development are highlighted. Host cities and governments often leverage mega events for soft power and external relations gains. This review highlights the potential signifcance of such approaches. The ways in which events function in urban regeneration and development are also explored. We conclude with a discussion on how this is useful for Edinburgh Festivals, specifcally the six festivals in August that comprise the peak season.
2.0 Methodology
This review focusses on academic and policy literature which examines some of the defnitions and impacts of (mega) events. To this end, literature searches using terms such as ‘mega events AND defnition,’ ‘mega events,’ ‘events AND mega events,’ ‘mega events AND sport’ ‘mega events AND culture,’ ‘events AND soft power’ and ‘arts AND mega events’ were conducted. The literature returned was then scrutinised for relevance and insight. In addition, the reference lists of the sources were also searched for germane material. Where available, events strategy documents detailing policies in other countries were also examined (e.g. Australia, New Zealand, England, Scotland, Wales). The following comprises a summary of the foremost thinking in the realms of (larger) event defnition, impacts, potentialities and, approaches to evaluation.
3.0 (Mega) Events Defnitions
Typologies for larger scale events have evolved over time. It is worth briefy reviewing the ways in which stakeholders have sought to categorise larger events. So doing demonstrates the signifcant cross over between diferent event types and scales, providing an opportunity to think about which designation is best suited to a given event and, perhaps to recognise that while useful, these designations are not the be all and end all (Jago & Shaw, 1998; Roche, 2000; Müller, 2015). Events may be mutable, changing in signifcance through time. Furthermore, it is perhaps more enlightening to view an event through the prism of (potential/desired) outputs, impacts and outcomes rather than as a listing of defning characteristics per se.
3.1 Hallmark Events
Ritchie (1984) proposed the delineation of certain, high-profle events created to increase the appeal of a specifc location as a visitor destination as ‘hallmark events.’ This author defnes such events as: ‘one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and proftability of a tourism destination in the short and / or long term’ (Ritchie, 1984:2). For Hallmark events the uniqueness of the event is a foremost part of its appeal alongside the event’s capacity to ‘focus national and international attention to the destination’ (Ritchie, 1984:2. Also see: Hall, 1989). Getz et al., (2012) ofer further clarifcation, arguing that, for hallmark events, the connection between the event and the host community are of crucial importance to the extent that ‘it is inconceivable that a hallmark event would be moved to another destination’ (Getz et al. 2012:58; also see: Jago & Shaw, 1998:29).
Further, they propose that ‘permanence and periodicity’ are a requirement as ‘one-time events cannot achieve all the pertinent goals’ (Getz et al. 2012:48/52). This is particularly the case as a foremost objective of such events should be the ‘economic gains associated with building the tourism industry and lessening the negative efects of seasonality of demand’ (Getz et al. 2012:58). Moreover, event repetition enables the gradual accumulation of both ‘awareness and reputation’ across and beyond the boundaries of the host community (Getz et al. 2012:50). Edinburgh Festivals represent a good example of a hallmark event because of the inseparability between event and the place that hosts it.
3.2 Special Events and Signature Events
In their attempt to develop a clear conceptual and defnitional framework for understanding special events, Jago and Shaw acknowledge that devising ‘a universal, standardised defnition […] or classifcation of which types of events are exceptional or special’ is not possible (Jago & Shaw, 1998:24). They recognise the tendency to confate event types prevalent in the literature at the time and, acknowledge the commonality of attributes across diferent event types and, the challenge of accounting for difering/ changing attitudes towards an event which may be considered ‘special’ when new but which over time may then come to be regarded as routine (Jago & Shaw, 1998:28).
The most signifcant special event attributes are identifed as follows:
1. Attracting tourists or tourism development.
2. Being of limited duration.
3. Being a one-of or infrequent occurrence.
4. Raising the awareness, image or profle of a region.
5. Attracting media attention.
6. Having a large economic impact.
7. Being out of the ordinary or unique.
In their analysis, these authors identify ‘only two attributes that were associated more frequently with events, special events, and festivals than they were with hallmark and megaevents, namely, “having a theme” and “involving a celebration”’ (Jago & Shaw, 1998:28). Some of these attributes above namely; points 3 and 6; are keys points for Edinburgh Festivals. The question of whether Edinburgh Festivals can be a mega-event if it is recurrent and in the same place each year and the economic impact continues to dominate the discussion. A key consideration should be the symbolic signifcance of the event, tied to Scotland’s brand identity, soft power strategy, public value to the city and country and ability to attract inward investment, tourism and international students. Scotland is able to sell all these, in part, on the attributes and success of the cultural value of Edinburgh Festivals.
In their Perfect Stage document (2015), EventScotland refer to some type of events that sit somewhere beyond the designation of hallmark or special events as, noting that ‘Scotland has a range of signature events which are so large and iconic that they form the heart of our strategy for retaining our status as a world leading international events destination. Events such as Edinburgh’s Festivals, our winter festivals, Celtic Connections and our strong portfolio of golf events, including our regular staging of the Open Championship, will form the backbone of our events portfolio. We will aim to further develop the portfolio of signature events by attracting further major scale events and by developing our own events to this level. In addition, there are annual events around the country which defne local and national identity and will be sustained and developed as part of this strategy.’
There is some evidence that during the Covid pandemic restrictions, Scottish Government used the Gateway process to protect some signature events to demonstrate that Scotland was still functioning as a host for world class events. The term ‘signature event’ could be useful for Edinburgh Festivals and could be better activated and elevated in status to demonstrate the reach and signifcance of Edinburgh Festivals at governmental level. In doing so the reporting and governance of the festivals might be better served by a new approach.
3.3 Mega Events
By confating their list of attributes which delineate a major event, comprising both hallmark and mega events in their analysis, Jago and Shaw demonstrate the challenge of achieving clarity in this area. Müller further emphasises this lack of consensus regarding which events are considered ‘mega’ in his own exploration of ‘what makes an event a mega event?’ His attempt to bring clarity to an area of considerable ambiguity is motivated by the benefts brought about by having common understanding that ‘makes it easier to talk about the same subject when talking about mega-events.’ It also allows space for understanding (and exploring) the notion that ‘what turns an event into a mega-event will vary depending on the focus.’ In Müller’s formulation, each event can be ‘mega’ in diferent ways therefore, the crucial question is not only whether an event is mega but, ‘how it is so’ (Müller, 2015:627-8). He formulates a ‘multi-dimensional, points-based classifcation of large events according to size, distinguishing between major events, mega events and the recently emerging class of gigaevents’ (Müller, 2015:627).
The dimensions utilised in the process Müller describes comprise: visitor attractiveness, mediated reach (as most viewers experience a mega event though a screen), cost, and transformative impact (Müller, 2015:630). The outlined process leads to the promulgation of a consolidated defnition of such events as ‘ambulatory occasions of a fxed duration that attract a large number of visitors, have a large-mediated reach, come with large costs and have large impacts on the built environment and the population’ (Müller, 215:638). Müller is clear that the defnition can apply to both sporting and non-sporting events but ‘it excludes recurring events in the same location’ (Müller, 215:638). No minimum size requirement is imposed; rather the embedded size classifcation allows distinction between major, mega and (currently rare) giga-events. The approach is argued to aford two benefts. First, there is recognition that ‘large events are multidimensional and do not just use one indicator for measuring their size, whether that is cost or visitor numbers. […] The scoring scheme requires events to be large across at least three of the four dimensions to become a mega-event.’ Secondly, the diferential size classes allow for change over time such that an event may meet the threshold to be considered as a mega event through one edition and, as a major event at the next (Müller, 2015:638-9).
Müller’s consolidated defnition refects the ground covered by Getz et al., who describe mega events as occasions that ‘by way of their size or signifcance, are those that yield extraordinarily high levels of tourism, media coverage, prestige, or economic impact for the host community, venue or organisation’ (Getz et al., 2012:50). The ‘scalability’ of Müller’s approach also goes some way to accounting for Getz et al.’s caution that ‘being large is not a function, it is a variable’ (Getz et al., 2012:50). Relatedly, these authors also observe that size and impact are not inherently connected, rather ‘a small music festival can have ‘mega’ impacts on a small town in terms of tourists, economic benefts or disruption’ (Getz et al. 2012:50).
4.0 (Mega) Events, Impacts, Pros & Cons as benefcial to Edinburgh Festivals
The preceding discussion outlines some of the thinking that has framed understandings of larger scale events, primarily from an academic perspective. It is apparent that a lack of clarity and overlapping areas of commonality present challenges for those attempting to pin down sizeable events typographically.
In some respects, it is arguably the case that size does matter but, the literature shows that it is more often the impacts and outcomes resulting from, and related to, staging/ hosting events of such magnitude that is of greater signifcance. As Wolfe et al., (2022) observe ‘events of such extraordinary size are not just [in this analysis] sports events. They are just as much, or even more, urban and economic events […] as well as leaving oversized infrastructures that must be adapted for efcient post-event use (Wolfe et al., 2022:2080).2 As Blanchard (former Information Director at IOC) in conversation with Garcia observes, ‘when we talk about mega-events, is not just about complexity, but to have at the same time, a geopolitical responsibility and also accountability for bridging local with universal concerns; bridging art, culture, sport all together.’ Blanchard contends that the presence of a governing body is a crucial part of ensuring that this process occurs (Garcia, 2023:2).
Several authors have refected on these eventualities across a range of mega events (e.g., Humphreys & Prokopwicz, 2007; Gogishvili, 2018; Absalyamov, 2015; Misener, McPherson, McGillivray and Legg, 2019; Smith & McGillivray, 2022). Their work gives insight into the wide ranging and broadly social/societal impacts that event hosting can have. While the justifcation of an event may often prioritise earning potential, this is not the sole vector worthy of consideration and neither is it unproblematic in, and of, itself (see, for example: Humphreys & Prokopowicz, 2007:2; also Gogishvili, 2018).
Smith and McGillivray (2022) discuss the longer-term consequences of mega event hosting on urban spaces, the staging of which has helped to ‘normalise the idea that public spaces are appropriate venues for commercial events.’ In his study of the efects of hosting the F1 Grand Prix in Baku, Azerbaijan, Gogishvili provides numerous examples of the ways in which public spaces were (temporarily or semi-permanently) closed of to locals to fulfl functions associated with the F1 race. In Scotland the UCI World Cycling Championships impacts were well documented and reached many cities and towns across Scotland through six years of local and national partnership investment. They managed to transform and upgrade some country roads for the road race and ensure benefts extended beyond the main cities; added mountain bike tracks to rural areas to encourage community biking post games to ensure they followed through on UCI World Cycling Championships equality, diversity and inclusion (EDI) strategy ensuring they minimised any negative press about road closures. Edinburgh Festivals face similar challenges from the old town residents with road closures over the summer months but the latest impact survey results from Edinburgh Festivals reveals that overall Edinburgh residents make up around 50% of the total audience and the contribution is positive. This may be related to the benefts of permanence and periodicity of repeated events as noted by Getz and others above.
2 See: Evans (2019) for examples and consequences/costs of the failure to think through the legacies for purpose-built infrastructure clearly enough.
4.1 Recognising the Potential of (Mega) Events: Regenerative Investment & Soft Power
While the above shows some of the downsides potentially associated with hosting large events which are a cost to the public purse (e.g., Jago et al. 2010; Gogishvili, 2018) that often involve restricting access to public space and generating profts for private entities, mega events do possess ‘enormous potential to underpin the sustainable development of destinations and to help develop an international tourism brand’ (Jago, et al. 2010:231). However, Jago et al., argue that this potential is rarely capitalised upon. From an urban renewal or improvement perspective, large scale events can reap signifcant benefts (see, for example: Absalyamov (2015) & Jones & Lyon, (2022) who note that, a ‘National Stadium for rugby was only built because [Wales] held the Rugby World Cup’).
While the fnancial input required to create the infrastructure needed to support a mega event is very signifcant, there are less immediately tangible reasons why this may be considered a worthwhile cost. Hosting a mega event can provide a valuable opportunity for a country or region to present and position itself on the national and international stage as part of a process of the exercise of soft power (see: Nye, 2008) and public diplomacy (see: Cull, 2008). Grix and Houlihan (2013) explore the difering ways in which Germany and UK sought to exploit the soft power potential of hosting the 2006 Football World Cup and 2012 Olympic Games respectively. Germany was able to successfully capitalise on a carefully thought-out strategy to improve perceptions of the country; part of their ‘World Cup Hosting Strategy’ and comprising a hugely successful ‘Welcome to Germany: Land of Ideas’ component ‘designed to improve the German national image by showcasing Germany and attracting tourism and foreign investment, was so successful that it continues to this day’ (Grix & Houlihan, 2013:581). The success of Germany’s approach was also demonstrated domestically in a reconfguration of national attitude which saw open demonstrations of German patriotism in support of their football team and, more widely, it was also refected in high visitor numbers to Germany and, 98% aggregate attendance across tournament matches, the global viewing audience topped 26bn. Furthermore, 20 million ‘joined in the party like celebrations around the unique public ‘Fan Fests’’ (Grix & Houlihan, 2013:580).
The Great Campaign designed for London 2012 was a branding exercise for the UK, led by the Foreign and Commonwealth Ofce (FCO) and sought to take the opportunity presented by the Olympic Games to promote a ‘refnement of the UK’s image’. While, this objective was achieved (with the widely viewed Opening Ceremony providing the ‘prime opportunity for the promotion of Brand GB’ (2013:588)), unlike Germany, for UK, as a country with a strong, established reputation/brand, ‘the benefts of a successfully delivered Games were likely to be modest but the damage that might be done by a Games which was considered to be unsuccessful was a far more serious concern’ (Grix & Houlihan, 2013:587).
Indeed, the Great Campaign has become an embedded, multi-faceted brand campaign that has persisted for over a decade.3 Similar patterns and opportunities are emerging across the Home Nations. Scotland has developed a Brand Scotland strategy as part of their events strategy, Wales has done something similar. Northern Ireland have chosen to focus on business events and the promotion of sport separately. It is, however, clear from a UK perspective that the brand identity of the nation has been important in attracting, flmmakers, artists, musicians, trade and international students to work, live, invest and study in the UK. The UK’s events strategic approach is clearly a vital tool for achievement of these aims.
3 See: https://greatcampaign.com/
5.0 Evaluating (Mega) Event impacts, outputs and outcomes
As discussed above, assessment of the value of events has typically been understood in economic terms (e.g., Mair et al. 2023:539; Smith et al. 2021; McGillivray & Turner, 2018) though Müller et al., caution that the cost beneft analyses that have been undertaken are rarely comprehensive and can be ‘impeded by lack of available and comparable data across space and time’ (Müller et al., 2022:437. Also see: Hall, 2006). Yet, increasingly, recent scholarship has illuminated the efects of events that are not confned to the economic realm (e.g., Gogishvili, 2018; Mair et al. 2023; Smith & McGillivray, 2022; Smith et al., 2021). Moreover, from a narrowly economic point of view, hosting a (mega) event can be difcult to justify (e.g., Jones & Lyons, 2022; Grix, nd.; Humphreys & Prokopowicz, 2007; Murray, 2023). The ways in which the value of events might be captured, understood and evaluated is the subject of increasing focus (e.g., Müller et al. 2022; Mair et al. 2023; Smith et al..2021; McPherson, et al., 2021; Hell & McPherson, 2022; OECD, 2023). This process is overdue, as Müller et al., point out the ‘predominance of anecdotal evidence [prevalent with regard to assessing broader impacts of (mega) events] has led to polarised emotional debates between opponents and supporters of mega events, each citing the evidence that suits them best’ (Müller et al., 2022:439). In their work, these authors present a database developed for systemising the evidence on mega event outcomes.
Comprising 10 categories4 subdivided into ‘116 quantitative and qualitative variables that addressed the overall goal of shedding light on particular aspects of a given mega event as well as being feasible for data collection’ (Müller et al., 2022:440). The framework is intended to further insight into mega events across event types and, as a useful tool for assessing ‘the performance of mega events as public policies’ (Müller et al., 2022:442. The variable book developed for this work is available to download).5
Mair et al. focus specifcally on the social impacts of mega events which, these authors contend have ‘remain[ed] elusive and highly contested due to their undetermined duration and relatively qualitative nature’ (Mair et al. 2023:539). Social impacts can be both positive and negative, encompassing elements such as increased social capital, civic pride and enhanced destination image alongside less favourable factors such as increased trafc noise, congestion and ‘potential disenfranchisement [of the local community] from the event planning process’ (Mair et al. 2023:539) Mair, et al., identify a range of social impact areas6 alongside the key measures through which these might most appropriately be captured and assessed. In addition, Centre for Cultural Value recently developed set of Evaluation Principles7 – creating an evaluation framework for the cultural sector – may also be of use.
4 These are: size, cost, venue impact, infrastructure impact, urban impact, economic impact, social impact, image impact, environmental impact, governance and complexity (Müller et al. 2022:440).
5 Link: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/fle.xhtml?fleId=4375084&version=1.1
6 These are: those with a Direct impact on residents [volunteering, education & skills; social cohesion, civic pride, social capital; inclusion & diversity; sport participation, infrastructure & health]. Impacts on the destination eco-system [business & government networks; destination branding; disaster preparedness; accessibility & accessible tourism], Mair et al. (2022, 542-6).
7 Link: https://www.culturalvalue.org.uk/our-work/evaluation/evaluation-principles/
In a study assessing the literature pertaining to the social value of community events, Smith et al. (2021) identify six key dimensions of event evaluation and measurement of foremost importance for providing stakeholders with genuine insight into ‘the diverse range of potential social impacts that events may cause or contribute to’ (Smith et al. 2021:23)8 alongside the suggested tools most suitable for the task.9 In their recent work, using Paisley based festivals and events as a case study, Hell and McPherson (2022) utilise a public value focussed analytical framework allied with economic factors such as willingness to pay. They argue that taking a public value approach ‘aids the understanding of festivals by assessing the efects of social change’ (Hell & McPherson, 2022:250) and creates a situation whereby ‘the study of [the] social values of events […] can be more easily compared to other policy areas’ (Hell & McPherson, 2022:253). Drawing upon data from interviews with event organisers and attendees alongside externally commissioned evaluation, insight into realms such as sense of community and local pride could be gained in addition to more traditional economic indicators such as increased spending and visitor numbers (Hell & McPherson, 2022:258-63).
Recently, the OECD have published a comprehensive guide to measuring the impact of events in which the authors emphasise that ‘all events will have economic, social and environmental impact whether they are measured on not.’ The approach to evaluation that is proposed underscores the necessity to consider that impacts can occur across the spectrum of the event, from inception to curtain down, that what is to be measured, how and why requires careful consideration, planning and resource allocation from the outset and, that with communities to be afected is a key to success (OECD, 2023:6).
The foregoing comprises a broad introduction to the approaches being developed to counter the focus on the economic impacts of (mega) events. It is evident that scholars and stakeholders have increasingly recognised and sought to address this imbalance to provide lenses though which the pros and cons of hosting (mega) events might be more easily identifed and understood. A process which, in turn, will assist event planners to both better counter the negative and, to enhance and build upon the positive impacts associated with hosting (larger) events.
8 These are: 1: Pride in place / civic pride / place attachment / place visibility; 2: Sense of community / belonging / identity / cohesion / togetherness/ connectivity / social capital / trust / inter-group relations; 3: Involvement and participation/ things to do/ chance to meet people/ capacity building; 4: Wellbeing / quality of life / standard of living / happiness; 5: Opportunities for learning and nurturing new skills / training /confdence /self-esteem / inspiration and attitude change; 6: Disruption to everyday life, anti-social behaviour, over stretched resources. These are also summarised and tabulated here: https://spiritof2012.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/2021.11.17-Social-Value-Final-Summary-Report.pdf
9 See: https://spiritof2012.org.uk/insights/social-value-of-community-events/. Although the focus here is on community event, the fndings can be broadly applied to larger event felds.
6.0 Strategies and Governance
The preceding discussion develops defnitions of (larger scale) events from a primarily academic perspective and, follows this process with a refection on some of the challenges associated with delivery of (particularly mega) events. The ways in which the impacts, outputs and outcomes of such undertakings might be captured and measured is then considered. Events, however, do not exist solely in a scholarly space. In this section, the ways in which events are considered in live policy and strategy is contemplated (with reference to frameworks developed and utilised nationally and internationally). We consider the formulations used favour certain event types and identify any implications these strategy approaches may have for achieving cultural value type outcomes.
In a policy setting, the British and Scottish governments draw upon elements of the frameworks outlined above, while also clearly acknowledging the lack of defnitional consensus in the event realm (DCMS, 2017; 2022). The DCMS’s UK Mega Event Policy Group (MEPG) is responsible for supporting bids for major events in the UK in reserved matters. The MEPG has adopted the following indicators for mega events (while noting that not all criteria are required to be met for mega-event status to be conferred):
• Event represents the pinnacle of the sport at World or European level.
• Event is itinerant (i.e., not considered as permanently resident in the UK)10
• Event is likely to have a staging cost in excess of £10m.
• Event is likely to attract in excess of 100,000 spectators.
• Event may require partial or full underwriting by the public sector.
• Event may require government guarantees.
• Event may entail signifcant delivery complexity.
The Scottish Government recognises these same criteria for their own National Event Strategy Review (2023).11 In other ways, the policy environments difer quite signifcantly. For example, The UK Government does not have a document ‘setting out the UK government’s strategic approach to hosting events,’ a position which contrasts with the approach taken by Scottish Government and industry, which is set out through the Scotland, the Perfect Stage12 work (DCMS, 2022:6). It is interesting to note the evident emphasis on hosting sporting events seen in the UK Mega Event Policy Framework (2017) which contrasts with the approach to developing such events that is evident elsewhere (e.g., Getz et al. 2012). While it is clear that the UK policy approach does not exclude non-sporting events from consideration as mega events (DCMS, 2022, Scottish Government), sport focussed events are much more prominently represented in discussions of mega events (DCMS, 2017). For example, while a recent DCMS Committee identifes both major sporting and cultural events as foci of government-led ambitions and, signifcant for Britain reputationally (DCMS, 2022), the same Committee’s 2017 Policy Framework includes exclusively sporting events in a list of successfully hosted events to date (DCMS, 2017). Furthermore, while accepting that ‘itinerance’ (ambulatory-ness) is part of what defnes a mega event, the Wimbledon Championships, the Open Golf Championships and the London Marathon are nevertheless designated as mega events, despite their immobility.13 All of this suggests that the defnitional frameworks available to policy stakeholders do not ft unproblematically with the types and categories of events they are tasked to deliver.
10 There are some obvious exemptions made in the framework presented, for example the Wimbledon Tennis Championships and The Open golf tournament ‘sometimes recognised as the crown jewels of the British major event hosting content which equally require a level of support and protection to ensure they remain within the UK and as leading events within the major event hosting landscape’ (DCMS, 2017). Their inclusion here is contrary to the defnitional requirement for ambulatory-ness.
11 https://tinyurl.com/f63a3j5m
12 https://www.visitscotland.org/events
13 See: BBC Sport (2023) for interesting potential development regarding the Open Championships.
Recently, the Welsh Government set out a new National Events Strategy, 2022-2030. The strategy clearly is ‘aimed at ensuring we expand the contribution that events already make to the seven goals of the Wellbeing of Future Generations (Wales) Act, 2015’. As such, although economic return and commercial success remain priorities; social, environmental and cultural wellbeing are also foregrounded. In contrast to the Scottish National Event Strategy, the Welsh equivalent does not specify what is meant by the term ‘mega-event’ instead, the Strategy is focussed on ‘what is good for Wales,’ the roles and contributions that a range of stakeholders and stakeholder groups can fulfl to bring the outlined strategic aims to fruition (Welsh Government, 2022). The emphasis on wellbeing and unique aspects of Welshness and Wales, articulated as ‘people, place and planet’, means that all event types and themes can contribute positively to the overall aims and objectives that the strategy outlines. That broader impacts are part of the overall strategic approach is demonstrated by the desire to align research and evaluation outputs with other key strategic priorities; Priorities for the Visitor Economy 2020-2025, The international strategy and the Public Diplomacy and Soft Power 2020-2025 Action plan (Welsh Government, 2022:20).
Meanwhile, the New Zealand Government has developed a Major Events Strategy which clearly focusses stakeholder attention on ‘events that generate signifcant immediate and long-term benefts and align with wider government objectives through leverage and legacy opportunities,’ reaping benefts in economic, social and cultural realms (New Zealand Government, n.d.:3). The strategy relates a clear set of defning characteristics for a major event.14 These broad-based traits do not make claims regarding size (though some are implied; major events are diagrammatically represented at a step above regional and, below mega, events), thematic area, repeatability or location. Rather, the emphasis is evidently upon the potential benefts that (larger) events might generate. Desirable impacts are identifed in terms of tourism revenue, business and employment opportunity and, event sector enhancement alongside, opportunities for New Zealand brand promotion, increased national identity and pride and, increased participation in sport, culture and arts (New Zealand Government, n.d.). At a more local level, Aukland’s Major Event Strategy 2018-2025 utilises a slightly diferent defnition of a major event as one bringing ‘signifcant benefts from outside Auckland. These can be one-of, repeating or belonging to Auckland’ (Aukland Major Events Team, 2018). Broadly, the recognised/desired potential benefts of event hosting remain similar though there is specifc emphasis on potential community benefts in terms of liveability (community enhancement) and volunteering (skills and experience development) opportunities (Aukland Major Events Team, 2018).
Across the Tasman Sea, this focus on community scale benefts is also identifable in the Australian Capital Territory’s (ACT) Major Event’s Strategy which is intended to support the ACT government’s strategic priorities by ‘growing the visitor economy, creating social and community benefts through enhanced liveability and social inclusion, ensuring positive legacies for the city through urban renewal and better transport, continuing to support a healthy and active community’ (ACT Government, n.d.:9).
These brief examples from other policy contexts show that in terms of thinking how the notion of an event translates into strategy and practical, achievable outcomes a more fexible or broad-based defnitional approach can be helpful. This assists in recognising how events strategy fts with other policy priorities (e.g., the Welsh Government’s alignment of events’ and wellbeing). The clear yet broadly calibrated signposts utilised by New Zealand’s Government arguably make it a simpler task for organisers of events of any stripe to identify where they beneft New Zealand’s citizens (locally/ nationally) without worrying unduly about metrics focussed on size, instead prioritising social, cultural and community outcomes using (in the Welsh case) the lens of wellbeing. (The ways in which one might seek to capture appropriate data to demonstrate outcomes and outputs are discussed in Section 5.0).
14 Generates signifcant economic, social and cultural benefts to New Zealand, Attracts international participants and spectators, has a national profle outside the region in which it’s being held, Generates signifcant international media coverage in markets of interest (New Zealand Government, n,d.).
7.0 Edinburgh Festivals
The foregoing briefy outlines evidence related to the typographical categorisation of larger scale events. Further, it provides a broad-brush outline of debates regarding the ways in which such events are seen to beneft and impede the localities (communities) within which they are hosted.
While (mega) events undoubtedly have the capacity to awe and impress, they can also be the cause of signifcant disruption, resulting in changes in physical and policy landscapes. Designation as a ‘mega’ event may well translate into (media) profle and fnancial investments/sponsorship but, such arrangements can be accompanied by a wide array of onerous policy, legislative and infrastructural obligations (e.g., Humphreys & Prokopowicz, 2007; Gogishvili, 2018). While relying upon many of the same categorisations as a ‘mega event,’ hallmark events are, while potentially signifcant in size, also characterised by their essential link to the location/community in which they take place (e.g., Getz et al. 2012) and Edinburgh Festivals have managed to achieve that trend as revealed above with local residents amounting to 50% of the total audience fgures. While their repetitious staging does nothing to attenuate the risk of bringing disruption to the hosting community per se, it does ofer the opportunity to continuously learn from and adapt to local circumstances and, to build upon and accumulate both social and infrastructural benefts (gains) over time (e.g. Getz et al. 2012). The use of the term signature events as introduced by EventScotland above, maybe be a comfortable middle ground for Edinburgh Festivals, showcasing the iconic nature of the importance but also recognising the national and international signifcance to Scotland. Thus, potentially avoiding any of the negative connotations that the term megaevent brings with it.
7.1 Edinburgh Festivals as a Cultural Mega Event or a Signature Event
Due to their size, scale and reputation the six Edinburgh Festivals that comprise the peak season in August certainly meet some of the criteria for consideration as a mega event. Attachment to a specifc place or locality, the absence of ambulatory-ness and the absence of the necessity to bid/compete for hosting rights15 would however position the Edinburgh Festivals as hallmark events or a signature event as they are currently demarcated by Scottish Government. This is a signifcant consideration as Edinburgh Festivals are indelibly linked to their host city. While the potential benefts of demarcation as a mega event are clear (chiefy: branding, soft power, profle. See: Section 4.1), staging such events often has other impacts, outputs and outcomes that are potentially equally signifcant but negative in character (e.g., altering civic space temporarily or permanently, restricting local access. See: Section 4.0). Further, it is notable that unlike most ‘mega’ events, Edinburgh Festivals do not ft within a clear framework of ownership (e.g., FIFA for football, IOC for the Olympic Games, EcoC for Cities of Culture etc). A clear potential beneft of a ‘hallmark’ approach is the recurring opportunity to revise, review and evolve events to take account of community feedback on the benefts and drawbacks of hosting the event or festival (see Getz at al., 2012). However, as we can see Edinburgh Festivals are more than just a community event, they are of national and international signifcance, thus Scottish Government refers to them as one of their signature events. However, this is not clearly articulated beyond the Perfect Stage document (2015) and it is perhaps necessary for this term to be elevated in importance in the latest renewal of the national events strategy. While designation as a hallmark event places Edinburgh Festivals in the same bracket as, for example, Glastonbury, the dynamism, variety and duration of the collective Festivals clearly exceeds that of the renowned music festival. On the one hand, the above cited examples from Wales, Australia and New Zealand (see: Section 6.0) demonstrate that it is possible to develop a strategic framework prioritising large scale events – and aligning these with the foremost benefts of so doing – in ways that do not rely primarily or solely on a conventional reading of the mega, major, hallmark event hierarchy. Instead, these frameworks use more fexible approaches to foreground and prioritise that which is benefcial to them in their given context. In this way, the New Zealand Government provides a broad ranging major events framing, and the Welsh Government situates their strategy with reference to a wider pursuit of a wellbeing agenda (see Section 6.0). It is also noteworthy that, in a recently published guide focussing on the practical challenges associated with attempting to measure signifcant vectors appropriately, the OECD discuss capturing the impacts of ‘global events,’ identifed as ‘events of a limited duration that have a global reach (in terms of participation, audience and/or media coverage), require signifcant public investment and have an impact on the population and built environment’ (OECD, 2023:15). Their defnition allows fexibility in relation to location, venue(s) and timeframe and also encompasses sporting, cultural and business type events that may also beneft Edinburgh Festivals purpose.
As a suite of very signifcant cultural events, with national and international profles, attractiveness, and, an undoubted contribution made to Scotland’s soft power and public diplomacy profle, the Edinburgh Festivals can make a robust claim for inclusion in the governmentally defned mega event rubric should they wish to go there.16
15 Although it is necessary to apply to the Local Authority and the State for funding annually
16 Table I
For example, in Table 1 we can see that Edinburgh Festivals sell close to the same amount as the FIFA men’s World Cup, 2022 yet they are not on the same scale as the FIFA mega event in attracting sponsorship, media reach etc. Across their range, the Edinburgh Festivals encourage great numbers of visitors to both the city (and the wider Edinburgh region), making a vital contribution to how Edinburgh and Scotland are perceived locally, nationally and internationally (see: Section 4.1). There is also potential to recognise these events as occupying an important position between a mega and a hallmark event, possibly elevating the term signature events particularly as the indissoluble place association of the Edinburgh Festivals must be considered as one of their foremost characteristics. Additionally, the relationship with place (and, therefore, community) provides opportunities to work with host localities to mitigate some of the more deleterious efects of hosting large events. At the very least, Edinburgh Festivals demonstrate that there must be space and support for cultural events within strategic thinking on large/ mega event policy and planning especially when they demonstrate such signifcant impact, outputs and outcomes and should be appropriately supported at governmental level.
Edinburgh Festivals can justifably conceive of themselves as achieving the threshold for consideration as a cultural mega event. So doing, however, must not disregard the attendant challenges which can accompany such a designation, or, that alternative designations such as the signature event status may better serve the Edinburgh Festivals unique blend of scale, impact, values and place-ness.
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