Insights in Sports Social Science

Insights in Sports social science

Edited by Hans Westerbeek, Gayle McPherson and Jess C. Dixon

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ISSN 1664-8714

ISBN 978-2-8325-2672-9

DOI 10.3389/978-2-8325-2672-9

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Insights in sports social science

Topic editors

Hans Westerbeek — Victoria University, Australia

Gayle McPherson — University of the West of Scotland, United Kingdom

Jess C. Dixon — University of Windsor, Canada

Citation

Westerbeek, H., McPherson, G., Dixon, J. C., eds. (2023). Insights in sports social science. Lausanne: Frontiers Media SA. doi: 10.3389/978-2-8325-2672-9

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68 “It's My Country I'm Playing for”—A Biographical Study on National Identity Development of Youth Elite Football Players With Migrant Background Klaus Seiberth, Ansgar Thiel and Jannika M. John

84 Portugal nautical stations: Strategic alliances for sport tourism and environmental sustainability

Elsa Pereira, Rute Martins, João Filipe Marques, Adão Flores, Vahid Aghdash and Margarida Mascarenhas

97 Building bridges: Connecting sport marketing and critical social science research

Zachary Charles Taylor Evans, Sarah Gee and Terry Eddy

102 Alone in the wilderness—Cultural perspectives to the participants' motives and values from participating in a danish reality TV-show

Søren Andkjær and Astrid Ishøi

EDITEDANDREVIEWEDBY

JoergKoenigstorfer, TechnicalUniversityofMunich,Germany

*CORRESPONDENCE

HansWesterbeek hans.westerbeek@vu.edu.au

RECEIVED 09May2023

ACCEPTED 11May2023

PUBLISHED 26May2023

CITATION

WesterbeekH,McPhersonGandDixonJC (2023)Editorial:Insightsinsportssocial science.

Front.SportsAct.Living5:1219674. doi:10.3389/fspor.2023.1219674

COPYRIGHT

©2023Westerbeek,McPhersonandDixon. Thisisanopen-accessarticledistributedunder thetermsofthe CreativeCommonsAttribution License(CCBY).Theuse,distributionor reproductioninotherforumsispermitted, providedtheoriginalauthor(s)andthe copyrightowner(s)arecreditedandthatthe originalpublicationinthisjournaliscited,in accordancewithacceptedacademicpractice. Nouse,distributionorreproductionis permittedwhichdoesnotcomplywiththese terms.

Editorial:Insightsinsportssocial science

HansWesterbeek1*,GayleMcPherson2 andJessC.Dixon3

1InstituteforHealthandSport,VictoriaUniversity,Melbourne,VI,Australia, 2SchoolofBusinessand CreativeIndustries,UniversityoftheWestofScotland,Paisley,UnitedKingdom, 3FacultyofHuman Kinetics,UniversityofWindsor,Windsor,ON,Canada

KEYWORDS

sportbusinessinsights,socialscience,innovation,future,sportmanagementand marketing

EditorialontheResearchTopic

Insightsinsportssocialscience

Wearenowenteringthethirddecadeofthe21stCentury,and,especiallyinthelastyears, theachievementsmadebynaturalandsocialscientistshavebeenexceptional,leadingto majoradvancementsinthefast-growing fieldofSportsandActiveLiving.Thiscollection ofarticlesispartofaseriesofResearchTopicsacrossthe fieldofSportsandActive Living.Thismulti-disciplinary,editorialinitiativeisfocusedonnewinsights,novel developments,currentchallenges,latestdiscoveries,recentadvances,andfuture perspectivesinthe fieldofsportssocialscience.ThegoalofthisspecialeditionResearch Topicwastoshedlightontheprogressmadeinthepastdecadeinthesportsocial science field,andonitsfuturechallengestoprovideathoroughoverviewofthe field. ThisarticlecollectionthathascontributionsfromCanada,throughoutEurope,UK,USA andSouthAfricawillinspire,informandprovidedirectionandguidancetoresearchers inthe field.Thiscollectionconsidersthe findingsfrom11researchteamsthatfroma varietyofperspectiveshaveidentifiedcurrentchallengesinseveralsub-disciplines,and whohaveapplieddifferentmethodologiestoaddressthosechallenges.Thedifferent viewpointsarereflectedinthetypesofarticlesthatwereincludedintheResearchTopic, includingarticlescontainingoriginalresearch,perspectives,abriefresearchreport,a conceptualanalysis,andasystematicreview.Whatfollowsisabriefoutlineofthevarious projects.

TestaconductedastudyintoextremismintheBosniaandHerzegovina(BiH)football terraces,focusingonriskfactorsthatgovernthe “entry” ofBiHyouthintoextremehardcorefootballfansgroupsandprolongtheirinvolvementinthem.Thestudyprovided recommendationsforBiHpolicymakers,securityagencies,andfootballfederationsand clubstounderstandandeffectivelyrespondtothisthreatforpublicsecurityinBiH.

PartlyinresponsetotheglobalCovid-19pandemic, Weeseetal. proposed transformativechangesinwhatsportmanagementacademiciansteach,howtheyteach, andwheretheyteach,tofacilitateworkingin flexibleenvironmentsandacrossareas. Sportmanagementprofessorsareofferedsuggestionstohelpthemseizetheopportunities arisingfromthechangingsportslandscapeandemergingentrepreneurialventures.

InapaperfocusingonparticipantsintheDanishversionofthe realityTV-showAloneintheWilderness(AIW),Andkjaerand Ishoiexploredtheirmotives,values,andexperiencesofbeing partoftheshow.Thestudyusedahermeneuticapproach,and theanalysiswasbasedona6-phasedthematicanalysis.The findingssuggestthatthemotivesandvaluesoftheparticipants reflectideasthatmayberelatedtothesoloexperienceandthe Nordictraditionoffriluftsliv(simplelifeintheoutdoors).The studypresentsnewempiricallybasedknowledgeonthemotives, values,andexperiencesofpeopleparticipatinginAIWandhow thesecanbeunderstoodaspartofoutdooreducationand recreationandasaculturalphenomenoninlatemodernsociety.

IntheUSA,theNationalFootballLeague(NFL)anditsteams facechallengeswithdiversity,equity,andinclusion(DEI).Intheir perspectivepiece,DeMartiniandButlerinvestigatedNFLteams’ utilizationoforganisationemployeesdedicatedtoDEI,utilizinga contentanalysisofpubliclyavailabledata.Their findings concludethatNFLteamslagbehindotherAmericanbusinesses intheiradoptionofChiefDiversityOfficer(CDO)roles.Only 31.25%ofNFLteamshadadedicatedDEIstaffperson.Three additionalteamshostdiversitycouncilsutilizingemployeeswith otherjobresponsibilities.Thestudysuggeststhattoaddress thesechallengesandmoveforward,NFLteamsshouldcreate CDOroleswithappropriatereportingrelationships,well-crafted positionresponsibilities,generousresources,andqualifiedand experiencedemployees.

Seibethetal. exploredstoriesofnationalidentitydevelopment fromtheperspectiveofyouthfootballplayerswithTurkish backgroundinGermanyouthelitefootball.Thestudyused10 expertinterviewsandbiographicalmappingstoidentifyspecific types,strands,andtrajectoriesofnationalidentitydevelopment. The findingsillustratethreetypesofnarrativesonnational identitydevelopment: “goingwiththenomination(s),” “reconsideringnationalbelonging,” and “addingupchances.” Thestudyconcludesthatnationalidentitydevelopmentinyouth elitesportisacomplexprocess.

Inapaperthataskedthequestionofhowarena-anchored urbandevelopmentprojects fitintoalocalcity’stourism economy, Barryetal. positionedprofessionalsportsteamsasthe anchortenantsofsportfacilitiestogeneratedevelopmentinthe city.Thestudydrawsdatafromtwocities,Columbus,Ohio,and Detroit,Michigan,usinginterviewswithleadersandcontent analysis.Theirresultsindicatethatgrowingthevisitoreconomy througharenaanchoredurbandevelopmentreliesonplanned placemaking via thestrategicapproachofbundlingdiverse amenitiestogether.These findingsprovidevaluablefeedbackto thosecitiesconsideringarenadevelopmentprojects,andhowthe arenasmaybecombinedwithothercivicamenitiestoundergird thelocalvisitoreconomy.

Intheirconceptualanalysis,ZhengandMasonarguedthatthe emergenceandproliferationofnewmediatechnologieshave drasticallychangedthemedialandscape.Thishascreateda muchmorecomplicatedcross-mediaenvironmentthatunites popularityandpersonalization,structureandagency.This

changingenvironmentcreatesindustrytransformations,and adaptingtothesetransformationswillleadtotheacceleratedand ongoingevolutionoftheprofessionalsportindustryandits successinthedigitalmediaage.

Emergingeconomiesareincreasinglyhostinglarge-scaleand megasporteventsastheyareviewedaskeyfactorsinlocaland nationaldevelopmentstrategies.KnottandTinazarguedthata varietyoflegacieshavepredominatedtheliteratureoverthepast twodecades.However,itisproposedthatthereisadifferencein thetypesoflegaciesanticipatedorrealisedwithinemerging economies.Therefore,thissystematicreviewaimedtodetermine thetypesoflegaciesanticipatedorrealisedbyemerging economiesasaresultofhostingsportevents,andtodetermineif thesedifferfromthoseofmoreeconomicallydevelopednations. Thestudyconfirmslegacyasagrowingbodyofknowledgein emerging nations, aligned withincreasingeventhosting.A conceptualisationofkeylegacyareasforemergingnationsis proposed,includingsocialdevelopment;politics,soft-powerand sport-for-peace;theeconomicsoftourism,imageandbranding; infrastructureandurbandevelopment;andsportdevelopment.

Theenvironmentalimpactsofshadowstadia,whicharethe facilitiesleftbehindafternewstadiumdevelopment,arenotfully understood.Limitedresearchexistsonhowtheimmediate neighbourhoodanchoredbypre-existingvenuescopeinthe shadowsofthesenewdevelopmentplansandthelossofasport venueanditsevents.Intheirperspectivearticle, Barryetal. discusscurrentadvancesintheacademicliteratureonthe circulareconomy.Theypresentacomprehensivecategorisation ofshadowstadiagloballyandfutureopportunitiesonintegrating circularityintobestpractices.Bydoingso,thisperspectivearticle highlightsseveralareasoffutureinvestigationthatshouldbe consideredandplannedforwhenmajorleaguesportsteamsand cityleadersmovetheirteamandbuildnewfacilities.

Sportmarketingresearchhasmuchtogainfromengagingwith criticalsocialscienceassumptions,worldviews,andperspectivesto examinecomplexissuesinsport. Evansetal. arguedthat, historically,sportmarketingresearchhasadaptedtraditional researchapproachesfromtheparentmarketingdisciplineto sport.Thispaperofferstworesearchpropositions,each accompaniedbyfouractionalrecommendations,toadvancethe fieldofsportmarketinginmeaningfulandimpactfulways.The paperemploysaparticularfocusonthemarketingcampaigns thatactivateandpromotecorporatepartnershipsinsportto framethetwopropositions,whichdiscussconsumerculture theoryandthecircuitofcultureastwoimportantframeworks thatbeginbuildingbridgesbetweencriticalsocialscienceand sportmarketingresearch.

Inthe finalarticleoftheResearchTopic, Pereiraetal. discussed theimportanceofnauticaltourismasapotentialproductto promoteanddeveloptouristdestinationsinEurope.Thestudy focusesonanalysingthestrategicalliancesestablishedbynautical stationsinPortugalforthedevelopmentofnauticaltourism products,includingtheirstrategicgoalsandsustainable environmentalpractices.Acontentanalysisof17Portuguese

nauticalstations’ applicationformscollectedbetweenSeptember andDecember2021showedthatstrategicalliancesbetween nauticalstationshadmultiplestrategicobjectives,including structuringthetourismoffer,increasinggovernance,and promotingandmarketingnauticaltourism.Thestudyconcluded thatfuturescientificresearchisneededtooperationalizethe objectivesunderlyingtheformationofstrategicalliancesandthe environmentalpracticesdevelopedbynauticalstations.

Authorcontributions

Allauthorslistedhavemadeasubstantial,direct,and intellectualcontributiontotheworkandapproveditfor publication.

Conflictofinterest

Theauthorsdeclarethattheresearchwasconductedinthe absenceofanycommercialor financialrelationshipsthatcould beconstruedasapotentialconflictofinterest.

Publisher’snote

Allclaimsexpressedinthisarticlearesolelythoseofthe authorsanddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseoftheiraffiliated organizations,orthoseofthepublisher,theeditorsandthe reviewers.Anyproductthatmaybeevaluatedinthisarticle,or claimthatmaybemadebyitsmanufacturer,isnotguaranteed orendorsedbythepublisher.

Editedby: HansWesterbeek,

VictoriaUniversity,Australia

Reviewedby: JerónimoGarcía-Fernández, SevillaUniversity,Spain

*Correspondence: W.JamesWeese jweese1@uwo.ca

Specialtysection: Thisarticlewassubmittedto SportsManagement,Marketingand Business, asectionofthejournal FrontiersinSportsandActiveLiving

Received: 11November2021

Accepted: 31January2022

Published: 10March2022

Citation:

WeeseWJ,El-KhouryM,BrownG andWeeseWZ(2022)TheFutureIs Now:PreparingSportManagement GraduatesinTimesofDisruptionand Change. Front.SportsAct.Living4:813504. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.813504

TheFutureIsNow:PreparingSport ManagementGraduatesinTimesof DisruptionandChange

COVID-19disruptedtheworld,andtheimpactshavebeenexperiencedinmany areas,includingsportandhighereducation.Sportmanagementacademiciansneed toreflectonthepasttwoyears’experience,determinewhatworkedandwhatdid notwork,andavoidthetemptationofautomaticallyreturningtopastpractices.The authorsofthismanuscriptappliedthedisruptionliteratureandproposetransformative changesinwhatsportmanagementacademiciansteach(e.g.,greateremphasison innovation,entrepreneurship,automation,criticalthinkingskillstofacilitateworking inflexibleenvironmentsandacrossareas),howcolleaguesteach(e.g.,heightened integrationoftechnology,blendedlearningmodels)andwherecolleaguesteach (on-campusanddistaldeliverymodes,asynchronousandsynchronousdeliveryto studentsoncampusandacrossregions/countries).Examplesofstart-upcompaniesand entrepreneurialventuresareofferedtohelpillustratethechangingsportslandscapeand theemergingopportunitiesforcurrentandfuturestudents,graduates,andprofessors. Sportmanagementprofessorsareofferedsomesuggestionstoassisttheminseizing thisopportunity.

Keywords:disruption,highereducation,sportmanagement,preparation,COVID-19

INTRODUCTION

ThelateHarvardprofessorClaytonChristensenintroducedtheconceptof“disruptive innovation”tothebusinessliteraturebydescribinghownimbleandfuture-orientedorganizations didthingsdifferently,andindoingso,effectivelydifferentiatedthemselvesfromtheir competitors.Theseorganizationsaccuratelyforecastedtrends,preciselydeterminedemerging consumerwantsandneeds,andeffectivelydeliveredneworadaptedprogramsandservices thatheightenedtheircompetitiveadvantageandincreasedtheirmarketshare(Christensen andEyring, 2011;Christensenetal.,2011).Lessagileorganizationsledbyleaderswho refused toembracestrategicchangewerenegativelyimpactedandputoutofbusiness insomecases.Historyhasprovidedcountlessexamplesofcompaniesandindustriesthat havefollowedthiscourse. Estrin(2015) chronicledoneofthemostpoignantexamples of a companynotpayingattentiontothechangingtimesintheexampleofKodak.

W.JamesWeese 1*,MichaelEl-Khoury 1,GrahamBrown 2 andW.ZacharyWeese 1 1 SchoolofKinesiology,WesternUniversity,London,ON,Canada, 2 CatapultCareerAdvantage,UniversityofWindsor, Windsor,ON,Canada

Thiscompanywasoncetheindustryleaderinthefieldof photography.Accordingto Estrin(2015),SteveSasson,ayoung engineer, pitchedthefuturisticideaofthedigitalcamerato thefirmin1975.Leaderssummarilydismissedtheideaand quicklypointedtoKodak’sleadershippositioninthefilmand imagereproductionareas.Unfortunately,theymissedthebigger picture,andwhenFujiandNikondevelopedtheirdigitalcamera 10yearslater,Kodakpaidtheprice.Fiveyearsafterthislaunch, Kodakwasoutofbusiness(Estrin,2015).

Other examplesofindustriesbeingdisruptedcanbeobserved inhowNiketrumpetedReebokintheathleticappareland footwearfieldsorhowNetflixtransformedthevideorental businesswithelectronicdeliverythatquicklyputBlockbusterout ofbusiness.ThinkoftheimpactthatbothUberandAirbnbhave hadontheride-sharingandhotelindustries.Organizationsmust anticipatechangesintheirindustryandadapttheirstrategies andpractices.Failuretodosoputsthematriskofbeingleft behind.COVID-19hasacceleratedtheneedforindustriesand theirpracticestoadapt(HuberandSneader,2021).

Industryleadersmustalsoembracetechnological advancements.Despitetheirrecententriesintothemarketplace, organizationsthathaveembracedinnovationandtechnology haveredefinedtheirindustriesandarethriving(e.g.,Amazon, Shopify,Google,Uber,Airbnb,SkiptheDishes). Huberand Sneader (2021) suggestedthatsomeofthepracticesforced onprovidersandconsumersduringCOVID-19willremain longafterthepandemicsubsides.Theyofferedexampleslike telehealth,e-commerce,andheighteneduseofautomationas examplesofthechangesnecessitatedbythepandemic,butlikely tobecomestandardpractice.

Furthermore,thestart-up/venturecapitalistculturehas riseninthe21stcenturyandhasdisruptedmanymarkets (Christensen,2003).Astart-upcompanyisdefinedasa newlyfounded organizationorentrepreneurialventure inthebeginningphasesofdevelopment(Cannoneand Ughetto, 2014).Theseorganizationsarenimble,meeta need, andareadaptable(Robehmed,2013).Accordingto Lee(2016),theyhaveadifferentorganizationalculture than traditionalorganizations.Theyrequireless“bricks andmortar”infrastructureandrelymoreonspacesthat facilitateideageneration,heightenedsynergy,andtechnology interfacesforremotecollaborations(Lee,2016).These characteristicsappealtomanyrecentgraduatesseekingan appropriateblendofchallengeandfreedomintheirwork experiences(Gabrielson,2019).Giventhedisruptiveforces impacting sport,theymayprovetobeagrowthareaforsport managementgraduates.

DISRUPTIVEIMPACTSONSPORT

Significantchangesaretakingplaceinhowsocietyengages insportasparticipantsandspectators.Attendanceatsome professionalsportingeventshasbeenindeclineinmanymarkets overthepastdecade(Stebbins,2017;Damgaard,2018;Suneson, 2019), andittypicallycomprisedofolderfans(Bryne,2020). COVID-19significantlyalteredattendancepatterns,andassome

suggest,permanently(Ratten,2020;Wilson,2021).Manysports leagueswereshutdown,andotherswererequiredtooperate withlimitednumbersofspectators.Outofnecessity,fanswere forcedtoconsumesportthroughtelevisionandsocialmedia vehicles(GoldmanandHedlund,2020;HullandRomney,2020). Mastromartinoetal.(2020) suggestedthatbroadcastingand socialmedia advancementshaveenrichedandtransformedthe fanexperience.Willfansreturntotheirpreviouswaysof physicallyattendinggamesoncethepandemicsubsides?Some (Mastromartinoetal.,2020;Ratten,2020;Wilson,2021)suggest that manywillnot.

Giventheconsumptionpatternshiftsandtheeconomic consequencesofCOVID-19,itisreasonabletoassumethat thetraditionalsizeofthesportsorganizationsthatpreviously employedourgraduateswillbesmaller,andthoseworking intheseorganizationsmightberequiredtodomorewith less.Somegraduatesmayneedtoassumeneworexpanded roles.Currentandfuturegraduateswillneedtobecritical thinkers,flexible,adaptable,andconfidentworkingacross disciplinaryareas.Somemaywishtostrikeoutontheir ownandusetheirentrepreneurialbackgroundstocreate theirownemployment(Escamilla-Fajardoetal.,2020).Some mayfind employmentinalternativesettingslikestart-up companies.Theserealitiespointtotheundeniablefactthat sportmanagementstudentswillneedanewkindofeducation— onethatpreparesthemtobehighlyadaptable,innovative,and progressive.Theywillneedtobeentrepreneurial.Theywill needtounderstandautomation(Johnson,2020)andtheimpacts that technologicaladvancementshaveonourfield,andtheir employmentprospects.

THESPORTANDTECHNOLOGY CONNECTION

Technologyandsporthavebecomeincreasinglydependent oneachotherduringtheCOVID-19period.Theauthors ofthismanuscriptandothers(e.g., Readwrite.,2018;Pizzo etal., 2018;Proman,2019; Reitmanetal.,2019; Finch etal., 2020)predictthattechnologywillexponentiallyincrease inthecomingyearscreateboundlessopportunitiesfor progressiveleadersinsportmanagement.Thisscenariomay beespeciallytrueforthosewhoembracestart-upindustries insport(e.g.,esport),whichwillusetechnologytokeep fixedcostslowandpenetrateemergingmarkets(Finchetal., 2020).

Thestart-upcompanyconceptoriginatedintheSilicon Valleyinthe1980s(LarsenandRogers,1984).According to Fontinelle(2020),start-upcompaniesemergedto develop anddeliveruniqueproductsorservicesthatcould moreeffectivelymeettheneedsofthemarketplace.These companiestypicallystartedsmallbeforeexpandinginto largerenterprises.Someoftoday’sleadingcompanies(e.g., Amazon,Shopify,Microsoft,McDonald’s,Apple)beganas start-upcompanies.

However,accordingto Au(2017),thesportsmarketplaceis one of themoredifficultsectorsfornewbrandstointegrate.In

Canada,thereareonlyafewincubatorsandsportslaboratories tosupport start-upcompanies.Some,likeRyersonUniversity’s FutureofSportLab,isajointeffortbetweentheuniversity andMapleLeafSportandEntertainment(MLSE)andisan incubationhubthatsupportsresearchandinnovationthatoften leadstopartnershipswithprivateorpublicfundinggroups (Start-upHereToronto,2019).TheUniversityofGuelphproudly supportstheInternationalInstituteforSportBusinessand Leadership(n.d),astart-upthatbringsacademicandindustry leaderstogethertoidentifyandpursueactionresearchprojects. Thesekindsofprogramsrepresentthenewthinkingthatis requiredinsportmanagement.Theemergenceofotherstartupcompaniesinsporthighlightstheexplosivegrowthof thisarea.

VirtualReality(VR)and,inparticular,esportsrepresenta rapidlygrowingsegmentinthesportsindustry(Jonassonand Thiborg, 2010;Funketal.,2018;Collis,2020),andbyextension, anareathatsportmanagementscholarsshouldintegrateinto theirteachingandresearchprograms.Whileinitiallydesigned forchildrenandyouth,interestandparticipationhavealso spawnedintoolderpopulations.Accordingto Clement(2021), therewere 2Bworld-widevideogamersin2015,andthenumber isexpectedtogrowto3Bby2023.The CanadianSportDaily (2020) supportedthisgrowthpredictionbyreportingthatthere were2.7B worldwidevideogamersbytheendof2020. Alton (2019) notedsimilar growthinviewershipofcompetitivegaming events.Shenotedthatesportshadaworld-widefanbasein excessof454M,upfrom380Min2018(Willingham,2018) andwasexperiencingagrowthrateofa14%peryear.In comparison,andpriortotheonsetofpre-COVID-19,the NCAAMen’s“MarchMadness”BasketballTournamenthad viewershipthatmaximizedat28M(Wilson,2021).Imagine theadvertisingandbrandingopportunitiesesportsprovides corporationslookingtoreachayoungandemergingmarket. Somespeculatethatesportsgameswillsoonbeincludedin majorinternationalevents,suchastheAsianGamesin2022 andtheParisOlympicsin2024(Kocadag,2019).Thefuturefor esportis bright(Mulcahy,2019).Advancementsin,andaccess totechnologywillfuelfuturegrowth.Thesamecouldbesaid foranothergrowthareainsport,namely,legalizedgambling. Onlinesportsgamblingisprovingtobeahighlyprofitable andpermanentfixtureimpactingsportsspectatorship.Aresport managementscholarsalsodiscussingthesedevelopmentsintheir classrooms,andaretheypreparinggraduatestocompetein thesetypesofemergingareas?Sportandsportmanagementhave beendisrupted,andasnotedbelow,sohavetheinstitutions traditionallypreparingsportmanagementgraduatesandleaders ofthefuture.

DISRUPTIVEIMPACTSONHIGHER EDUCATION

Kak(2018) and Levin(2021) havecalledforsignificant change inhighereducationforsometime.Theyargued thatthe20th-centurymodelsneedtobeupdatedinterms ofwhatistaughtandhowitisdelivered.Automation,

artificialintelligence,hologramtechnology,andadvances intelecommunicationsofferunlimitedopportunitiesfor changinghowacademicprogramscanbeconstructed anddelivered.

Govindarajanetal.(2021) suggestedthatCOVID-19has accelerated thechangeprocess.AsaresultofCOVID-19, lecturetheatersandcampuseswereabandoned,andprofessors wereforcedtointegratetechnologyandimplementremote teachingstrategiesfortheirstudents.Naturally,therewere bumpsalongthewaygiventhissuddenshift.Professors andstudentsbothclaimedtohavemissedtherelationshipbuildingaspectsthatin-persondeliveryofferstosupportand inspirelearning.However,whilemanystudentsandprofessors struggledwiththisadaptationandlongedforpre-pandemic practices,somestudentsandprofessorsthrivedinthisnew environment.Manywouldlikesomeofthesenewpractices tocontinue.Somestudentshavereportedthattheylikedthe paceandflexibilityoftakingtheirclassesremotelyandin anasynchronousformat.Manystayedathomeandsaved moneypreviouslyspentontransportation,accommodations, andparking.Professorsfoundthattheheighteneduseof technologycouldenrichtheircourses.Smallgroupdiscussions couldbeeffectivelyfacilitatedthroughvirtualchatrooms. Professorscouldintegrateinternationally-renownedexpertsinto theircourseswhodidn’tneedtotraveltodeliverguestlectures. Insomesectorsofourcampuses,productivityincreased.The pandemicprovedthattherewereotherwaysofdeliveringhigher education,andonceagain,necessityprovedtobethe“mother ofinvention.”

Asaresult, Levin(2021) and Govindarajanetal.(2021) encouragedprofessorsandprogramleaderstoreflectdeeply ontheneedsofstudents,thecontentofcourses,andbe opentoadoptingsomeofthepracticesthathadtobe implementedduringthepandemic.Perhapsprograms,courses, orpartsofeachcouldbemoreeffectivelydeliveredinvirtual orahybridofvirtualandface-to-faceformats.Theymade acaseforprogressivelyintegratingmoredigitaltechnologies (e.g.,remotedelivery,holograms)toenrichlearning.Some studentsmaypreferthebenefitsofremotedelivery(orperhaps somecombinationoftimeoncampusandtimeinremote deliverymodes).Ifthisdeliveryoptionexists,newcohorts ofstudentsmightbedrawntothesector.Recognizingthe benefitsandcostsavingsofsomeremotelearning,inwhole orpart,mightpromptsomeinstitutionstoreducetheir infrastructurefootprint.Somecampusescouldadoptablended modelwherestudentsinthefirstandfinalyearshaveanoncampusexperience,whilethoseinthemiddleyearsconsume theirprogramsfromaremotesetting.Someofthemore reputableinstitutionsmaytakethisopportunitytosignificantly expandtheirhigh-demandprogramspreviouslyrestrictedby spacerealities.

Thinkofthecostsavingsforsomestudentsiftheydidnot havetobeoncampusfortheirentireuniversityexperience. Thinkofprogramexpansionopportunitiesifcourses,programs, orpartsofprogramscouldbedeliveredthroughdistance education.Considerthecostsavingsifuniversitiescouldmore discriminatelyrationalizeprogramofferingandefficientlyshare

coursesorpartsofprogramswithotherinstitutions.Incremental revenuecouldbegeneratedfromsellingorrentingsomefreeduplandorbuildings.Thehighcostsofconstructingand operatingfacilitiescouldbereduced.Programofficialscould offermorecoursesinasynchronousformatssostudentscould consumetheircoursesatapaceandtimethatisadvantageousto them.Academicleadersandgoverningboardsmoreeffectively future-proofhighereducationbyadoptingsomeofthese practices.Fiscalrealitiesandsocietalpressuremightdemand suchaction.

Itisachallengingtime,andneithersportnorsport managementeducationalprogramsareimmunefrom thedisruptiveforcesandseismicchangesoutlinedabove. Graduatesarenowenteringemploymentopportunities thatarelessstructured,morefluid,andlesspermanent (Vedderetal.,2013).Thesituationhasbeenexponentially accelerated bytheeconomicandlabormarketdisruptions ofCOVID-19(Gentilinietal.,2020).Boldquestions mustbe addressed.Arecolleaguesdeliveringwhatsport managementstudentsneed?Aretheypreparinggraduates tobethoughtleaderswhoareentrepreneurial,independent, andconfidenttonavigatecareersintimesofrapidsocietal change?Aregraduatescriticalthinkerswhocanadaptand workacrossanumberofareasgiventheanticipatedsmaller workforces?Isthecontentofsportmanagementprograms cutting-edgeandprogressive?Arethetuitionandrelated educationalcoststructuresforstudentsrealisticandaffordable giventhemarketforces,valuepropositions,andeconomic times(i.e.,currentandpredicted)?Sportmanagement colleaguesmustadapttothrivegiventhechangestaking placeinsport,sportmanagement,andhighereducation (ChristensenandEyring,2011;Christensenetal.,2011).

CONCLUSION

COVID-19hasbeenadevastatingvirusthathasdisrupted societyininnumerableways.Itwillalsohavefar-reaching implicationsoninstitutionsofhigherlearningandintheways thatsocietyparticipatesorconsumessport.Organizationsthat prevailwillbenimble,progressive,andinnovative.Implementing someorallofthesuggestionsoutlinedbelowcouldimprove andmodernizeouracademicprograms.Colleaguescanlead changeby:

1.Developinganddeliveringacurriculumthatcoversthe traditionalareaslikeleadership,finance,economics,analytics, aswellastheemergingareasinthefieldlikeinnovation, entrepreneurship,automation,artificialintelligence,and start-upcompanies.

2.Expandingexperientiallearningopportunitiesforstudents beyondthetraditionalsportsettingsandinclude opportunitiesinemergingorganizationslikestart-up companies.Studentsneedtounderstandtherulesof engagementinemergingtechnologiesandtherealitiesof workinginagile,risk-takingventures.

3.Implementinghigherlevelsoftechnologyintothecurriculum tobringworldexpertsintothedigitalclassrooms.Industry leaders(fromacrosstheglobe)canbebeamedintodigital classroomswithminimalexpenseviaZoomorhologram technologies.Technologicaladvancementsallowforvirtual meetingroomswheresmallergroupsofstudentscanhave deeperdiscussionsandreflectionsessions.

4.Usingtechnologytosharecoursesandprofessorsbetween campusesandexpandingdigitalplatformstoreachmore studentsinsynchronousandasynchronousformats.Many universitiesarefacingfiscalchallenges.Coursesbetween campusescouldbesharedtoenrichtheexperienceand preparationofstudentsatlittleornocosttothehost institutions.Sportmanagementcouldbeleadersinthis synergisticapproach.

5.Ensuringthatguestspeakers,casestudies,andclassroom examplesaredrawnfordiversefields(e.g.,start-up companies,venturecapitalists,e-sports,gaming,fantasy sports,sportsgambling)inadditiontothosefromtraditional sportssettings.

6.Expandingexperientiallearningopportunitiesforstudents byinvestingincasecompetitionsthatincludeexamples fromstart-upcompaniesandotheremergingareasinthe field.Theserichlearningopportunitiesallowstudentsthe opportunitytoapplycoursecontentand,ifalsodrawnfrom emergingindustries,canhelpkeeptheprogramcurrent. Toincreaseapplicationandunderscorerelevance,have practitionersposethechallengequestionandinvolvethemin evaluatingtheproposedsolutions.

TheimpactofCOVID-19hasacceleratedtheneedfor changeinsport,sportmanagementandintheinstitutions thathousesportmanagementeducationalprograms. Sportmanagementcolleaguesareencouragedtoreflect onthesuggestionsoutlinedaboveandensurethatthe programsdeliveredtostudentsalignwiththecurrent andemergingdevelopmentsintheindustryandin highereducation.

DATAAVAILABILITYSTATEMENT

Theoriginalcontributionspresentedinthestudyareincluded inthearticle/supplementarymaterial,furtherinquiriescanbe directedtothecorrespondingauthor.

AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS

JWtooktheleadinthepreparationofthisarticle.ME-K,GB, andZWareformerstudentsandsportmanagementleaderswho haveexperienceintheindustry,recognizethedisruptionthat hastakenplaceinrecentyears,andhaveexperienceworking withrecentgraduatesofoursportmanagementprograms,and providedhelpfulinsightsandexamplesthathavebeenintegrated intothisarticle.Allauthorscontributedtothearticleand approvedthesubmittedversion.

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ConflictofInterest: GBwasemployedbycompanyCatapultCareerAdvantage. Theremainingauthorsdeclarethattheresearchwasconductedintheabsenceof anycommercialorfinancialrelationshipsthatcouldbeconstruedasapotential conflictofinterest.

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Copyright©2022Weese,El-Khoury,BrownandWeese.Thisisanopen-access articledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(CC BY).Theuse,distributionorreproductioninotherforumsispermitted,provided theoriginalauthor(s)andthecopyrightowner(s)arecreditedandthattheoriginal publicationinthisjournaliscited,inaccordancewithacceptedacademicpractice. Nouse,distributionorreproductionispermittedwhichdoesnotcomplywiththese terms.

Editedby: GayleMcPherson, UniversityoftheWestofScotland, UnitedKingdom

Reviewedby: ThomasFletcher, LeedsBeckettUniversity, UnitedKingdom CarltonBrick, UniversityoftheWestofScotland, UnitedKingdom

*Correspondence: AlbertoTesta alberto.testa@uwl.ac.uk

Specialtysection: Thisarticlewassubmittedto Sport,Leisure,Tourism,andEvents, asectionofthejournal FrontiersinSportsandActiveLiving

Received: 03September2021

Accepted: 18February2022

Published: 29March2022

Citation:

TestaA(2022)WavesofExtremism: AnAppliedEthnographicAnalysisof theBosniaandHerzegovinaFootball Terraces. Front.SportsAct.Living4:770441. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.770441

WavesofExtremism:AnApplied EthnographicAnalysisoftheBosnia andHerzegovinaFootballTerraces

AlbertoTesta*

SchoolofHumanandSocialSciences,UniversityofWestLondon,London,UnitedKingdom

Thisarticleoffersanoverviewofafour-monthresearchproject,conductedin2019/2020, whichstudiedextremismintheBosniaandHerzegovina(BiH)footballterraces.Thiswork wasfundedbytheInternationalOrganisationforMigration-UnitedNationsandbythe UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID).Theresearchfocusedon riskfactorsandhowthesemaygovernthe“entry”ofBiHyouthintoextremehard-core footballfansgroups(Ultras1)andprolongtheirinvolvementinthem.Thestudyhighlighted thenatureofthesegroupsandtheiractivityprovidingdetailedrecommendationsfor BiHpolicymakers,securityagencies,andfootballfederationsandclubswhowishto understandandeffectivelyrespondtothisemergentthreatforpublicsecurityinBiH.

Keywords:extremism,far-right,Bosnia,Balkans,football,violence,Ultras,policing

INTRODUCTION:THEBOSNIAANDHERZEGOVINASOCIAL SPACE

Asaresultofthe1995DaytonAgreement,BosniaandHerzegovina(BiH)istodayacountry dividedbothgeographicallyandpoliticallyalongreligiousandethniclines,existingasatripartite state.Withinthepopulationof3.254million,48%identifyasBosniak(BosnianMuslims),37%as BosnianSerbs,themajorityofwhomareOrthodox,and14%asBosnianCroats,mostofwhom areCatholic(WorldPopulationReview,2020)2.Acrucialfactorinthepolitics,society,and internationalengagementofBiHistheimpactoftheethnicandreligiousconflictsofthe1990s. Thelegacyoftheseconflictscontinuestocontrolthenarrativesthatmeldreligion,heritage,culture, andethnicityintheevolutionofBosnianidentities,drivingdifferenceanddivision.Forexample, far-right“Chetnik”groups(namedafterSerbo-CroatunitswithintheformerYugoslavArmy) dependprimarilyontheRavnaGoramovement,centredmainlyinPrijedor’snorth-westerntown3 . TheNeo-Ustašegroups4 (theformerCroatianfascistmovement)areespeciallyactiveinareas alongtheBiHCroatianborderwhereethnictensionsflare-upbetweenthepredominantlyCroatian populationandtheBosniakMuslims.BosnianMuslimsalsohavenationalistorextremistgroups. Nascentfactionshaveappeared,includingtheBosnianMovementofNationalPride(BPNP). ThemovementpromotesBosniakidentityandsupportsasecularBosniakethno-nationaliststate;

1This articleusesthetermUltrasandnothooliganbecausethegroupsdefinethemselvesassuchastheymodeltheirrepertoire ofactionsaccordingtoUltrasgroupsinEurope.ThetermUltras–orultrà–originatesfromtheultra-royalistFrench(Testa andArmstrong,2010a,b).

22022Data,retrievedFebruary2022fromtheWorldPopulationReview:https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/ bosnia-and-herzegovina-population

3C.f.https://balkaninsight.com/2020/12/10/bosnia-charges-serb-chetniks-with-inciting-ethnic-hatred/

4C.f.https://balkaninsight.com/2017/05/05/far-right-balkan-groups-flourish-on-the-net-05-03-2017/

itactivelyshowsenmitytowardsgroupssuchasRoma, Communists,Jewishpeople,theLGBTcommunity,andthe so-called“non-whites”consideredalientotheirideologyand culturalheritage5 .

Againstthisbackground,hostilitiesarefrequentlyexpressed acrossBiHfootballterraces,withclashesamonggroupsofUltras. Forexample,widespreadfightsinvolvingover500fanstookplace in2009intheBosnianCroat-dominatedtownofŠirokiBrijeg betweenlocalsandtheUltrasfromFKZeljeznicar6 resulting inonedeath,overfiftyinjured,andwidespreadvandalism7.In 2015,theŠirokiBrijegyouthfootballteambuswasambushed inSarajevo,onceagaininvolvingUltrasconnectedtoFK Zeljeznicar8.Inothertownswithdiversepopulationssuchas Mostar,sectariandividesalsopermeatefootballclubs’rivalries; forinstance,FKVeležMostar(associatedwithBosniaks)and HŠKZrinjskiMostar(linkedtoBosnianCroats).Becauseof suchviolentepisodes,theBosnianFootballUnionhasregularly orderedfootballmatchestobeplayedbehindcloseddoors. Overthepastdecade,therehavebeenrepeatedrumoursthat thenationalfootballleague–currentlyconsistingofBosniak, BosnianSerb,andBosnianCroatteams–couldbedissolved. Onoccasions,BosnianSerbofficialshavesuggestedwithdrawing BosnianSerbfootballteamsfromtheleaguealtogether;the NKŠirokiBrijegfootballclubmanagementhasseveraltimes threatenedtojoinCroatia’snationalfootballleagueinstead9.Such violencehighlightsthefragilityoftolerancebetweenthecountry’s threeethnicgroupsandhoweasilyintolerancecanescalateinto violence,oftenstokedbyfar-rightandnationalistgroups.

Moststudiesonthelinkbetweenextremismandviolent ideologicallyUltrasgroupsrelyon“external”observationsofthe groups’behavioursandmostlyonsecondarycollecteddatafrom theInternet via socialmedia10.Thisapproachisunderstandable assecurityrisksareinvolvedininteractingwiththesegroups, andthesegroupsarechallengingtoapproach11.Thissituation isevenmoredifficultconsideringthepeculiarityoftheBiH socialspace,asmentionedearlier,plaguedbyhistoricalconflicts amongdifferentethnicgroupsandpoliticalrivalriesamongthe sameethnicgroups.Fewstudieshavefocusedonthistopic; amongthemostnotable, Milojevi´ c etal.(2013) mainlylink the occurrencesofviolenceamongUltrastotheconsequencesofthe BiHwar;however,itisdated.TheexcellentresearchofItalian

5C.f.https://balkaninsight.com/2021/06/02/bosnian-far-right-movement-wedsbosniak-nationalism-neo-nazism/

6Themaingroupisknownasthe“Maniacs”orManijaci,theyarelinkedto BosniaksandarebasedinSarajevo.

7RetrievedNovember2020fromhttps://balkaninsight.com/2017/05/05/far-rightbalkan-groups-flourish-on-the-net-05-03-2017/andhttps://www.iss.europa.eu/ sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/Brief%2020%20Balkan%20foreign%20fighters.pdf

8RetrievedSeptember2020fromhttp://www.css.ethz.ch/en/services/digitallibrary/articles/article.html/108850/pdf;https://balkaninsight.com/2015/03/16/ hooligan-attack-raises-ethnic-tensions-in-bosnia/

9RetrievedNovember2020fromhttps://balkaninsight.com/2015/03/16/hooliganattack-raises-ethnic-tensions-in-bosnia/ 10Thisalsoholdstrueformainstreamextremism,especiallyjihadistandfar-right groups.

11Fielding(1981) inhisseminalstudyontheBritishNationalFront,detailsthe challengesforaresearcherinstudyingextremistgroupsobjectively;whileTesta (2010a,2010b), Testa,2018,2020)pointsouttheriskinherentininteractingwith them.

sociologist Sterchele(2013) providesanethnographicaccountof BiH footballpractitioners,includingBiHfootballsupporters,but notfocusingspecificallyonthegroupsanalysedbythisarticle.

Thisarticleaimstofillthisgapintheliterature;thearticle originatesfromaresearchprojectaimedtounderstandthe potentiallinkagebetweenUltrasinBiHandviolentextremism. Thisarticlewillfocusonlyonfindingsaimingtounderstand theBiHUltrasgroups’maintraits,exploringiftheycanbe consideredextremefootballfansor,moresimply,criminalgangs interestedinfootball.Thisarticlewillalsoexplainwhojoins thesegroups,thegroups’structure,theirappealtotheBiHyouth, andhowthegroupsusesocialmediatomanifesttheircollective identityand,ifany,ideologies.

METHODS

Thisstudyemployedan“appliedethnographic”approach12 Appliedethnographyhastwomainelements;thefirstoneis explanatory,therefore,relevantforpolicymakers,practitioners, andinstitutions,andanyoneseekingtoaddresscomplexsocial issues.Thesecondelementistheapplicationtoreal-world problems;itprovidesaspecific,in-depthunderstandingofhow individuals’socialworldunfoldsdaily(BrimandSpain,1974; Pelto,2013;Cf. Fetterman,2020).

Togatherdata,theresearchteamusedtriangulation.Asthe termsuggests,thisapproachemploysmorethanonemethod tocollectinformation(HobbsandMay,1994;Denzin,1996; Silverman,2013; JerolmackandKhan,2017).Ourresearch approachinvolvedaccessingrelevantgroups via anetworkof crucial“gatekeepers”(i.e.,individualslinkeddirectlytowho areactiveinthestudiedcommunities/groups).Basedonthis negotiatedaccess,theresearchteamgathereddata via fieldwork fromvarioussources,includingdirectinterviews,observations, andtheinternet.Moreover,researchersgathereddataonthe culture,values,andideologyoftheparticipantsandgroups,and theirinteractionswitheachother.

TheresearchteamfocusedonthemostactiveUltrasgroups toviolence,allegedcriminalactivity,andthegroups’proselytism inandoutsidetheBiHfootballstadium;thechosengroups neededtorepresentthethreemainBiHethnicgroups. Via acombinationofgatekeepers’introductionandsnowballing sampling,weselectedthefollowinggroups:TheHŠKZrinjski Mostar(HrvatskišportskiklubZrinjskiMostar),theŠkripariNKŠirokiBrijeg,theUltras-HŠKZrinjskiMostar,theLešinariFKBoracBanjaLuka,andtheRobijaši-NK ˇ CelikZenica.

Inrelationtothestakeholders,theresearchteaminterviewed thefollowinginstitutionalstakeholders:

• TheMinistryofSecurityofBiH;

12Therearedifferencesbetweenacademicethnographyandappliedethnography. Whilethetheoreticalrootsarethesame,themaindifferenceisinhowtheresearch isshaped.Inacademicethnography,thechosentopic/problemdictatesthedesign, budget,and,mostimportantly,thetimeframe;specifically,fieldworkrequiressix totwoyearsormore.Acontractfundstheappliedethnographicwork,anditisa fullydevelopedresponsetothefunders’expressedinterestintheproblem(Brim and Spain,1974;Pelto,2013;Cf. Fetterman,2020).Thetimeframeofthefieldwork depends onthefunders’needs,andthefindingsareusedtotackletheproblem.

• TheMinistryofInternalAffairsoftheSarajevoCanton;

• The SarajevoCantonpolice;

• TheRepublicofSrpskaMinistryoftheInterior;

• ThePoliceAdministrationBanjaLuka;

• TheFootballAssociationofBiH(Nogometni/FudbalskiSavez BosneiHercegovine);

• TheFootballAssociationofRepublikaSrpska (Fudbalskisavez RepublikeSrpske);

• TheFootballClubŠirokiBrijeg(Nogometniklub ŠirokiBrijeg);

• TheFootballClubŽeljezniˇcar(Fudbalskiklub ŽeljezniˇcarSarajevo);

• TheFKVeležMostar(FudbalskiklubVeležMostar).

Theteamthenproceededwithsemi-structuredinterviews. Informedconsentwasgivenpriortotheinterviews;the interviewswererecordedwithadigitalrecordingdevice,then translatedandtranscribedbytheInternationalOrganization forMigration(IOM)ispartoftheUnitedNationsSystem administrationstaff.Theobservationswerecarriedoutinthe locationsofthecitieslinkedtothegroups;thoselocations wereoftensignpostedbygraffitithatwerealsophotographed andtranslated.Observationswerealsomadeduringmatches andeventssuchastheBiHgaypride,whereweknewgroups wouldhaveintervenedtoprotest.Tocomplementthiswork, theresearchteamgatheredandtranslatedmediaarticles,policy documents,andBiHlawsdealingwithhatecrimesandviolence atBiHfootballmatches;theresearchteamalsocollectedpolicies anddirectivesofBiHfootballclubsandfootballassociations.The institutionalstakeholderswereinstrumentalinthecollectionof thesedocuments.Finally,theonlinedatagatheringaboutgroups, networks,andnarrativeswascarriedoutbytheInstitutefor StrategicDialogue(ISD);itcomplementedtheofflineresearch bydeterminingthelevelofonlineactivityoftheUltrasgroups studied,andifthesegroupshadlinkstoethno-nationalistviolent extremism(c.f. Testa,2020).Theinvestigationassessedthescale andextentoftheironlineactivity,thesocialmediathesegroups used,howtheyusedthem,andforwhatpurposesandthetypes ofcontentandnarrativespromotedbythegroups.

Analysis

Theresearchteamusedgroundedtheorytomakesenseofthe data(GlaserandStrauss,1967;Charmaz,2014).Theanalysis started byreadingandcoding13 theinterviewstranscripts, onlinedata,policies,andlaws.Theteamalsocodedpictures ofgroupsinactionandmuralgraffiti.Thecodeswereatthis stageprovisionaltoallowflexibilitytonewinterpretationsin linewiththedevelopmentoftheanalyticalprocess.Theprocess alsoinvolvedcomparing,modifying,andmergingcodes.Once theresearchteamendedthisinitialstep;theanalysisbecame moreintensive,aimingtodevelopmoresignificantclassifications includingtheoreticalconcepts;thisprocesswasintegratedby memowriting.Thisprocesslasteduntilsaturationwasreached

13AlldatawerecodedandanalysedusingMAXQDAsoftware,whichfacilitatesand supportsqualitative,quantitativeandmixedmethodsresearchprojects(Woolfand Silver,

(StraussandCorbin,1998).Theprojectadheredtotheethics code of theAmericanSocietyofCriminology.Theonline researchteamalsofollowedTheInstituteforStrategicDialogue (ISD’s)in-houseEthicsPrinciplesforonlineresearch.Alldata obtainedfortheprojectwasstoredsecurelyfollowingtheEU GeneralDataProtectionRegulation(GDPR).

FRAMINGTHEBiHULTRAS

ExplainingtheUltrasinBiHisacomplextask.TheBiH authoritiesarestrugglingtocountertheUltras’illegalactivityand controltheirviolenceinsideandoutsidethefootballterraces.The dangerposedbythesegroupsisexemplifiedbyaviolentincident thatoccurredinSeptember2019.RadioSarajevocameunder attackfromagroupofUltrasassociatedwiththeFootballClub Sarajevo14,terrorisingseveraljournalists.Indeed,sinceearly 2019,BiHjournalistsandthe“FreeMediaHelpLine”recorded fivedeaththreatsandsixactualphysicalassaultsonreportersand mediateams.ThejournalistsdenouncedtheinabilityoftheBiH authoritiestopreventsuchepisodesandtopunishthem15

Thegroupstructureiscentralisedbutincludesmorethan aleader;membersalsohavesomeauthority.So,powerisin multiplehands,andthereisahighleveloffunctionaldiversity. Inonegroup,thereweretenleaders.TheUltrashada“nucleus” ofindividualsrangingfrom50to70,whilethegroupmembers’ numberwasfrom100to500maximum.Theageofthe membersrangedfrom17toafewover40’syearsold.The demographicseemstorepresentthelocalcommunity’s(“the people”)socialstratification.TheUltrasZrinjski-FCZrinjski Mostarprovidedmoredetailsaboutthedemographicofatypical BiHUltrasgroup:

ResearchTeam: Whoarethemembersinthegroup,students orworkers?

Ultras: Therearehigh-schoolkids,universitystudents,those whogotemployedstraightafterschool,orunemployedpeopleyouknowhowthesituationishere [highunemploymentrates].

Theleaderswerethosewhowereolderandwereperceived ascharismaticfigures.Thisisimportanttomakesenseofthe radicalisationprocessofnewcomers’,astheypromotechanges inbeliefsandbehavioursandfacilitatetheinternalisationofthe Ultrasmentality.TheUltrasLešinari-FCBoracBanjaLuka describedthenatureofthemembers’commitmenttothegroup:

Researchteam: Howmuchtimedoyouinvestinthegroup?

Ultras: Usuallyonweekends,whenthefootballclubisinaction. Wegathermaybeeverysecondweekend.However,everyonealso leadsitsownlife...

Researchteam: Doyougotoeverymatch?

14Interms ofcriminalactivities,theManiacs(ManijacisupportersoftheFootball ClubŽeljezniˇcar)andHordeZla(supportersoftheFCSarajevo)aredeemedby allpoliceforcesinterviewedasthemostdangerous;theyareclassifiedascriminal organisations.ItisimportanttostressthatbothUltrasgroupsweretheonlyones whorefusedatthelastmomenttomeettheresearchteambecauseofourquestions focusingoncriminalactivities.

15RetrievedSeptember2020from https://balkaninsight.com/2019/09/30/bosniajournalists-protest-after-thugs-storm-news-outlet

2018).

Ultras: Everylocalmatch,awaymatcheswhenIhavetime.

Tobe partoftheUltras“nucleus”(seniormembers’circle),it isindispensabletoshowcommitmentandelitismtoadhereto thegroup’svalues,ideology,andtradition;only,inthiscase,a memberisco-opted.Thenucleusdealswithalltheactivities oftheUltrasgroupfrommemberships,muralgraffiti,banners, chanting,smugglingpyrotechnics,andorganisingcrimessuchas sellingdrugs.

RISKFACTORS

Arangeofriskfactorsexplainstheexistenceandappealofthe UltrasgroupstotheyouthofBiH.Ouranalysisindicatesthat thefirstbroadriskfactorissocio-environmental;therefore,it needstoconsidermanyissues.Ethnicityandethnictensions doappeartoplayapart,butwesuggestthisisnotaprime issueinunderstandingtheUltrasgroupsinBiH.TheUltras groupsexploitethnicitytojustifytheirexistence;thegroupsserve asacatalystofbelonginginapoliticallyfragmentedcountry. EthnicrootsarealsousedbytheUltrasasanarrativetosingle outandmostoftenlegitimiseprovocationtorivalfactionsand, ultimately,violence.Ourresearchindicatesthattheeconomic andpoliticalsituationofBiHandunemploymentrateand concomitantunderutilisationofyouthwerevitalriskfactors singledoutbyallstakeholders,includingtheUltrasgroups. DisenfranchisedyouthjointheUltrasbecausetheyallowthem togainpower,tackleboredom,dischargeeverydayfrustrations, andbecauseoftheirproductivecriminalactivities.Ourresearch alsosuggeststhataddingtotheproblemsofthepoliticaland economicsituationarecausalfactorsthatrelatetothelackofan effectivefederallegalstructureandthefactthattheresponsesof theBiHpoliceandfootballauthoritiesseemtofallwellbelow internationalstandards;thelatterpointwasconfirmedironically byseveralUltrasgroups.

DataalsoindicatetheBiHfootballstadiumsasakeyrisk factor,particularlythepoorstadiumfacilities,lackofstadium regulation,andinefficientsecurity.AsinotherEastEuropean countries,lowattendancesatfootballmatchesworkasan amplifierofUltras’actionsandpresence(Dzhekovaetal.,2015 in Testa,2020,p.28).Ultrasarethusperceivedbyyoungstersand other fansaspowerful:thetrueownersofthefootballstadium. Theirchants,banners,symbols,andphysicalintimidationare usedtorecruit(fansjointhembecausetheyareintimidatedor fascinatedbythem)orexcludethosewhoopposetheirpresence andpower.ThisimbalanceofpowerbetweenUltrasandthe “others”withinthestadiumsmustbeaddressed.Thecontrolof thefootballterracesissostrongthattheUltrasdeterminewho hasaccesstothem.TheCatholicUltrasŠkripari-NKŠiroki BrijegvettedMuslimswhoexhibitsymbolsoftheirreligious identity;accordingtothegroup,nowomenwiththeniqabcould accessit.

TheŠkripari-NKŠirokiBrijegexplained:

Ihaveaproblemwithit [niqab] butforanotherreason.Myissue withitisthatisnotpartoftheBosnianMuslimtradition,itis imposedbyaforeignculture-theArabs.AvastmajorityofMuslims

herearemoderate,EuropeankindofMuslims.Iknowforafactthat itbothersBosniaksevenmorethanSerbsorCroats.Ididalotof researchintothisbecauseIaminterestedinit,andIsawthatthis wasnotsomethingthatwaseverpartofBiH.Thiswasimposedon them [BiHMuslims].

Inaddition,thelackoffootballclubs’securityandregulations insidethestadiummeanstheUltrasgroupscanexerciseavery highlevelofcontrolinthefootballstadiums.

Thesecondbroadriskfactorispoliticalandcanbeidentified intheUltras’narrativeofaperceivedcorruptpoliticalclass thatfailstheBiHyouthandsociety.Aroundthisnarrative,the groupsorganiseandrecruit.Inthiscase,theUltrascharacterise themselvesasthesole“resistance”tothefederalandlocalstatus quo.TheBiHUltrascanbeidentifiedasresistancegroups fromthedatagathered.AllUltrasgroupsaccomplishedthree mainfunctions;theywereavehicleofanti-systemssentiments, theyfunctionasameansofidentityshaping,socialsolidarity maintenance,offeringmembersandpotentialrecruitswith framestomakesenseoftheirlives,frustrations,andgrievances; providingrecruitsandmemberstheillusionofself-efficacyto theirgrievances.(Cf. AdamsandRoscigno,2005;p.71; Diani, 1992). OneoftheleadersoftheŠkripari-FCŠirokiBrijeg explainedtheirresistanceagainstthesystemandtheirstruggle withthelocalauthorities:

Wearevisibleandspreadingourmessages,butwedoitfromour standsbecausewecannotchangeanything [outside]. So,ifwehave abannerthatsomebodydoesnotlike,ourpolicegiveustroubles aboutit.WedonotgetpunishedinSarajevooranywhereelse.This doesnothappenanywhereelse [inBiH].

AlltheUltrasgroupsinterviewedmanifestedtheiroppositionsto localpoliticalpartieswho-accordingtothem-havehijackedany societalarena,includingpolicing;sometimes,thegroupsacted aspolitical/pressureforcetocontrastlocalpoliticsastheearlier quotationoftheŠkripari-FCŠirokiBrijegdetails.

Far-rightideologywaspartoftwogroups’collectiveidentity16 butitdidnotappeartobeassophisticatedandstrongasother EuropeanUltras,forinstance,astheUltrasinItaly,Spain, Greece,andsomeEasternEuropeangroupssuchasthePolish andBulgarians.Significantriskfactorsarealsothesenseof belonging/communityandidentity.Forexample,beingfrom GrbavicainSarajevoenshrinesanidentityupontheeveryday teenagerofbeingaManijac17.Localnetworks(family,friend groups,classmates)alsoamplifythechancestojoinanUltras group.Ourdataalsostressriskfactorssuchasthefeelingof victimhoodagainstjournalists,thefederalstate,localpoliticians, thepolice,theloveforthecityandthefootballclub,andthe excitementofviolenceandglory.

TheUltrasMentality

Throughoutthestudy,alltheUltrasinterviewedreferredtotheir waysoflifeasthe“Ultrasmentality”.TheconceptofUltras mentalitycanbeunderstoodusingPierreBourdieu’sconceptof

16Škripari-NKŠirokiBrijegandUltras-HŠKZrinjskiMostar.

17

UltrassupportingtheFootballClubŽeljezniˇcar(Sarajevo).

Habitus:“asubjectivebutnotindividualsystemofinternalised structures,schemesofperception,conception,andactioncommon toallmembersofthesamegrouporclass” (Bourdieu,1977;p.86). TheUltrasmentalityservestounderstandthemembers’group lifeperceptionsandchallengesandultimatelytheirpractises, includingviolence.Theseinternalisedstructuresandschemesof perceptionshapethesubject’s(andgroups)sharedworldview andtheirawarenessofthesocialspaceinwhichthegroupsare located(Bourdieu,1977,p.86, 1998; BourdieuandWacquant, 2007). TheUltrasmentalityisacquiredasBourdieu’sHabitus bythepractiseofbeinga“true”Ultras,byapermutationof influencessuchasvicinityordistancefromotheractors(group members;rivalsandthepolice)and‘mimeticism(Lizardo, 2009). Via mimeticism,intangibleprinciples-suchasvaluesanddispositionsaretransmitted,andtheseareemployedwhen similarsituationsandpractisesreoccur. Lizardo(2009) clarifies howmimeticism works;itintentionallystartsfocusingonvisually accessiblerolemodels–inthecaseoftheUltras,theUltras leaders-then,thisprocessofmotor-schematicmirroringcomes togainahabitualandimplicitcast.Thismentalityshaping processoccurswithinthegroupinthefootballterracesbut alsoduringthemeetingsoutsidethestadium.AsBoudieu’s Habitus,theUltrasmentalityhasacollectivedimensionsincethe members’categoriesofjudgmentandactionthatarisefromthe grouparesharedbyallthosesubjecttothesamesocialconditions andconstraints.Ultraswhoinhabitthesamesocialspacedevelop acomparablementalityandacomprehension-ledmechanism influencedbythismentalphiltre(SimonsandBurt,2011)sharing hopes, choices,andfrustrations.

Basedonthisstudydata,theBiHUltrasmentality isshapedaroundfouressentialelements,namelygroups’ values,anti-systemattitude,pastandtradition,andethnic nationalism.Thefundamentalvaluesofthe“true”BiHUltrasare loyalty,honour,strength,group’sunity,andthecelebrationof “Balkan”masculinity,essentiallyrepresentedbybackwardness, parochialism,traditionalism(Dumanˇci´candKrolo,2016),andin theUltrascase,aggressivenessandultimatelyviolence.

ContactsportsarepartofthismentalityastheUltrasRobijaši -FC ˇ

CelikZenicapointedout:

Researchteam: Doyouliketofight?

Ultras: Yes,yes.

Researchteam: Doyoutrain?

Ultras: Iplayrugby....itisthepartofbeingUltras [tobetough].

Igototheuniversityduringtheweek,andtheweekendisforthe footballgames.Andyouknowwhathappensduringthegames...

Youmustbeprepared [tofight] ....Thatisalsothereasonwhy wegotothefootballgames [tofight].

ThepreviousquoteencapsulatestheessenceofbeingaBiH Ultras,reflectingamanshowingstrength via rugby.AnUltras Škripari,whowasinterviewed,wasproudofbeingakickboxing expert;hiscombatskillswereusedbythegrouptochallengetheir opponents;heconfirmedbeingalwaysinthefrontrowiffights againstthepoliceandrivalgroupsarose.

Thedailyfrustrationsagainstthefederalandlocalpolitics areexternalisedbythegroups via theiranti-systemattitude.

Theirresistance(anddisgust)totheperceivedcorruptfederal stateandpoliticalclassareacommonelementthatunitesthe groupsinterviewed.Thisrageborderlinehopelessstanceisalso presentwhentheBiHfootballestablishmentsituationisanalysed. TheFootballAssociationofBiHwasconsidereddecadentand costly,spendingmoneyon“fancy”buildingsinSarajevobut notinvestingfundsinstadiums’facilitiesandinpromotingBiH youthtalentinfootball.

ThepolicewerealsooftenthetargetofalltheUltrasgroups’ anti-systemnarratives:

UltrasŠkripari-FCŠirokiBrijeg:They [CroatianDemocratic UnionofBiH-HDZ-andthepolice]arealllinked,whileweare completelyunrelatedtoHDZ.Itistheproofthatoncewestart diggingintosomethingthatshouldnotbelookedinto(fromthe politicalpointofview)orriseupagainstthepolice,orsomeclub’s decisions,immediatelywegetsomefines.So,inthesesituationsthe city,thefootballclubandthepoliceallgettogethertoworkagainst us.Forexample,wemakesomestupid,smallthingatthestadium, andimmediatelytomorrow20groupmemberswillbetakentothe policestationandquestioned.Sothatiswhyitisimpossibletomake anychange.

Asthequotationunderlines,thepoliceinMostarandthecity ofŠirokiBrijegwereseenasbeingusedasapoliticaltool;asa meanstopunishthosewhoopposethelocalpoliticalparty(the HDZ)deemedascorrupt.

PastandTradition

Asmentionedearlier,anevaluationoftheBiHUltras phenomenonconcentratingsolelyonethnicnationalismdoes notcaptureinitsentiretyextremismintheBiHfootballterraces. TheUltrasRobijaši-NK ˇ CelikZenicaexplained:“Wecannot speakaboutethnicity,becausewehavememberswhoareBosniaks, Serbs,Croatsandthatiswhywearespecific.....Thereisno placefornationalisminourgroup”. AccordingtotheUltras Robijaši-NK ˇ CelikZenica,theUltrasfromBanjaLukaor MostarareseenthesamewayasthosegroupsfromSarajevo. Aggrocanoriginatefrompastrivalries.AsinmanyEuropean Ultrasgroups,friendshipsandanimositiesdevelopsimilarly; forexample,friendshipswithothergroupstendtobebased onrespect.Allgroups,whohavethesamementality,benefit fromthissharedsystemofvalues.ThepremiseoftheBedouin Syndromeostensiblycontrolstheestablishmentofrivalriesand allies:friendsofanallybecomefriends,enemiesofanallybecome enemies(Bruno,in DeBiasiandMarchi,1998).

Historicrivalriesbetweenfootballclubsarelinkedto theUltrasmentalityanditspropensitytowardsforminga “sacralspace18.”Thefootballterraces–asthedistrictsand neighbourhoodswheretheUltrasbelong–aredeemedsacred; theyareaphysicalandsymboliclocation,whichisautonomous fromthestadiumandthecity.Theirviolation(sacrilege)by opponentspromotesviolenceandcallfor“sacrifices”.Rather revealing,in2016,wasthe“calltoarms”oftheManijacigroup oftheSarajevoteamFKŽeljezniˇcartotheirrivalstheHorde 18

Zla(EvilHorde)toattackanddestroytheFukare19 whentheir footballteamwouldhaveplayedinSarajevo.AllthreeUltras groupsweremainlyBosniaks,soethnicitywasnotthereason forthisepisode.Althoughthisepisodeshowsthelinkbetween violenceandfootballinBiH,itisessentialtopointoutthat footballfans’violencecannotbecomparedinseverityand significancetootherEuropeancountriessuchasPoland,Russia, Italy,andtheUK.

EthnicNationalism

Asmentionedearlier,ethnicnationalismisnotenoughaloneto justifytheBiHUltras’existence.AstheUltrasLešinari-FCBorac BanjaLukaargued:

Researchteam: IsSerb-nationalismimportantinyourgroup?

UltrasA:Idonotgiveaf∗∗∗ aboutthat.MybestmanisCroat, mywifeisMuslim,mygrandmotherisMuslim.

Researchteam: Butwhatabouttheyoungergeneration?

UltrasA: Theyarethesame.Weloveourcityandtheclub.

UltrasB: Wearethesame.TherearenotonlySerbson thestands.

Itisabouttheloveforthe [football] club.

Ethnicityisusedarbitrarilyandcontradictorilybythegroups. Insomegroups,ethnicnationalismwasassociatedwithfarrightandfar-leftideologies.Ethnicityissymbolicallyexploited asatooltodistinguishthemselvesfromothers(DeVosetal., 2006) justifyingattimesthegroups’existence.AnUltrasZrinjskiHŠKZrinjski Mostarmemberunderlinedtheuseofwhatthey identifiedas“Bosniaknationalism”,whichwaspartoftheUltras ManijaciandHordeZlaSarajevonarratives:

Forexample,groupsfromSarajevoareright-orientedbuttheyare notfascist,morelikeBosniaknationalists.ButVeležsupporters areofficiallycommunists;so,theyhaveaconflictofinterest.They cannotputaredstarontheirflagbutalsowanttobeBosniak. Their“leader”-TitodidnotwantBosniaks,SerbsorCroatsbuthe wantedYugoslavs,andthatistheirinternalconflict.Beforethewar, theywereperceivedasaYugoslavclub.

Whileethnicnationalismdoesnotentirelyjustifythegroups’ existence,thegroups’criminalactivitiesdoso.Tomakesenseof theBiHexistence,focusingonlocalisedpowerdynamicsandthe Ultrasgroups’criminogenicneedsiscrucial.

CriminalActivities

OuranalysissuggeststhattheUltrasphenomenoninBiHis notsomuchanissuerelatedtopoliticsorreligion(cf.ethnic nationalismandfar-rightorjihadistideologies)butmoreabout thegroups’criminogenicnature,status,andneedswithinthe political,social,andeconomicgeographyoftheirlocalsettingtheircities.ThedataindicatesthatinBiH,Ultrasgroupsexistto makemoneyfromcriminalactivities20,mainly via drugdealing, racketeering,extortions,intimidations,and“services”offered tolocalpoliticiansduringtheelectoralperiod.Ourdataalso

19Theyarecalledthe“Wretches”andtheyaretheUltrasofthefootballteam SlobodafromthecityofTuzla.

20ThiswasconfirmedbytheBiHauthorities.

highlightthatinspecificlocales,authorities’corruptionlevels allowthelocalUltrasgroupstogainandexercisetheirpowerand control.Crimeandcorruptionweresointrinsicallylinkedtothe UltrasinBiHthatoneUltrasgroupregrettedthatitwasrelatively smallinnumberbecausethiswashinderingtheircriminal opportunitiesandprofits.Akeydriverforgroups’recruitmentis theircapacitytooperateasasemi-organisedcrimegroupwithin andsometimesbeyondtheirlocality.Ourfindingsalsosuggest thatthosewithinUltrasgroups’organisedcriminalitymaybe legitimisedthroughtheconnexionsbetweentheUltrasleaders andthefootballclubs.OurdatasuggestthatmostoftheUltras groupsreceivefinancialpaymentfromthefootballclubstoavoid creatingproblemsfortheirclubs21 .

Whilethepoliticalandideologicaldimensionsappearnotas significantwhencomparedtotheircounterpartsinEuropeand theBalkans22,wealsofoundthathomophobiahatecrimesare insteadtheelementthatlinksalltheBiHUltrasgroupsregardless ofreligionandethnicity,andtheyareanintegralpartofthe Ultras“DNA”.ArepresentativeoftheFootballAssociationofBiH elaboratedonanepisodeinvolvinghomophobiawhichwould havebeenrigorouslydealtwithifithadtakenplaceinother footballstadiumsinEurope:

Homophobiaispresentoccasionally;duringtherecentmatchofFC Željezniˇcar,Manijaciusedabannerwhichsaid“ImaZabraniti” (whichwouldmean“thereissomethingtoforbid”)asareaction totheannouncementthatthefirstgayprideeverwillbeheldin September2019inSarajevo.Theofficialmottooftheprideis“Ima iza´ci”whichmeans“gettingoutofthecloset”andalsogettingout tosupportthepride;additionally,duringthesamematch,theflag ofBruneiwasdisplayedashomosexualismthereisillegal[punished withthedeathpenalty].

Antisemitismsharesthesamedynamicoccurringfor homophobichatecrimes;itunites, via prejudiceand hateallUltrasgroupsregardlessofreligion,ethnicity,and historicrivalries.

TheInternet

FootballandsocialmediaarecloselylinkedinBiH.For instance,theBosnianinternationalfootballerEdinDzekowas themostfollowedpageinthecountryonbothFacebook andTwitter,withover2millionand1.5millionfollowers23 Duringthisstudy,thepublicactivityofseveralUltrasgroups wasmonitored.Forthepurposeofthisanalysispublicactivity isunderstoodtobecontentproducedbyparticularaccounts orUltrasgroupsonsocialmediawhichisreadilyavailable toresearcherssearchingacrossaplatform,orthroughthat platform’sapplicationprogramminginterface(API),andwhich doesnotrequirespecialpermissiontoaccess(e.g.,througha requesttoaclosedgrouporchatchannel).Hence,theresearch teamfocusedonengagementdatawithpublicFacebookpages

21This wasconfirmedbytheBiHauthorities.

22TheMinistryofSecurityofBiH,SarajevoCantonpolice,RepublicofSrpska MinistryoftheInteriorandPoliceAdministrationBanjaLukaconfirmedourdata thatracismwasnotanissue.

23DatagatheredbytheInstituteforStrategicDialogueforthisresearch(2020).

associatedwithUltrasgroupsinBiHfromJanuary2013to November2019. Thisinvestigationrevealedover4.7million userinteractionswithpostsinthesegroups;1.5million(nonunique)userslikingthesepagesandan11%growthoverthe 12-monthperiod.

Overall,therewasastrongonlinepresenceofpages,channels, andaccountsassociatedwithBiHUltrasgroups.Fromour data,therewereapproximately31,500coreuserswhichfollow theUltrasgroupsandrelatedpagesfromBiHonFacebook. Thefindingsshowthatthepageswereprimarilyusedfor(1) sharingfootball-relatednews;(2)mobilisingUltrasthrough glorifyingtheirclubs,stokingrivalrieswithothergroups,andthe provisionofpracticalguidancearoundmatchdays;(3)voicing displeasurewiththeirownclub’smanagementorownership; (4)fundraisingandsellingmerchandise;and(5)spreading politicalmessages.TheUltras’Facebookpageswerekeyin sharingmessagesandguidanceforthegroupmembers.Most importantly,theplatformswereusedtorecruitandmobilise individualstoattendhomeandawaygames.Eachseparate Ultrasgroupdisplayeditsrhetoricwhenmobilisingmembers byusingpartsofchantsglorifyingtheclubandemotional callstoinspireasmanyindividualstocomeaspossible.The mobilisationcallswerenotintendedforestablishedUltras membersbutforagreateraudience,primarilyindividualsfrom theneighbourhoodorcitywheretheclubisbasedandits surroundings.Forinstance,lookingatthemobilisationcalled bytheUltrasFukarefromTuzlacallsuponallattendance to“oneofthemostimportantgamesthisseason”awayat Ugljevik,theFKZvijezda09stadium.Thecallwasforall “fans,sympathisers,oldandyoung”tocomeinlargenumbers tosupporttheteam,sotheydonotrelivetherelegation sufferedbytheclubin2012after42yearsinthetoptier Bosnianfootball”.

Ethnicnationalistnarrativesandpoliticalideologieswere presentintheirposts.EventsfromtheYugoslavwars areconsistentlypresentintheUltras’rhetoric;thegroups commemoratevariousmassacresandatrocitiesthathappened duringthewar.Inevitably,eachgroupcommemoratescertain eventsbasedontheirethnicidentity.Forexample,theAlcohol BoysfromPrijedor,aBosnianSerbUltrasgroup,commemorate OperationStorm(Oluja),whichsawthedislocationofethnic SerbsfromtheSrpskaKrajinaregioninCroatiain1995. Similarly,theŠkripari-FCŠirokiBrijeg-andtheirrival UltrasZrinjski-FCZrinjskiMostar,ethnicCroatUltrasgroups, commemoratethefallofVukovarwhentheYugoslavNational Army(JNA)tookoverthecityinaPyrrhicvictoryfromthe Croatianforcesthatleftthousandsofciviliansdead,injuredand displaced.ThiseventisseenastheliberationofVukovarbysome Serbgroups.

CONCLUDINGTHOUGHTS

Thisarticleoriginatesfromaresearchprojectaimedtoincrease thekeyBiHstakeholders’understandingoftherelationsbetween extremefootballfansgroups(Ultras)andviolentextremism. TheresearchprojectcontributedtowardsIOM-UNandUSAID’s

efforttoreducethethreatofideologicallymotivatedviolencein BiH.ThisarticlearguesthattheBiHUltrasareanissuethatmust bethoughtfullyandsystematicallyaddressedbecauseoftheir associationswithcriminalactivityandhowtheirbehavioursin footballstadiumsenabletheirpowerandinfluencetoenactcrime (includinghatecrimes).Thisarticlehighlightstheimportance ofanefficientresponseintermsofpolicing,clubsecurity arrangements,andnewlegislation23

DATAAVAILABILITYSTATEMENT

Therawdatasupportingtheconclusionsofthisarticlewillbe madeavailablebytheauthors,withoutunduereservation.

ETHICSSTATEMENT

Ethicalreviewandapprovalwasnotrequiredforthestudy onhumanparticipantsinaccordancewiththelocallegislation andinstitutionalrequirements.Writteninformedconsentfor participationwasnotrequiredforthisstudyinaccordancewith thenationallegislationandtheinstitutionalrequirements.

AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS

Theauthorconfirmsbeingthesolecontributorofthisworkand hasapproveditforpublication.

FUNDING

ThisprojectwasfundedbytheUnitedStatesAgencyfor InternationalDevelopmentandtheBiHResilienceInitiative IOM–TheUNMigrationAgency.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thisprojectwouldnothavehappenedwithoutthecollaboration oftheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment andtheBiHResilienceInitiativeIOM–TheUNMigration Agency.Inparticular,wewouldliketothankMs.Blanche Picarello,NerminaTrbonja,andMr.DajanJugovic.Iamgrateful toProfessorCliffStottforhisalwayshelpfulfeedbackand adviceandtotheInstituteForStrategicDialogue,particularly, toMr.HenryTuck,forthevitalworkonthegroups’social mediapresence.Iamalsogratefultoinvestigativejournalistand valuedresearchteammemberTomCarstensenforhisessential work.AbigthankyoutotheMinistryofSecurityofBiH,the MinistryofInternalAffairsoftheSarajevoCanton,Sarajevo CantonPolice,theRepublicofSrpskaMinistryoftheInterior, thePoliceAdministrationBanjaLuka,theFootballAssociation ofBiH,theFootballAssociationoftheRepublikaSrpska,the FootballClubŠirokiBrijeg,theHŠKZrinjskiMostar,theFootball ClubŽeljezniˇcar.WearegratefultotheFKVeležMostarand journalist,Mr.ErminZatega,forhelpingustomakesenseofthe BiHfootballworld.

23This topicwillbethesubjectofaforthcomingmonographcommissioned byRoutledge.

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ConflictofInterest: Theauthordeclaresthattheresearchwasconductedinthe absenceofanycommercialorfinancialrelationshipsthatcouldbeconstruedasa potentialconflictofinterest.

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Copyright©2022Testa.Thisisanopen-accessarticledistributedundertheterms oftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(CCBY).Theuse,distributionor reproductioninotherforumsispermitted,providedtheoriginalauthor(s)andthe copyrightowner(s)arecreditedandthattheoriginalpublicationinthisjournal iscited,inaccordancewithacceptedacademicpractice.Nouse,distributionor reproductionispermittedwhichdoesnotcomplywiththeseterms.

Editedby: HansWesterbeek, VictoriaUniversity,Australia

Reviewedby: DanielMason, UniversityofAlberta,Canada

*Correspondence: AnneL.DeMartini ademart1@kennesaw.edu

Specialtysection: Thisarticlewassubmittedto SportsManagement,Marketingand Business, asectionofthejournal FrontiersinSportsandActiveLiving

Received: 07March2022

Accepted: 19April2022

Published: 12May2022

Citation: DeMartiniALandButlerBN(2022)

Perspective:NationalFootballLeague TeamsNeedChiefDiversityOfficers. Front.SportsAct.Living4:891516. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.891516

Perspective:NationalFootball LeagueTeamsNeedChiefDiversity Officers

AnneL.DeMartini* andBarbaraNalaniButler

DepartmentofExerciseScienceandSportManagement,KennesawStateUniversity,Kennesaw,GA,UnitedStates

TheNationalFootballLeague(NFL)anditsteams,someoftheworld’smostprofitable sportingproperties,facechallengeswithdiversity,equity,andinclusion(DEI).Witha historyofdiscriminatoryworkenvironments,includingarecenthigh-profilelawsuit,the NFLanditsteamshaveapoorreputationontheseissues.Thisperspectivepiece investigatedNFLteams’utilizationoforganizationemployeesdedicatedtoDEI.Utilizing acontentanalysisofpubliclyavailabledata,thispieceinvestigatedDEIemployeesat NFLteamorganizations.Thestudyanalyzedtheposition’scharacteristicsincludingthe nameoftherole,thedepartmentinwhichitwashoused,andthereportingstructure.The studyalsoexaminedthedemographicsandprofessionalbackgroundoftheemployees intheroles.ThefindingsconcludethatNFLteamslagbehindotherAmericanbusinesses intheiradoptionofChiefDiversityOfficer(CDO)roles.Asof2022,only31.25%ofNFL teamshadadedicatedDEIstaffperson.Threeadditionalteamshostdiversitycouncils utilizingemployeeswithotherjobresponsibilities.TheemployeesfillingtheCDOroles weremajoritywomenandmajorityBlack.Thoughnottheonlyanswertoacomplex problem,inordertoaddressthesechallengesandmoveforward,theNFLteamsshould createChiefDiversityOfficer(CDO)roles.Thesepositionsshouldhaveappropriate reportingrelationships,well-craftedpositionresponsibilities,generousresources,and qualifiedandexperiencedemployees.

Keywords:diversityandinclusion,NationalFootballLeague(NFL),ChiefDiversityOfficers,sportmanagement, professionalsport,diversityequityandinclusion(DEI)

INTRODUCTION

NationalFootballLeague

TheNationalFootballLeague(NFL)isthemostpowerfulorganizationinAmericansport(Crepeau, 2020) andisalso“oneofthemostsignificantenginesofcontemporaryculture”(Oatesetal.,2014) (p.3). TheNFL,oneofthemostpopularandprofitablesportingleagues,dominatesAmerican sports’viewershipratings(Oatesetal.,2014;McGannonandButryn,2020).Thepopularityof American football,alongwiththemassiveinfluxofmediadollars,hasdriventhevalueofindividual NFLfranchisestobillionsofdollars(Crepeau,2020).

TheNFL anditsteamshavestruggledwithissuesofdiversity,equityand inclusion(DEI)inthepastincludingtheuseofracistmascots(Bruyneel,2016), race norming(Hobson,2021),andperpetuatingdiscriminatoryworkenvironments (Eichhorn,2020;Shephard,2021).TheNFLgeneratesbillionsofdollars,tothe benefit ofitsteamowners,whoselackofdiversityisstriking,giventheracial

makeupoftheplayersintheleague(McGannonandButryn, 2020). Therewasnotanon-whiteNFLteamowneruntil2012, andtherearecurrentlyonlytwoownersofcolorwithmajor ownershipinterestsandsignificantinvolvementintheoperations ofanNFLteam(Lapchick,2020).TeamCEO/Presidentpositions have beenpredominantlyheldbywhitemen(Lapchick,2020).

CommentatorshavecriticizedtheNFL’sattemptstoaddress DEIandsocialjusticeissues.ResearchersanalyzedtheNFL anditsteams’responsestoathleteactivism.MontezdeOca characterizedtheleague’sreactiontoBlackplayers’activismas contradictoryattemptstoappeasefansanditsmostlyBlack on-fieldworkers(MontezdeOca,2021).Ruggarguedthatthe leaguetriedtocontrolthevoiceofrebelliousBlackplayersby subsumingtheirsocialjusticeeffortsintoaweak,market-friendly versionof“justice”basedincallsforunity(Rugg,2019).Niven foundthatNFLteamspunishedathleteswhoprotestedduring games,payingthemlessandtreatingthemworsethantheir peers(Niven,2020).

Mostof theliteraturefocusesonNFLcoachesandplayers ratherthanadministrativeexecutives.Scangaidentifiedthelack ofdiversityamongdecisionmakers,theabsenceofdiversityin thefinalcandidatechoices,andtheanti-tamperingpolicyas factorsfacilitatingandperpetuatingacycleofracialemployment discriminationintheNationalFootballLeague(Scanga,2004).

Conlinand Emersondiscoveredstrongevidencethatnon-white playersfacehiringdiscriminationintheNFL,thoughtheyare treatedmoreequitablyinretentionandpromotiondecisions (ConlinandEmerson,2006).MaddenfoundBlackcoaching candidateswereheldtoahigherstandardduringthehiring process(Madden,2004).Someinvestigatorshavefoundthat theinstitution oftheRooneyrulemayhavemitigatedthat discrimination(FanningMaddenandRuther,2010;DuBois, 2016). TheRooneyrulerequiresNFLteamstointerviewat leastoneminoritycandidateforanyheadcoachingvacancy (DuBois,2016).However,Pittsetal.recentlydetermined afteraccountingfornumerouscharacteristicsofcoordinators, Blackcoordinatorsweresignificantlylesslikelythannon-Black coordinatorstobecomeheadcoachesoverthe2018–2020 seasons(Pittsetal.,2022).

Veryrecently,thepubliceyeagainfocusedontheNFL’s treatmentofDEIissues.BrianFlores,formerMiamiDolphins headcoach,filedalawsuitinFebruary2022allegingthat“the NFLremainsrifewithracism,particularlywhenitcomesto thehiringandretentionofBlackHeadCoaches,Coordinators andGeneralManagers”(para3)(Smith,2022).Thehigh-profile lawsuitclaims thatFloreswassubjectedto“sham”interviewsfor headcoachpositions(Smith,2022).

Also,a now-formerheadcoach’sdisparagingemailscame tolight—containingracist,misogynistic,homophobic,and transphobiccontent(RazackandMcKenzie,2021).These emailswere uncoveredbyanindependentinvestigationinto theWashingtonFootballTeam’swell-documentedmisogynistic andtoxicculture(Shephard,2021).Commentatorsnotedthe retrogradeopinions expressedintheemails,andtheirwide acceptanceamongthosewithwhomhesharedthem,illuminated theextenttowhichtheNFL’seffortstobroadenitsaudience areasham(Shephard,2021).Shephardopinedtheseemailsas

evidence of “deepculturalrotatthecenteroftheNFLand justhowfartheleaguestillhastogotofixit”(Shephard, 2021) (para4)andthattheNFL“hasnosincereinterestin thechangesitsmarketingcampaignpretendstotakeseriously” (Shephard,2021)(para7).TheNFL’s“systemicandsystematic protection ofwhitemeninpowerhasbredhypocrisy,race norming,genderexclusionandviolenceandperformativeacts ofsolidaritywiththeleague’smajorityracializedplayerpool” (RazackandMcKenzie,2021)(para5).

Followinga summerofmasspoliticalmobilizationtriggered bythepolicemurderofGeorgeFloyd,racialjusticeactivism compelledtheNFLtorespondtopublicpressure(Montez deOca,2021).In2020,asanattempttoimproveDEI efforts,theNFLmadeenhancementstotheexistingRooney Ruleandextendeditsapplicationfromsolelycoachingand footballoperationsjobstoawiderangeofexecutivepositions (Lapchick,2020).Teamsmustnowincludepeopleofcolor and/orfemale applicantsintheinterviewprocessesforsenior levelfrontofficepositionssuchasclubpresidentandsenior executivesincommunications,finance,humanresources,legal, footballoperations,sales,marketing,sponsorship,information technology,andsecuritypositions.Additionally,teamsthat developwomenorpeopleofcolortobecandidatesforprimary footballexecutive,generalmanagerpositionsoraheadcoach positionwillearndraftpickrewards(Lapchick,2020).InMarch 2022,theleagueannouncedtwoenhancementstotheRooney Rule(Jones,2022).Interviewingawomanforcoachingandfront officevacancieswouldcounttowardfulfillingtheRooneyRule requirementandonlyinterviewsconductedinpersonwillcount (Jones,2022).

In2020, theNFLLeagueOfficealsohiredJonathanBeane asSeniorVicePresidentandChiefDiversityandInclusion Officer,highlightingtheincreasedemphasisoncontinuingthe League’sprogresswhenitcomestoimprovingdiversityand inclusioninitsworkplaceandinallaspectsofitsbusiness (Lapchick,2020).TheLeagueearnedanA+ ratingfrom the 2020RaceandGenderreportcardforitsdiversityandinclusion initiatives(Lapchick,2020).

However,evenwiththeincreasedeffortsattheleague level,individualteamscontinuetostrugglewithDEI.Richard Lapchick,DirectorofTheInstituteforDiversityandEthicsin Sport,notedthecontinueddisparityinracialandgenderhiring practicesbetweentheNFL’sleagueofficeandtheir32teams.He identifiedaseriousunderrepresentationofwomenandpeople ofcolorattheteamlevelinpositionswithsignificantdecisionmakingpower(Lapchick,2020).Attheteamlevel,only15.9%of thevice presidentsarepeopleofcolorandonly25.1%arefilled byawoman(Lapchick,2021b).Atthebeginningof2021,only 17.3%of C-suitepositionsatNFLteamswerefilledbypeopleof colorand28.6%bywomen(Lapchick,2021b).ByMarch2022,all 32teamsarerequiredtofullyimplementaDEIplan(Lapchick, 2020). OnecomponentofthoseplansshouldbededicatedDEI staffpositions.

ChiefDiversityOfficerRoles

Diversityleadstogreaterfinancialperformanceanddrives productivity,innovation,anddecisionmaking(U.S.Government

PublishingOffice,2019).Thestrategicdiversityleadership movementhasmovedfromanarrowfocusonaccessandequity issuestoabroaderframethataddressestherichexperience ofanincreasinglydiverse,globalworld.Thisshiftrequires organizationstomakeDEIcentraltotheiroperationrather thanleavingitonthemargins(WilliamsandWade-Golden, 2013). Onewaytoaccomplishthatiscreatingstaffroles dedicated toDEI.

Governmententities,for-profitandnon-profitcorporations, andeducationalinstitutionshaveallcreatedthepositions,often calledChiefDiversityOfficers(CDOs).Localgovernmentshave beenaddressingequityissuesbyaddingCDOsorstaffwith similartitlesorfocus(Kimbrough,2017).Inrecentyears,CDOs have assumedanincreasinglyvitalroleinhighereducation. Between2000and2010,atleast60ofthenation’sleadingCollege andUniversitiesreframedtheirseniordiversityadministrative role(WilliamsandWade-Golden,2013).

Therehasbeensignificantprogressinthecreationofthese rolesinAmericanbusiness.In2012,only198outof957(20.7%) StandardandPoor’s(S&P)500firmshadadoptedCDOpositions (Shietal.,2018).Inthatsameyear,Forbesreportedabout60%of Fortune500 companieshadCDOsorexecutiverolesdesignated fordiversity(Kwoh,2012).Asof2021,about53%ofS&P500 firmshaveaCDOpositionorequivalent,upfrom47%in2018 (Greenetal.,2021).Institutionalpressures,crucialstakeholders that controlimportantresources,orinternalpowerfulactorsmay motivatefirmstoadoptCDOpositions(Shietal.,2018).

Recently,US corporationshavebeensettinghiringrecordsfor CDOsandlargecompanieshavepoachedpeersformanagement talentintheDEIspace(Green,2021).Afterthemassprotests in2020, newhiresofCDOsintheS&P500indextripledthe rateoftheprevious16months,increasingtoapproximatelya dozeneachmonth(Green,2021).Atleast60otherpublicly tradedfirms appointedtheirveryfirstdiversityleaderinthat timeframe(Green,2021).Eighty-fiveofthe100largestAmerican corporationshaveaCDO,16ofwhichaddedorelevatedtherole in2020or2021(Greenetal.,2021).TheincreaseinCDOsin large Americancorporationsdemonstratesfirms’commitment toworkforcediversityandatteststotheirwillingnesstoinvest resourcestoaccomplishit(Shietal.,2018).

However,evenwiththeuptickinhiresandrecognitionofthe role’simportance,turnoverintherolehasbeenhigh.Theaverage tenureis3.2years,comparedwith5.5yearsforaCEO(Green, 2021). Additionally,sincetheadoptionoftheroleisrelatively new,thoughitisbecomingmorecommon,thereisnotalong trackrecordofsuccess(Gabriel,2019).

Definitions oftheCDOrolevary.Thesepositionslead diversity,inclusion,andequityeffortsonseveralfronts,internally andexternally(Kimbrough,2017).CDOsgenerallyhavehybrid jobdescriptionsthatincluderecruitment,humanresources, marketing,ethicsandlegalcompliance(Kwoh,2012).CDO’s primaryduty istoconceptualize,define,assess,nurtureand cultivatediversity(WilliamsandWade-Golden,2007;Shietal., 2018).TheCDOalsobringsanewperspectivetothetop management teamandcancoordinatediversityinitiativesand fosterrelationshipswithimportantstakeholders(Shietal.,2018).

In a highereducationcontext,WilliamsandWade-Golden’s foundationalworkdefinedaCDOas“boundary-spanning senioradministrativerolethatprioritizesdiversity-themed organizationalchangeasasharedpriorityatthehighestlevelsof leadershipandgovernance”(WilliamsandWade-Golden,2013) (Chapter1,para.8).WilliamsandWade-Goldenrecommended thatastheinstitution’shighestrankingdiversityadministration theyreporttothepresident(WilliamsandWade-Golden,2013). TheCDO’sgoalistocreateanenvironmentthatisinclusiveand excellentforall,whichrequiresthemtoserve“anintegrative rolethatcoordinates,leads,enhances,and...supervisesformal diversitycapabilitiesoftheinstitution”(WilliamsandWadeGolden,2013)(Chapter1,para.8).

CDOrolesplacehighdemandsontheemployeeswho holdthem.Tobeeffectiveleaders,CDOsmustremainhighly involvedwiththeircommunitiesandincriticalconversations, engagedonthesubjectmatter,notdefensive,andbeableto hearcritiques(Wood,2021).CDOsmusthaveabroadspanof knowledge thatcanbeleveragedindifferentdomains,including adetailedandsensitiveunderstandingofdiversitytopicsacross identitygroups,rangingfromraceandethnicitytosexuality, nationalorigins,disability,andveteranstatus,amongothers. CDOsmustalsoretainworkingknowledgeofkeyaffirmative actionandfederalandstatepolicies(WilliamsandWadeGolden,2013).ThesuccessoftheCDOdependsonpersonal characteristicsofthisemployeeincludingleadershiptraits,ability tobuildnetworks,andunderstandingorganizationalchange (Leon,2014).

In2012, CDOsholdingtheserolesinFortune500companies were65%femaleand37%African-American(Kwoh,2012). Theirprofessionalbackgroundsrangedfromhumanresources andmarketingtofinanceandoperations(Kwoh,2012;Shietal., 2018). Approximately25%reporteddirectlytotheCEO,while therestansweredtohumanresourcesoranotherdepartment (Kwoh,2012).

OrganizationaldesignalsoimpactsthesuccessoftheCDO. Rank,supportstaff,reportingstructure,andresourcescan supportorjeopardizetheirwork(Leon,2014).Historically, workplace diversityhasbeenthedomainofhumanresource departmentsandmanagersresponsibleforDEIissueswere consideredtohavefewcareeroptionsandnegativeconnotations (AnandandWinters,2008;Shietal.,2018).Inthepast,CDOs wereone person,withlittletonostaff,resources,ordirect authority(Hancock,2018).

Toset upaCDOforsuccess,firmsmustmakemore substantialresourcescommitmentsthanfortheadoption ofothertypesofdiversityprograms(Shietal.,2018). Addinga CDOpositiontothefirm’sseniormanagement teamrepresentsasignificantstructuralchange(Shietal., 2018). Shietal.(2018) foundmostCDOseitherbelong tothetopmanagementteam,reportingtotheCEO,or reporttoatopmanagementteammember.Creatinga newseniorpositionrequiresinvestmentofpeople,money, andsettinguppriorities,goals,channelsofcommunication, andorganizationalroutinesthatalignwiththerestofthe organization(Shietal.,2018).

METHODS

Thisstudy utilizedcontentanalysisofpubliclyavailable secondarydata.Contentanalysisdefinestheprocessof summarizingandreportingwrittendata(Cohenetal.,2018). Contentanalysis hasbecomeapopularmethodforqualitative andquantitativeanalysesinmanagementandinternational businessresearch(GaurandKumar,2018).Priorstudieswithin thesport managementfieldhavealsoutilizedthismethod (PedersonandPitts,2001;PeetzandReams,2011;Milleretal., 2018;Williamsetal.,2021).

TheinvestigatorusedGoogleandtheLinkedInwebsiteand enteredsearchterms“[teamfranchisename]”anddiversity, “[teamfranchisename]”andequity,“[teamfranchisename]”

andinclusion.InvestigatoralsousedtheFindfunctionforeach searchtermoneachNFLteam’swebsite’sfrontofficestaffpage. See Table1 fornumbersofsearchresults.

AfteridentificationoftheexistenceofaDEIroleontheNFL teamstaffandthenameofthepersonholdingthatposition,the investigatorthenconfirmedtherolebyusingtheperson’sname asasearchtermonLinkedInandgoogle.UtilizingtheLinkedIn profileandanybiographicalinformationfoundthroughGoogle, theinvestigatorcodedtheavailableinformation.Themeasures usedforcodingwereposition(jobtitle,department,reporting structure),education(highestdegreeearned,degreediscipline) andpriorprofessionalbackgroundandqualifications.

Theinvestigatoralsocodedthephotosfordemographic characteristics.Visualimagescanbeanalyzedsimilarlyto

TABLE1| Number ofsearchresults.

analyzingtexts,forexample,through“reading”themeanings (Cohenetal.,2018).Sincethesecharacteristicswerenotselfreported, theinvestigatorwasrequiredtoperceivethem.

Thestudyutilizedtheethnicity(Hispanic/Latino/a/x/eornot Hispanic/Latino/a/x/e)andrace(White,Black.AmericanIndian, AsianorNativeHawaiian/PacificIslander)categoriesasbased ontheUSOfficeofManagementandBudget’sRevisionsto theStandardsfortheClassificationofFederalDataonRace andEthnicity(DepartmentofHealthHumanServicesOffice ofMinority Health,2018).Theinvestigatorobservedsocially assigned race,theracial/ethniccategorizationofindividualsby others(Whiteetal.,2020).Appearance-basedobservedrace isan externalclassificationbasedsolelyonreadilyobservable characteristics(Roth,2016).Thisincludesnotonlyaperson’s phenotypebut alsovisiblestatusmarkers,clothing,hairstyle,and thecontextoftheobservation(Roth,2016).Theseclassifications largely reflecthowperceptionsbythedominantormainstream socialgroups(Whiteetal.,2020).Insocialresearch,itistypically measuredbytheinterviewer’sclassificationoftheindividual (Roth,2016).

Theinvestigatordeterminedgenderusingphenotypeand dress.“Determininggender”istheumbrellatermforsocial practicesofplacingothersingendercategories(Westbrook andSchilt,2013).Peoplepresentinformationabouttheir genderand otherstheninterpretthisinformation,placing themingendercategories(WestbrookandSchilt,2013).The processofgenderdeterminationoftenreliesonvisualand behavioralcues(WestbrookandSchilt,2013)thatrelateto society’s expectationsofmasculinevs.femininebehaviorand presentation(Caffrey,2021).

FINDINGS

Outof the32NFLfranchises,10(31.25%)hadidentifiableDEI dedicatedstaffroleslikeaCDO.See Table2.TheJacksonville Jaguars,ChicagoBears,DetroitLionsandSeattleSeaHawkshad morethanoneexecutiveDEIdedicatedposition.Therewas evidencethreeadditionalteams,theLosAngelesRams,theNew YorkJets,andtheMiamiDolphins,havecreatedDEIcouncils utilizingemployeeswhomaintainedotherprimaryroles.

ThemostcommonpositiontitlewasDirector/VicePresident ofDiversity,EquityandInclusion,withhalfofteamsusingthis language.OtherpositiontitlesincludedChiefPeopleOfficer,Vice PresidentofSocialofResponsibilityandImpact,Directorof Latino/aDiversityandCulturalAffairs,andDirectorofInclusion andEmployeeInvestment.ForpositionsthatwerenotC-suite level,themostcommondepartmentinwhichthesepositions werehousedwasHumanResources(alsocalledPeopleand Culture).OtherdepartmentsrepresentedincludedMarketing, Strategy,andCommunications.

SevenoftheemployeesholdingtheseDEIpositionswere Black(70%),20%whiteand10%Latina.Eightoftheemployees werefemale(80%),20%male.Fiveofthetentheemployees inthesepositionshelddegreesmoreadvancedthanBachelor’s degrees.Twenty(20%)percentofthegroupattainedEd.D degreesandtherewereexamplesofanMBA,anMSHRM,

andanMSinSportsAdministration.Fourofthe10(40%)of theemployeesheldDEIspecifictrainingcredentials,themost commonofwhichistheUniversityofSouthFlorida’sCorporate TrainingandProfessionalCertificationDiversity,Equityand InclusionintheWorkplace.

Theemployeesintheserolesillustratetwodominant pathwaystoCDOpositions.Fourofthe10hadprevious professionalbackgroundsincorporate,for-profitbusinesses includingWalMart,Sephora,andAlaskaAirlines.Theother prominentpathwasgainingexperienceinhighereducationand intercollegiateathleticsadministration.Mostwereexternalhires, withonlytwoofthe10havingspentsignificanttimewiththe NFLteambeforeassumingtheCDOrole.

DISCUSSION Results

Thefindingthatonly31.25%ofNFLfranchiseshaveaCDO demonstratesthatNFLteamsaresignificantlybehindother Americanbusinesses.Evenin2012,wellbeforetheprotests followingGeorgeFloyd’smurderthatpromptedsomuch corporateaction,about60%ofFortune500companieshad CDOsorequivalent(Kwoh,2012).Almostadecadelater,the NFL’steamshavestillnotcaughtuptothatlevel.Including diversitycouncils,thenumberincreasesto40.6%.Theexecutive diversitycommitteemaybelessidealforgeneratingdiversity strategybecauseofitspotentiallackofexpertiseandthenonrepresentativenatureofthegroup(Williams,2013).

That manyoftheCDOpositionswerehousedinhuman resourcesisconsistentwithpreviousfindings.Historically, humanresourcedepartmentshavesupervisedworkforce diversity(Shietal.,2018).Similarly,75%ofCDOsatFortune 500companiesin2012answeredtohumanresourcesoranother department(Kwoh,2012).

Halfof theNFLteams’CDOsdidnotreportdirectlytothe owner,president,orCEO.HavingadirectlinetotheCEOcan giveaCDOmorepowerandvisibility(Kwoh,2012).MostCDOs either reporttotheCEOorreporttoatopmanagementteam member(Shietal.,2018).ThisindicatesthatNFLteamsmaynot beestablishinganorganizationalstructurethatwillbestsupport theCDOswork.AreportingstructurethatconnectstheCDOto thepresidentsendsapowerfulmessagetotheentireorganization andallowsCDOstoraiseissueswithinthehighestlevelsof leadership(WilliamsandWade-Golden,2013).

Thedemographicsoftheemployeeswhoholdthesepositions didshowsomeprogress.In2012,65%ofFortune500CDOswere female,and37%wereBlack(Kwoh,2012).Mostorganizations chooseCDOs fromunderrepresentedminoritygroups(Ngetal., 2021). TheNFLteam’sCDOsare80%femaleandsignificantly moreraciallydiversethantheFortune500CDOs,with70%Black employees.Theemployeesinthesepositionsaresignificantly morediversethanotherexecutiveroleswithinNFLteams.Only 17.3%ofC-suitepositionsatNFLteamsarefilledbypeople ofcolorand28.6%bywomen(Lapchick,2021b).Teamsenior administration,whichincludesdirectorandseniormanager roles,are20.1%peopleofcolorand25.3%female(Lapchick, 2021b). EmployeesinCDOrolesdoalignwiththeNFLteam’s

TABLE2| NFLteamswithCDO.

Teamname Titleofposition Reportsto

HighestdegreeDiscipline

ArizonaCardinals ChiefPeopleOfficer owner MBA HumanResources Leadership

ChicagoBears* SVPdiversity,equity andinclusion President/CEO Bachelors Business

DenverBroncos VPofdiversity,equity andinclusion

DetroitLions* SVPchiefpeopleofficer anddiversityofficer

IndianapolisColts Directorofdiversity, equityandinclusion

JacksonvilleJaguars* SVPandChief CommunityImpact Officer

LosAngelesChargersDirectorofLatino/a diversityandcultural affairs

MinnesotaVikings Directorofinclusion andemployee investment

SanFrancisco49ersDirectorofdiversity, equityandinclusion

SeattleSeahawks* VPofdiversity,equity andinclusion

* IndicatesevidenceofmorethanoneDEIexecutive.

RaceGenderBackground

BlackMaleCorporate

BlackFemaleIntra-organizationeventsand entertainment;intercollegiateathletics administration

SVPofstrategy EdD,mastersAthleticadministrationBlackFemaleCoaching,intercollegiateathletics administration

President/CEO BFA Musicaltheater WhiteFemaleCorporate;technology

VPoffinance MS,EdD Kinesiology;higher educationandstudent affairs

BlackMaleHighereducation

President/CEO MS BusinessadministrationBlackFemaleHighereducation

SVP,communications andexternalaffairs Bachelors Liberalstudies

EVPandchiefpeople andcultureofficer

Bachelors French

VPHumanResourcesMSHRM Humanresource management

President/CEO Bachelors Communications

LatinaFemaleStategovernment

WhiteFemaleIntra-organizationsince2006

BlackFemaleCorporate

BlackFemaleCorporate

productionlaborracialdemographics,as70.7%ofNFLplayers areBlack(Lapchick,2021b).

TheeducationalandprofessionalbackgroundoftheNFL team’sCDOsindicatethattheydotaketheemployee’s qualificationsseriously.Fifty(50%)percentoftheemployees hadadvanceddegreesandfourofthe10hadDEIspecific certificationsorcredentials.Thisisdifferentthaninthepast whensomeorganizationsplacedemployeesintothediversity rolewhohadnopreviousexperience,orwhosecareerswerein decline,orsomeonewhohappenedtobeavisibleminoritywith apassionfordiversity(Dexter,2010).

TheNFL team’sreticenceinhiringCDOsmaybeexplained bytheNFL’scultureandinsularity.Itisaleaguerun,owned, andcoachedbyahandfulofexecutiveswhichenablessystemic oppression(RazackandMcKenzie,2021). Shietal.(2018) found astrongeffectoffemaletopmanagementteamrepresentationon firms’likelihoodofadoptingCDOs.Atthebeginningofthe2021 seasontherewereonlyfourwomeninaCEO/Presidentposition ofanNFLteam(Lapchick,2021b).Thenumberofwomenin CEO/President positionshasincreasedfromzeroin2017toone in2018and2019totwoin2020andfourin2021(Lapchick, 2021b). Attheteamlevel,only25.1%ofVicePresidentpositions arefilled byawoman(Lapchick,2021b).Therefore,thelackof genderdiversityintopmanagementteamsmayleadtoalackof willtodevelopandsupportCDOs.

Recommendations

OrganizationsmayadoptaCDOpositionifdoingsowould allowthemtoincreaselegitimacy,improveefficiency,changethe corporateculture,andincreasecontroloverexternalresources andexternalactors,inresponsetodiversity-specificpressures (NathandMahajan,2008;Menz,2012;Shietal.,2018).The NFLis experiencingdiversity-specificpressuresandcallsto provethattheirexpressedcommitmenttodiversityandsocial justiceismorethanjustlipservice.Also, Shietal.(2018) foundaccumulativeindustryadoptionsimpactedfirms’decision toadopt CDOs.TheNFLteamsmayfeelpressurefromother majorAmericanprofessionalsportsteams,likeNBAteams,that areperceivedasdoingbetterintermsofdiversehiringand socialjusticeinitiatives(Lapchick,2020,2021a;Beard,2021; Butleret al.,2022).Therefore,NFLteamsthatdonothavestaff dedicated toDEIshouldcreateCDOpositions.

CDOsadvanceanorganization’sdiversityagendabutcannot besolelyresponsiblefortransforminganorganization’sculture (Gabriel,2019).IffirmsadoptCDOssimplyforimpression management,itcanwasteresources(Shietal.,2018).Creating anewleadershippositionsendsastrongsignal,butittakes morethanoneexecutivetomakeanimpactinthefaceof institutionalpushback(Green,2021).Therefore,theseroles deservesupportfromtheownerandCEO/President,appropriate reportingrelationships,well-craftedpositionresponsibilities, generousresources,andtalentedemployees.

NFLteamswithcurrentCDOpositionsshouldauditthatrole’s reportingstructure.AllNFLteam’sCDOsshouldreporttothe President/CEO,eventhoughthetrendofdevelopingnewroles attheseniorlevelisfairlyrecent(WilliamsandWade-Golden, 2013). Allowing theCDOtoreportdirectlytothePresident/CEO

gives credibility,indicatesthevaluetheorganizationplaceson therole,andplacesfinalaccountabilitywiththePresident/CEO. BusinessescharacterizedasDEIhighperformersweretwiceas likelyaslowperformerstoreportthattheCEO/Presidentis primarilyresponsibleforDEIissues(HRResearchInstitute, 2021). ReportingtothePresident/CEO,allowstheCDOto strengthen alliancesandnetworksacrossdifferentlevelsofthe organization’shierarchy(Leon,2014).Raisingtheprofileofthe CDOreflectsanorganization’swillingnesstoexposeandclose long-standingequitygaps(Zalaznick,2020).

Totruly shifttheorganization’sstructureandstrengthen itscommitmenttoDEI,theCDOneedstosuperviseother DEIstaffacrossdivisions.Thedevelopmentofavertically integratedCDOdivisionoffersapowerfulwayofcreatingamore responsiveorganizationalinfrastructurebycreatingeconomic, organizational,andstrategiceffects(WilliamsandWade-Golden, 2013).Diversitymanagementhasevolvedoutfromunderthe traditionalhuman resourcesandtalentacquisitionroles,to assumemoredotted-lineresponsibilitiesincludingcorporate strategy,corporatesocialresponsibility,organizationaldesign andeffectiveness,corporatemarketingandevensales(LLopis, 2011). Changerarelyhappenswhenadiversityleaderisseparated fromotherdepartments(Green,2021).

Sincemany oftheNFLteamshavealreadycreateddiversity councils,teamscouldensurethateachdivisionisrepresentedon thesecouncils,designatethatpersonasthe“Diversitylead”and allocatesomepercentageoftheirworkloadtoDEIwork.Then, eachoftheseleadsreporttotheCDOaswellastheirdivision head.RelyingondiversitycommitteeswithoutaCDOcanbe ineffective,sincetheyarecommonlynotsupportedbysenior leadershiporatrueinstitutionalcommitmenttoproducing results(Williams,2013).

TheCDOs jobdescriptionshouldbecarefullydrafted.The position’sdesignersshoulddelineateanareaofworktheydefine as“strategicdiversityleadershipwork”(WilliamsandWadeGolden,2013).ChangingcultureandmakingprogressonDEI issuesisnoteasynorfast(Hancock,2018).Achievingthesegoals requires expandingexpectationsforCDOsoutsideoftactical areaslikecompliance,training,problemsolving,recruiting,and eventplanning(Hancock,2018).CDOsmustlearntoplaya moreintegralstrategicroleinthedesignofnewbusinessmodels, includingoperatingmoreholisticallyinageneralmanagement andoperationalcapacity(LLopis,2011).EffectiveCDOsworkto ensurethataDEIlensisrootedthroughoutallfunctionalareas (internal)andthesupplychain(external)(LLopis,2011).

Onceinstalled,diversitychiefsoftenfacechallengessuch aslackofbudgetanddirectreports(Green,2021).NFL teams shouldensureCDOsreceivethesupporttheyneed. OrganizationsmustbepreparedtogiveCDOstheresources necessarytosucceed(Geisler,2021).CDOsshouldbepartof strategic planningandallemployeesshouldknowthattheCDO isapowerplayerandnotjusttheorganization’sconscience (Geisler,2021).FullyempoweringtheCDOallowsthemto leveragediversityasanintegralpartoftheorganization’soverall strategy(Shietal.,2018).

Finding therighthireforaCDOpositionisdifficult, becauseitrequiresawiderangeofcompetencies

(WilliamsandWade-Golden,2013).NFLteamsshouldvet candidatescarefullyandfocusthesearchonthosewhocan leadandguidechange.Ifnot,theteamsriskhiringemployees whoareunderpreparedforthedemandsofsuchacomplex, high-profile,andpoliticallychargedposition(Williamsand Wade-Golden,2013).Whenanareaofresponsibilitybecomes critically important,organizationsspecialistswhoarecontent experts(WilliamsandWade-Golden,2013).TheNFLshould continuethepracticeofexternalhireswhohaveaprofessional backgroundincorporateDEI.

“ThedevelopmentoftheCDOrolemarksasteptoward creatingspecializedcapacitytoengageinstrategicdiversity leadershipwork”(WilliamsandWade-Golden,2013)(Chapter1, para.70). AdoptingCDOpositionsleadsstakeholderstoperceive organizationsarestronglycommittedtoworkforcediversityand canbeconsideredrolemodels(Shietal.,2018).ItistimeforNFL teams tocatchupwithAmericanbusinessesandtrulyprioritize diversity,equityandinclusion.Thoughnottheonlyanswerto acomplexproblem,NFLteamsshouldaddormodifyexisting CDOrolestoensureanorganization-widecommitment.

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DATAAVAILABILITYSTATEMENT

Theoriginalcontributionspresentedinthestudy areincludedinthearticle/supplementarymaterial, furtherinquiriescanbedirectedtothecorresponding author.

AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS

ADandBBcontributedtoconceptionanddesignof thestudy.ADconductedthecontentanalysisand wrotethefirstdraftofthemanuscript.Allauthors contributedtomanuscriptrevision,read,andapprovedthe submittedversion.

FUNDING

ThepublicationfeewasfundedbyWellStarCollegeof HealthandHumanServicesatKennesawStateUniversityfor thiswork.

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Citation:

ZhengJandMasonDS(2022)New Media,Digitalization,andtheEvolution oftheProfessionalSportIndustry. Front.SportsAct.Living4:921329. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.921329

doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.921329

NewMedia,Digitalization,andthe EvolutionoftheProfessionalSport Industry

JingxuanZhengandDanielS.Mason*

FacultyofKinesiology,Sport,andRecreation,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton,AB,Canada

Theprofessionalsportindustryachievedtremendoussuccessinthetraditionalbroadcast mediaage,establishedamulti-sidedmarketandaneffectivebusinessmodelforrevenue growth.However,theemergenceandproliferationofthenewmediatechnologies havedrasticallychangedthemedialandscape,creatingamuchmorecomplicated cross-mediaenvironmentthatunitespopularityandpersonalization,structureand agency.Suchachangingenvironmentcreatestransformationswithintheprofessional sportindustry,andadaptingtothesetransformationswillleadtotheevolutionofthe professionalsportindustryanditssuccessinthedigitalmediaage.

Keywords:informationeconomy,attentioneconomy,multi-sidedmarket,valueco-creation,ecosystem

INTRODUCTION

Theprofessionalsportindustryhasthrivedwiththeformationofasymbioticrelationshipwith traditionalmassmedia(GrattonandSolberg,2007)andaderivedmulti-sidedmarketmodel, characterizedbyasynergisticeffectofvaluecreationfromboththedemandandsupplyside. However,theadventandproliferationofnewmediatechnologieshaveprofoundlychangedthe medialandscapeanditscompatibilitywiththeprofessionalsportindustryanddisruptedthevalue creatingeffectivenessofthemass-media-centricsportmulti-sidedmarket.Thisconceptualpaper examineshowdigitalizationandnewmediatransformedthemulti-sidedmarketofprofessional sportindustry.Todoso,wedevelopanalternativecross-mediaecosystemmodelofsport basedonrecentcommunicationstudiesanduncoverfourmajorimplicationsthatthesport industrymightfaceduetothetransformationofitsexternalenvironmentintoacross-media ecosystemcharacterizedbythesynergisticeffectoftraditionalmassmediaandmyriademerging digitaltechnologies.

Thispapercontributestotheliteratureondigitalizationoccurringwithinasportmanagement context.Despitetherapidadvancementofdigitaltechnologyinbroadersocietyanditsprevalent applicationsinthesportcontext,sportmanagementresearchregardingdigitaltransformationof thesportindustryisstillinitsinfancy.Currentlythemainissuefacingdigitaltransformation insportmanagementresearchrelatestothelackofatheoreticalframeworktounifystudies pertainingtotraditionalmassmediaandnewmedia,aswellasthenewecosystememergedfrom changingrelationshipsbetweensportbusinessandtheirdivergenttypesofmediapartners.Inthis paper,bydevelopingatheoreticalframeworkofacross-mediaecosystem,weofferausefultoolto systematicallyanalyzetheimpactofdigitaltransformationonthesportindustryandunveilnew valuecreatingmechanismsthatcanleadtocontinuousprosperityofprofessionalsportindustryin thenewmediaage.

Theremainderofthispaperisstructuredasfollows.With afocuson theNorthAmericancontext,wefirstreviewthe relationshipsbetweentheprofessionalsportindustryandthe traditionalmassmedia,toexplainthevaluecreatingmechanism ofthesportmulti-sidedmarket.Wethenexaminethedisruptive changesthathadhappenedinthesport-mediasymbiotic relationshipduetotherapidgrowthofnewmediatechnologies, anddevelopedanalternativecrossmediaecosystemmodelto analyzetheevolutionaryimplicationsofdigitaltransformation forprofessionalsportindustry.Weconcludebyidentifying futureavenuesfordigitaltransformationinsportresearch.

PROFESSIONALSPORTAND TRADITIONALMASSMEDIA:AVALUE CREATINGMULTI-SIDEDMARKET

Theprofessionalsportindustryformedearlytiestothemass mediawhennewspapersandotherprintmediastartedto reportgame-relatedinformationtoreaders(Walker,2015). Sincethe1950s,withtheadventoftelevision,theprofessional sportindustryhasseenenormousrevenuegrowthoutsideof traditionalgaterevenues(Wenner,1989).Thesynergiesbetween themedia andtheprofessionalsportindustrycreatedalucrative businessmodelforbothindustries,boostingtheirpotentialto reachandestablishnewaudiences.Inthissection,weintroduce themulti-sidedmedia-sportbusinessmodelandanalyzehowthe alliancebetweensportandmediahasbenefittedboth.

MassMediaandtheFormationofa Multi-SidedMarket

Withitsemergenceinthelatenineteenthandearlytwentieth centuries,professionalsportinitiallydependedongatereceipts astheprimarysourceofincome(Fort,2018).However,with thedevelopmentofnewmassmediatechnologies(particularly television),mediarightsincomehasbecomethesinglemost importantrevenuefortheprofessionalsportindustry(Gratton andSolberg,2007;ZhengandMason,2018).Multi-sidedmarkets refer to“marketsinwhichoneorseveralplatformsenable interactionsbetweenend-usersandtrytogetthemultiplesides ‘onboard’byappropriatelychargingeachside”(Rochetand Tirole,2006,p.645).Multi-sidedmarketownersfaceaclassic “chicken andeggproblem,”whichforcesthemtotakeonthe strategyofsubsidizingonesideofamarketinordertodraw revenuesfromtheothersidetothemarket,ultimatelyresulting inthemarket’sfinancialviability(Wright,2004).Forexample, asa typicaltwo-sidedplatform,eBaychargesonlinevendors listingfeesand/orcommissionsononesideofthemarket, whilegrantingfreeaccessforconsumersontheother.Asmore consumersentertheplatform,vendorsbecomemoreinterested inpayingtoreachcustomersthroughtheplatform;inturn, themorevendors(andpurchaseoptions)consumerscanaccess, thegreaterthenumberofconsumerswilluseeBayforonline shopping.Thismechanismisdefinedasthenetworkeffector,to bemorespecific,the cross-sidenetworkeffect,whichoccurswhere themoreusersexistononesideofthemarket,themoreutility usersontheothersideofthemarketobtainfromjoiningthe

network(Eisenmannetal.,2011).Meanwhile, same-side network effects enableuserstoreapmorebenefitsbysimplyaccessinga largernetworkofusers(EconomidesandTåg,2012),suchaswith thetelephone orinternet.

Professionalsporthasdevelopedintoaspecialtypeofmultisidedmarket(see Figure1)consistingoftheleagueasthecentral platformandthefans,themedia,corporatesponsorsandhost communitiesondifferentsides(Mason,1999;ZhengandMason, 2018). Leaguesgeneraterevenuesfrom:fansprimarilythrough gaterevenues;themedia via broadcastrights;corporatesponsors withsponsorshipfees;andhostcommunities via subsidies providedforfacilities(Mason,1999).However,professionalsport isa specialtypeofmulti-sidedmarketintwoways.First,instead ofaconundrumbetweenthe“chicken”andthe“egg,”sport fans—morespecifically,gate-payingspectators—weretheside thatgeneratedtheinitialmomentumforprofessionalsportto developintoamulti-sidedmarket.Assport’sfanbasegrew,the media,corporatesponsors,andhostcommunitiesweredrawnto theplatformandprovideddifferentsidesofit(see Figure1).

Second,acrossthenetworkoftheprofessionalsportmultisidedmarket,themediamagnifythenetworkeffectswithand acrossthedifferentsides.Forinstance,moremediacoveragewill attractmorecorporatesponsorsandintensifythecompetition betweenhostcommunitiescompetingfortherighttohostsport teams.1 Withthemagnifyingeffectsofthemassmedia,the professionalsportindustrywasabletofullyexploitthenetwork effectsgeneratedfromthedifferentsidesofthemarket,and turnedthesenetworkeffectsintoa“doublewhammy”(Shapiro andVarian,1998,p.182)—thecombinationofbothdemand-side economies (economiesofnetworks)andsupply-sideeconomies (economiesofscale).

InformationProductandthe“Double Whammy”

Mason(1999) arguedthatthecoreproductofprofessionalsport industryis theuncertaintyofthegameoutcome,orthegame itself.However,withtheformationofasymbioticrelationship betweentheprofessionsportindustryandthemassmedia,this coreproducthasbecomemediated,whereasignificantportionof theproductisconsumedascontentavailablethroughthemedia. Onceproduced,themediatedsportproductcanbereplicated, edited,repackaged,anddistributedaccordingtoconsumertastes forverylittleincrementalcost.

Onthedemandside,same-sidenetworkeffectsamongfans canbesignificant,wherethemorefanswatchingthegame,the morevaluablethegamebecausethesamegameexperiencecan besharedwithmorepeople(ZhengandMason,2018).Moreover, unlikeotherproductsthathavediminishingmarginalutility,the professionalsportproducthasanincreasingmarginalutilitydue tothefactthatthemoreafanfollowsacertainsport,themore knowledgeshe/hewillpossessregardingthatparticularsport,and themoreshe/hewillbeabletoenjoytheexperience(Dietletal., 2012). Thesestrongsame-sidenetworkeffectsgeneratedamong

1Themovement ofsportsfranchisesfromonecitytoanotherinordertoobtain amorelucrativesubsidyisapracticelimitedtoNorthAmericanmarkets,where leaguesrestrictthenumberofavailablefranchises.

fansaremagnifiedbythemassmedia,andcrossdifferentsidesof theprofessionalsportmulti-sidedmarket,creatingstrongcrosssidenetworkeffectsaswellamongthemedia,corporatesponsors andhostcommunities(ZhengandMason,2018).Combined, thesame-sidenetworkeffectsandthecross-sidenetworkeffects engendera positivefeedbackloop (ShapiroandVarian,1998), expandtheprofessionalsportmulti-sidedmarketevenmore,and intheend,concentratethemarkettoawinner-take-all(Cookand Frank,2010)structure.Thisprocessiswhathasallowedforsome powerful mediaprovidersandsportsleaguestoemergethathave dominatedtheindustry.

TheDominationofSport-Media Conglomerates

Withnetworkeffectsengenderedbythemassmediaonthe demandside,andthemediatedsportproductsproducedby themassmediaonthesupplyside,acombinationofsupply sideeconomiesofscaleanddemandsideeconomiesofnetwork createdaprofessionalsportmarketdominatedbyaselect few(ZhengandMason,2018).Thiscanbeattributedto thecentralized,one-to-manynatureofthetraditionalmass media(Napoli,2010),whichcametobedominatedbyafew television networks.Throughatop-downbroadcastingmode thatdistributedhomogeneouscontent,afewmediaproviders “enjoy[ed]exclusiveformalandinformalaccesstoelitesources andactasgatekeepersbyfilteringinformationthattheyconsider newsworthyanddisseminatingittothegeneralpublic”(Etter

et al., 2019,p.31).Thevalueofsportcontentwasrootedin broadcastscarcity (HutchinsandRowe,2009),whereviewers hadfew optionstochoosefromandsportwasaformofmedia contentthatcouldattractsignificantdemand.

EMERGINGDIGITALMEDIA:ACROSS MEDIAECOSYSTEMMODEL

Incontrasttoafewtraditionalmassmediaoutletsproducing anddisseminatinghomogeneouscontentthroughatop-down, one-to-manyprocess,withastarkstructuraldistinctionbetween thegatekeepingroleplayedbythemassmediaandapassive informationreceiverroleplayedbytheaudiences(Etteretal., 2019), newmedia—moreprecisely,socialmedia—fundamentally changed themediadomain.Inthissection,weidentifyand analyzethosechangesthathavehadanimpactontheway informationisdisseminatedandhowsocietyfunctionsasa whole.First,however,weneedtodistinguishbetweennewmedia andtraditionalmassmedia,anddifferentiatetypesofnewmedia.

TypologyofNewMedia

Notallofthetypesofnewmediathatemergedwerecompletely differentfrom,ormoreadvancedthan,thetraditionalmass media.Forinstance,Web1.0newmediareferstothenascent generationofInternetwebsitesthathasasimilarinformation distributionmodeasthetraditionalmassmedia,which ischaracterizedbyaone-to-manybroadcastingdistribution

FIGURE1| Basicmodelofprofessionalsportmulti-sidedmarketwithtraditionalmassmedia(adaptedfrom BennerandTushman,2003).

structure(Drury,2008).Web1.0newmedia“mightbelikelyto adoptmany ofthecharacteristicsoftraditionalmassmediarather thanevolveastheentirelyuniqueandrevolutionarymedium” (Napoli,2010,p.56).Inthisinstancecontentproductionand platform formationhaveusuallybeensinglehandedlycontrolled anddistributedbyoneorganization,withlittleuserinteractivity (Filoetal.,2015).

Incontrast,Web2.0newmedia,orsocialmedia,canbe definedas“agroupofinternet-basedapplicationsthatbuild ontheideologicalandtechnologicalfoundationsofWeb2.0, whichfacilitatesinteractivityandco-creationthatallowforthe developmentandsharingofusergeneratedcontentamongand betweenorganizationsandindividuals”(KaplanandHaenlein, 2010, p.61).Facebook,YouTube,Twitter,InstagramandSnap areexamplesofWeb2.0newmedia,orsocialmedia.Social mediaischaracterizedbyheterogeneous,user-generated-content (UGC),horizontalinformationco-creationanddistribution,and selectiveexposureandaudiencefragmentation(Etteretal.,2019).

Socialmedia users“engageinparticipatoryandcollaborative contentgenerationbysharing,linking,collaborating,and producingonlinecontentusingtext,photo,audio,andvideo” (Abezaetal.,2015,p.602).ItisNewMedia2.0,orsocial media,thathasthegreatestpotentialimpactonthetraditional multi-sidedmarketstructureofprofessionalsport.

Recentyearshavewitnessedtheemergenceanddevelopment ofweb3.0,whichremainsinitsnascentstages;hencethe denotationandconnotationofwhatisweb3.0isstillheatedly debatedamongpractitionersandscholars.However,twowidely recognizedandacknowledgedcharacteristicsofweb3.0include: first,web3.0isconstructedbasedonblockchaintechnology andthebroaduseofcryptocurrency,whichenabledecentralized interactionsamonginternetusers,rebukingcentralizedcontrol ofservicesandinformationfrominternetgiantssuchas FacebookorGoogleinWeb2.0(Kshetri,2022);second,web 3.0is characterizedbyanimmersive,networked“metaverse” whichcanbegenerallydescribedasaparallelvirtualworldbuilt alongsidetherealworld(Metaverse,2022).Withtheadvanced technologysuchasArtificialIntelligence(AI),VirtualReality (VR),AugmentedReality(AR),orevenholograms,people“live” inthe“metaverse”vicariouslythroughtheiravatars,andcan engageinallkindsofactivitiessuchasvirtualshopping,gaming, tourism,aswellassportsentertainmentandtraining(Gursoy etal., 2022;Metaverse,2022).Forinstance,“theManchester Cityclub hasbecomethefirstsoccerclubtoannouncethat theEtihadStadiumwillbevirtuallyrecreatedintheMetaverse,” which“willallowfansofthesoccerteamtowatchmatcheslive withouthavingtophysicallyenterthestadium”(Metaverse,2022, para.20).

Supply SideChange

Thisisbecausenewmedia,especiallysocialmedia,altersthe wayinformationisproducedanddistributed.Traditionalmass mediaoperatesinatop-downmodetobroadcastinformation fromafewcontentproviderstoanaudienceofmany(Petko etal., 2015)withlimitedopportunitiesforaudiencestorespond; hence it iseasytocontrolcontentproductionanddistribution channels,aswellastheattributesofthecontentitself.Social

mediabringalternativewaystothisverticalbroadcastingmodel ofthetraditionalmassmediabyenablingtheemergenceofa “bottom-up”modelcharacterizedbyorganizedco-production, informationcreation,anddissemination(EtterandNielsen, 2015). “Social medianowenablevastaudiencestoserveasboth senders andreceivers”ofinformationandto“collectivelyengage inthecoproduction”ofthisinformation(Etteretal.,2019,p. 36).Withsocialmedia,contentisnolongerproducedbya fewmediaproviders,butco-createdbyactorsfromdifferent backgroundsandviewpoints(PrahaladandRamaswamy,2004). Collectively, millions(billions)ofusersofFacebook,Twitter, Instagram,YouTube,andothersocialmediacommentonand alterthenarrativesanddiscourseoftheinformationproduced bythemassmedia,posttheirownrelatedcontent,andexposeor revealeventsthatmaybeneglectedbythemassmedia,therefore subvertingmassmedia’sroleasthegatekeeperofinformationand socialrhetoric(ShoemakerandVos,2009).Inthesocialmedia context,anyindividualthatproducesanddiffusesinformation hasthepotentialtogainwidespreadattention(Webster,2016).

Theemergenceofsocialmediahasblurredolddistinctions betweeninformationproducersandsenders,andinformation receivers(Etteretal.,2019),andenablestheestablishmentof ahorizontal “hyperlinkedsociety”(Maeyeretal.,2013)where contentis createdinchunksofinterconnectednetworksofthe onlineworld(EllisonandBoyd,2013)anddistributedina nonlinear mode(Manovich,2002).Everyuserofthisnetworked onlineworld hasthepotentialto“contributetothecreation andrapiddiffusionofcontent,”asthey“freelyandeasilyshare informationacrossandbetweendifferentplatforms”(Etteretal., 2019 p.36). Eventraditionalmassmedia“increasinglyrely onsocial mediausersassources,usinginformationcirculated throughsocialmediachannelsfortheirreporting,whichisthen pickedupbysocialmediausersagain”(Etteretal.,2019,p.36).

With thetraditionalmassmedia,homogeneousinformation wasproducedanddiffusedbyafewmediagatekeepers;inthe socialmediaage,contentstemsfromdifferentsourcescreated byindividualsororganizationswithdiversemotives(Etteretal., 2019). Usersofsocialmediaproducecontentbasedontheir ownpersonalidentitiesandexperiencesinsteadofabidingby thecommercialnewscriteriaofthetraditionalmassmedia, andthis“experientialcredibility”(Hussainetal.,2017)can bedeemed moreauthenticandtrustworthythaninformation promotedbygiantmediaconglomeratesreflecting“corporate interests”(JohnsonandKaye,2004,p.625).Socialmediausers alsohavedisparatemotivestoengageininformationcreationand dissemination.Individualsandorganizations“usesocialmedia tobuildorreinforceadistinctiveimage—frequentlybuiltin oppositiontocorporatepractices—bysupportingorstigmatizing actionsthatarecongruentorincongruentwiththesocialvalues theyadvocate”(Etteretal.,2019,p.38).

Additionally,thetraditionalmassmediaproducemore objectiveinformationduetotheirnecessitytoconformto establishedindustrynormsandethicalcodes(Deephouse,2000), whilesocial mediacontentisoftencreatedtoexpressstrong emotionalsentiments,suchas“angerandfrustration,surprise andexcitement,shockanddisgust,orjoy”(Etteretal.,2019,pp. 39-40). Withoutthefilteringprocessimposedbythetraditional

massmedia,emotion-ladencontentprevailsmorereadilyin theonline world,attractsrapidandwiderpublicattention,and enables“emotionalcontagion”(Hatfieldetal.,1993)tomorelikemindedindividuals. Withsocialmedia,“emotionallycharged informationsharedbyanoriginalsenderwiththeirlinksrapidly branchesoutinmultipledirectionsandindirectlyreachesand possiblymobilizesavastaudience”(Etteretal.,2019,p.40).

DemandSide Change

Inthenewmediaage,homogenousinformationisgradually replacedbyhighlyheterogeneousandidiosyncraticcontent createdbydiversegroupsofactors.Theseactorsselectively exposethemselvestosimilarinformation“thatconfirmsprior beliefsandtoignoredisconfirminginformation”(Etteretal., 2019, p.41)duetotheirautonomyinchoosinginformation. Somerecentlydevelopednewmediatechnologiessuchasfeeding algorithmsreinforcethispositivefeedbackloopbyoptimizingthe chancesoftheaudiencebeingexposedtocontentwithsimilar traitsoverandoveragain;meanwhile,eventraditionalmass media“offertheiraudiencesincreasinglynarrow,partial,and preselectedinformation”inorderto“competefortheattention ofnicheaudiences”(Etteretal.,2019,p.41).Thecombinationof effects ofbothindividual’spreferencesforconsistentinformation thatcanresonatewiththeirexistingbeliefsandvaluesand newmedia’stendencytocatertothesepreferenceshasledtoa continuousfragmentationoftheaudiencesandtheformationof reputationsilos (Pariser,2012;Turow,2012)and echochambers (Sunstein, 2018).Theseechochambersare“onlinespaces,such asfanforumsoronlineactivistcommunities,thathostexchanges amonglike-mindedindividualswhoareshelteredfromopposing views”(Etteretal.,2019,p.41).

Becauseoftheexistenceofechochambersandreputation silosengenderedbytheadventandproliferationofthenew mediatechnology,somecommunicationscholarsworrythat societyisbecomingincreasinglypolarizedandfragmented, wherepeoplescreenoutanydissonantinformationthatrunsthe possibilityofcontraveningtheirpriorbeliefsandvalues(Stroud, 2011;Levendusky,2013).Thiswillleadtothe“growthofa massivelyparallelculturecomposedofmillionsofmicrocultures andtribaleddies”(Anderson,2008,p.183).However, Webster (2016,2017) arguedthatpeoplestilltendtobedrawntothe mostpopular informationalcontentofferedbywhatevermedia platformisavailable,andbuiltamodelofexposureandacross mediaecosystemwhichintegratestraditionalmassmediaand newmedia.

ADynamicModelofExposureandaCross MediaEcosystem

Mediausersnowfaceacross-mediaenvironmentwhere traditionalmassmediaandnewmedia(socialmedia)playtheir respectiverolestomeetthecollectiveandindividualneedsof differentusers.Inthedynamicmodelofexposurethatrepresents suchacross-mediamarket(see Figure2), Webster(2017) suggestedthatthrough“userinformationregimes”(Webster, 2011)suchasonlinerecommendationsystems,newmedia users pull certaintypesofinformationcontenttowardthem accordingtofactorsexogenoustothemediacontext,suchastheir

predisposedtastes,needs,attitudes,ormoods;while via market informationregimes(AnandandPeterson,2000)liketheNielsen ratings services,andtraditionalmassmedia push particularkinds ofcontentstowardthesamemediauserswhosepreferences aredeterminedbyfactorsendogenoustothemediacontext.In thenewmediaage,usershaveunprecedentedagencytopull similarpatternsofcontenttothemoverandoveragain;however, newmediausersareembeddedinanonlinear,recursivemedia environmentwheremediaexposureisnotonlydeterminedby personalpreferences,butalsoinfluencedbystructuralfactors suchasbigTVnetworks,famousjournalists,advertisers,and onlinealgorithms.

Byandlarge,thenewmediaagemightbemoreprecisely describedwithacrossmediamodel(see Figure2)where unificationofthetraditionalmassmediaturnsintoadichotomy ofpersonalityandstructure,whichbothattempttodraw massiveattentiontowardtheirinformationproduct,hencethe establishmentof“themarketplaceofattention”(Webster,2016).

IMPLICATIONS FORTHEPROFESSIONAL SPORTINDUSTRYINACROSS-MEDIA ECOSYSTEM

Inthissection,weanalyzethetransformationalimplications ofacross-mediaecosystemforprofessionalsportindustry. First,fans’consumptionbehaviorhasbeenalteredbynew mediatechnology,whichenablesthemtoconsumetheholistic professionalsportexperienceasopposedtodiscrete,timerestrictedgames;second,beyondconsumingthecontent producedanddistributedbytheprofessionalsportleagues andteams,newmediauserspossessthetoolstocreate theirownformsofmediatedcontentbasedontheirown idiosyncraticdemands,aswellasexpressthemselvesmorefreely andimmediately.Third,radicaltechnologicalinnovationof digitalizationerodestheoldbusinessmodelofprofessional sports,highlightsthestrategicparadoxbetweenexploitation andexploration,andcallsforthesimultaneousexploitationof thebroadcastingbusinessmodelofamulti-sidedmarketand explorationofanewmediabusinessmodeltodelivervaluetothe customers,andtocreatenewrevenueflowsforthesportindustry. Finally,newmedia—especiallysocialmedia—transformedhow sportleaguesorteamsareviewedanddiscussed,creating unexpectedturmoilwheredisruptiveeventshaveoccurred.Next, wewillbreakdownthesetransformationsingreaterdetail.

AttentionEconomyandChangesto ViewingBehavior

Theattentioneconomyperspectivesuggeststhatasnewmedia technologyhasenabledabundantinformationtobeproduced onadailybasis,theterm informationeconomy isreplacedby attentioneconomy,whereinformationisabundantandthescarce resourceistheattentionrequiredtoconsumesaidinformation (Simon,1991;DavenportandBeck,2001;Lanham,2007).With thislogic,theattentioneconomyandtheinformationeconomy canbeconceivedasendsofacontinuum(see Figure3).Asshown in Figure3,theleftsideofthe“informationeconomy/attention

economycontinuum”representsahypotheticalinformation economywhere informationproductionisvirtuallynonexistent, andthecollectivehumanattentivecapacitytoconsumethat informationisfargreaterthantheinformationthatisproduced. Asmoreinformationisproduced—duetotechnological advancement,forexample—itwilleventuallyoverwhelmthe collectivehumanattentivecapacitytoconsumeitatacertain point.Thus,societyshiftstoanattentioneconomy.Real-life scenariosfallinbetweenthetwohypotheticalcases,representing amixedinformationandattentioneconomy,andthedominance ofeitherchangeswiththeevolutionarycoursetakenby technology.Forinstance,traditionalmassmediaandsport existinaninformationeconomy.Withtheoverabundanceof informationbeingproducedwiththeassistanceofthenewmedia technologies,traditionalmassmediastartedtointegratethe attentioneconomybyestablishingandincorporatingmyriadnew mediaplatforms,whichwascombinedwithnewsport-related contentproducedbyotheractors.

Newmedia2.0,orsocialmedia,existsinapredominantly attentioneconomy,whichhasaprofoundimpactonconsumer behavioranddemandstheemergenceofinnovativebusiness modelstobringongoingvaluetothesportfanswhoarenew

mediausersaswell.Evidencehasshownthatenteringthenew mediaage,mediausers’attentionspanhasnarrowed(Davenport andBeck,2001;Fidler,2018)duetotheattentiondeficiencywhen facing informationoverload.Thishasbroughtfluctuationsin viewernumbersevenformajorprofessionalsportleaguessuch astheNationalFootballLeague(NFL).Forinstance,a9.7%drop wasreportedinoverallNFLratingsforthe2017-18season,an evensteeperdeclinefromthe8%dropfromthe2015-16season (R/GA,2018).RichardTing,GlobalChiefDesignOfficer,R/GA, pointedout that“Nowadays,consumershavesuchfragmented attentionspans.Theyhavesuchlimitedtimetodevotetoa2h-longbasketballgameor3-h-longbaseballgame.Sportsare competingwithsomanydifferentthings,likevideogamesand YouTubevideos.”(R/GA,2018,para.5).

Inthenewmediaage,sportfansaremorelikelytowatchthe gamefrommultiplemediaplatforms(ZhengandMason,2018); theyare morelikelytowatchhighlightsthantheentiregame (R/GA,2018);andtheyaremorelikelytowatchsportsgames fromnon-linearmediasuchasonlinestreamingthanlinearones suchastelevision(Singer,2017).Forexample,“morethan1.3 million homesintheUSdroppedtraditionalcableorsatellite TVserviceinthesecondquarterof2020”andswitchedsport

FIGURE2| Modelof acrossmediaecosystem(adaptedfrom Webster,2017).

viewershiptoover-the-top(OTT)deliveryplatformssuchas DAZN,Amazon PrimeVideo,orOTTdeliveryserviceprovided bytraditionalsportsbroadcasterssuchasFoxSportsorESPN (HowSports,2020,para.1; Newman,2020).Comparedwithpaid cable andsatelliteTVservices,theseOTTplatformsnotonlycost lessfortheconsumers,butcanalsotranscendtheboundariesof broadcastmediaandallowsportviewersto“watchmoresporton moredevicesinmoreplacesthaneverbeforeandtopersonalize viewingpracticesandexperiencesacrossavarietyofscreensand communitiesofinterest”(HutchinsandRowe,2019,p.977).In addition,fansalsousesocialmediaplatformssuchasFacebook orTwittertocommentonthegameorcommunicatewiththeir friendsduringgametime,whileloggingontoYouTubetowatch gamerecapsandhighlightsbeyondthegametime. Kavanagh (2019) pointedout thatinMay2019,“28%oflivesocialvideo viewers—thosewhohaveusedthelivefeatureonFacebook, Instagram,SnapchatorTwitter—havecommentedaboutasports eventonFacebookand17%havedonesoonTwitter”(Para.21). Inaddition,“Globally,22%ofinternetuserssaythatfollowing sportseventsisoneoftheirprimaryreasonsforusingsocial networks,climbingto39%amonglivesocialvideoviewers” (Kavanagh,2019,para.14).

Newmedia technology-savvyfansalsoprefertowatchshorter contentsuchashighlightsorgamerecapsoverentiregames. TomRichardson,founderandpresidentofConvergenceSports &Media,describedthis highlighteconomy:“Theleagueisputting outreal-timehighlightsin-game,ifyoureallywanttopay attentionasafan,youcandothatinahighlightsenvironment, withoutwatchingtheactualproduct”(R/GA,2018,para.8).

Evidencealso showedthattheslippingviewershipnumbersfor majorsportleaguessuchasNFLorMLBmightbeattributedto thefactthatfansarewatchinginfewerandshorterincrements duetotheirdispersedattentiontowardsomanydifferent informationsources(Singer,2017).Forexample,the9percent ratings dropoftheNFLinthe2016–17regularseasonamong millennials“wascausedbyan8percentdropinthenumberof gameswatchedanda6percentdeclineintheminuteswatched pergame(downto1h12minspergame)”(Singer,2017,para.

4).Confronting theriseofthenewmediatechnologiesandthe changingviewingbehaviorsofayoungergenerationofsportfans, professionalsportleaguesandtraditionalsportmediastrivedto adapttoamorenew-media-centricbusinessmodel.Forinstance, “MajorLeagueSoccerreplacedlocalcablerightswithdigitalonly localrightsonplatformssuchasYouTubeTVandESPN+,” while“ESPNlaunchedastreamingservicethatwillreplacelive sportasthefoundationofthecableindustry”(AghaandDixon, 2021, p.24).

Webster(2016) suggestedthatalinearwayofdelivering contentis characterizedbyapredeterminedbroadcastschedule

bywhichaudiencesmustabide.“Evenwithhundredsofchannels deliveredbycableandsatellite,usersmayhavetoaccommodate themselvestothescheduleoflineardelivery”(Webster,2016, p.64);whereasanonlineardeliverysystem“letusersfetch whattheywantatalmostanytime”(Webster,2016,p.64). Watchingprofessionalsportgamesontelevisionisatypicallinear wayofconsumingmediatedsportproduct.Withorwithout broadcasting,professionalsportgamesonlytakeplaceatacertain time,andbecausethegameitselfistimesensitiveandperishable, watchingagameafteritendsconsiderablyreducesitsutility toconsumers.Therefore,researchshowsthatnewmediausers, evenmillennials,stillenjoywatchinglivesportgames;and“more believetheyhaveincreasedtheamountoflivesportstheywatch onTVthanthosewhothinktheyhavedecreased”(Singer,2017, para.10). However,wewanttoargueherethatnewmediausers aremorelikelytoutilizienonlinearmediaplatformstobuild themselvesthewholesportexperience;hencetoacertainextent, theimportanceofthegameitselfanditsuncertainoutcome declinesasanexperientialproductcanstillbedevisedand deliveredwithoutwatchingtheentiregame.

ValueCo-creationandPowerBalance Tipping

Inmarketingresearch,aservicedominantlogic(SDL)suggests thatconsumerscreateanddeterminetheirownvalue-in-usewith thevaluepropositions(incarnatedastheproducts)offeredby theproducers(VargoandLusch,2004).Inthemediadomain, thecore product—thecontent—canbealtered,edited,and/or createdbymediausersharnessingtheenablingpowerofnew mediatechnology.Billionsofnewmediausersgloballyconverge anddivergeoneverypossibleaspectoflife,withtraditional massmediaoutputs,constitutingtheentiremediaecosystem.As discussedearlier,thebroadcastingmediaageisplatformdriven— afewmassmediaplatformswereabletodrawmostofthepublic attention,whereasthenewmediaageiscontentdriven—valuable contentwillflowacrossdivergentmediaplatforms,“itexists acrossplatformsprovidingwidelysharedencountersthatfocus publicattentiononthemostsalientnewsandentertainment” (Webster,2016,p.163).

Asa formofcontent,professionalsportstillattractsmassive publicattention(VargoandLusch,2018).Alongwiththecocreation abilityendowedbynewmediatechnologyfromsports fansandconsumers,diversifiedcontentcanbecreatedto meetthehighlyindividualizedneedsofdistinctconsumers.For example,forthosefanswhodonotwanttowatchentiregames thatlast2–3hlong,theycansearchforgameresults,stats,and commentsreadilyonvarioussocialmediaplatforms(Singer, 2017). Someofthosefeedsareproducedbyofficialsources, othersarecreatedbyregularfansandconsumersthemselves;

FIGURE3| Information economy/attentioneconomycontinuum.

combined,morecontentproductionequalsmorevaluetothe oldcustomers,andthemoreexposure,themoreopportunityto drawtheattentionofnewcustomers.Moreover,mostoftheuser generatedcontentgenerated via socialmedia,isnotprofit-driven (Covaetal.,2015a,b).Therefore,professionalsportcanharness thiscontent freelytoaugmentthevalueofitsproductwithout worryingaboutcompetitiontocaptureitsvalue.

Acontent-drivenparadigmalsofavorsnichesportsor entrepreneursintheprofessionalsportindustry,bringsother lessprominentprofessionalorevenrecreationalsportstothe forefront,andthuspotentiallyaltersthepowerdynamicsofthe professionalsportindustry.Inatraditionalmassmediamarket, themostpopularandpowerfulsportorganizationsandtheir productswereprioritizedtobebroadcastedbydominantmass mediaproviders.Whateverwasbroadcastbythemassmedia unequivocallyattractedhighlevelsofpublicattention.This mutualreinforcementmechanismresultedinastructurewhere onlyafewmediacompaniesandleagues/sportsdominated. Inthisscenario,theimportanceofmediaincomeandlow viewershipandattentionmadenichesportsstruggle.Inaddition toreceivinglittlemediarelatedincome,nichesportsalsolacked mediaexposure,hencethepublicattentionthatfurtherimpeded theirdevelopment(Billings,2014).However,inthecontentdrivenculture ofthenewmediaage,nichesportscanatleast createtheirownopportunitiestopromotetheirsports.

TheStrategicParadoxofExploitationand Exploration

“Strategicparadoxesdescribeorganization-levelperforming tensionsthatstemfromthepluralityofstakeholdersandresult incompetingstrategiesandgoals”(Smith,2014,p.1593). Whenfacingradicaltechnologicalchangeintheorganizational environment,suchastheemergenceandproliferationof newmediatechnology,growingcomplexityanduncertainty oftenexacerbatethepressuresonorganizationstoreconcile simultaneouslycompetinginternalandexternaldemandsand developtheorganization’sstrategicpriorities(Greenwoodetal., 2011;Besharovandsmith,2014;Smith,2014).Managing strategic paradoxesisaformidabletaskbecause“pressureto minimizeinternalconflictandtoaddressexternallegitimacy driveleaderstochooseasinglestrategy”(Smith,2014,p. 1594).Althoughstrategyscholarshaveacknowledgedthat paradoxesarepersistentandhardtoresolve,somesuggestthat alteringthe“either/or”mindsettoaparadoxicalthinkingof “both/and”(SmithandTushman,2005)caneasethetensions betweenconflicting requests.Inthissection,weintroduce thestrategicparadoxofexploitation/explorationasamajor challengethatprofessionalsportsneedtofaceinacomplex crossmediaenvironment.Therefore,abalancingstrategywhich “involvesdefininganovel,creativesynergythataddresses bothoppositionalelementstogether”(Smith,2014,p.1594) simultaneously canactasameanstomanagetheissuesfacedby professionalsportinthedigitalage.

Balancingexploitationandexplorationisatypicalstrategic paradoxthatcaninfluencethedecisionmakingprocessofan organization(March,1991;BennerandTushman,2003).The

functional operation ofanorganizationtakesthecooperation andcoordinationofdifferentunitstoworktowardthe samegoal,andconstantsensemakingandsensegiving(Gioia and Chittipeddi,1991)betweendifferentunitswithdivergent objectivesandprioritiesincreaseoperationalcostsandchancesof conflict.Therefore,organizationalroutineshavetobedeveloped tokeeptheorganizationefficientandproductive(Nelsonand Winter,1990).Oftenseenasasourceofinertiaandrigidity, strategy researchershavearguedthatorganizationalroutinescan facilitatechange(FeldmanandPentland,2003)aswellandserve asthesourceofanorganization’sdynamiccapability(Teece etal., 1997).Managementtechniquesandproceduresstemming fromorganizationalroutinescanstimulateincrementalchanges andinnovationsthattendtoanswertothedemandsof theexistingmarket(March,1991;BennerandTushman, 2003). Incrementalinnovationsfocusmanagerialattentionon exploitingan organization’sexistingresourcesandincreaseits abilitytoadapttoastableenvironment“whentechnological environmentsarecharacterizedbyincrementalrefinements ofanexistingtechnologicaldesign”(BennerandTushman, 2003, p.249).Exploitationactivitieshelptheorganization “findoperational efficienciesinexistingproductsforshort-term sustainability”(Smith,2014,p.1593).

However,exploitationactivitiescanhinderanorganization’s capabilitytoengageinradicalinnovation,orexploration(March, 1991;Benner andTushman,2003),which“introducenovel innovations toachievelong-termsustainability(Smith,2014, p.1593).Explorationisimportanttoorganizationsfacinga turbulentenvironmentwithradicaltechnologicalchangeand environmentaluncertainty,because“theabilitytodevelop newtechnologicalcapabilitiesrapidlyisespeciallycriticalin environmentscharacterizedbyrapidinnovationandchange” (BennerandTushman,2003,p.249).Therefore,intimesof radical technologicalchangeintheorganizationalenvironment, thestrategicparadoxbetweenexploitationandexploration becomesmoreprominent.

Professionalsportsinstitutionalizedcertainbusinessroutines toexploitopportunitiesintheageofbroadcastingmassmedia (GrattonandSolberg,2007;Milne,2017),aperiodcharacterized bythedominanceoftheinformationeconomy.Withlimited mediaentitiesfromwhichtheaudiencecouldchoose,andthe uniformitythosemediaprovided(Webster,2011),partnering with thebroadcastingmediacouldalmostguaranteeaudience attention.Asmentionedearlier,thisubiquitouspatternledtothe creationofpowerfulnationaloreventransnationalprofessional sportsentities(Webster,2016).Initially,professionalsports leaguesandteamssoldsportsproductsandservicesdirectly tosportsfans,gainingticketrevenue(Mason,1999);second, sportsleaguesandteamssoldtheattentionoffanstothemedia andsponsorsalike,inexchangeforbroadcastingrightfees andsponsorshiprevenue.Effectiveemploymentofthisbusiness modelwassufficienttodriveenormousrevenuegrowthforthe professionalsportindustryinthemassmediaageofthelate twentiethCentury(ZhengandMason,2018).

Theproliferation ofdigitaltechnologyhasstirredradical transitionswhichhadanimpactontheprofessionalsport industry.Thisbusinessmodelhasbeenerodedbythetransition

fromaninformationeconomytoanattentioneconomywhich facilitatedonlinepiracyandillegalstreamingofsportgames thatchallengedtheexclusivityonwhichbroadcastmassmedia reliedtogainahighreturnoninvestment(Hutchinsand Rowe,2013a,b) andalsochangestotheviewingbehaviorsof professionsportconsumersasdescribedabove.Facingtheradical technologicalchangeofdigitalization,manyprofessionalleagues andteamsturnedtoincrementalinnovationsintheirexisting businessmodels,suchasupgradingthetransmissiontechnology fromananalogsystemtoahigh-qualitydigitalparadigm, cooperatingwithonlineplatformstoaugmentthesheervolume anddiversityofthesportrelatedcontent(Milne,2017).They alsopromoted theirbrand,product,orthoseofthesponsorson socialmediaplatforms,tryingtobuildandmaintainlong-term relationshipwiththeirfansandothercustomers.Forexample, theNationalBasketballAssociation(NBA)collaborateswith onlineplatformstoofferstate-of-the-artservicestobasketball fansaroundtheglobe,beyondthebasiclivegametelevision broadcast(Conway,2014).InChina,theNBArecentlyrenewed itspartnershipwithTencent,oneofthebiggestChinesedigital mediaoperators,andsignedanewcontractworthUS$1.5billion whichrunsthroughthe2024-25season(NBAeyesChinese growth infive-year,2019).

Underthenewdeal,liveNBAgames,videoondemandand short-videocontentwillbeavailableforfansthroughTencent’s digitalandsocialmediaplatformsincludingQQ.com,Tencent Sports,TencentNews,TencentVideo,QQ,Weixin/WeChatand Weshi.Tencentwilldevelopinnovativeadvertisingproducts,and launch“miniprograms”formobiledevices,includingtheNBA’s fanloyaltyprograminChina,“NBAQiuMiQuan.”(Frater,2019, para.2)

However,thesestepsthattheprofessionalsportorganizations tooktoadapttothedigitalizationevolutionarestillcharacterized bynon-radicalinnovationsfeaturingaone-to-manymode customizedforexistingconsumersets(BennerandTushman, 2003). Diversificationandextensionofthesportproductsdoes notchangethefactthatsportfansstillassumeapassiverole asconsumerwiththeprofessionalsportorganizationsasthe centralactivevalueproducer,whoresistembracingthecocreationpowerofthesportconsumers via newmediaplatforms withopenarms(HutchinsandRowe,2013a,b).Futureresearch shouldexaminehowtheprofessionalsportindustrytreatsthe agencycreatedbysocialmediauserstogenerateadditionalvalue, whilesimultaneouslycircumventingrisksstemmingfromsucha dynamicandradicallychangingenvironment.

Moreover, BennerandTushman(2003) suggestedthe establishmentofanambidextrousorganizationthatcan accommodatetheneedforoperationalefficiencyandferment innovationsimultaneously.Specifically,anorganizationmust bothexploitexistingtechnologiesandefficientlyexecute incrementalprogression,whileexploringnewtechnologyand effectivelyadaptingtoradicalinnovation;andtheseprocesses

shouldbelooselycoupledfromeachothersothatfunctional efficiencywillnothinderinnovativeeffectiveness(Bennerand Tushman, 2003).Inthesamevein, ZhengandMason(2018) proposeda“combinedmultisidedmarketandbrandplatform ecosystem”(p. 85)todealwiththeparadoxofexploitationand explorationfromamacro-levelperspective.

Amultisidedmarketcanbeexploitedtoadjusttoincremental innovationundertheone-to-manymodefacilitatedbydigital technology,whileabrandplatformecosystemshouldbe avirtual-community-based,looselycoupledconstellationof brandcommunities(MunizandO’Guinn,2001;Grantetal., 2011) subjecttotheautonomousoversightofvarioussports stakeholders,exploringradicalchangessparkedbythesocial mediatechnology.Inthebrandplatformecosystem,professional sportexperimentswithradicalinnovationthroughtrialand error,andsharesco-createdvaluewithallitsstakeholders.For example,NBAformedastrategicpartnershipwithKuaishou—a famousChineseshortvideoplatform—onOct19,2021sothat Kuaishoubecame“anOfficialNBAChinaShortVideoPlatform andthefirstVideoContentCreationCommunityofNBAChina” (Hubbardetal.,2018,para1).Inordertoexploitandexpandthe brandvalueofNBAandKuaishou,

KuaishouandNBAwillgrantcopyrightedcontenttooutstanding creatorsandencourageuserstomakesecondarycreations.Atthe sametime,thiscooperationwillgivegreateraccesstovarious rightsandintereststohigh-qualitycontentcreators.Through thecontentcreatorbackstagebuiltbyKuaishouandtheNBA, creatorswillbeabletocommercializethecreationofhighqualitycontent.Kuaishouwillprovidepromotionresources andcommercializationopportunitiesforoutstandingworks,and jointlyempowercreatorstomonetizewithplatformcommercial resourcesandNBAcopyrightedcontent(KuaishouTechnology, 2021,para 5)

Onepromising futureresearchavenuewouldbetoempirically testtheeffectivenessofabrandplatformecosysteminfacing andengaginginradicalinnovations,anditscompatibilitywith amultisidedmarketofprofessionalsport.

OrganizationalSocialApprovalAssetsand NewMedia

Firmlegitimacy,status,reputationandcelebrityarecrucial socialapprovalassets—“intangibleassetsthatderivetheirvalue fromfavorablestakeholderperceptions”(Hubbardetal.,2018)— that canbringthefirmnecessaryresourcestosurvive,develop andthriveinahighlycompetitivebusinessenvironmentby influencingkeystakeholders’willingnesstoexchangeresources withthefirm(Deephouse,2000;LounsburyandGlynn,2001; Rindova etal.,2006).Legitimacyemphasizestheimportanceof conformingbehaviorsfororganizationsinlinewithtaken-forgrantednormsandinstitutionsderivedfromtheirinstitutional environment(Thorntonetal.,2008).Organizationalstatus reflectsanorganization’srelativepositioninanetworked environment“fromaccumulatedactsofdeference”(Sauderetal., 2012, p.268),whilefirmreputationisconsideredthepublic discernment ofanorganization’soutstandingcapabilitiesbased

2This agreementhasbeenunderminedbyrecenteventsthathavestrainedthe relationshipbetweenthetwoparties.

onitsconsistentpriorperformance(Deephouse,2000;King andWhetten, 2008).Organizationalcelebrityisdefinedasa firm’s abilitytoattractwidespreadpublicattentionandtoevoke positiveaffectsatthesametime(Rindovaetal.,2006).Firm legitimacy,reputation,andstatusareanalyticalevaluationsbased ontherationaljudgementofstakeholders,whileorganizational celebrityismoreemotion-driven(Pollocketal.,2019).However, newmedia—especiallysocialmedia—rendersconstructswith dominantrationalaspects,suchasreputation,“becomingmore emotional”andthereforemoreunpredictable(Pollocketal., 2019, p.464).Asingledisruptiveeventcanfermentonsocial mediaand rapidlyspiralintoaglobal-levelevent,inturncatching theattentionofthemassmedia,continuingtoescalateuntil eventuallybecomingacrisisthatheavilyimpactsthefocalfirm’s reputationinanunexpectedmanner(Etteretal.,2019).

Forexample,in2019acrisisrelatedtotheNBA’sbusiness relationshipwithChinastartedwhenDarylMorey,general manageroftheHoustonRockets,tweetedhispointofview onHongKong’sstateofpoliticalunrest.Despitethecontent’s non-sportnature,andinspiteofthefactthattwitterhasbeen bannedfromChinesemarket,itinstantaneouslybecameviralon variousChinesesocialmediaplatforms,triggeringdisaffection amongstNBAChinesefanstowardtheHoustonRocketsclub. ManyfansfeltoffendedandassertedthatthefactthatYaoMing hadonceplayedfortheRocketsandtheRocketshadbeen theirfavoriteteamsincethenmadeMorey’spositionevenless acceptable.Emotionalcommentswereleftonline,fansswore allegiancetotheircountry,vowedtoneverwatchHouston Rocket’sgamesoreventheNBAaltogether,andrequested Morey’sdismissal.Ironically,afteraninitialresponsefromthe NBA,whoexpressedregretthatMoreyhaddeeplyoffended fansinChina(Tensley,2019),mediaintheUStookitasa signof weaknesstosubmitto“China’smoneyoverhuman right”(Smith,2019),whereasChinesefanssawitasexuding arrogance andrefusingtoapologize.Asthecrisiscontinued toescalateAdamSilver,thecommissioneroftheNBA,had toreaffirmtheNBA’spositionacknowledgingMorey’srightto freedomofspeechtoalleviatedomestictensions(Wade,2019). However,inturnthisstatementfurtherexacerbatedChinesefans’ angeranddrewderisionfromtheChinesemainstreammedia andeventheChinesegovernment.Althoughthiseventhasnot beenfullyresolved,ithasalreadycausedsomeseriousbacklash suchastheimmediatesuspensionofpartnershipsfromseveral majorChinesebusinesssponsors,includingtheaforementioned agreementwithTencent.Tencent,“theNBA’sexclusivedigital partnerinChina,”electedto“suspendlivestreamingforthe preseasongames”(Tensley,2019,para.3).Inaddition,Chinese state televisionstation(theCCTV)refusedtobroadcastNBA Chinapreseasongamesaswell(Tensley,2019).

Importantly, theNBA’sreputationhastakenaheavyblow inChina,whichmightpotentiallyleadtomorealienation ofitsbiggestoverseasmarketinthefuture,byanincident irrelevanttoitspriorbusinessperformance,orevenoutsidethe parametersofitsbusinessorsportperformanceentirely.This offersanintriguingresearchavenueawaitingfutureempirical examination.Astheexampleabovehasshown,althoughsocial mediaenableregularmediauserstocreateusergeneratedcontent

andparticipateinthevalueco-creationprocess,whichbrings professionalsportorganizationenormousopportunities;italso empowersfansandconsumerswithtoolstoengageinvaluecodestruction(Stieleretal.,2014).Valueco-destructionisanascent researchtopicinsportmanagementstudy,thusrequiringmore in-depthempiricalresearchtodisclosetheverynatureofthis phenomenon.Inaddition,morequalitativeresearch—especially textualanalysis—shouldbeconductedtoexaminemultiplesocial mediaplatformssuchasFacebook,TwitterorInstagram,in ordertorevealhowfansco-createorco-destructvalueforthe professionalsportindustry,orhowtheframingofdiscourse onsocialmediaplatformscaninfluenceintangibleassetsofthe professionalsportorganizationsuchaslegitimacy,reputation, statusorcelebrity.

MOREFUTURERESEARCHAVENUES OPENEDUP

Sportmanagementresearchexaminingtheinfluenceof thedigitaltransformationontheindustryremainsinits formativestages(Yoshida,2017;Thompsonetal.,2018).With moreinformation competingforpeople’sattention,anda correspondingfiniteattentionspan,sportfansmightchoose topaymoreattentiontocertainhighlightsofthegamesthat interestthem,insteadofwatchinganentiregamethoroughly. Theimportanceofthegameitselfmightdecline,asmight theuncertaintyofthegameoutcome,asthecoreproductof professionalsportinthemassmediaage(Mason,1999).This transformation willlikelyreducetheimportanceofthestrategies professionalleaguesadoptedtokeepcompetitivebalance amongstteams(Fort,1995).Futureresearchcouldinvestigate empirically whetherprofessionalsportleaguesstarttoemphasize (LewisandYoon,2018)celebrityathletesattheexpenseof competitivebalance,towhatextentaplayer’sonlinefame compensatesforhis/heron-courtperformance,andwhetherthe longstandinguncertaintyofoutcomehypothesis(Garcíaand Rodríguez, 2002)beginstobeunderminedandreplacedbyanew hypothesiscommensuratewithacrossmediaregime,orremains intactevenwiththeattentioneconomyofthedigitalmediaage.

Furtherqualitativeresearchisneededtotheoretically groundhowsportmanagersmakedecisionsfacingthe inherentstrategicparadoxofexploitationandexploration (Smith,2014).Otherpotentialstrategicparadoxessuchas differentiationVSconformation,valuecreationVSvalue appropriation,internationalizationVSlocalization,orthe conflictinginstitutionallogicsofthemarketVSthecommunity aggravatedbyacrossmediacomplexcouldalsobestudied. Forexample,institutionallogicresearchshedslightonhow anorganizationmanagesco-existingcompetinginstitutional logics,andhowfrontlineactorsexecuteagreatdealof agencytosolvetheparadoxbycooperatingwithotherswith competinginstitutionallogicstoachieveamutualgoalonone hand,whilemaintainingstrongindependentidentityonthe otherhand(McPhersonandSauder,2000;Lounsbury,2007; Reay and Hinings,2009).Inaprofessionalsportcontext, empirical researchshouldexaminestrategiesandpractices

onlinemarketingpersonnelemploytoreconcilethecompeting institutionallogicsofthecommunityderivedfromtheformation ofonlinevirtualcommunitiesbyfansandconsumers,withthe logicsofthemarketimposedbythesportorganizationthatthey workfor;andhowthepracticestheyundertakedailycanresult inthedominanceofoneparticularlogic,whichwilleventually causefieldlevelinstitutionalchange(Smetsetal.,2012).

CONCLUSION

The professionalsportindustryachievedtremendoussuccessin thetraditionalbroadcastmediaage,establishedamulti-sided marketandaneffectivebusinessmodelforrevenuegrowth. However,theemergenceandproliferationofthenewmedia technologieshavedrasticallychangedthemedialandscape, creatingamuchmorecomplicatedcrossmediaenvironment thatunitespopularityandpersonalization,structureand agency(Webster,2016).Suchachangingenvironmentcreates transformations withintheprofessionalsportindustry,and adaptingtothesetransformationswillleadtotheevolutionof

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Citation: BarryT,MasonDSandTrzonkowskiR (2022)Arena-AnchoredUrban DevelopmentProjectsandtheVisitor Economy.

Front.SportsAct.Living4:912926. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.912926

Arena-AnchoredUrbanDevelopment ProjectsandtheVisitorEconomy

TarynBarry*,DanielS.MasonandRobertTrzonkowski

FacultyofKinesiology,Sport,andRecreation,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton,AB,Canada

Citiesofallsizesareactivelyengagedindevelopingvariousurbaninfrastructureprojects. AcommonstrategyusedinlargerNorthAmericancitiesisemployingarena-anchored urbandevelopmentprojects,whereaprofessionalsportsteamisusedasananchor tenantofasportsfacilitytogeneratedevelopmentinthecity.Onemeansofrelocating economicactivityistoincreasevisitationtothedesiredredevelopmentarea.Inthispaper weusedthevisitoreconomyasalenstoexplorehowarena-anchoredprojectsand theprofessionalsportsteamsthatplaytherefitintoalocalcity’stourismeconomy.To conductthisstudy,amulticasestudydesignwasusedtodrawdatafromtwocities: Columbus,Ohio,andDetroit,Michigan.Interviewsweregoaldirectedandconductedin personwithleadersinColumbus(n = 9)andDetroit(n = 10),andinductiveanddeductive approachestocodingwereundertakenintheformofcontentanalysis.Theresults indicatethatgrowingthevisitoreconomythrougharenaanchoredurbandevelopment reliesonplannedplacemakingviathestrategicapproachofbundlingdiverseamenities together.Thesefindingsprovidevaluablefeedbacktothosecitiesconsideringarena developmentprojects,andhowthearenasmaybecombinedwithothercivicamenities toundergirdthelocalvisitoreconomy.

Keywords:cities,arenas,stadiums,visitoreconomy,placemaking

INTRODUCTION

Citiesandregionsofallsizesgloballyareactivelyengagedindevelopingandbuildingvarious urbaninfrastructureincludingamenitiessuchasmuseums,conventioncenters,andsportsand entertainmentfacilities(Rosentraub,2010).AcommonstrategyusedinlargerNorthAmerican cities, isemployingarena-anchoreddevelopmentprojects,whereaprofessionalsportsteamisused asananchortenantofafacilitytogenerategreaterdevelopmentinthecity.Thesedevelopment projectsremainprominentinurbanredevelopmentplanningformanycities,andhavehadboth theirsupportersanddetractors.Thereareseveralrationalesthatcityleadersandbusinessleaders providefortheuseofpublicfundstobuildnewsportsfacilitiesandattractprofessionalsportteams, suchaseconomicandcommunitydevelopment,improvingqualityoflifeofresidents,andtourism (BaadeandMatheson,2004;Chalip,2006;MisenerandSchulenkorf,2016).However,itislargely viewedasacontestedpracticeasindependentacademicresearchlargelydebunkedthepurported economicbenefitsofhostingteamsdecadesago(Quirk,1987;Crompton,1995;Baade,1996;Coates andHumphreys, 2008).Despitesuchconcerns,citiescontinuetoallocatepublicfunds andbuild facilities,oftenaspartofcomprehensivedowntown(re)developmentefforts,inanattemptto relocateeconomicactivitybacktothecitycore(Mason,2016).

One rationale forinvestingistoincreasevisitationtotheredevelopmentarea;inthispaper,the visitoreconomyisusedasalenstospecificallyexplorehowarena-anchoredurbandevelopment

projectsandtheprofessionalsportsteamsthatplaytherefit intoa localcity’stourismeconomy.Atthecoreofthevisitor economyistheassumptionthateconomicactivitycomesfrom varioustypesofvisitors(Reddy,2006).Thevisitoreconomyisa broadterm thatrecognizestheeconomicactivityofallvisitors toadestination,suchasbusinesstravelers,thosevisitingfriends andfamilymembers,students,andpeopleattendingsportingand culturalevents(Hristov,2015).Italsoconsidersalltheelements that makeadestinationsuccessfulintermsofvisitation.This includesthenaturalenvironment;heritage,culture,andiconic buildings;retail,sport,leisure,andculturalfacilities;restaurants andhotels;transportationandparking;theservicesthatmake theplaceclean,safe,andwelcoming;andtheinfrastructurethat makeitanaccessibleplacetovisitwhileshapingitssenseofplace (Reddy,2006).

Senseof place,anditsanticipatedoutcomeofplacemaking (Aravot,2002)isconceptualizedbyseveralacademicdisciplines. Placemaking inurbanstudieshasshiftedfromfocusingon thephysicalelementsofprojects(Day,1992)toademocratic intervention betweenallstakeholders(Shibleyetal.,2003).

Placemaking isviewedasaprocessandameanstoanend;the endbeingthecreationofqualityplaces(Wyckoff,2014).Itis howa culturalgroupmarksitsvalues,perceptions,memories, andtraditionsonageographicspaceandoffersmeaningto thelandscape(CoatesandSeamon,1984;Othmanetal.,2013). Itshouldalsobeunderstoodfrombothorganicandplanned perspectivesandasanessentialpartoftourismdestination development(Lew,2017).Whileorganicplacemakingevolves fromlocal,bottom-upinitiatives,plannedplacemakingisatopdownapproachthatcontainsmodern,predictable,andcontrived features,designedformasstourismconsumption(Lew,2017).It isalso themostcommonapproachusedinarenaanchoredurban developmentprojects. Lew(2017) reasonedthatforplanned placemaking tocreateaconvincingsenseofplace,theremustalso besomespacefortheevolutionoforganicplacemakingtooccur.

Moreover, RichardsandDuif(2019) proposedthatplanned placemaking onlyworkseffectivelyifthreeelementsare combinedwithequalstakeholdersupport.Theseelements include:(1)thetangibleandintangibleresourcesavailable (i.e.,capital,land,human,orinfrastructure),(2)themeanings linkingpeopleandstakeholderswiththeplacestheylivein(i.e., symbols,identitymarkers,values,memories,ortraditions),and

(3)thecreativeandinnovativeuseofresourcesandmeanings thatcapturethepublic’sattention(i.e.,narratives,storytelling, branding).Thethirdelementofplannedplacemakingmaybe animportantdeviceforcitiestoincreasetheircompetitive advantageamongstothercities(Barney,1991).

Cityleadersmayperceivethestrategicapproachofbundling adiverseamenitymixasameanstosuccessfulplanned placemaking.Naturalandconstructedamenitiesthatare plannedinproximitytooneanothermaycontributeto placemakingaswellasbridgeotheramenitiesornearby neighborhoodsaspartofthisamenitymix.Naturalphysical amenitiescanconsistofwater,climate,humidity,environmental attractiveness,whileconstructedamenitiescanconsistof museums,conventioncenters,coffeeshops,juicebars,and researchlibraries(Clark,2004).Cityandbusinessleadersmay

perceive andadvocateforthebundlingofamenitiesnearone anotherasthekeytosuccessfularenaanchoreddevelopment andbroaderurbanre(development).Thereislimitedresearchto supportstrategicallybundlingamenitiesforsuccessfuloutcomes, thereforewedrawfromtheexistingresearchonthebundling ofsportevents,tourism,heritage,andhospitalityproducts.For instance, ChalipandMcGuirty(2004) reasonedaneffective way to incorporatesporteventsmorestrategicallyintothe hostdestination’sbroadertourismproductandservicemix, istobundlesporteventcomponentswiththehost’scurrent attractionsviaa“mixedbundlingstrategy”(p.267).Meanwhile, Xuetal.(2016) investigatedeventbundlingstrategiesfrom theperspectiveofvariouseventstakeholders,illustratingthat attendees’perceivedexperienceswereenrichedbyattending multipleeventsoverthecourseofonetrip.Inaddition, Huang etal. (2016) contendedthatruralcommunitieshaveshown toimprove secondaryattractionsanddiversifytheirtourism productbybundlingheritageattractionswithnon-heritage activities(Huangetal.,2016).Thisresearchhasinformedthis studyaswesoughttounderstandhowplannedplacemakingvia amixedbundlingstrategycanbeessentialtodevelopingthe visitoreconomy.Morespecifically,thisstudyinvestigatedhow stakeholdersintwoNorthAmericancities–Detroit,Michigan andColumbus,Ohio–utilizeconceptualizationsofplacemaking todeveloptheirbroadvisitoreconomyviaarena-anchoredurban developmentinitiatives.Thesetwocasesrepresentexamples ofexistingcomprehensivedevelopmentprojectsthathavehad varyingdegreesofsuccess,incitiesnotextensivelyviewedas tourismdestinations.

METHOD

Toconductthisstudy,amulticasestudydesign(Eisenhardt, 1989) wasusedtodrawdatafromtwocities:Columbus, Ohioand Detroit,Michigan.Formorecontext,thecityof Columbusisthe14th largestcityintheUnitedStatesand continuestobethefastestgrowingMidwestcity(USCensus Bureau, 2020a)incontrasttoothermajorcitiesinOhiosuch asClevelandandCincinnati.The ColumbusArenaDistrict is widelyregardedasasuccessstoryforsports-facilityanchored urbandevelopment.Forexample,Columbus’amenitiesstrategy wasfoundinthediscoursesurroundingtheconstructionof anewarena-anchoreddistrictinEdmonton,Canada(Sant etal., 2019),acknowledgingColumbusasasuccessfulexemplar ofintegratedurbandevelopmentcomprisingofcommercial, residential,hospitality,andentertainmentdevelopmentina mid-sizedcity(Rosentraub,2014).However,despiteColumbus’ perceived success,itisdifficulttoattributeincreasedlandvalues, intangiblebenefitsandincreasedeconomicactivitysolelytoa specificfacilityorsportsteam;asaresult,thereisstillskepticism associatedwithsportsfacility-anchoreddevelopmentprojects withintheacademiccommunity(Propheter,2019).

Meanwhile, Detroitprovidesaninterestingsitetoexplore sportsfacilitiesandurbandevelopmentsinceitremainsoneof themostblightedcitiesinNorthAmericadespiterecentattempts torevitalizeitsdowntowncore.WhilethecityofDetroitisthe

27th largestcityintheUnitedStatesandthelargestcityinthe stateofMichigan,ithashadaconsistentlydecliningpopulation forthepastdecade(USCensusBureau,2020b).Detroitwas knownfor itsmajorroleintheglobalautomobileindustrybut hasmovedtootherstrategicoptionstosustainthelocaleconomy (Galster,2012).Therecentarena-anchoreddevelopment District Detroit isasportsandentertainmentdevelopmentanchoredby LittleCaesarsArena,amulti-sportfacilitythatopenedin2017. Whilethe ColumbusArenaDistrict ispraised, DistrictDetroit has beencriticizedforgentrificationthatdisproportionatelyaffects Detroit’sAfricanAmericanpopulation,aswellasdelayedplans onproposedresidentialandhoteldevelopment,andhistoric buildingsrestoration(PinhoandShea,2019;Grahametal., 2021).

Nineinterviewswithnineindividualswereconductedin DetroitinDecember2018,whilenineinterviewswiththirteen individualswereconductedinColumbusinFebruary2019. Priortoconductingsemistructuredinterviews(Merriam,1988) participantswere recruitedbyresearchingprominentleadersin DetroitandColumbusonlineandsendingintroductoryletters viaemail.Inotherwords,intervieweesweresoughtwhowould likelyespouseandexpressthekindsofnarrativesassociatedwith theirrespectivecitiesandarenaprojectsofinteresttothisstudy. Asnowballsamplingtechnique(Goodman,1961)wasusedafter initialinterviews,asrespondentswereaskedtoidentityother actorswithwhomtheywerelinkedto Rowley(1997).

Table 1 presentsthecharacteristics–suchasjobtitleand thesectorofwork–foreachsubjectthatparticipatedinthis study,whichincludedlocalcivicleaders,businessstakeholders, journalists,cityandcountyadministrators,facilityoperators,an urbanplanner,academicconsultants,andexecutiveswiththe localchamberofcommerceandsportscommissions.

Inpersoninterviewslastedapproximately1handwereguided bysemistructuredinterviewquestions.TheDetroitinterviews produced215singlespacedpagesoftranscribedinterviewtext andtheColumbusinterviewsproduced230singlespacedpages. Oncetheinterviewsweretranscribed,participantswereemailed transcriptsandprovidedanopportunitytorequestomissionof specifictext.

Datawerecodedusingaformofcontentanalysis,which iscomprisedofasystematic,theory-drivenapproachtotexts, examiningbothlatentandmanifestcontent(Mayring,2000). Through anadaptedmethodofanalysisderivedfromboth Mayring(2000) and Denisetal.(2001),bothinductiveand deductiveapproachestocodingwereundertaken.

RESULTS

Theresultsofthisstudyindicatethatcitystakeholdersassert thatadvancingandgrowingthevisitoreconomythrougharenaanchoredurbandevelopmentreliesonplannedplacemakingvia oneexplicitstrategy,whichistheapproachtobundlingavariety ofuniqueamenitiesinproximitytogether.Thisrevealsthatsport andprofessionalsportsteamsarenotcentraltoplacemakingbut aretheanchoramenitythatattractsotherdesirableamenitiesand theirvisitors.Resultsfromthedataanalysiswillbepresentedin

TABLE1| Participantcharacteristics.

Jobtitleandorganization Fieldofwork

CityofColumbus

ExecutiveDirector,FranklinCountyConvention FacilitiesAuthority Cityadministration5

PresidentandCEO,ColumbusChamberof Commerce Cityadministration1

Director,FranklinCountyEconomicand DevelopmentDepartment Cityadministration2

BusinessEditor,TheColumbusDispatch

CityHallReporter,TheColumbusDispatch

ExecutiveDirector,GreaterColumbusSport Commission

Journalism/printmedia1

Journalism/printmedia2

Non-profit1

DirectorofPublicRelations,ExperienceColumbusTourism/hospitality

DirectorofEvents,GreaterColumbusSports Commission

DirectorofMarketing,GreaterColumbusSports Commission

Non-profit2

Non-profit3

CityAuditor,CityofColumbus Cityadministration3

Director,DepartmentofDevelopment,Cityof Columbus Cityadministration4

VicePresident,Planning,ArchitectureandReal Estate,TheOhioStateUniversity

Urbanplanning

Facilitymanagementand operation CityofDetroit

AssociateVicePresidentofBusinessAdvancement, TheOhioStateUniversity

ChiefofStaff,DetroitEconomicGrowthCorporationCityadministration1 ChiefFinancialOfficerandExecutiveVicePresident ofAdministration,DetroitEconomicGrowth Corporation

Non-profit1

DirectoroftheDetroitSportsCommission Non-profit2 DirectorfortheDepartmentofCivilRights,Inclusion, andOpportunity,CityofDetroit

VicePresidentofSales,Marketing,andSportsfor theDetroitMetroConventionandVisitorsBureau

ProjectsReporterandpastBusinessWriterforthe DetroitNews

ElectedCouncilrepresentativeofDistrict6,City Council

Cityadministration2

Tourism/hospitality

Journalism/printmedia

Cityadministration3

ProfessoratUniversityofMichigan Academia1

DeanattheMikeIlitchSchoolofBusinessatWayne StateUniversity Academia2

moredetailbelow,followedbyadiscussionandtheimplications oftheresults.

Detroit,Michigan

InDetroit,aNon-Profit(1)officialsharedthesignificanceofhow diverseamenitiesenticevisitorstothedowntowncore,stating:

Soagain.....attractingmoreconventions,morevisitors,more bodiesdowntothedowntownwhichisgoodfortherestaurants, it’sgreatforthehotelsandwe’vegotahotelboomgoingon.You knowtheoldfirehousewasconvertedintoanewhotel.

Whileacityofficial(3)discussedtheneedtocontain development incloseproximitytooneanotherasameansto attractpeopletovisit,workandliveintheDistrict,arguing:

Beyondthatwhatmyhopeis,isthatitisgoingtocreatea frameworkwhere,Idon’tknowhowfamiliaryouarewiththe arenaneighborhooditselfbutit’sa40-squareblockneighborhood that’scontainedwithinthequote,unquoteDistrict.Butthe neighborhoodssurroundingthatneedadditionaldevelopment, too.SoIthinkthehopeisthatwiththeprogressivedevelopment ofTheDistrictthattheneighborhoodssurroundingTheDistrict alsowillstarttoseemoreinvestmentbecausethereisgoingtobe thisadditionalkindofcorridornowwheremorepeoplewillbe livingandworking.

Inaddition,aseniortourism/hospitalitymanagerdiscussedhow theDistrictwasaleisuredestinationthathasattractedand integratedvariousrestaurantamenities:

Whoeverwould’vethoughtthatwe’dbeayouknow,aleisure destination,butwithallofthebuzzandtheconversationchanging aboutDetroit,we’vehadsomanypeoplethathavereallycometo experienceitandfindoutwhat’sgoingon,youknowwe’vehad over100restaurantsthathaveopenedoverthelast3years.

Finally,acityofficial(1)refereedto“commercialcorridors” wherebyneighborhoodsarerevitalizedviaamixedamenity bundlingstrategy,explaining:

We’redefinitelyseeingsomegoodthingshappeninthe neighborhoodsandwe’reseeingdevelopersthatarewillingto takemoreofariskinneighborhoodsthantheywerecertainly 10yearsagoandeven5yearsago,butwehavealotofwork todowithinDetroitneighborhoodsbothfromanaffordable housingstandpointandalsointherevitalizationofoursmaller commercialcorridors.

Columbus,Ohio

MeanwhileinColumbussimilarsentimentswereexpressed. Onecityofficial(5)articulatedhowbridgingamenities andneighborhoodstogetherismutuallybeneficialfor allstakeholders:

We’resittingintheConventionCenternowandtheConvention CenterissandwichedbetweenthearenadistrictandtheShort NorthArtsDistrictandsoitmakesthiscentercompetitive,that adjacencyandproximity,thatwalkabilityiswhatwecallitmakes itattractivetoconferencesandtradeshowsandconventionsthat rotatearoundtheregionandrotatearoundNorthAmerica.And soitistheentertainment,therestaurants,thebars,theshopping opportunitiesinboththeArtsDistrictandtheArenaDistrictthat contributetothesuccessoftheconvention,tourism,andtrade, andvisitoreconomyhere.It’ssymbiotic.

Thissamecityofficial(5)conveyedthesignificanceofrevitalizing acontaminatedbrownfieldwithasportsarenaastheanchorand catalystforeconomicgrowth,stating:

....herethearenawhichisnow20yearsolddidinfact sparkgrowthanddevelopmentofanarenadistrictsurrounding it,amixed-usedistrictofresidentialandcommercialand entertainment,lotsofjobs,lotsofpropertyvaluecreated,alot ofeconomicactivitycreatedandithasanchoredthat.Themaster developerreferstoitasamixed-usedistrictmasqueradingasa sportsandentertainmentdistrict.Ithassucceededinanchoring asitethatwasformerlyabrownsite,brownfield,formerlya penitentiary,whichwaswithlotsofcontaminationandlotsof uglyhistoryassociatedwithit.Itblockedthecentralbusiness districtfromgrowthanddevelopmentandsoitsremovaland replacementwiththearenaandthearenadistrictthatsurrounded ithassucceededinkeepingtheurbancorehealthyandgrowing.

Furthermore,anon-profitadministrator(1)sharedthepotential benefitsofbundlingamenitiesincloseproximitytooneanother assafety,cleanliness,walkability,andrestaurantvariety,stating:

I’mreallyproudofthedensityofthewalkabilitysoyou’renot justwalkinguponestreetwherethere’s30restaurantsbut,you know,there’sreallyahundredrestaurantsofvaryingpricepoints andIthinkpeoplestillfeelverysafe.I’mnotsayingwewouldn’t haveamishaphereandtherebutbyandlargewe’reknownfor thesafetypieceofit,thecleanliness,andthefactthatthere’ssuch avariety,sotherereallyis,youwannagotoasportsbar?Great,do youwannagotoaFrenchrestaurant?Sure.SoIthinkwhatIlove aboutitbestisthatpeoplehavesomanyoptionsandtheycome hereandtheyreallycansortofpersonalizetheirstay.

AseniorlevelurbanplannerelaboratedonthewayNationwide arenaanchoredotherinimitableamenitiesthatnotonlybridged thedowntowncoretoanneighborhoodcalledtheShortNorth, butalsostrengthenedtheartscommunity,restaurantscene,and Columbus’citynationalbrand,arguing:

...sotheShortNorth,ifyougoresearchit,the NewYorkTimes didanarticle,it’sbeenafewyearsbacknow,wheretheysaid theShortNorthisthesinglebesthomegrownartscommunity inthecountryandatthetimewehadmoregalleriesinthere butasrentshavegoneuptheonlythingthatcanpaytherents aretherestaurantsandsoit’sbecomelikearestaurantmecca nowbutyeahsowestartedtogetsomerealpositivepublicity, likeunsolicited.Sothe NewYorkTimes articlesanditjustkept buildingandIthinkitwaslargelytheArenaDistrictputitonthe map,gotalotofinkforthat....theArenaDistrictwasreallythe bigbangthatwastheoriginofthat.

StrategicApproachtoBundlingAmenities

RespondentsinColumbuscommonlyreferredtotheirbundling strategyinrelationtothepublic-privatepartnershipcalled TheColumbusWay.Forexample,onecityadministrator (4)contended:

You’llhearsometalkabout,Idon’tknowifintheresearch you’vecomeacrossthisphraseTheColumbusWaywherewe’re doingpublic-privatepartnershipsanditreallydoescomedown tobasicallysharedvalues.Youknowsharedbeliefthatthe governmentandtheprivatesectoraren’tadversarial.Thatwhat’s goodforoneisgoodfortheother,solongasyou’refocusedon inclusion,qualityoflife,andstronggovernments.

WhileaseniorlevelurbanplannerinColumbusreasonedevery cityhasuniquefeaturesthatmustbeconsideredwhendeveloping andimplementingastrategyforurbanplanning,stating:

....everycity’sgotitsownleversthatyouhavetopullbutyouhave tofigure’emoutwhattheleversareandthenwhatbecomescritical isyouhavetoknowtheordertopull’emandthat’strickier.Soit takesastrategyandIcan’tsaythatwesetoutwithastrategybut IwouldsaythatColumbus,asthestrategybecameapparentthey didn’tdeviatefromit...Whichisonereasonthey’reteachinga courseinHarvardonit.

Thisdefinedstrategytobuildingamenitiesdidnotemergein theDetroitdataasitdidinColumbus,yetitwasfoundthat respondentsinDetroitconsideredtheimportanceoffuture narrativesinrelationtoDistrictDetroitandtheirbroader downtownredevelopmentplans.

DISCUSSION

Theresultsofthisstudyrevealcitystakeholdersfeelthat plannedplacemakingviabundlingamenitiesmaybeessential todevelopingthevisitoreconomyinurbancenterswhen itconcernsarenaandstadiumprojects.Assuch,thispaper illuminatesnewunderstandingsofhowNorthAmericancities andtheirstakeholdersmayemployplannedplacemakingto developtheirbroadvisitoreconomyviaarena-anchoredurban developmentinitiatives.

First,professionalsportsteamsarenotviewedasthe centralfeatureofplacemakingtocitystakeholdersbutrather viewedastheanchorthatcaninitiateplacemakingthrough attractingotheramenitiestothearea,andtheirvisitors.Analysis suggeststhatother,intangiblebenefits,aresecondarytothe goaloftourismandeconomicdevelopment.Thisisillustrated throughthedescriptionofmulti-visitationstrategiesthrough adiverseamenitymix,includingcorporateandleisuretravel, sportandinternationaltourism,youthsporttravel,experiential tourism,nichetourism(i.e.,stadiumspecifictravel),aswellas resident/localvisitation.

Theresultsalsoshowtheextenttowhichthedevelopmentof arenadistrictsisastrategycitiesandlocalstakeholdersutilize toincreasevisitationinvariousformsunderanumbrellaof creatingeconomicimpact.InColumbus,respondentssuggested theirstrategywasinformedbytheirpublic-privatepartnership called TheColumbusWay,whichisdescribedassharedvalues ofcommunitystewardshipandprogress(ColumbusPartnership, 2021). Thisfindingillustratesthatfortherespondentsin Columbus,thispartnershipwascrucialfortheplacemaking successoftheColumbusArenaDistrict.Whiletheiramenities bundlingapproachmayhaveevolvedorganicallytowhereit isnowitisadeliberatestrategicapproach,itmaybeunique toColumbusmakingitacomplicatedprocessforothercities toadopt.

Thatbeingsaid,othercitiesreferringtothesuccessof Columbustosupporttheirownarenaanchoreddevelopment planscanobservethatColumbusdoesnotpossessany tangibleanduniquecompetitiveadvantagesthatcontribute

toplacemaking,incomparisontotheplacemakingsuccess thatacitysuchasBarcelonahashadsincehostingthe1992 OlympicGames(MansillaandMilano,2019).Onereasonwhy Columbusmay havehadsuccessindevelopingthisamenities bundlingapproachisthatitwasnotbattlingagainstanegative brandimage.Meanwhile,post-industrialcitieslikeDetroitare attemptingtoreinventtheircitybrandasitwasonceknown foritsmajorroleintheglobalautomobileindustry.Thismay meanthatplacemakingstrategiesmaybemoredifficultforthese lattercities.

Finally,respondentsineachcityhighlightedtheimportance ofmeetinghighquality-of-lifeindicatorsforboththeresidents and thevisitorstotheregion.Thischallengesexistingliterature thatcontendstourismdevelopmentisindependentoftheinterest ofresidents(Eisinger,2000).Thisfindingcontributestothe existingresearchonthevisitoreconomybypresentingthenew understandingthatcitystakeholderstodayareplanningfor-and seekingout-projectsthatwillimprovequalityoflifeofboththe visitorsandresidents.

Byexaminingcasesofvariousdegreesofsuccessandstages ofcompletion,thispaperprovidesvaluablefeedbacktothose citiesconsideringarenadevelopmentprojectsintheirrespective cities,andhowthearenasmaybecombinedwithother civicamenitiestoundergirdthelocalvisitoreconomy.The successofarenadistrictsappearstorestonthemulti-faceted approachofplannedplacemakingviabundlingavarietyof leisure,sport,andentertainmentamenitiesinaconcentrated area.Therefore,citieslookingtousearenasorstadiums toanchorfurtherurbandevelopmentshouldconsidertheir resourceandstakeholdercapacitiesandneedstocompletesucha projectsuccessfully.

DATAAVAILABILITYSTATEMENT

Theoriginalcontributionspresentedinthestudyareincluded inthearticle/supplementarymaterial,furtherinquiriescanbe directedtothecorrespondingauthor/s.

ETHICSSTATEMENT

Thestudiesinvolvinghumanparticipantswerereviewed andapprovedbytheUniversityofAlbertaResearch EthicsOffice.Thepatients/participantsprovided theirwritteninformedconsenttoparticipatein thisstudy.

AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS

DM,TB,andRTcollectedthedata.TBanalyzedthedata.TBand DMwrotethearticle.Allauthorscontributedtothearticleand approvedthesubmittedversion.

FUNDING

ThisworkwassupportedbySocialSciencesandHumanities ResearchCouncil(SSHRC)InsightGrant:#435-2015-0985.

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Copyright©2022Barry,MasonandTrzonkowski.Thisisanopen-accessarticle distributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(CCBY). Theuse,distributionorreproductioninotherforumsispermitted,providedthe originalauthor(s)andthecopyrightowner(s)arecreditedandthattheoriginal publicationinthisjournaliscited,inaccordancewithacceptedacademicpractice. Nouse,distributionorreproductionispermittedwhichdoesnotcomplywiththese terms.

Editedby: HansWesterbeek, VictoriaUniversity,Australia

Reviewedby: EricC.Schwarz, VictoriaUniversity,Australia

*Correspondence: TarynBarry tbarry@ualberta.ca

Specialtysection: Thisarticlewassubmittedto SportsManagement,Marketing,and Economics, asectionofthejournal FrontiersinSportsandActiveLiving

Received: 06May2022

Accepted: 06June2022

Published: 05July2022

Citation: BarryT,MasonDSandHeiseL(2022)

ShadowStadiaandtheCircular Economy.

Front.SportsAct.Living4:937243. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.937243

ShadowStadiaandtheCircular Economy

Mostattentiononstadiumorarena-anchoreddevelopmentprojectsisplacedonthe scopeandconstructionofthenewsportsfacility,whilelessemphasisisonthefacilityleft behind,whichwedescribeas shadowstadia.Some shadowstadia arerepurposedfor mixedusedevelopment,othersaredemolishedbuthavedelayedredevelopmentplans, whilesomeremainabandonedandemptyforyearsaftertheprofessionalsportsteamor eventisnolongerpresentinthefacility.Theenvironmentalimpactsof shadowstadia are notfullyunderstood,aslimitedresearchexistsonhowtheimmediateneighborhood anchoredbypre-existingvenuescopeintheshadowsofthesenewdevelopment plansandthelossofasportvenueanditsevents.Greenstrategiessuchasthe circulareconomymayextendthelifecycleofexistingsportfaciltiies.Tocontributeto thisdiscussionfurther,thisperspectivearticlewillfirstdiscusscurrentadvancesinthe academicliteratureonthecirculareconomy.Second,itwillpresentacomprehensive categorizationofshadowstadiagloballyandfutureopportunitiesonintegratingcircularity intobestpractices.Bydoingso,thisperspectivearticlehighlightsseveralareasoffuture investigationthatshouldbeconsideredandplannedforwhenmajorleaguesportsteams andcityleadersmovetheirteamandbuildnewfacilities.

Keywords:sportfacilities,stadiums,arenas,shadowstadia,circulareconomy

INTRODUCTION

Stadiumorarena-anchoreddevelopmentprojectsremainanimportantpartofurban redevelopmentplanningworldwide(JohnsonandWhitehead,2000;Crompton,2004;Rosentraub, 2006). Ithasbeenarguedthaturbanredevelopmentthroughsportstadiumor arenaprojectsresults inbothpositiveandnegativeoutcomesforcitiesandtheirresidents(Rosentraub,2009,2014;Grant Long,2013).However,whilemostattentionisplacedontheplanning,scope,and constructionof thenewsportsfacility,lessemphasisisonthefacilityorspaceleftbehind. Shadowstadia arevacated sitesorvenuessuchasarenasandstadiumsonceoccupiedbymajorprofessionaloramateursports franchises.Whenafacilityisdeemedobsoletebyateamanditsowners,itiseffectivelyatthe endofitslifecycle.Whenclaimingobsolescence,teamownersmaydecrythebuildingunsafeor unfit(Unger,1985;Holstege,2017),thattheirrevenueexpectationsarenotbeingmet(Shapiro et al., 2012),orthefacilityislackingmodernupgradestomaintainitasastate-of-the-artfacility (deMause,2016).

TarynBarry 1*,DanielS.Mason 1 andLisiHeise 2

1 FacultyofKinesiology,Sport,andRecreation,Edmonton,AB,Canada, 2 CityofEdmonton,UrbanPlanning,Edmonton,AB, Canada

Shadowstadiaofferbothchallengesandopportunitiesfor local governments,developers,andcommunitiesoncesports venuesarevacated.Optionstorenovateortobuildanewfacility areoftendebatedamongstownersofsportfranchises.Somesites areonlytemporarilyshadowstadiasincetheyarerepurposedfor differentdevelopment,whileothersaredemolishedorremain abandonedforyearsafterfacilityuseceases.

Althoughthemeritsofurbanredevelopmentthroughsport stadiahavebeenthesubjectofstudyanddebate,afocusis typicallyplacedontheimpactsofanewstadiumorarena developmentonitsassociatedcommunity.Thus,thereisscant empiricalresearchexaminingtheimpactofshadowstadiaorthe sitetotheirrespectivecommunities.Inaddition,theoutgoing siteisnottypicallyincorporatedintothebroaderanalysismeant toprovideacomprehensiveoutlookoftheeconomic,social,or environmentalimpactstolocalcommunities—resultinginalack ofinsightandempiricaldatatodrawfrom.

Thisisanimportantissueas,morebroadly,buildingand constructioncountsfor39%ofcarbonemissionsworldwide (UNEnvironmentandInternationalEnergyAgency,2017), whileoperational emissionsfromenergyusedtocool,heat,and lightbuildingsaccountsfor28%ofglobalcarbonemissions (WorldGreenBuildingCouncil,2022).Withthisawareness, thereis anemergingtrendinstadiumorarenadesign andconstructiontocapitalizeonenvironmentalsustainability initiativesandgaineithertheInternationalOrganization forStandardization(ISO)14001EnvironmentalManagement certificationorLeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign (LEED)certification.Academicresearchfocusedonnewstadia andurbandevelopmenthasalsoexpandedrecently(Mallenand Chard, 2012;Kellisonetal.,2015;Triantafyllidisetal.,2018).For instance, KellisonandHong(2015) identifiedgrowingpressure faced byarchitectsandsportfranchiseownerstoincorporate environmentallysustainablefeaturesintonewstadiadesign,and foundthateconomicsavingsoverthelifespanofthefacilityisa keydriverintheadoptionofpro-environmentalarchitectureand design.However,wearenotawareofrelatedpublishedresearch onthepotentialenvironmentalimpactsofshadowstadia.

Growingpressuretoincorporategreenconstructionpractices isaresultoftheincreasingacceptancethatthesportindustry hasaresponsibilitytoenvironmentalsustainabilityandclimate justice.Sport’scontributionisevenrecognizedintheUnited Nations’2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,aplanof actionfortheplanet,people,andprosperity(UnitedNations, 2022), anditsSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).The Agenda states(UnitedNations,2022):

Sportis alsoanimportantenablerofsustainabledevelopment.We recognizethegrowingcontributionofsporttotherealizationof developmentandpeaceinitspromotionoftoleranceandrespect andthecontributionsitmakestotheempowermentofwomen andofyoungpeople,individualsandcommunitiesaswellasto health,educationandsocialinclusionobjectives(2030Agendafor SustainableDevelopmentA/RES/70/1,paragraph37).

TwoSustainableDevelopmentGoalsthatsportcanstriveto meetinclude,SDG11—makecitiesinclusive,safe,resilient

andsustainable,andSDG12—sustainableconsumptionand production(Schröderetal.,2019).Therearemanywaysthesport industrycanmeettheobjectivesofthe2030Agendaandthese twoSDGs.Oneinnovativeapproachismovingtowardemerging circularsustainabilityandconstructionmethods. Wergeland andHognestad(2021) recentlyemphasizedgreenstrategiesand perspectivessuchasthecirculareconomythatcouldextend thelifecycleofexistingfootballstadia. Bengtssonetal.(2018) arguedthatthecirculareconomy,definedthroughspecific actionsand practicessuchaseco-design,reuse,refurbishment, remanufacturing(NasrandThurston,2006),repairandproduct sharing (ChertowandEhrenfeld,2012),cancontributeto reachingthesocial,economic,andenvironmentaltargetsset forthbythe2030Agenda’sSustainableDevelopmentGoals.

Assuch,thefollowingadoptsacirculareconomyapproach toexamineandplanforfuturestadiumorarenaconstruction andtheirshadowstadia.Itprovidesabriefoverviewof redevelopmenttrendsthathaveemergedincitieschallenged tosolveblightscreatedbyvacantshadowstadia.Bydoing so,thisperspectivearticlehighlightsseveralareasoffuture investigationthatshouldbeconsideredandplannedforwhen majorleaguesportsteamsandcityleadersmovetheirteamand buildnewfacilities.

SHADOWSTADIAANDTHECIRCULAR ECONOMY

Thecirculareconomy(CE)approachhasbeengaining recognitionandconsiderationfrommultinationalcompanies (Lacyetal.,2014).Thereisalsoanincreaseinpublished researchedontheCEinboththenaturalandsocialsciences (KirchherrandvanSanten,2019).Increasedresearchonthe subjectoverthelastdecadewasarguablyignitedbytheEllen MacArthurFoundationreportin2012(Geissdoerferetal.,2017) that calledforaneweconomicmodeltoaddresstheproliferation ofworld-wideresourcedepletion(EllenMacArthurFoundation, 2012).

Broadlyspeaking,CEisaneconomicsystemwherebyalltypes ofwastearereducedthroughthecontinuoususeofresources (Lacyetal.,2020).Accordingtothe EllenMacArthurFoundation (2021), CEreplacesthetraditionalLinearEconomythatwastes materialsonce theyhavebeenused.CEisalsobasedonthe preservationandenhancementofnaturalcapital,planningout waste,andlengtheningthecirculationofmaterialsandproducts. CEistherebydefinedthroughspecificactionsandpractices suchaseco-design,reuse,refurbishment,remanufacturing(Nasr andThurston,2006),repairandproductsharing(Chertowand Ehrenfeld,2012; Schröderetal.,2019).

Froman urbandevelopmentperspective, Coronaetal.(2019) definedtheconceptofcirculareconomyasasystematicapproach toaddressanddecreaseurbansustainabilityissuesthrough optimizationofmaterialsandenergy. Kirchherretal.(2017) explainedCEaskeepingenergyandmaterialflowswithin consumptionand productionbyusinglong-lastingdesign, materialandenergyefficiency,byreusingandremanufacturing ratherthanrecycling.Reusingcanbedefinedasusingaproduct

severaltimeswithoutchangingthedesignormaterial,while remanufacturingexplainshowausedproductisrenovated ormaintainedtothesamestandardasthenewororiginal product.Recyclingiswhereaproductisdestroyedtobeusedfor manufacturingnewproducts(Glader,2019).

Theurbanconstructionsectorisamongthemostevident sectorsthatcontributetonegativeenvironmentalimpacts (KucukvarandTatari,2012,2013;Onatetal.,2014)andresearch has shownthatCEconceptssuchastheadaptiverepurposingof existing,abandoned,andhistoricalbuildings,isbeneficialforthe environmentandneighborhoodrevitalization(BullenandLove, 2010;Bakeretal.,2017;Foster,2020).Drawingfromconcepts such asadaptivereuseandmaintenancearchitecture, Wergeland andHognestad(2021) concludedfootball(soccer)stadiahave potentialfor circularityifthebroadersportscommunitybecomes morewillingtopreservearchitecturallegacy.Todoso,they arguedfurtherinvestmentinstadiumrestorationisrequiredto limitdemolitionofhistoricstadia,whilelegislativechangesare necessarytomakeiteasiertomodifyexistingsportsvenues.

Therearefewstudiesthatanalyzecircularapproachesto sportstadia. Al-Hamranietal.(2021) contributedtothe first economicimpactstudyofacircularapplicationinthe constructionofEductionCity,astadiumbuiltforthe2022 FIFAWorldCupinQatar.Ratherthanusingaconventional concretecastingapproachforthefoundationofthenewstadium, acyclopeanconcreatemethodologywasemployed,usinga low-costalternativematerialfromexistingwasteproducts.The resultsofanenvironmentallifecycleassessmentfounda32% reductioningreenhousegases.Meanwhile, Kucukvaretal.(2021) conductedacomprehensiveanalysisonRasAbuAboud(RAA), areusablestadiumforthe2022FIFAWorldCup,madeout ofmodularshippingcontainersthatcanbedismantledand relocatedaftertheevent.Theauthorsdiscussedhowthesocial sustainabilityaspectsofthecirculareconomycanhaveaposteventlegacy,suggestingthatacirculardesigncansaveupto60% ofhumanhealthimpactsanddecreasedependencyonimported constructionmaterials.Nonetheless,moreempiricalresearchis necessarysolocalgovernments,thedevelopmentindustry,policy makers,communityadvocates,andacademicsunderstandthe environmentalimplicationsofshadowstadiaandthebenefits oftheCE.Thisresearchcouldbetterinformtheprocessand assessmentofnewstadiumdevelopmentsoastomeetSDGs11 and12.

REDEVELOPMENTTRENDSINSHADOW STADIA

Shadowstadiaarethefacilitiesthatremainwhensports franchisesabandonthemfornewones.Forthisstudy, informationonstadiaandarenashometoprofessionalhockey, basketball,football,soccer,rugby,orcricketteamsoverthe last110yearsaroundtheworldwascollectedandanalyzed toaddresshowcitiesaddresstheirshadowstadia.Olympic venues,motor-specifictracks,warpurposevenues,orrenovated structureswereexcludedfromtheanalysis.Primarysources includedpressreleases,councilreports,first-handaccounts,legal documents,sportsleagueBylawsandConstitutions,magazines,

newsletters,blogs,anddatacollectedfromGoogleMaps regardingtheshadowstadia’srecentphysicalstate.Theanalysis alsoincludedacademicstudies,articlesfrommajornewspapers, andperiodicalsforsecondaryinformationondevelopment trends.Throughtheanalysis,283shadowstadiaacross22 countrieswerefoundandcollated.Theredevelopmentplans forshadowstadiawerecategorizedinsevenways,including: mixed-useredevelopment,grocery/retail,residential,replacement stadia,andinfrastructureontheexistingsite,communityfacilities, sitevacancies,and other. Eachcategoryisdescribedinmore detailwhileincludingfuturecircularityimaginariesforshadow stadiasiteredevelopmentplanning. Table1 illustratesthis categorizationindetail.

Mixed-Used

Mixed-useredevelopmentplanscomprisedofacombination ofresidential,retail,entertainment,andcommunity recreation/greenspacehavebecomeincreasinglyfavorable optionsforcities.Oftheshadowstadiaexaminedworldwide,36 ofthosesites’repurposingplansincludedsomeapplication ofmixed-usedevelopmentstrategy.Whilethemixeduseredevelopmenthasoccurredwithlessfrequencythan othercategoriesnotedintheseresults,twelvecountriesare represented.OnewaythesesitescanintegrateCEfeaturesis tousethematerialsfromthedemolitionoftheoldfacility,for examplethebricksandothermaterialsfromtheoriginalsite couldbeusedinthenewdesign.Notonlycanthissupport circularity,butanaddedbenefitisitcancontributetotheurban landscapeandretainthecityaesthetic.

Grocery/Retail

Forty-twostadiawerefoundtohaveinvolvedapartnership withorreceivedfundingfromamajorgrocery/retailchainasa partoftheredevelopmentofthesite.Thisfundingsupported therelocationoftheteam,theconstructionofthenewsite, orboth.Mostredevelopmentplansanchoredbygrocerychains havebeenconcentratedprimarilyintheUnitedKingdom.One waytoincorporateelementsofcircularityintoagrocery/retail redevelopmentsiteistorepurposetheoriginalbuildingorarena, ratherthandemolishingit.However,thisrequirestheoriginal buildingtobeintactsothatitcanbeefficientlyrefurbished.For futuresportstadiaconstructionprojects,newfacilitiesshouldbe designedandbuiltwiththeconsiderationofrefurbishment,so thatdecadeslateracircularapproachcanbeemployed.

ResidentialDevelopment

Alargerproportionofsitessurveyedarecategorizedas residentialdevelopments,whereseventy-ninesiteswhich wererepurposedforhousing,whetheritbeapartment-style condominiumtowers,rowhousing,orcommunityhousing forlow-incomeresidentsorseniorcitizens.Residentialsite developmentcanalsobeemboldenedtouseCEelementsin theircreativeplanning,likemixeduseddevelopmentsites previouslydiscussed.Forexample,thecementfromtheoriginal sportsfacilitycanberemanufacturedandincorporatedintothe foundationoftheresidentialdevelopmentsite.

UseofExistingLand

Manymunicipalitiesandfranchiseownerschoosetorebuildan expandedmodernizedfacilityonthepre-existingsite,oronan adjacentpieceofland.Twentystadiawereeitherbeingbuilt onanadjacentpieceoflandwhiletheexistingsitewasthen convertedintoparkingorotherinfrastructurefacilities,orthe existingstadiumwasdemolishedandthenewstadiumrebuilt onthesitewhileitsteamfoundatemporaryhomeduring construction.Onereasonforthisisoftenattributedtoalackof spacelargeorcentralenoughtoaccommodateanewstadiumin analreadydenseurbanarea.Reusingtheexistinglandmayhave circularityelementsalreadyassociatedwiththisredevelopment trend,althoughthisdoesnotdeterminewhetherthereareother negativeenvironmentalimpactsassociatedwiththereuseofland, suchasincreasedtrafficcongestion.Thismayoccurduetolack ofpubicconsultationonchangestonaturalgreenspacesand existing/adjacentsiteredevelopmentplanning.

Non-profitOrganizations

Non-profitandcharitableorganizationshavealsobenefitted fromshadowstadiaredevelopmentopportunities.Forty-eight sitesreviewedarecategorizedashavingbeentransformedinto publicparksorcommunityrecreationareas,highschoolor post-secondaryfacilities,ordonatedtonon-profitorcharitable organizations.CEcanbeincorporatedinthistrend.For example,withreconfiguration,someoutdoorstadiaonceused

forprofessionalfootballandbaseballcanbereusedtoholdlocal youthsportcompetitions.

VacantSites

Thirty-oneredevelopmentprojectsexperiencedperiodsof vacancythatresultedinunderutilizedspaces,oftenindense urbanareas.Theserepresentoverlookedopportunitiesfor taxrevenuegeneration,andoftenrequirethesupportof socialandemergencyresponderservicestodealwithhuman andinfrastructure-relatedencounters.Often,vacantshadow stadiaareatemporarysituation;however,manystadiahave experiencedlongerdurationsofuncertaintywhilenegotiations tookplacebetweenmunicipalgovernment,lawyers,and communitygroups.Thetemporalityofvacantsitesmaynot advancetheCEapproach.Whetheritisboarded-upstadia orunoccupiedlandafteroriginalbuildingsaredemolished; vacantshadowstadiaillustratepoorplanningthatmayhave negativesocial,economic,andenvironmentalimpactsonthe nearbycommunity.

Other Notallsitescompiledfitintocategoriessummarizedabove. Twenty-sevensiteswereconvertedintothefollowing: commercialbuildings,corporateheadquarters,industrial yards,governmentbuildings,publicorprivatehospitals, majorroadways,militarybarracks,hospitals,parkinglots,or storagefacilities.

TABLE1| Redevelopment trendsinshadowstadia.

Inclassifyingshadowstadiaandprovidingadditionalclarity regardingthecomplexchallengesposedbyshadowstadia,this perspectivearticlehasidentifiedasubsequentcircularityactionto befacilitatedbyurbanredevelopmentstakeholdersbothinternal andexternaltothesportindustry.Thiswillbediscussedinmore detailbelow.

DISCUSSION

Thisarticlesoughttoclassifyredevelopmenttrendsthathave emergedfromcitieschallengedtosolveblightscreatedbyvacant shadowstadia.Theclassificationdiscussedaboveisanimportant firststepinunderstanding,defining,andexplainingthetypes ofshadowstadiathatexistworldwide.Indoingso,itprovides contextfordiscussingandprovidingpotentialwaysforwardfor thecomplexenvironmentalchallengesposedbyshadowstadia.

Thispaperhighlightsseveralareasthatnecessitatefuture investigationandcouldbethebasisforfutureresearchand action.First,wereiteratetherecommendationfrom Rosentraub (2009) thatinstadiumorarenaanchoredurbanredevelopment, planningmust belargeinscaleandpurposeful,witha combinationofbothpublicandprivatefundingandinput, asopposedtoanexpectationthatanurbanarearequiring revitalizationwilloccurovertimeorganically. Rosentraub’s (2009) recommendationalsoextendstoenvironmental sustainability—itmustincludestrategicplanningforlong termsuccessfuloutcomes.

Second,reusingmaterialsfromdemolitioninthe redevelopmentplansofshadowstadiaisvitaltoreducethe environmentalimpactofconstructionandbuildingmaterials beingwasted.Assuch,thestadiumorarenaanchoredurban redevelopmentindustryshouldadoptacirculareconomy approachwhenpermitted.Decisionsonplanningforthe repurposingofoldarenasandstadiamustbedoneprior toaprofessionalsportfranchisemovinglocations,and thecitymustbefacilitatinganddrivingthisdialogueand planning.Furthermore,sportfranchises,theirowners,and masterdevelopersmustbeheldfinanciallyaccountablefor anyfailedshadowstadiaredevelopmentplansandpotential environmentalrisks.

Third,weproposeamodifiedcirculareconomyapproachbe considered,wherebyrace,class,culture,andgenderintersect withtheenvironmentalimpactsofwherepeoplelive,workand play.Todoso,anenvironmentaljusticelensmaybeuseful asaproblem-framingtooltodiagnosewhattheproblemsare

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Copyright©2022Barry,MasonandHeise.Thisisanopen-accessarticle distributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(CCBY). Theuse,distributionorreproductioninotherforumsispermitted,providedthe originalauthor(s)andthecopyrightowner(s)arecreditedandthattheoriginal publicationinthisjournaliscited,inaccordancewithacceptedacademicpractice. Nouse,distributionorreproductionispermittedwhichdoesnotcomplywiththese terms.

Editedby: LauraMisener, WesternUniversity,Canada

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Specialtysection: Thisarticlewassubmittedto Sport,Leisure,Tourism,andEvents, asectionofthejournal FrontiersinSportsandActiveLiving

Received: 22April2022

Accepted: 10June2022

Published: 12July2022

Citation: KnottBandTinazC(2022)The LegacyofSportEventsforEmerging Nations. Front.SportsAct.Living4:926334. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.926334

published:12 July2022

doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.926334

TheLegacyofSportEventsfor EmergingNations

BrendonKnott 1† andCemTinaz 2*†

1 DepartmentofSportManagement,CapePeninsulaUniversityofTechnology,CapeTown,SouthAfrica, 2 SchoolofSports SciencesandTechnology,IstanbulBilgiUniversity,Istanbul,Turkey

Large-scaleandmegasportevents(SMEs),suchasOlympicGamesandFIFAWorld Cups,havebeenmorefrequentlyhostedinemergingnations.BiddingandhostingSMEs isconsideredanobjectofpolicyformanyemergingnations,withSMEsviewedas keyfactorsinlocalandnationaldevelopmentstrategies.Thishaslargelybeendriven bytheassumptionthattheirlegacyprovidessolutionstoeconomic,social,cultural,or politicalchallenges.Avarietyoflegacieshavepredominatedtheliteratureoverthepast twodecades,howeveritisproposedthatthereisadifferenceinthetypesoflegacies anticipatedorrealizedwithinemergingnations.Thisexploratorystudythereforeaimedto determinethetypesoflegaciesanticipatedorrealizedbyemergingnationsasaresultof hostingsportevents,andtodetermineifthesedifferfromthoseofestablishednations. AsystematicliteraturereviewfollowedthePRISMAapproachtoidentifyandselect peer-reviewedarticlesthatfocusedonlegaciesfrommajorandmega-eventshosted inemergingnations.Asetof97publicationswereanalyzedqualitativelytorevealthekey legacythemes.Thefindingsconfirmlegacyasagrowingbodyofknowledgeinemerging nations,alignedwithincreasingeventhosting.Thefindingsrevealinsightsontheextent ofliteratureonthistopicinemergingnations,includingthemajornations,events,authors andpublicationsrepresented.Whilethepapercannotdetermineuniquelegaciesfor emergingnations,itidentifieskeylegacyfocusareasforthesenations,primarily:social development;politics,soft-powerandsport-for-peace;theeconomicsoftourism,image andbranding;infrastructureandurbandevelopment;andsportdevelopment.Thispaper proposesaconceptualizationofkeylegacyareasforemergingnationsandproposes futureresearchthemes.Thepaperisuniqueinitshighlightingofthesignificanceof legacyoutcomesforemergingnationsfromthehostingofsportmega-events.Ittherefore contributestoamorenuancedunderstandingofandimperativeforlegacyfromsport eventsglobally.

Keywords:sportevents,legacy,emergingnations,mega-events,FIFAWorldCup,OlympicGames

INTRODUCTION

Thedevolutionofwealthandpowerfromthemajordevelopedcountriestothefast-developing countriesinAfrica,Asia,theMiddleEast,andSouthAmericahasbeenoneofthemostsignificant outcomesofthetwentiethcentury(Grixetal.,2019).Therapidexpansionofmostemerging economies isadistinguishingfeatureofthesecountries.Becausetheyhavemodeledorbeen influencedbythemanycommercialsportsuccessesoftheestablishedeconomiesinNorthAmerica

andEurope,increasedglobalizationhasopenedupnew opportunities forsportleagues,teams,andmanufacturersin emergingmarkets.Thisisespeciallytrueforsportsleagues, teams,andmanufacturersinemergingmarkets.Inparticular, theincreasedbiddingforandhostingoflargesportingevents inemergingmarketsisaprominentmanifestationofthis.Ina numberofdevelopingcountries,signatureorsportmegaevents (SME)haveemergedasimportantcomponentsoflocaland nationaldevelopmentagendas.Hostcitiesareseeingincreased tourism,localinvestment,andemploymentasaresultofhosting theseevents,howeverthelikelihoodoftrulylastinglegacies isuncertain.

Emergingnationsarethosecountriesthataremaking investmentsinmoreproductiveinfrastructureandhuman capital.Theyaremovingawayfromtheirconventional economies,whichhavebeenbasedonagricultureandraw materialexports.Asaresult,theyarerapidlyindustrializing andtransitioningtoafreemarketormixedeconomy(Morgan Stanley CapitalInternational,2021).Themajorityofemergingmarketleadersaspiretoimprovetheoverallstandardofliving fortheircitizensintheircountries(TinazandKnott,2021).The MorganStanleyCapitalInternationalEmergingMarketsIndex (MorganStanleyCapitalInternational,2022)currentlyincludes data from24differentnations,Brazil,Chile,China,Colombia, CzechRepublic,Egypt,Greece,Hungary,India,Indonesia, Korea,Kuwait,Malaysia,Mexico,Peru,Philippines,Poland, Qatar,SaudiArabia,SouthAfrica,Taiwan,Thailand,Turkey andtheUnitedArabEmirates.Thesecountrieshavesimilar indicatorsregardingsustainableeconomicgrowth,monetary policyandthemaintenanceofpricestability,fiscaldiscipline,the stateofthedebtandtrade,andthecurrentaccounts’balance.

Themajorityofthesecountrieshaveconfrontedchallenges thatarevastlydifferentfromthosefacedbytheestablished westernstates.Asidefromtheprevalentchallengesofsocial andeconomicunderdevelopment,severalofthesecountrieshave recentlywitnessedpoliticalandideologicalregimechangesand worldwideisolationduetotheirpoliticalstanding.Overthepast severalyears,wehaveseenashiftinthesportssector,particularly inhostingsportingevents,awayfromtherichwesterncountries towardthedevelopingworld.

Theglobalizationofthesportsbusinesshasresultedin enhancedbenefitsandbroaderprospectsfortheindustriesof emergingnations(TinazandKnott,2021).Theuseofsport asa vehicletoachievesocial,economic,cultural,political, technological,andenvironmentalobjectivesbydecision-makers orinvestorsisundeniablywidespreadthroughouttheworld’s emergingmarkets.Thecountriesalsoacquireinternational recognitionasaresultoftheirsports-relatedefforts.Most emergingnationsrecognizesport’sbenefitsforsocialand economicdevelopment.Attemptsarebeingmadebyboththe publicandcorporatesectorstoharnesstheathleticpotentialin variousformstodevelopandpromotetheirrespectivesocieties andstimulatetheirrespectiveeconomies.Asaresult,politicians, eventorganizers,andotherinfluentialstakeholdersseeklegacy outcomesfromSMEs(Brittainetal.,2017).

In thepasttwodecades,interestinsporteventlegacieshas grownexponentially. Thomsonetal.(2019) notedthatsince

2012, therehasbeenaconsiderablegrowthintheamountof literatureonlarge-scalesporteventlegacyinthesportsandevent managementfields.Yet,arelativelysmallnumberofsystematic reviewsorsynthesizesofsporteventlegacyresearchhavebeen published(Thomsonetal.,2019).

Historically, theacademicstudyoflegacyhasbeenpredicated onthenotionthatitcanbeusedtoaddresseconomicandsocial problemsaswellascultural,historical,andpoliticalchallenges (Byersetal.,2020),whichmakesitparticularlyappealingto developing countries’developmentaspirations.Intheliterature, therearemanydistincttypesoflegaciesthathavepredominated, includingeconomic;social;cultural;environmental;health; sportsparticipation;infrastructure;politics;tourism/destination branding;andsecurity(Byersetal.,2020).Itisdifficulttoassess thelegacyofapersonororganizationduetothefactthat itisa“complex,fluid,andcontentioustermthatislikelyto berealizeddifferently”acrossavarietyofsituationsbasedon socio-economicandpoliticalaspects(Brownilletal.,2013).

Inseveralcases,thereisevidenceofadifferenceinlegacy realizationorobjectivesbetweendevelopinganddeveloped countries. Grixetal.(2019),forexample,drawattentiontothe political legacyofSMEs,claimingthattheyhaveevolvedintothe idealsoftpowerprojectforemergingeconomies.Accordingto Heslopetal.(2013),SMEis“afast-tracktoworldrecognition andreputationdevelopment”forrisingcountries,andthisis supportedbyboththepoliticalandtourism/destinationbranding legacies(p.13).

Consequently,thepurposeofthisresearcharticleistoprovide answerstothefollowingquestions:Whattypesoflegaciesdo emergingnationsanticipatetorealizeasaresultofhostingSME? andDothelegacyexpectationsofemergingcountriesdifferfrom thoseofestablishednations?

SPORTEVENTSANDTHEIRLEGACIES

Sporteventstakeplaceonavarietyoflevelsorscales, withthe“mega-event”thelargestofthese.Legacyhas emergedasanimportantconsiderationinthedevelopment ofSMEs(Spracklen,2012),eveniftherehasbeenagreater recognition ofunintendedrepercussions(Cornelissenetal., 2011). Beyondtheimmediatebenefitsofsportingmega-events, manyincreasinglyproposealonger-termfocusonbuilding legaciesfromsuchevents(Cornelissenetal.,2011;Chappelet, 2012), withlegacybeingofeitheraplannedorunplanned character(Cornelissenetal.,2011). Cornelissenetal.(2011) emphasizedthenecessityofunderstandingandassessingthe legaciesofsportingmega-events.

Thelegacyofmajorsporteventshasriseninrelevance inrecentyears,garneringattentionfrombothacademicsand practitionersalike(Preuss,2019).Thegrowinginterestin examiningthelegacyofSMEshastoalargeextentreplacedthe debateonmega-eventimpacts(Grix,2012;Graeffetal.,2021). Thenotion of“legacy”isconsidered“multi-facetedandfarreaching”(Chappelet,2012). Preuss(2007) devisedalegacycube with threedimensions:thepast,thepresent,andthefuture.The paperpointedoutthatlegaciescanbedeliberateorunexpected,

aswellaspositiveornegative,andthatbotharepossible.It alsodistinguished“soft”legacies,suchasincorporealorpsychic communalbenefits,from“hard”legacies,suchasinfrastructure. Thisledtotheformulationofthemostwidelyaccepteddefinition ofsporteventlegacyas:

“...allplannedandunplanned,positiveandnegative,concrete andintangiblestructuresgeneratedforandbyasportingevent thatlastlongerthantheeventitself,regardlessofthetimeand spaceinwhichtheywerecreated.”(p.211).

Althoughthereissomeagreementonthedefinitionoflegacy, whatitentails,andhowitshouldbeconceptualized,thereisstill disagreementonhowitshouldbemeasured(VanWynsberghe, 2016), with Preuss(2007) advocatingtheimportanceoffuture researchattemptingtodevelopmoregenericapproachesand methodologiesinordertoaddressthis.

Itisbecauseofthisinabilitytomeasurelegacywithany precisionthatsomeauthorshaveurgedashiftinemphasis toamore“systematicandpurposeful”approach,referredto as“leveraging”(Grix,2012).Leveragingreferstoshort-term operationscarriedoutbyeventhosts,aswellaslong-term activitiescarriedoutbeforeandaftertheevent,inordertorealize aimsorplannedlegacies.

Inthepastdecade,therehasbeenincreasedcriticismofthe negativepotentialfromhostingamega-event.Criticalquestions andconcernshavebeenexpressedconcerningtheexpanding expense,feasibility,long-termlegacy,andrepercussionsofSMEs (Byersetal.,2021). Preuss(2019) explainedthatthecosts ofhosting anddebateoverahostgovernment’sexpenditure ofpublicfunds,hasmadecorruptionarealpossibility.This, togetherwithcorruptionallegationslinkedtotheFIFAand InternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)hostingselections,has ledtoincreasedpublicandmediascrutinyofthebenefitsofSMEs forthehost.Inresponse,theIOCestablishedtheSustainability andLegacyCommissionin2015,responsibleforconsultingwith, coordinatingwith,andmonitoringthelegacyoftheOlympic Games(InternationalOlympicCommittee,2017).Candidate cities arenowrequiredtotracktheirlegacyforseveralyears aftertheOlympicGamesaspartoftheirhostcitycontract (InternationalOlympicCommittee,2017).

Althougheventimpactstudieshavetraditionallyconcentrated onvisibleor“hard”outcomessuchaseconomicgrowth, infrastructuredevelopment,andtourismpromotion,less tangibleoutcomessuchasadvantagestoacountry’simage andidentityaregraduallybeingrecognized.Similarly,there hasbeenanincreasingrecognitionofsociallegacies. Minnaert (2012) assertedthatsociallegaciesmightoccuratthepersonal level, suchashealthbenefitsandskillacquisitionoratthe communitylevel,suchasimprovedlinksandcooperation betweencommunitymembers,particularlyfromdifferent backgrounds. MaandKaplanidou(2017) emphasizedthetime dimensionof sociallegaciesandexplainedhowtheycould manifestthemselvesbefore,during,andafteraparticularevent.

Theliteraturerevealsawidevarietyofdifferenttypesor categoriesoflegaciesthatcouldresultfromsportevents.

ChappeletandJunod(2006) compiledtheseintofivetypesor themes, asfollows:

• Sportinglegacy:e.g.,sportingfacilitiesandrelated infrastructureupgrades;andanincreaseinsportparticipation, supportandsponsorship.

• Urbanlegacy:e.g.,changesmadetotheurbanstructureofthe hostcityaswellasthedevelopmentofnewurbandistrictsand specializedareas.

• Infrastructurallegacy:e.g.,networks,rangingfromtransport totelecommunications,whicharerenovatedordevelopedfor amega-event;accessroutesbyair,water,roadorrail;andthe modernizationofbasicservices,suchaswater,electricityand wastetreatment.

• Economiclegacy:e.g.,changesinthenumberofpermanent jobscreatedandchangesintheunemploymentrate;economic investmentopportunities;foreigninvestmentattraction;and smallbusinessdevelopment/entrepreneurship;theincreasein touriststoahostregionthatstimulatesthelocaleconomy.

• Sociallegacy:e.g.,nationbuildingandcontributiontonational pride;changedperceptionsofresidents;education;racial harmony;andenvironmentalawareness.

Cornelissenetal.(2011) addedthreemorelegaciestothis set, namely:

• Environmentallegacy:e.g.,reducingcarbonfootprint; integratinggreeningprinciples;andclimate-responsiveness.

• Politicallegacy:e.g.,thepromotionofdemocracy,human rightsandimprovedgovernance;enhancementofcapacity withinthepublicsector;improvementsinskillsandhuman resourcescapitalinpublicandprivatesectors;interventions bygovernmentornon-governmentorganizations.

• Image/brandinglegacy:e.g.,destination-profiling;hostregionexposure;settingorchangingtheimageofahost destination;changesintouristimageandreputation;and brandmarketingforahostregion.

Figure1 illustratesthesedifferentaspectsoflegacy.Adapted from Cornelissenetal.(2011),itusesthefiveaspectsofChappelet andJunod (ChappeletandJunod,2006),butcombinesurban legacywithinfrastructure,andaddstheadditionalthreeelements discussedabove.

Accordingto Preuss(2015),thefivemostfrequently mentionedlegacyareasareeconomics(includinginfrastructure), social,sport,andculture. Grixetal.(2017) addedtothislist: urbanregeneration,nationalpride/feel-goodfactor,increased involvementandparticipationinphysicalactivity,international reputationand’softpower’.Increasingly,attentionisbeing paidtothepossibilitythatsportingeventsandtheirlegacies couldserveasaplatformtoaddressglobalconcernsand effectsocialchange(Byersetal.,2021).Forexample,the UnitedNations(UN)hashighlightedthesignificantrole thatsportplaysinpromotingtheUN2030Agendafor SustainableDevelopment.

Preuss(2007) notedthefollowingthreeissuesthat create challengesindevelopingastandardizedlegacy measurementapproach:

• Thesameeventcreatesdifferentlegaciesifstagedtwiceinone city/nation: Boththeeventsandthecities/nationsstaging themarecontinuouslydevelopingsuchthattheeventhas differentrequirementsatalaterstageofhostingandthehost city/nationhasdifferentenvironmentalfactorstoconsider (e.g.,FIFAFootballWorldCupinGermanyhostedin1974in comparisonto2006).

• Differenteventscreatedifferentlegaciesifstagedinthesame city/nation:Differinginfrastructuralrequirements,social interests,mediaexposure,andlocationrequirementsresultin auniquelegacy.Forexample,RiodeJaneirohostedbotha FIFAWorldCupin2014andanOlympicGamesin2016.Yet, thelegaciesattributedtotheseeventsdiffersubstantially.

• Thesameeventcreatesdifferentlegaciesindifferentcities/ nations:Thismaybearesultofanumberoffactors,including differentinfrastructureofthecities/nationsandthepolitical targetspursuedfortheevent.Forexample,aFIFAFootball WorldCupheldinGermanyin2006mayyieldverydifferent legaciescomparedtothesameeventheldinSouthAfrica in2010.

Thesechallengesledthewriterstoproposethatperhapsemerging nationsmayproducelegaciesoratleastaimtoproducelegacies moreakintoeachotherthanfrommoredevelopednations.

MATERIALSANDMETHODS

Thisresearchaimedtodrawattentiontothesubtlenuances anddistinctvariationsinthesporteventlegacydiscourse amongemergingnationsbyobtainingresearchfindingsfrom peer-reviewed,academicjournal-basedliterature.Asameans ofaccomplishingthis,theauthorsconductedasystematic qualitativereviewofscholarlyarticlesthatempiricallyinvestigate thelegaciesofsportingeventshostedbyemergingnationsand thathavebeenpublishedwithinthelast20years(between2002 and2022).Literaturereviews,particularlyforemergingtopics, arebecomingincreasinglyacceptedasworthwhileresearch endeavorsinthesocialsciencesfield(PickeringandByrne, 2014). Althoughtherehasbeensomeresearchintoeventlegacy

literature in emergingnations,therehasbeennosystematic reviewofthisliteraturetodate.Accordingto Thomsonetal. (2020), researchersineventlegacystudiesaredisproportionately concentratedin Westerncountries,andlegacyresearchhasbeen disproportionatelybiasedintermsofgeography.

ThisstudywasstructuredfollowingthePRISMA(Preferred ReportingItemsforSystematicReviewsandMeta-Analyses) guidelinesforconductingsystematicreviewsandmeta-analyses (Liberatietal.,2009).Anofficialprotocolfortheelectronic searchwasdevised,whichwaslimitedtosourcesintheEnglish language.Theresearchtopicguidedtheselectionofdatabases, asdidthelikelihoodofthosedatabasestoholdarticlesof relevancetothestudy.Articlesweresearchedforusingthe followingdatabases:SCOPUS,SPORTDiscus,WebofScience, GoogleScholar,BusinessSourceComplete(EBSCO),Science Direct(Elsevier),andEmerald.Weusedthephrases“sportevent” and“legacy”tosearchforfull-text,peer-reviewedacademic journalpaperspublishedbetween2000and2022.Thestarting dateof2000waschosenasitsymbolizestheperiodwhen conceptualdevelopmentanddebatesurroundingsportevent legacyintensified(Thomsonetal.,2019).Thecomputerized searchproduced270sources;onceduplicatesthroughoutthe databasewereremoved,amanualscreeningofthesesourceswas conductedtoselectonlythepapersthatreferredtoemerging nations.Thefinalnumberofsourcesselectedwas96.

ThesourceswerecapturedinanExcelspreadsheet,with thefollowingbibliographicdetailscapturedfromeachsource: title;authors;1st authornationality;journal;year;eventfocus; countryfocus;andkeywords.Aquantitativeanalysisofthe bibliographicdatawasconductedusingdescriptivestatistics(i.e., frequencies),withmatrices,tablesorgraphsproducedtoreflect thekeyfindings.

Amanual,qualitativeassessmentwasconductedinorderto determinethelegacyfocusofeacharticle.Thesevenlegacy typesproposedby Cornelissenetal.(2011) wereusedasthe legacycategories.Theauthorsassignedthelegacyfocus,andin somecasesasecondarylegacyfocus,afterreviewingthetitle, keywordsandabstractofeachsource.Thisreviewprocessalso helpedtoeliminateanypapersthatdidnotfittheambitof thisinvestigation,suchasarticlesfocusedonlyontheoretical constructsoflegacy,ratherthanrelatingtoaneventoremerging nationcontext.

Oncethelegacyfocuswasassigned,afurther,deeperanalysis ofthesourceswasconducted,combiningthebibliographic findings,toallowforthediscoveryofkeylegacythemesfrom thesources.Thefindingsaredetailedinthefollowingsection, withthedeeperanalysisformingthebasisofthediscussion thatfollows.

FINDINGS

Thesectionaboveindicatedthatafinalsampleof97peerreviewedarticlesonsporteventlegacyinemergingnations, publishedbetween2000and2022,wereincludedinthe systematicliteraturereview.Thissectionsetsoutthefindings fromthequantitativeandqualitativeanalysisofthesearticlesin termsof:(1)bibliographicdetails;and(2)typesoflegacy.

FIGURE1| Sportmega-eventlegacies(adaptedbyauthors,from Cornelissen etal.,2011,p.311).

BibliographicDetails

LeadResearchersandLocationofUniversities

Thenationalitiesofthefirstauthors,accordingtotheiruniversity affiliation,represented22differentnations.Only13oftheseare emergingnations.Thenationswiththelargestrepresentation were:SouthAfrica(24),UK(17)andBrazil(14).Thesethree nationsaloneaccountedfor57%ofthearticles.Thefirstauthors withthemostpaperswere:Knott,B.(5papers); Lee(2019) (4); Cornelissen, S.(3); Kimetal.(2006) (3);andRocha,C.(3).

Yearof PublicationandJournal

TheJournalswiththemostarticleswere:Sustainability(6); LeisureStudies(5);andDevelopmentSouthernAfrica(4).The yearsofpublicationwiththemostarticleswere:201915);2020 (11);2021(10)and2015(10)[see Figure2].Thirty-eightpercent ofarticleswerepublishedbetween2019and2021.Only7%of articleswerepublishedbefore2011.

Table1 alsoclearlyshowstheimpactofthe2010FIFAWorld Cup(SouthAfrica),the2014FIFAWorldCup(Brazil);and subsequentmega-sporteventsinthefollowingyearsthatwere heldinemergingnations,suchasthe2016OlympicGames (Brazil),2018OlympicGames(SouthKorea),and2018and2022 FIFAWorldCups(RussiaandQatarrespectively).

EventTypeandCountryFocus

Sportmega-eventsdominatedthefocusofthepapers,withFIFA WorldCups(44)andOlympicGames(25)combiningtoaccount for71%oftheeventsfeatured.Afurther10articlescoveredmore thanonesportmega-eventinthearticle.Theremainingmega andmajoreventsthatfeaturedarelistedin Table1

Atotalof12emergingnationswerethefocusofthepapers reviewed.Thecountriesmostfocusedonwere:SouthAfrica (29),Brazil(26),SouthKorea(8),Poland(5)andQatar(5). SouthAfricaandBrazilclearlydominatedthearticlecount, accountingfor57%ofthepapers.Afurtherninearticlesfeatured acombinationofemergingnations.Thefulllistofnations featuredisfoundin Table2

Keywords

An analysisofthekeywordslistedineachofthepapersrevealed thefollowingmostfrequentlylistedkeywordsnotsurprisingly: sportmegaevent/megaevent(85),legacy(55),WorldCup/FIFA WorldCup(53),OlympicGames(20).Amongthekeywordsthat indicatedalegacyfocus,thefollowingfeaturedmostcommonly: sportparticipation(5),sustainabledevelopment(5),stakeholders (5),nationbranding(4),sporttourism(4),qualityoflife(3)and socialimpact(3). Figure3 displaysawordcloudofthekeywords. However,theserepresentverylownumbersandindicatethat mostofthepapersdidnotclearlyspecifyalegacyfocuswithin thekeywordsofthepaper.

LegacyFocus

Thewritersassessedthelegacyfocusofeachpaperbyreviewing thearticletitleanditskeywords,followedbythearticleabstract. Ifthelegacyfocuswasstillnotclear,thefullpaperwasthen consulted.Theauthorsusedtheclassificationoflegacytypes ascompiledby Cornelissenetal.(2011),namely:economic; environment;image/brand;infrastructure;political;social;and sport. Table3 indicatestheallocationofpaperstothelegacy types.Sevenofthepapershadadistinctivesecondarylegacy focus,sotheywereincludedintwocategories.

Asdepictedin Figure4,thepapersweredistributedas follows,fromhighesttolowest:social(31.7%);political(17.3%); economic(11.5%);infrastructure(11.5%);sport(10.6%); environment(8.7%);andimage/brand(8.7%).

Thesefindingsgiveanoverallindicationofthedistributionof legaciesfromthepapersreviewed.Thisdistributioninitselfdoes notrevealauniquelegacyfocusforemergingnationscompared tothegenerallegacyliterature.However,theauthorsnoteda fewnuanceswithinthisdistributionthatmayhighlightkey legacyfocusareasforemergingnations.Thefollowingsection discussesthesenuancesfromthefindings,providingdeeper insightsandmeaning.

TABLE2| Countryfocus.

DISCUSSION

Althoughtherearemanysimilaritiesamongemergingnations intermsoftheirsocio-economicdevelopmentalstatusand challengesthattheyface,theyalsoeachfacetheirownunique circumstances,priorities,policiesanddevelopmentagendas. Therefore,MSElegacyintheseemergingnationsmustbe

understoodwithinthecontextofeachnation’ssocialand economicsphere,aswellasitshistoricandpoliticallegacy. Thissectionnowintegratesadiscussionoftheexploratory findingswithselectedevidenceandexamplesfromthepapers reviewed.Thefivekeylegacyfocusareasformthestructureof thisdiscussion.

SocialDevelopment

Whilesociallegacywasclearlythemajorlegacytypefeatured, thecategorywasbynomeansuniforminitslegacyfocus.Inits broadestuniformity,thepaperslargelyrelatedlegaciesforlocal residentsandpopulationsmostimpactedbyanevent.Therewas anindicationthatwithinthislegacytype,afocusonwellbeingor qualityoflifeofresidents(e.g., MaandKaplanidou,2017),which isnot specificallyrelatedtosportparticipation,maybecomea growinglegacyfocusinfuture.

Withinthiscategorization,thereweremultipleexamplesof negativelegacies,withexamplesofnegativesocialillsattributed toeventhosting(e.g.,humantrafficking)ordisruptionsto communitiesthroughresettlementprogrammes(e.g.,from Brazil’s2014FIFAWorldCup).However,thesemaynot beuniquetoemergingnationsonly.Theissueofhuman rightsasalegacyoutcomewasmentionedinthecontext ofsociallegacies,butonlyinafewpapers(e.g., Graeff etal., 2021).Thisisperhapssurprisingasanumberof emerging nationshavefacedglobalmediacriticismsurrounding humanrightsissueshighlightedthroughthehostingofa sportevent.

Whatdoesappeartobeamoreuniquefocuswithinthislegacy typeforemergingnations,isafocusonsocialdevelopment. Whetheremergingfromacolonialpast(e.g.,Brazil),arepressive regime(e.g.,Poland),isolationandfragmentation(e.g.,South Korea)orlegislatedracialandsocietaldivisions(e.g.,South

FIGURE2| Yearof publication.

FIGURE3| Keywords.

TABLE3| Legacytypes.

Economic(incl. Tourism)

Antonio etal.,2011

Bondariket al.,2020

CoakleyandSouza,2013

Duignanetal.,2022

Fourieetal.,2011

GeziciandEr,2014

KobiereckiandPierzgalski,2022

Leeetal.,2013

Moyoetal.,2020

Rogerson,2009

TichaawaandBob,2015

ZiakasandBoukas,2012

TABLE3| Continued

BobandSwart,2009

DeLisio etal.,2019

Graeffetal.,2020,2021

Gursoyetal.,2017

JaskulowskiandSurmiak,2016

Knottetal.,2015b

Kolmakov,2021

Kossakowski,2019

KoutrouandBerber,2021

Leeetal.,2013

Liu,2016

Environment(incl. sustainability)

ErmolaevaandLind,2021

Gulak-LipkaandJagielski,2020

KimandGrix,2021

Kimetal.,2006

Lee,2019

Meloetal.,2014

Spanosetal.,2022

Talaveraetal.,2019

YoonandWilson,2019

Image/brand

Allenetal.,2013

HemmonsbeyandTichaawa,2018

Knottetal.,2013

KnottandHemmonsbey,2015

Knottetal.,2015a

Knottetal.,2016

Leeetal.,2005

MaielloandPasquinelli,2015

Swartetal.,2019

Sport

MaandKaplanidou,2017a, MaandKaplanidou,2017b

Maharaj,2015

NtlokoandSwart,2016

Patrezeetal.,2020

PillayandBass,2008

Prouse,2012

Rochaetal.,2017

Rocha,2020

Sullivan,2018

Talbot,2021

TichaawaandBob,2015

Vicoetal.,2019

Waardenburgetal.,2015

XingandChalip,2012

Zawadzki,2016

Beketal.,2019

Fengand Hong,2013

KimandKaplanidou,2019

dosSantos,2019

Infrastructure

Azzali,2016

Azzali,2019

Bason etal.,2015

Dendura,2019

GeziciandEr,2014

KirbyandCrabb,2019

Lee,2021

LuandLin,2020

Malhadoetal.,2013

MolloyandChetty,2015

DomareskiRuizetal.,2019

Zawadzki,2016

Political(Including security)

Black, 2007

Byunand Leopkey,2020

Cornelissen,2007

Cornelissen,2011

Cornelissen,2012

Curietal.,2011

DowseandFletcher,2018

Eisenhaueretal.,2014

Filhoetal.,2018

GiulianottiandKlauser,2010

KobiereckiandPierzgalski,2022

Majumdar,2011

NtlokoandSwart,2016

Pauschinger,2020

Samatas,2011

Sengupta,2017

Włoch,2020

Social

Al-Emadietal.,2017

Al-Emadietal.,2022

Azzali,2016

BobandMajola,2011

(Continued)

Reisetal.,2014

Reisetal.,2021

Ribeiroetal.,2021

Rochaetal.,2021

Sousa-Mastetal.,2013

Swartetal.,2011

Wodniak,2021

Africa),MSEhavebeenembracedfortheirsocialunifyingeffect formany historicallyorcurrentlydividedpopulations.Thisis sometimesreferredtoas“nation-building.”Evenwithafocuson thefutureofMSEhosting,thelegacyfocusforQatar’s2022FIFA WorldCupappearstobepositivesocio-culturaldevelopment initiatives(e.g., Al-Emadietal.,2022).

Politics,Soft-Power andSport-for-Peace

Apoliticallegacyemergedasthesecondmostcommonlegacy typefromthepapersreviewed.Itappearsthatemerging nationsconsistentlyexpectmega-eventstodeliveronpolitically motivatedaims.However,theseaimscanbedivergentin theirnature,frompeace-relatedinitiativestoglobalprestige andsoft-power.Forexample,jointathleteparticipationin sportmega-eventsacrosstheKoreanpeninsulahasproved tobeoneofthesolemeansofbridgingthedivisions betweenthenorthandsouth,evennormalizingrelationsto someextent.Theinternationalmedianarrativehighlighteda unificationstorysurroundingthePyeongchang2018winter OlympicGames.

Adifferentexample,moreakintoglobalprestige,islinked toQatarandthe2022FIFAWorldCup.Aninternational communicationstrategywasemployedbyQatartoemphasize thehostnation’sroleincontributingtointernationalaid,conflict resolution,andpeacebuildingintheregion(Al-Emadietal., 2022). Thismayalsohavebeenanaimtocounterthelargely negativepublicitysurroundingtheleaduptotheevent,relating toitsbiddingprocessandtherightsofmigrantworkersinvolved inthemega-eventconstructionprojects.

AlthoughtheSouthAfricanexampleofhistoricdivisionis ratherdifferentandbasedonracialclassificationandeconomic inequality,SMEssuchasthe1995RugbyWorldCupand the2010FIFAWorldCup,leftalegacyasbothsociallyand politicallyunifyingcatalysts,evenifmoresymbolicintheir effect(Black,2007).Themajorityofthepaperspublishedin theimmediate aftermathofthe2010FIFAWorldCupreflected onthesocial,historicalandpoliticalcontextoftheevent, emphasizingthelegacyoftheeventinnationalidentityformation andpoliticalsymbolismforthehostnation.Thegovernment’s socialtransformationaimwasalsohighlightedasalegacypriority inpapersthatfocusedonSouthAfrica.

Asmentionedpreviously,itisnotalwayseasytoisolatethe legacytypes.Anexampleofapoliticallegacythatimpacted economic,socialandsportlegacies,isthatofBrazil.InBrazil, therewasanintentionalpoliticalstrategybehinditsgovernment biddingforandhostingserialsportmega-eventsforboth politicalandeconomicbenefits.Thehostingofsportmegaeventsimpactedpublicpolicies,funding,andcommunitiesin hostcities.Whilethismayhavebeenbeneficialtoafewsport sectors,itnegativelydisadvantagedcertainpopulationgroups.It hadadverseoutcomesforBrazil’smoreexcludedcommunities, whiletemporaryfundingwasmainlychanneledtowardelite sport(Graeffetal.,2020).

In some instances,sporteventsareaccusedofbeing politicallymotivatedfromtheperspectiveofthesportfederation.

ParticularlyinthecaseofSMEs,theseglobaleventscouldbe seenasameanstopromoteglobalizationandaneoliberallegacy. Governanceandthepoliticsofdevelopmentareparticularissues affectingemergingnations.Theseaspectsraiseawarenessof amoresinistersidetothepoliticallegacieswithinemerging nations,mentionedparticularlyinthecasesofBrazil’s2014FIFA WorldCupandRussia’s2014winterOlympicGames.

Arelatedthemeunderpoliticallegacy,accordingtothe legacymodelused,issecurity.Fivepapersreviewedwerefocused solelyoninvestigatingimprovedsecurity,crimereduction, orsecurityriskmitigationsasalegacy.Theseweremostly focusedontheeventsfromBrazilandSouthAfrica,butalso variouseventsamongemergingnations.Alsolinkedtopolitical security,therewasmentionofnegativelyperceivedlegacies suchasthepacificationandmilitarisationofhostpopulations (Prouse,2012).

The Economics ofTourism,Imageand Branding

Itisdifficulttoisolatedifferentaspectsoftheeconomiclegacy fromsportevents.Whilethemodelusedinthisstudyincludes thetourismlegacyaspartoftheeconomiclegacy,others havepreferredtoseparatetheseaspects.Furthermore, Byers etal. (2020) combinedincludeddestinationbrandingaspart ofthetourismlegacy.Whiletheaimofthispaperwasnotto definelegacytypes,itservestohighlighttheconnectednature oflegacies.

Almosthalfoftheeconomiclegacypapersrelatedspecifically toatourismlegacy.Economiclegaciesreviewedweretypically relatedto:economicgrowth;GDPincrease;andsmall enterprisedevelopment.However,tourism-relatedeconomic legaciesincluded:increasedtourismbudgets;newsource markets;increasedurbantourism;sporttourismdevelopment; improvementsoftravelservices;andrepeatvisitation.

FIGURE4| Legacytypes.

Althoughrelatedasadistinctlegacytypeinthemodel usedin thisstudy,“image/branding”(accountingforover8% ofpublicationsreviewed)iscloselyrelatedtotourismlegacy. ThecaseofSouthAfrica’shostingofthe2010FIFAWorld Cupispreeminentinitsfocusonthislegacy,withseven (outofnine)papersfocusingonnationbrandingasalegacy forSouthAfricafromthe2010mega-event.Thesepapers indicatedthattheSMEleftalegacyofglobalbrandinggains forthehostnation,providingaboosttoitsemergingstatus andaidingthedevelopmentofitssporttourismindustry(e.g., Knottetal.,2017).

Brazi,Poland andSouthKoreawerealsofeaturedexamples ofimage/brandinglegaciesforthehostnation.ForPoland,the hostingoftheUEFAEURO2012wasperceivedassuccessfully showcasingthecountry’s“newface”internationallyasitemerged fromitscommunistlegacy.Theeventisbelievedtohave strengthenedthePolishimageamongvisitorsandfootballfans andenhanceditsinternationalcompetitiveness(e.g., Włoch, 2020). Similarly,throughitshostingofeventssuchasthe2002 FIFA WorldCup(andsubsequentlythe2018winterOlympic Games),SouthKoreaaimedtoportrayits“global”identityhighlightingitseconomicliberalizationandglobalprestige(e.g., Leeetal.,2005).

Infrastructure andUrbanDevelopment

Infrastructurelegacyemergedasanothercontestedlegacywithin theemergingnationcontext.Acombinationofpositiveand negativelegacieswereexploredfromarangeofexamples, includingBrazil,Colombia,Poland,Qatar,SouthAfrica,South Korea,TaiwanandTurkey.Abroadsetofthemesareexplored withinthislegacy,suchas:urbanplanning;eventplanning;local development;sustainabledevelopment;post-eventoccupancy/ usage;mega-projectconstruction;architecture;mobility;liveable openspaces;andpublicfacilities.

Akeyareaforpaperswithafocusoninfrastructurelegacy was“sustainabledevelopment”(e.g., Gulak-LipkaandJagielski, 2020). Whilelarge-scaleinfrastructuredevelopmenthasbeen ahallmark legacyformostsportmega-eventsglobally,within emergingnations,theseeventshavebeenmorecatalyticin nature.Itappearsthatthesporteventscanplayacentralor foculroleforbroaderdevelopmentwithinthehostnation. Forexample,UEFAEURO2012becameacentralpointfor manydevelopmentprojectsinPoland,primarilyrelatingto sportinfrastructuredevelopment.However,inmanyinstances, theinfrastructurelegaciesreportedwerefarbeyondmerely thesportinfrastructurerequiredtohosttheevents.Public transport,urbandevelopment,housingandpublicfacilities (includingparksandrecreationalspaces)wereallcited asexamples.

Therewasastronglinkbetweeninfrastructurelegacy andenvironmentallegacy,throughthelenseofsustainable development.Whileenvironmentallegacywastheleastofthe legacytypesfeaturedintheanalysis,thepapersonthistopic emphasizedalegacythroughsustainableevents.Theyalso highlightedthepositiveroletheeventscanplayinenvironmental communicationandmessaging.

SportDevelopment

Thekeystandoutfocusofasportlegacywasthefocusonsport participation,whichaccountedfornearlyhalfthepapers.This doesnotappeartobeuniquetoemergingnations,yetitis stillakeylegacyfeature.Otherlegacyaspectsrelatedto:sport development;sportfacilityusage;sportinvolvement;corporate socialresponsibility;andsupportforfuturesportevents.

However,itshouldbenotedthatitproveddifficulttoisolate thesportslegacy.Forexample,somepapersreferredtosportfor-peaceinitiatives,althoughthefocuswasclearlyalignedto politicallegacy.Furthermore,outcomesfromtheseinitiatives emphasizedpositivesociallegacies.

CONCLUSION

Thispapersetouttoascertainifthereisadifferenceinthelegacy focuswithinemergingnations,byreviewingallpeerreviewed journalarticlesonthistopicthatfocusedonexamplesfrom emergingnations.Whilenotproposingthatthesenationsbe consideredasasingularentity,thispaperhashighlightedthe similaritiesacrossthepapersreviewedandhasdrawnattention tothemostpertinentexamples.

Thefindingscertainlyhighlightstheneedforamorecritical assessmentofsporteventlegaciesinemergingnations.Whilethe paperhasattemptedtoisolatelegacytypesaccordingtoaccepted frameworks,thefindingsindicatethatlegaciescanveryseldombe separatedfromeachother.Legaciesarecertainlyinter-connected. Whileofsomemeritforidentifyingdifferencesfromestablished nations,thebroaderlegacytypesreviewedinthispaperare perhapstoobroadinordertoreflectthekeylegacyissuesof importanceforemergingnations.Adeeper,qualitativeanalysis ofthepapersrevealednuancesinlegacyaimsanddeliverythat highlightsthedifferenceswithinemergingnationsmoreclearly. Forexample,thispaperhasrevealedlegacyfocusareasthat maybealreadyorbecomethefocusofeventplanningor legacyresearchinthesenations.Thelistbelow(anddepicted in Figure5)indicatestheauthors’summaryofthekeylegacy focusareasforemergingnationsatpresentandintothenear future,namely:

• Economiclegacy:economicstimulationandgrowth; enterprisedevelopment;andurbantourism.

• Environmentallegacy:sustainableevents; environmentalcommunication.

• Image/brandlegacy:globalidentity,prestige andcompetitiveness.

• Infrastructurelegacy:sustainabledevelopment;mobility;and liveablespaces.

• Politicallegacy:nationalidentityformation;political symbolism;security;riskmitigation;humanrights;and socialtransformation.

• Sociallegacy:wellbeing;qualityoflife;andnation-building.

• Sportlegacy:sportdevelopment;participation;and venueusage.

Theauthorsrecommendthatfuturelegacypapersconsiderthe paradoxesofdevelopmentwithinunderdevelopmentamongthe

emergingnations.Forexample,thereisoftenlittlecritique ofapparent positivelegaciessuchasinvestmentsinworldclasssportfacilitiesthatcauseexclusionandtheredirectionof investmentfromothermeansofdevelopment.Theopportunity costsassociatedwiththeselegaciescertainlyneedtobe considered.Anotherbroadercritiqueofthelegacystudiesin emergingnationsistheconsiderationofthehostpopulation’s approvaloftheevent.Manyoftheemergingnationsare countrieswheredemocracyisnotentrenchedorwherecitizens havelesssayintheselectionofeventsandthedecisions surroundingthelegacyaims.Greatercitizenpartnershipand inclusionisthereforeencouragedinthesettingoflegacy agendas.Thispaperhasthereforelaidthegroundworkforfuture publicationsthatfollowthisexploratoryreview,thataimto

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DATAAVAILABILITYSTATEMENT

Theoriginalcontributionspresentedinthestudyareincluded inthearticle/supplementarymaterial,furtherinquiriescanbe directedtothecorrespondingauthor.

AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS

Bothauthorslistedhavemadeasubstantial,direct,and intellectualcontributiontotheworkandapproveditfor publication.

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Accepted: 13May2022

Published: 12July2022

Citation: SeiberthK,ThielAandJohnJM (2022)“It’sMyCountryI’mPlaying for”—ABiographicalStudyon NationalIdentityDevelopmentof YouthEliteFootballPlayersWith MigrantBackground. Front.SportsAct.Living4:893019. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.893019

“It’sMyCountryI’mPlayingfor”—A BiographicalStudyonNational IdentityDevelopmentofYouthElite FootballPlayersWithMigrant Background

KlausSeiberth

Sportrepresentsaprominenttopicforpublicandscientificdebatesonnationalidentity. LookingatGermany,publicdiscoursesonnationalbelonginghaveprimarilyfocused onnationalelitefootballandonGerman-borninternationalfootballplayerswithTurkish background.RepresentingthebiggestethniccommunityinGermanyandbeinghighly representedinGermanyouthelitefootball,athleteswithTurkishbackgroundareprime examplesforthecomplexityandambiguityofidentityformationsinmodernimmigration countriesingeneralandinyouthelitefootballinparticular.Currentresearchhas particularlyfocusedonnationalidentityformationsof(youth)eliteplayerswithmigrant background.However,thereisalackofstudiesthataddresstheprocessofnational identitydevelopmentinyouthelitesport.Forthatreason,thestudyaimedtoexplore storiesofnationalidentitydevelopmentfromtheperspectiveofyouthfootballplayerswith TurkishbackgroundinGermanyouthelitefootball.Byconducting10expertinterviews andbiographicalmappings,weidentifiedspecifictypes,strands,andtrajectoriesof nationalidentitydevelopment.Overall,weidentifiedthreetypesofnarrativesonnational identitydevelopment:“goingwiththenomination(s),”“reconsideringnationalbelonging,” and“addingupchances”.Ourfindingsillustratethatnationalidentitydevelopmentin youthelitesportisparticularlyshapedbyyouthelitesportandthenationalteamquestion. Hence,thestoriesindicatethatinternationalcareersnotnecessarilyfosternational identificationwithanationbutcanalsoreducefeelingsofnationalbelongingsustainably.

Keywords:nationalidentitydevelopment,elitesport,narrative,nationalteam,youthelitefootball,migrant background,identitywork,mapping

INTRODUCTION

Withinthelastdecadessporthasbecomeaprominenttopicforpublicandscientificdebateson nationalidentity.Insportresearch,thetopicof nationalidentity hasmostlybeenlinkedwith aspectsof(post-)migration,particularismand(re)nationalization(Hargreaves,2002;Wongand Trumper, 2002; BruceandWheaton,2009;TopiˇcandCoakley,2010;Maguire,2011;Bairner, 2015).Whilesportisdefinedas“ahugelyimportantmarkerofnationalidentity” (Bairner,2015,p. 378),footballissupposedtobe“akeyareainexpressingnationalbelonging”(Dóczi,2011,p.2).

1*,AnsgarThiel 2 andJannikaM.John 2

1 InstituteofSportsScienceandKinesiology,UniversityStuttgart,Stuttgart,Germany, 2 InstituteofSportsScience,University ofTübingen,Tübingen,Germany

Consequently,severalstudiesaimtotracecollective constructionsof nationhoodthatareattachedtoorsymbolized bynationalelitefootball(MaguireandBurrows,2005;Wise, 2011;GriggsandGibbons,2014;Chiu,2021).Oneofthe mainfindingsisthatathletesareconsidered,atleastinpublic perception,“representativesofthenation”and“iconicfigures (...)intheinternationalsportingarena”(McGeeandBairner, 2011, p.439).Similarly,researchonGermanelitefootballshows that theGermanmalenationalfootballteamservesasasymbol forcollectiveconstructionsofnationalidentity,forethnic diversification,andfora“modernsenseofnationalidentityand aplayful,non-threateningpatriotism”(Merkel,2014,p.248).

Lookingat Germany,publicdiscoursesonnationalbelonging haveprimarilyfocusedonGerman-borninternational playerswithTurkishbackground1 who—withregardto theirinternationalcareer—hadtheoptiontochoosebetween playingforGermanyastheircountryofbirthandTurkeyas theirancestors’countryoforigin.KnowingthattheGerman FootballAssociation(DFB)competeswiththeTurkishFootball Federation(TFF)forGerman-bornplayerswithTurkish backgroundonajuniorlevel,itisobviousthatthesehighly talentedjuniorplayersareconfrontedwiththequestionofwhich nation theywanttoplayforwithintheirinternational(junior) footballcareer(Seiberth’setal.,2017;SeiberthandThiel,2021).

Accordingly, athleteswithTurkishbackgroundarehighly interestingcasesformigrationresearch.Thisisnotjustbecause theyrepresentthebiggestethnicimmigrationcommunityin GermanybutalsobecausetheTurkishcommunityhasavery specialstatusintheGermanpublic.Thisstatusisclosely linkedwithGermany’simmigrationhistoryandpolitics.When Turkish“guestworkers”startedimmigrationtoGermanyin thecourseofthelaboragreementin1961,theywere—in contrasttotheguestworkersfromItaly,SpainorPortugal— perceivedasprimeexamplesforculturaldifferenceandreligious otherness.Inthe1970s,thepublicandmediaimagesof Turkishimmigrantsbecameincreasinglynegative.Sincethen, theTurkishcommunityhasoftenbeenlabeledasaproblem groupinGermanpublic,media,politics,andscience(Sökefeld, 2004;Thelen,2016).WhilepeoplewithTurkishbackground areparticularly confrontedwithdisadvantagesinsomeofthe relevantfieldsofGermansociety(Skrobanek,2009;Kaasand Manger,2012; CananandForoutan,2016),theyare,atthe sametime,highlyrepresentedinGerman(elite)footballand inthevariousnationaljuniorsquadsoftheGermanFootball Association(DFB).

Interestingly, German-borninternationalplayerswith Turkishbackgroundseemtobeunderintensepublicscrutiny. Particularly,withinthelastyears,therehasbeenanongoing debateaboutthequestionwhetherGermaninternationalswith Turkishbackgroundshouldbeobligedtosingthenational antheminordertodemonstratetheirsenseofbelongingtoand identificationwithGermany2.Besides,publicdebateshavealso focusedonplayerswithTurkishbackgroundwhodecidednot toplayfortheDFBbutfortheTFF.Thesedebatesoftenassume alackofnationalidentificationwithGermanyasthecountry ofbirth.Hence,mediadebatesfrequentlyrevolvearoundthe nationalteamquestionandwhetherthechoiceofGerman-born playerswithTurkishbackgroundtoplayforGermanyindeed symbolizesGermannationalidentity(Seiberthetal.,2018;van Campenhout and vanHoutum,2021).

Against thisbackground,playerswithaTurkishbackground representatypical integrationparadox.Ontheonehand,the playersbecomesubjectsofpublicdebatesonpatriotism,notions ofGermannessandnationalidentification.Ontheotherhand, nationalfootballteamsoftheDFBhavebecomesymbolsfor theethnicdiversificationofGermansocietyandthechances thatgoalongwithtransnationalmigrationprocesses(Blecking, 2008;Meier andLeinwather,2013;Merkel,2014;Kaelberer, 2017).ItisthisparadoxthatmakesGerman-bornplayers with Turkishbackgroundanexcellentsubjectofresearchfor examiningprocessesofnationalidentitydevelopmentinGerman immigrationsociety.

Withinacademicresearch,athleteswithmigrantbackground andwithbi-nationalreferencesrepresentinterestingcase examplesforinterrelationsbetween(post-)migration,national identityandelitesport.Forexample,Grainger’sstudyonNew Zealand’srugbyteam(Grainger,2006), McGeeandBairner’s (2011) studyon (Northern)Irishfootballand Seiberth’setal. (2017) workon Germanyouthelitefootballpointtoafluidity ofnational identityindicatingthatpracticesofotherness,public notionsofnationhoodandathletes’experiencesduringtheir internationalcareercanaffectathletes’constructionsofnational identity.Ontheonehand,thisfluidityiscloselyrelatedto whatiscalled“sportingpragmatism“(McGeeandBairner,2011, p.442).Being nominatedbyafederalsportorganizationcan haveanimpactonpersonalconstructionsofnationalidentity justashavingnegativepersonalexperienceswithanational footballassociation.Ontheotherhand,thestudiesillustrate thatexperiencesofotheringandexperiencesofnotfeeling fullyacceptedasamemberofanationalgrouporanational teamhavethepotentialtoirritateathletes’nationalaffiliations.

1AccordingtotheGermanFederalStatisticalOfficemorethan26%oftheGerman populationcurrentlyhasamigrantbackground(StatistischesBundesamt,2022). Althoughthedistinction“migrantbackground”isfrequentlyusedinGerman administration,politicsandmigrationresearchthereisacriticaldebateinsocial sciencesthatrelativizestheexplanatoryvalueoftheterm(ThielandSeiberth, 2017).Havingamigrantbackgroundmeansthataperson“oratleastoneparent did notacquireGermancitizenshipbybirth”(StatistischesBundesamt,2022). Amongthepopulationwithmigrantbackground,peoplewithTurkishbackground representthebiggestethniccommunityinGermany.Atthesametime,and curiously,italsorepresentsa“particularlyunder-researchedcommunity”(Faas, 2009,p.303).

2Evidently, thesedebatesareassociatedwiththepoliticalandsocialtrendof growingnationalism,nationalisolationismandparticularism.Particularly,the constitutionalreferendumoftheTurkishpresidentErdoganin2017reinforced acontroversialdebateabout(dual)citizenship,senseofbelongingandnational identificationofpeoplewithTurkishbackgroundintheGermanpublic.This debatewasre-launchedin2018whensomenewspaperspublishedphotosshowing theGermaninternationalfootballplayerMesutÖzilfamiliarlysigningaclubjersey fortheTurkishPresidentErdoganjustbeforetheFIFA-WorldCup2018inRussia. Thesephotoshadsignificantconsequencesastheyintensifiedthepublicdebateon nationalidentificationofpeoplewithTurkishbackgroundandastheymadeÖzil breakwiththeDFB.

Accordingtothislineofresearch,(elite)sportcanbeconsidered as “asignificantcontributortotheformationandsustenanceof nationalandotheridentities”(Bradley,2006,p.1202).

Whilecurrent researchhassignificantlycontributedto understandingnationalidentityformationsinthecontextof (youth)elitesport,moststudiesexclusivelyfocusonindividual’s currentstateofnationalidentity.Consequently,thereisa lackofstudiesthatadoptaprocessualperspectiveparticularly addressingtheprocessofnationalidentitydevelopmentin (German)youthelitesportfromtheathlete’sperspective. Thisisevenmoresurprisingasjuniorathleteswithmigrant backgroundrepresentprimeexamplesforthecomplexityand ambiguityof“identitywork”(Andersson,2002)inmodern immigrationcountries.

Assumingthatnationalidentityformationsinelitesportare theprovisionalresultofaprocessthatimpliesdevelopmental trajectoriesandtakesplaceunderspecificconditionsinelite sport,ourarticlefocusesonnationalidentity development in Germanjuniorelitefootball.Intendingtocontributetoelite sportandmigrationresearchweaskhownationalidentity developsinGerman-bornyouthinternationalfootballplayers withTurkishbackgroundandhowthenationalteamquestion affectsplayer’snationalidentitydevelopment.Forthispurpose, 10storiesonnationalidentitydevelopmentofGerman-born youthinternationalfootballplayerswithTurkishbackground havebeenanalyzedtoreconstructnationalidentitydevelopment withintheplayers’(international)careerbyanalyzingplayers’ narrativesandmappedmemories.Basedonareconstructive approachweusednarrativeanalysistoidentifyspecifictypes, strandsandtrajectoriesofnationalidentitydevelopmentin Germanyouthelitefootball.

THEORETICALBACKGROUND

Toidentifytypesandstrandsofnationalidentitydevelopment inGermanyouthelitesport,wechosean identitytheoretical approach.Although,identitytheorieshavecomeupwithvarious definitions,thereisabroadconsensusthatidentityisadiverse, dynamicandidiosyncraticconstructionoftheself.Evidently, thisconstructioniscloselylinkedtothequestionof“howwe perceiveanddefineourselves”(Turner,2010,p.16).Inlinewith thisconceptualization, weunderstandidentity“asasubjective, constructed,andevolvingstoryofhowonecametobetheperson onecurrentlyis”(McLeanandSyed,2015,p.320).Inthissense, identities resultfromsubjectivelyprocessingexperiences,social contexts(suchasyouthelitesport)andculturalconditions.This processofexploring,reflectingandnegotiatingisassumedto betheconditionforidentitydevelopment.Although,childhood andadolescencearecrucialdevelopmentalperiods,identityis conceptualizedasalife-spanprocess.Generally,identitytheories assumethatthisprocessisnotfixedinanessentialisticway, butratherfragile,mutable,transitory,andconstantlyinprogress (Schimank,1988;Giddens,1991;Hoggetal.,2004;Turner,2010).

Therewith, identitiesare“signifiersoftheself”(Ezzell, 2009, p.111)thatreportonthecurrentstatusofidentity development. Whenintendingtoreconstructthisprocessof

identitydevelopment(andnotjustsingleformationsofidentity), itisthereforenecessarytounderstandtheindividualstory.For thatreason,biographicapproachesrelyonstoriesasasource forreconstructingdevelopmentalprocesses.Incurrentnarrative approaches“personalnarratives”arerelationalconstructionsby whichapersonpositionshim-orherselftowhatiscalled“master narratives”(McLeanandSyed,2015).Whilemasternarratives represent “culturallysharedstoriesthattellusaboutagiven culture,andprovideguidanceforhowtobea‘good’memberofa culture”,personalnarrativesintheformofstories“negotiatewith andinternalizethesemasternarratives”(McLeanandSyed,2015, p.320).

Inthissense,identityisan“interactionalaccomplishment” (Cerulo,1997,p.387)thatemergesfroma“dialogicalprocess through whichwenegotiatetheimplicitand/orexplicitidentity ascriptionsweencounterineverydaylife”(Andersson,2002, p.85).Thisprocessof“identitywork”issupposedtobe multidimensionalasindividualspermanently“work”ondifferent componentsoftheself.Forthatreason,(social)identitytheories assumethat“[p]eoplehaveasmanysocialidentitiesandpersonal identitiesastherearegroupsthattheyfeeltheybelongtoor personalrelationshipstheyhave”(Hoggetal.,2004,p.252).

Social identity isdefinedas“thatpartoftheindividuals’selfconceptwhichderivesfromtheirknowledgeoftheirmembership ofasocialgroup(orgroups)togetherwiththevalueand emotionalsignificanceofthatmembership”(Tajfel,1981,p.255). Onetypicalfeaturesofsocialidentityiscontextdependency. Thus,“socialidentityiscontextdependentnotonlyinterms ofwhichsocialidentityissalientbutalsointermsofwhat formtheidentitymaytake”(Hoggetal.,2004,p.252).The conceptof salienceexplainshowdifferentsocialidentitiesrelate toeachother.Itisassumed,thatinanysocialcontextandinany situation,thereisonespecificsocialidentitythattakesthelead (Hoggetal.,2004).Inthisrespect,however,itisnotedthatsocial identity“seems tobe‘switchedon’bycertainsituationsinways thatwedonotasyetfullyunderstand”(Turner,2010,p.21).

Reconstructingnational identitydevelopmentmeansto focusononespecificcomponentofsocialidentityresulting fromasenseofbelongingtoanation.Inthiscontext,the nationstateissupposedtobe“oneofthemostimportant agentsofidentification”(BrubakerandCooper,2000,p. 16).Accordingtocurrentresearch, nationalidentity isbased ona“sharedsenseofnation-hoodgroundedintheimages andstoriesassociatedwithanidentifiablenation-stateor longstandingethnicpopulation”(TopiˇcandCoakley,2010, p.373/374).Typically,nationalidentitycomprisescognitive andemotionalaspectsofidentification(BrubakerandCooper, 2000;DavidandBar-Tal,2009).Obviously,constructions ofnational identitiesareassociatedwith“particularistic configurationsofethniccores,mythsandmemories,religious beliefs,language,connectionswithterritory,andpoliticalvalues” (Moran,2011,p.2155).

Nationalidentity developmentstartsin(late)childhoodand consolidatesinadolescence.Foryouthsandadolescentswith migrantbackground,nationalidentitydevelopmentturnsoutto beacomplexdevelopmentaltask.Thisisbecauseitisclosely linkedtotheexplorationofaperson’sethnicoriginandhis

orheraffiliationswiththeancestors’countryoforiginandthe owncountry ofbirth.Consequently,nationalidentityresults fromsubjectivelyexploringtheserelationsandpositioning oneselftowardnationalgroups(Phinney,1992;Berryetal., 2006;Barrett,2013).Thisprocessofexplorationisassumedto behighlyindividual,dynamicandnotpredictable,whichcan alsobeseenwithinGermanmigrationresearch.Immigrants (ofTurkishorigin)andimmigrantdescendantswithTurkish backgroundinparticular,oftendevelophybrididentities,which canimplystrongfeelingsofbelongingtobothcountriesat thesametime.Thesemixedandhighlyindividualizedidentity formationsrepresenttypicalphenomenaofmodernimmigration societies—suchasGermany(Faas,2009;WippermannandFlaig, 2009;Foroutan,2013).

Knowingthatnationalidentityiscontextdependentand being“switchedon”bycertainsituations,itmustbeconsidered that(youth)elitesportrepresentsasocialcontextproviding specificconditionsandconstellationsfor(national)identity development.Onereasonforthisis,thatyouthelitesport requiresanextremeformofinclusion.This“hyperinclusion” (GöbelandSchmidt,1998,p.111)resultsfromanextraordinary level ofobligationslinkedtoelitesport.Beingsocializedintoelite sport,youngathletestendtointegrateelitesportscontextuallogic prominentlyintotheirself-concept.Thisisparticularlyevidentin Germanjuniorelitefootball.Ascompetitionisveryhighdueto alargenumberofyoungtalentedplayers,playersareexpected toinvesthugepersonalandtimeresourcesintofootballto increasethelikelihoodtosucceed.Theincreasinginternalization ofmasternarrativesofelitesport(suchashavingtosubordinate allaspectsoftheirlivestosports)lead(young)athletesinto an“identitytunnel”(Curry,1993,p.289).Havingentered this“tunnel”, athleteidentity oftenbecomesthedominantselfconceptof(young)athleteswithapotentiallysustainableimpact onsport-relateddecisionssuchasthenationalteamquestion (SchubringandThiel,2014;Seiberth’setal.,2017).

Asecond reasonwhy(youth)elitesportprovidesspecific conditionsforsocialidentitydevelopmentisitsattachment totheconceptofnation.Elitesportingeneralandyouth elitefootballinparticularisorganizedinnationalunitsand promotedbynationalfootballassociationsthatcompetewith eachotheronthelevelofnationalteams.Forexample,being includedintoGermanyouthelitefootballmeanstoparticipate intheTalentDevelopmentProgramoftheGermanFootball Association(DFB).Typically,theseplayerstraininandplay forGermanYouthPerformanceCenters(YPC)—usuallyonthe highestnationallevelofcompetition.PlayingforaGermanclub usuallyalsomeansthatplayersarerecruitedforDFBstateteams beforetheybecomeinternationalplayers.Generally,national talentpromotionisalwaysaimingtoproduceinternational playerswhorepresenttheirnation,nation-stateornational footballassociation.Atthesametime,becominganinternational playerisoneofthehighestachievementsin(youth)elitesport. Forplayerswithmigrantbackgroundthisconstellationnotjust includesamajorchallengeonthelevelofdecisionmakingbut canalsoinitiateaprocessofreflectingand“reworking”one’s nationalidentity.Generally,itcanbeassumed:“Throughthe lifecourse,peopleextend,personalize,andrevisetheirnational

identitiesastheyconnectthemselvestostoriestoldacross multipleinstitutionalspheres,includingfamily,religion,politics, education,science,economics,andsport”(TopiˇcandCoakley, 2010, p.374).

Whilepersonalconstructionsandnarrativesofnational identityaretypicallynotpublicbutratherprivate,they becomeanobjectofpublicinterestwhenathleteswithmigrant backgroundhavetochoosebetweentwonations,which oftentimesbecomespartofpublicandmediadebates.These publicandmediadebatesmightprovidemasternarrativesthat arereceivedandprocessedbyyoungathleteswithamigrant background.Typically,withinthesedebatestheissueofnational identityislinkedtomoralassessmentssuchas“playereligibility” (Hassanetal.,2009).Therewith,thenationalteamquestionturns outto functionasapublicvisualizerofnationalidentity.Atthe sametime,itpointstotherelevanceofmediadebatesforthe processof“encouragingthe‘imaginedcommunities’ofnations” (Ward,2009,p.527).

InGerman mediadebates,thechoiceofanationalteamhas beeninstrumentalizedasaquestionofemotionalidentification withthecountryofbirthclaimingnationalidentitytobeamajor predictorfortheplayers’choice.Furthermore,thepublicdebates onGerman-borninternationalswithTurkishbackgroundoften implyalowemotionalidentificationwithGermansocietyand“a virulentTurkishnationalismwhichfindsitslevelofidentification preciselyinfootball”(Blecking,2008,p.965)3.Weassumethat players withmigrantbackgroundtakenoteofthesedebatesand potentiallyintegratethemintheirself-concept.

Weconcludethat nationalidentitydevelopment inelite sporttakesplaceunderveryspecificconditionsinwhich sportspecificnarratives,publicandmedianarratives,and broadersocioculturalnarrativesmustbereconciled.Underthese conditions,‘identitywork’ingeneraland‘nationalidentity work’inparticularbecomeverychallengingforadolescent athleteswithTurkishbackground.However,thenationalteam question,theexperiencesduringnationaltrainingcampsor internationalgames,conversationswithnationalcoachesor representantsofthenationalfootballassociationscanalso representspecialoccasionstoproductivelydealwithpersonal andpublicconstructionsofnationalidentification.

Inordertoreconstructindividualprocessesofnational identitydevelopmentinGermanjuniorelitefootball,research reliesonstoriesinwhichchanges,transitions,andswitcheson thelevelofnationalidentificationarelinkedwithbiographical experiences,careerevents,andcontextualconditions.Life andcareerevents,situations,andpersonalexperiencesareall assembledwithinthestoryplotthatcanprovideinsightsinto thestorytellers’perspectivesonthesubject.Theindividualstories canalsoreflectbroadernarrativesonnationalidentityandthe

3ThemediadebateonMesutÖzilisanexcellentexampleforthis.Although,Mesut ÖziloptedtoplayforGermanyduringhiscareeranddespitethefactthathe justifiedhisdecisionseveraltimesbyreferringtohiscognitiveandemotional identificationwithGermanyashiscountryofbirthandhishomecountry,hegotin thecenterofamediadebatecriticizingsomeGermaninternationalswithmigrant backgroundfornotsingingthenationalanthembeforethestartofinternational games(Seiberth’setal.,2017;Seiberthetal.,2018).

nationalteamquestion(cf. SmithandSparkes,2009;McLeanand Syed,2015).

METHODSAND MATERIALS

Thestudyisbasedona narrativeresearchapproach combining guidedexpertinterviewsandbiographicalmappingscomprising 10casestudieswithmaleGerman-borninternationalfootball playerswithTurkishbackgroundaged15–21.Overall,our researchisinformedbyaninterpretativeparadigmhighlighting themultipleandsubjectivenatureofreality(Poucheretal.,2020). Inthisregard,weaimedtoassessthesubjectivemeaningsthat youngfootballplayerswithaTurkishbackgroundattributeto theirexperiencesofhavingtochooseforwhichnationalteam theywanttoplayandhowthisdecisionhasimpactedtheir nationalidentitydevelopment.

Participants

WefocusedonplayerswithTurkishbackgroundfortworeasons: Firstly,peoplewithTurkishbackgroundrepresentthelargest immigrantpopulationinGermany;secondly,thepublicand mediadebateonthenationalteamquestioninGermanyalmost exclusivelyreferstoplayerswithTurkishbackground—such asMesutÖzil(Seiberth’setal.,2017)—andtherebymight providepowerfulmasternarrativessurroundingthenational teamquestionandnationalidentityforGerman-bornplayers withTurkishbackground.

Inordertofindpotentialinterviewees,weconductedaweb searchusingtheonlinedatabasewww.transfermarkt.de.This websiteprovidesawiderangeofrelevantdataonelite(junior) footballplayersinGerman(junior)teams.Byconcentratingon thefeaturenationality,weidentifiednumeroustop-levelplayers whowerecharacterizedasbeingboth“German”and“Turkish”. Caseselectionwasbasedonthefollowingcriteria:Theplayers wereexpectedtohaveaTurkishbackground,tohavebeenborn inGermany(butnotnecessarilyhaveGermancitizenship)4,tobe between15and21yearsold,andtrainataYouthPerformance Center(YPC)oftheDFB.Afurtheressentialrequirementwas thattheplayershadplayedatleastoneinternationalmatch duringtheircareer—eitherfortheTurkishFootballFederationor theGermanFootballAssociation.Inordertoavoidasystematic distortionofresultsduetosamplingbias,weaimedtoselect playersfromthreedifferentstatusgroups:playerswhohadplayed onlyfortheGermanFootballAssociation(DFB),playerswho hadonlyplayedfortheTurkishFootballFederation(TFF),and playerswhohadplayedfortheGermanFootballAssociation (DFB)andtheTurkishFootballFederation(TFF)duringtheir

4This methodologicaldecisionresultedfromthefactthatneitherthestatus “migrantbackground”northefactofbeingborninGermanyallowstodraw conclusionsonthelevelofcitizenship.Infact,beingborninGermanydoes notautomaticallyleadtoGermancitizenship.In2000,Germancitizenshiplaw supplementedtheprincipleofdescenttheprincipleofbirthplace(Gerdesetal., 2016).Sincethenpeoplewithmigrantbackgroundhadthechoicetodecide whether theywanttoacquiretheGermancitizenshipornot.Untiltoday,among thehighlyheterogeneousgroupofpeoplewithmigrantbackgroundthereisa comparativelyhighnumberofpeoplewhoarebornandsocializedinGermany withouthavingaGermanordualcitizenship(StatistischesBundesamt,2022).

youth career—whichwasinaccordancewithFIFA’seligibility regulations5 (FIFA,2016).

We identified 31playerswhomatchedtheselectioncriteria. InanextstepweofficiallycontactedtheYPCsintheirfunction asgatekeepers.Weinformedthemabouttheaimofthestudy, thespecifictargetgroup,andtheplayersweaimedtointerview. Subsequently,theYPCsexaminedourrequestandautonomously decidedwhethertoinformtherespectiveplayersandtheir parents.IftheYPCsassessedourrequestpositively,wereceived eitherdateproposalsfortheinterviewsorthecontactdetails oftheplayerstoarrangeaninterviewon-site.Inthisway,we respectedthecompetencesoftheYPCs.Atthesametime,we avoidedethicalconcernsbydirectlyinfluencingtheplayersin theirdecisiontoparticipateinthestudy.

Duringtherecruitmentprocess,weexperiencedtypical problemsresearchersfacewhenattemptingtorecruit (youth)eliteathletesforresearchpurposes(Bairner,2015). These problemswereprimarilyassociatedwiththeplayers’ hyperinclusionintoyouthelitesport.Havingtocoordinate youthelitefootballwithaschoolcareermakesyoutheliteathletes agroupwithverylimitedtimeresources.However,wewere notjustdependentontheathletes’commitmenttoparticipate inthestudybutalsoonthewillingnessofthegatekeepers (YPC)tosupportthestudy.Althoughtherecruitmentand schedulingprocesswasdifficultandtime-consuming,several YPCsand10top-levelplayersrespondedpositivelytoour request.Comparablesamplesizeshavealsobeenusedinprior publishednarrativeanalysisstudies(Busanichetal.,2016; Cavallerioetal.,2017;Everardetal.,2021).Asnarrativestudies aimto embracethecomplexitiesandambiguitiesinherentto experiences(PapathomasandLavallee,2012),smallsamplesizes arequite common.

DataCollection

Theoverallaimofthestudywastoreconstructthedecisionmakingprocessofyoungfootballplayerswhohadtochoose whethertheywanttoplayforaGermanoraTurkishnational teamonajuniorlevel.Withinthecontextoftheoverallstudy, weaimedtoidentifyrelevantreasonsforthisdecisionandasked fortheroleofethnicandnationalidentityinthisdecisionmakingprocess.Asweassumedthatnationalidentitychanges duringtheyouthelitefootballcareer,thestudyalsoaimedto reconstructtrajectoriesofnationalidentitydevelopmentandto locatethisprocessoverthecourseoftheplayers’footballcareer. Thepresentarticlefocusesonthelatterobjectiveandpresents multi-methodologicaldataaboutthistopic.

5Since 2004,FIFAallowsplayerstoswitchbetweenjuniornationalteamsand nationalfootballassociationsuptotheageof21untiltheyplayforthe seniornationalteaminacompetitionmatch.Thisisparticularlyimportant forplayerswithmigrantbackgroundastheFIFAstatutesentitlesthem(under specificconditions)torepresentmorethanonenationalfootballassociation.One recruitmentconditionisthataplayer’s“biologicalmotherorbiologicalfatherwas bornontheterritoryoftherelevantassociation”(FIFA,2016,p.70).However, previous researchindicatesthattheDFB’sandTFF’srecruitmentstrategiesdiffer substantiallywhenitcomestocitizenship.WhiletheDFBisreportedtoexclusively recruitplayerswithGermancitizenship,havingaTurkishcitizenshipisnot requiredbytheTTF(Seiberth’setal.,2017).

Toreconstructnationalidentitydevelopmentovertheplayer’s career,weemployeda multi-methoddesign thatgeneratedverbal dataandgraphicaldatabycombiningguidedexpertinterviews withbiographicalmappings.Wechoseguidedexpertinterviews asthismethodopens“windowsintopeoples’lives”(Denzin, 1989, p.14)andprovidesdetailedinsightsintoexperiences, relevantcareerevents,andcoursesofdevelopment.Biographical mappingswereusedtosupporttheathletesintheirbiographical “memorywork”(Schubringetal.,2019,p.1).Biographical mappings consistofatwo-dimensionalgrid,withthex-axis representingatimelineandthey-axisrepresentinganintensity scalerangingfrom0to10.Weusedthebiographicalmapping techniqueforthereconstructivevisualizationofthesports careers,thenationalteamdecision-makingprocess,andthe developmentofnationalidentityovertheplayer’scareer.Being embeddedintheinterviews,thetoolallowedtovisualizelife andcareerexperiencesonatimelineand“toexpressgradual differencesinsubjectiveexperience”(Schubringetal.,2019,p. 1).Theaimofthisparticipatoryvisualmethodwastoidentify “trajectories,biographicalturningpoints,andintersectionsof developmentstrands”(Schubringetal.,2019,p.1).

Tokeep players’timeexpendituretoaminimumandtouse familiarsurroundings,theinterviewsandthemappingswere conductedattheplayers’clubfacilities.Sincetheplayerswere bornandsocializedinGermanyandspokeGermanfluently, theinterviewswerecarriedoutinGerman.Datacollectionwas initiatedwithanopenquestionaskingtheintervieweestostate importantcareereventsandexperiences.Thisalsoincluded eventsandexperiences,whichreferredtothenationalteam questionandtheplayers’internationalcareer.Inanextstep, theintervieweeswereaskedtolocatetheseexperiencesonthe timeline(x-axis)andtoplota sportingsuccess lineonthey-axis. Thecareereventsandbiographicexperienceswerealsotheframe forseparatelymappingtheplayers’ identificationwithGermany andtheir identificationwithTurkey withintheircareerusingthe intensityscaleonthey-axis.Finally,intervieweesexplainedthe linedrawingsbyparticularlyfocusingonchangesandturning points.Thecombinationofinterviewsandmappings“allows intervieweestonarrateand‘map’strandsofdevelopmentwithin theirlifecourses”(Schubringetal.,2019,p.1).Theinterviews andmappingslastedbetween45and90min.

Theinterviewsandmappingswereprepared,organizedand conductedbytheleadauthorwhodoesnothavea(Turkish) migrantbackground.Althoughithastobeassumedthat“pure objectivismisanaïvequest”(Bourke,2014,p.3),weconstantly reflectedonaspectsofsubjectivityandpositionality.Thiswas evenmoreimportantastheinterviewsincludedseveralsensitive topics(suchasfamilyimmigrationhistory,ethnicidentity ornationalidentification).Inordertoencouragetheplayers toexpresstheirviewsfreelyandinordertoavoidsocially desirableanswers,theleadauthorexplicitlyindicatednottobe interestedinanykindofmoralassessmentsoftheplayers’stories. Retrospectively,thesereflectionsonpositionalityweresupposed tobecrucialforbalancedpowerrelationsandfordataquality. Nevertheless,assessingtheextentbywhichtheresearcher’s“own identitymayormaynothaveinteractedwiththeinterviewees’ self-perceptions”(Faas,2009,p.303)hasprovedtobedifficult.

In order toachievedatasaturation,participantsweregiventhe opportunitytosharefurtherthoughtsandreflectionsattheend oftheinterviews.Whenboth,theinterviewerandparticipant, feltthattherewasnothingmoretoshare,weassumedthatdata saturationwasreachedwithregardtotheindividuals’storieson theirnationalidentitydevelopment.However,weacknowledge thatourfindingsmightonlyofferaglimpseintoourparticipants’ richandcomplexexperiencesofnationalidentitydevelopment, as“totheextentthateachlifeisunique,nodataareevertruly saturated:therearealwaysnewthingstoexplore”(Wrayetal., 2007, p.1400).Hence,itisimportanttokeepinmindthat narrativeresearchisalwaystentativeandthatourproposed typologyofnarrativesshouldnotbetreatedasfixedandexclusive categories(Frank,2010;Cavallerioetal.,2017;Ronkainenand Ryba, 2019).

DataAnalysis

For dataanalysis,weusedboth,theinterviewdataand thebiographicalmappings.Theleadauthortranscribedall interviewsverbatiminGerman;keystatementsweretranslated intoEnglishbytheauthorsandcheckedbyaprofessional translator.Thepaper-pencilmappinggridsforeachplayerwere processedanddigitalizedsothatthedifferentlinedrawings(for thepurposeofthisstudymainly identificationwithGermany and identificationwithTurkey)couldbecomparedduringthe dataanalysis.

Fordataanalysis,weadoptedthestoryanalystposition (Smith,2016).Theleadauthorconductedtheanalysisinregular discussionwiththeresearchteam,whoactedascriticalfriends (SmithandMcGannon,2018).Dataanalysisstartedwitha processof“indwelling”duringwhichtheleadauthorreadthe transcriptsandassessedthebiographicalmappingsforeach playertoidentifythemesandstoryplotsinductively(Smithand Sparkes, 2009).

Weconducted athematicnarrativeanalysis(Smith,2016) oftheinterviewdatatoidentifythemainthemeswithineach player’sstoryofthenationalteamdecisionmakingprocess andhisnationalidentitydevelopment.Inaninitialstep,we createdcaseprofilesforeachplayerinwhichwesummarized relevantcontextualinformationsuchasfamilyimmigration history,citizenship,identityformations,and(international) juniorcareerstages.Next,theleadauthormarkedthe transcriptswithconceptualcomments,whichprimarilyfocused onthesemanticandlatentcontentofeachstory.During thisprocessofcategorizingandsortingdata,weidentified maincategories,statements,andthemesusingMAXQDA software.Wespecificallyfocusedonthepartsofthestories whereintervieweesmadereferencestotheiridentificationwith GermanyandTurkeybefore,during,andafterhavingmadethe decisionforwhichnationalteamtheywanttoplay.Inanextstep, thefirstauthorpreparedextensivecasesummariesforeachplayer focusingonhisnationalidentitydevelopment.

Next,tocometotermswiththestory’sstructure,we particularlyfocusedonthebiographicalmappings,specifically thenationalidentitydevelopmentlines.Forgettingtogripswith stories, Smith(2016) suggeststhatresearchersdepictthestory’s structure withinagraph.Withinourstudy,thebiographical

mappingsservedasvisualimagesofthestory’sstructureandwere created bytheparticipantsthemselves.Thus,wesupplemented ourcasesummarieswiththegraphicdatafromthedigitalized mappinggrids.Duringthisstep,quotesfromtheinterviewsthat containedspecificinformationastothestrands,turningpoints, andbifurcationsinthenationalidentitydevelopmentlines(i.e., identificationwithTurkey and identificationwithGermany),were enteredintothedigitalizedmappinggridaswellaswhenthe respectiveplayerfirststartedtoponderforwhichnationalteam toplayandwhenhemadehisdecision.

Oncetheseanalyticalstepswereconcluded,weaimedto buildatypologyofstoriesonnationalidentitydevelopment ofGerman-bornnationalyouthfootballplayerswithTurkish background.Tothisend,inafirststep,wesystematically comparedthenationalidentitydevelopmentlineswithinthe biographicalmappingsofeachplayerandthecasesummaries toidentify“themostgeneralstorylinethatcanberecognized underlyingtheplotandtensionsofparticularstories”(Frank, 2013, p.75)withregardtonationalidentitydevelopment.To makesure thatourdevelopedtypesofnarrativesaregrounded intheactualparticipant’sstories,werevisitedtheoriginal interviewdata.

MethodologicalRigor

Asourresearchisbasedonaninterpretativeparadigm,we abstainfromemployinga“criteriologicalapproach”(Sparkes andSmith,2009)toassessthequalityofourdataandanalysis. Instead,weperceivequalitycriteriaascharacteristicsofour research.Asapointofdeparture,wehaveusedtheworkof Tracy (2010) and Smith andCaddick(2012) andinviteresearchersto takeinto considerationthefollowingcriteriathatalignwithour study:transparency,sincerity,andworthytopic.

Basedonouridentitytheoreticalperspective,weassume thatnationalidentityisaparticularlysensitiveissuefor playerswithmigrantbackgroundastheplayersaresupposed tobeawareofpublicexpectationsandmediadebateson nationalidentityinGermany.Againstthisbackground,itis notsurprisingthat McGeeandBairner(2011) resumethat “understandingofsuchmattershasbeenhinderedbyamarked reluctanceonbehalfofprofessionalathletestodiscusstheir experienceswithresearchers”(p.439).Forthisreason,itwas assumedtobeparticularlyimportanttobetransparentinthe study’saimsandtoclearlydistancefrompublicallegations andnormativevaluations.Consideringthatinterviewingyoung peoplerequiresspecificreflectionsonethicalissues,wemade transparency,confidentialityandbalancedpowerrelations ourhighestpriorities.Accordingtotheethicalstandardsof qualitativeresearch,ourstudywasbasedontheconceptof informedconsent.Participationinthestudywasthusentirely voluntary.Confidentialityandanonymitywereguaranteedto intervieweesandtotheirclubs.Inordertoencouragetheplayers toexpresstheirviewsfreelyandtoavoidsociallydesirable answers,weaccentuatedthefactthatwewerenotinterestedin anykindofmoralassessmentsregardingtheplayers’national teamchoice.

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION

Wedecidedtocombineresultsanddiscussion.Overall,we identifiedthreedifferent typesofnarrativesonnationalidentity development ofGerman-bornyouthinternationalfootball playerswithTurkishbackground.Inthefollowingsection, wepresentonecaseforeachtypeofnarrativetoallowfor analyticaldepthandtostaycloselytotheparticipants’own stories,whilebeingawareofthefactthatasinglestorydoes notnecessarilycontainallcharacteristicsoftherespective narrativetype(Kuckartz,2020;JohnandThiel,2022).However, thisrepresentationalstrategyisfrequentlyrecommendedand employedinnarrativestudies(e.g., PhoenixandSmith,2011; Cavallerioetal.,2017).Inadditiontotheinterviewdata,wealso refer tothedigitalizedbiographicalmappingoftheplayerwhose storyrepresentstherespectivetypeofnarrative.Withinthe biographicalmapping,wehavealsoenteredthemostimportant eventstowhichtheplayerreferredtowhennarratinghis personalstoryonnationalidentitydevelopmentandhisfootball career.Therewith,thebiographicalmappingsserveasvisualized referencepointsthathelpinunderstandingtheplayers’storieson theirnationalidentitydevelopment.

Eachtypeofnarrativeischaracterizedbyspecificfeaturesand strandsofdevelopment.Inthefollowing,wecharacterizeand discusseachtypeofnarrativeonnationalidentitydevelopment byidentifyingnotionsofnationalidentityandbyinterrelating thenationalidentificationwithGermany(asthecountryof birth)andTurkey(asthefamily’scountryoforigin)duringthe sportcareerandagainstthebackgroundoftheinternational career.Althoughthestoriesarehighlyindividual,wealsoaim totracesimilarfeatureswithintheplayers’narrativesonnational identitydevelopment.

Type1:“GoingWiththeNomination(s)”

The“goingwiththenomination(s)”narrative(Figure1) ischaracterizedbyaninseparableconnectionbetweenthe nominationofaplayerbyafederalfootballassociation (DFBorTFF)andthedevelopmentofnationalidentification withGermanyandTurkey.Dynamicsinnationalidentity developmentparticularlyariseinthecontextofthenational teamquestion.Typically,nationalidentificationisattachedto beingrecruitedforanationalteam;here,theidentificationwith thenationthatrecruitedtheplayerforaninternationalgame ortournamentrisessignificantly.Atthesametime,thisrise isaccompaniedbyadeclineofnationalidentificationwiththe othernation.ThefollowingbiographicalmappingofEmir(name anonymized)istypicalforthattypeofnarrative.

Emirisadescendentofaformer“guestworker”.His grandfatherimmigratedtoGermanyinthecourseofthebiglabor agreementswithTurkeyattheendofthe1960s.Justlikehis grandfather,hisparentswereborninTurkeyandimmigrated toGermanyduringchildhoodintheearly1970s.Theplayeris thefirstgenerationofhisfamilywhoisborninGermany.His firstlanguageisGerman,hissecondlanguage(albeitatalower level)isTurkish.Althoughhereportstohaveadualcitizenship, nationalityisnotarelevantpersonalissueforhim.Nevertheless, astheGermanFootballAssociation(incontrasttotheTFF)

definesGermancitizenshipasarecruitmentconditiononthe level ofnationalteams,hisnationalitystatusqualifieshimfor playingforbothnationalfootballassociations.Actually,during hisjuniorelitesportcareer,theplayerwasrecruitedforseveral nationaljuniorteamsbybothnationalfootballassociations(DFB andTFF).Generally,Emirdescribeshimselfasa“GermanTurk”,butatthesametimehepointsouttoratherhavea stronglocalidentitythatiscloselyconnectedtohiscityofbirth inGermany.Hisbi-nationalreferencesareillustratedbysport relatedexamples—suchassupportingGermanyandTurkey duringWorldChampionshipsandbyplacingbothnationalflags atthecaroftheirfamilyduringthetournament:

“EvenattheWorldCupandsoon,wehave,forexample,Germany andTurkey,theseflagsonthecars,wehadGermanyandTurkey.

So(.)thereisnotsuchadifference.”

Lookingatthestrandsofnationalidentificationinhis biographicalmapping,itisevidentthatthereconstructionof nationalidentitystartsin(early)childhood.Obviously,the player’sstoryofnationalidentificationwithTurkeystartsearlier andonalowerlevelthanthestoryofnationalidentification withGermany.Whenaskedaboutthisissue,Emirmarkedthisas anunconsciousdifferentiation.HisappointmentbytheGerman andlaterbytheTurkishfootballassociationwerereportedto bemassiveboostersforhisnationalidentitydevelopment.Both peaksinhisbiographicalmappingresultfrombeingnominated forinternationalgamesortournaments.Thefirstinternational gameforGermanyrepresentedacrucialpointinhisnational identitydevelopmentstory.Theriseandpeakofthenational identificationwithGermanywasexplainedbyhissurpriseand

satisfactionofbeingselectedbytheDFBforagamewiththe juniornationalteam.Emirrecounted:

“WithGermany,itwaslike,maybeIwassohappybecauseInever thoughtIwouldplayforthejuniornationalteam.”

Hewentonandspecificallycomparedthefeelingshehadwhen beingnominatedforGermanywiththeonesheexperienced whenbeinginvitedtoplayforTurkey:

“Yes,whenI(...)havesometimesseenwhowasinvitedtoTurkey, so(...)Iwasnownotsomuchpleased;soalsoalreadyvery pleased,neverthelessfortheinvitation[bytheTFF],butnotso muchasforGermany,becauseactuallyIwastherestillaplayer of[nameofasmallfootballclub].Thiswasalsostillonthelist fortheDFBtrainingcourse.Therewerealwaystheplayers,there stoodBorussiaMönchengladbach,VfBStuttgart,BayernMunich andthentherewasIfromforexample[clubname].Amongthe TurkswhowerefromGermany,thereweremanyfromsmaller clubswhowereinvited.Yes.So,atfirstIthoughtitwasbetter[to play]forGermany.”

Aspecialfeatureofthistypeofnarrativeisthatthestory ofnationalidentitydevelopmentisinextricablylinkedwith theinterestofandtheactofbeingrecruitedbyanational footballassociation.Changesinthisdevelopmentprocessresult fromeitherbeingnominatedornotbeingnominated.Being nominatedleadstoariseofidentificationwithanationalfootball associationandanation.Conversely,ifanationalfootball organizationlosesinterestinaplayeranddoesnotnominatehim foracurrenttrainingcourseorinternationalgame,thelevelof nationalbelongingrapidlysinkstoalevelthatisevenbelowthe

FIGURE1| MappingType1.

initiallevel.Intheinterview,Emirexplainedthedeclineinhis nationalidentificationwithGermanywithhisdisappointment aboutnotbeingrecruitedforthenextinternationalgameofthe DFBandthefeelingofnotbeingtreatedfairlybythecoachofthe Germanyouthnationalteam.

“Yes,until[acertaingame]IwasintheAsquad.[...]Yes,and thentherewasaninternationalmatchagainst[nation]andthen mycompetitoronmypositionwasinvited,eventhoughhewas notinthetrainingcampfortwoweeks.That’swhyIdidn’twant toplayanymore.(...)That’swhyIwasangry,becausehewasn’t therefortwoweeksandin[nationstate]hewas,whenwehad twointernationalmatches.Thatwassoobvious.(...).Soaftereach gameweweregradedandin[nationstate]heoncegavemethe samegradeasmycompetitoreventhoughheplayedmuchworse andmanyhaveseenthat.Thattheydidunfairthings.”

Againstthisbackground,itseemsappropriatetopointoutthat wefindsimilarepisodesinvariousinterviews.Accordingly, anotherathletewhoplayedfortheTFFfirstandthenforthe DFBreports:

“ButasIsaidatthebeginning,theTurkishnationalteam(-)the TurkishplayersfromTurkeywerepreferredandIperceivedthatas adisadvantageandnotsopositive.Andthat’swhyIalsodirectly(-) sowhenIcameback,IalsosaidtomyparentsthatIwanttoplay fortheGermannationalteam.Andsincethen,Ihaven’tplayedfor theTurkishnationalteam.”

Itcanbeconcludedthatnationalidentitydevelopmentcoalesces withathleteidentityandtheperformancelogicofelitesport (Breweretal.,1993;CarlessandDouglas,2012).Inlinewithour theoretical assumptions,Emir’sstoryshowsthatnationalidentity developmentisframedandtriggeredbythesocialcontextof youthelitefootball.Accordingly,changesinthestrandsof nationalidentificationarepresentedfromtheangleofayouth eliteathletestrivingforaninternationalcareerand,forthat reason,conceptualizingnominationsforinternationalmatchesas majoreventsintermsofnationalidentitydevelopment.

Afurthercharacteristicofthe“goingwiththenomination(s)” narrativeisthatnationalidentityisnotastableconstructascan beseenwithintheplayer’sbiographicalmapping.Whenreferring toonespecificexperiencehehadafteraninternationaljunior gamewiththeTFF,Emirofferedthefollowingaccount:

“Lastyear,aftertheEuropeanChampionshipqualifiers[TFF],we wereattheairportandourTurkishnationalteamcoaches,Idon’t knowfromwhere,alsoheardthattwoorthreeplayershadbeen invited[bytheDFB].Yes,thecoachsaidthat,butIalsothought hewasright,’whoevergoestherewon’tbeinvitedtotheTurkish nationalteam,becauseyouallthinkwe’reonlysecondchoiceand wedon’tneedplayerslikethat’,hesaid.Ithoughthewasright.Then Ithinktwoplayersleftanyway.Theyweren’tinvitedbackfora while,buttheywereinvitedbacktheotherday.”

Although,theplayeragreedwiththenationalcoachwhotriedto establishtheemotionalidentificationwithTurkeyandtheTFFas anunconditionalcommitment,thisexperience,however,didnot leadtoastablenationalidentificationwithTurkeyafterwardsfor

Emir.AstheplayerwasnotnominatedbythecoachandtheTFF, hisidentificationwithTurkeysinkssignificantlyagain.

“InTurkey[attheTFF]Iwantedtostayforthetimebeing,butI don’tknow(-)NowtherewasatournamenttheotherdayandIjust wasn’tinvited.”

TheseconddeclineofthenationalidentificationwithTurkeyline indicatesthattheemotionalattachmenttoTurkeyasanation seemstobebindingjustaslongastheTFFdecidestorecruitthe playerforthenextinternationalgamesoftheagegroup.

Againstthebackgroundofthisstory,nationalidentification developmentinGermanyouthelitefootballappearedto befundamentallyshapedbyelitesportsocializationandby transnationaltalentrecruitmentinelitefootball.Besides,the storyischaracterizedbyvariability,volatility,andinstability. Itisthecurrentstatusofbeingandofbeingnotrecruited forinternationalgamesthatinitiatesshort-termchangesinthe identificationwithTurkeyorGermany.Withinthistypeof narrative,nationalidentificationisconceptualizedasahighly variableandsituativeconstructionthatis,inlinewithprevious research,cruciallyaffectedby“sportingpragmatism”(McGee andBairner,2011,p.442).Thistypeofnarrativeisanexcellent examplefor thefluidityofnationalidentityinthecontextof elitesport.Apparently,thisfluidityresultsfromprocessingthe recruitmentdecisionsofthenationalfootballassociationsand theexperiencesduringthenationaltrainingcourses.Within the“goingwiththenomination(s)”narrative,nationalidentity developmentcanbecomparedwithanelevatorthatdrivesup anddownandthatissteeredexternallybyathleticeventsor non-eventssuchasnominationanddeselectionforanational team.Consequently,nationalidentitiesareunderthreatifformer nominationsarenotrefreshed.Accordingly,thequalityof identificationwithGermanyandTurkeyisprimarilydrivenby recruitmentdecisionsoftheTFFortheDFB.Inthissense, nationalidentityisfunctionallylinkedwiththeprospectof successandofperceptibilityinelitesport.Accordingly,the identificationwithanationriseswhenthereareconstellationsor optionstoincreasetheplayersvisibility.

“So,youcanalreadyseewhenyou’replayingforGermanyright now(-)you’realreadyseenmorebecausethey’remoreoftenatthe WorldCupandsoon.EuropeanChampionship,WorldCupand so.Andatthemomenttheyarealsomoresuccessful.”

Type2:“ReconsideringNational Belonging”

Whilethefirsttypeischaracterizedbytheriseofthenational identificationwiththenationwhichhadnominatedtheplayer forinternationalgames,the“reconsideringnationalbelonging” narrative(Figure2)ischaracterizedbyareversedynamic.In theaftermathofbeingrecruitedforaspecificnation,the identificationwiththisnationdeclinesratherthanrisesasitisthe casewithinthe“goingwiththenomination(s)”narrative.This reversedynamictypicalofthe“reconsideringnationalbelonging” narrativecanbeseenwithinthebiographicalmappingofCem.

Withinhisfamily’simmigrationhistory,Cembelongstothe thirdgeneration. Itwashisgrandmotherwhoimmigratedfrom TurkeytoGermanyasaworkingmigrantatthebeginningof the1970sandreunitedthefamilylaterinGermany.Theplayer’s parentswereborninTurkeyandimmigratedtoGermanyin childhood.Thus,theplayeristhefirstgenerationbeingborn inGermany.HehasaTurkishpassportbutnottheGerman citizenship.Atthetimeoftheinterview,Cemtellsabouthaving appliedforGermancitizenshipandplanningtoreturnhis Turkishpassportthen.AlthoughTurkishisthedominantfamily language,theplayerspeaksGermanundTurkishfluently.With regardtohisfootballcareer,Cemwasintensivelyinvolvedinto thefederaltalentdevelopmentprogramoftheDFB.Hetrained atalocalDFB-base,laterataYPCandplayedforGerman juniorstateteams.Onajuniorinternationallevel,heinitiallywas invitedfortwonationaltrainingcoursesoftheDFBbeforehe chosetoplayforTurkey.Subsequently,heplayedfortheTFFin severaljuniorteams.

Cem’sgraphicalreconstructionofnationalidentity developmentstartsinlatechildhood.Itisevident,thatthe twolinesstartatthesametimebutonabsolutelydifferentlevels ofnationalidentification.WhiletheidentificationwithGermany ismarkedonanintermediatelevel,theidentificationwith Turkeyismappedonamaximumlevel.Inhisverbalizedstory, hisnationalaffiliationswithTurkeybecameapparentwhenhe describedhimselfasa“Turk”.

“IfI’minGermany,orpeopleinthestreetaskme,‘Whatareyou?

GermanorTurk?’,ofcourseIanswerI’mTurkish.”

Arecurringthemeinhisstoryofnationalidentitydevelopment is“Heimat”(aGermanwordthatcannotbedirectlytranslated

toEnglish,butapproximatelydescribesasenseofemotional belonging).Thistermisverypresentwhenspeakingabout Turkeyashisfamily’scountryoforigin.Forexample,when speakingabouthisparent’scityofbirthinTurkey,heusesthe term“hometown”.

Itisevidentthatthistermhasanemotionalconnotationfor theplayer.Itcanbeassumedthatthisemotionalattachment withthe“homecountry”Turkeyisthereasonwhyhisvisualized storyischaracterizedbyaverystrongaffiliationwithTurkey.It canbeassumedthatthisemotionalidentificationwithTurkey wastransferredtoelitesportbytheideaofsomedayplayingfor Turkey.Cemrecounted:

“MydreamwasalwaystoplayforTurkey.Thatwasjustthis decision,becauseIwantedtofulfillmydreamthatIhadasachild.”

“MymotherreallywantedmetoplayforTurkey,andmymotheris everythingtome,andthatwasactuallythethingwhereIsaid‘yes’ toTurkey.”

Whilebothnationalidentificationlinesarestableinlate childhood,theinterrelationbetweenthetwolinesstartsto changeatthebeginningofadolescence.Whiletheaffiliationwith Germanyrises,thesenseofbelongingtoTurkeysignificantly falls.TheriseoftheidentificationwithGermanyfellintoacareer periodinwhichCembecameJunior-Bundesliga-Player,changed theclub,andstartedhisinternationaljuniorcareerfortheTFF. Thetwolinescrossatthetimewhentheplayertransferredtohis newclubanditsYPC.

Thismajorswitchisparticularlyexplainedbyexperiencesthe playerhadduringhisinternationaljuniorcareerwiththeTFF.In contrasttoType1,thenominationfortheTFFdidnotresultin

FIGURE2| MappingType2.

anintensificationorassuranceofnationalaffiliationswithTurkey butinitiated aprocessofrevisionandregression.Crucialfor Cem’sstoryaresomeexperienceshemadeduringthetraining coursesandinternationalgamesinTurkey.Heexperiencedthe trainingcoursesandtheselectionofstarting-playerstobeless performance-related,disciplined,andtransparentthanhewas usedtoathisGermanclub.

“So(.)forexample(.)theTurksratherdonotlookatthe performanceoftheotherplayers,therehaveplayedverymanywho havenotearneditornoidea,itwasjustverystrange,not(-)soto speaknotasmuchdisciplineastheGermansandIjustdidnotlike itandI’mjustusedtotheGermanswiththisdisciplinethatonly thoseplaywhoalsoperform.”

Besides,thestoryalsorevealedexperiencesthatseemedtoirritate hisemotionalidentificationwithTurkeyandhisself-description asa“Turk”.Apparently,histripswiththenationalteamand thetripstoTurkeyintensifiedhisfeelingofnotbeingperceived asaTurkinTurkey.Thisfeelingofunfamiliarityandnot belongingisreportedtobeamajorturningpointthatmadehim rethink/reassesshisunderstandingof“Heimat”,hisemotional commitmenttoTurkeyandhisgeneralaffiliationstowardthe twonations:

IfI’minGermany,orpeopleinthestreetaskme,‘Whatareyou? GermanorTurk?’,ofcourseIanswerI’mTurkish.However,ifI’m inTurkey,peopletheresay,‘You’renotaTurk.’Mostpeoplesay, ‘You’reaGermanTurk.You’reGerman.’Theydon’tseemeasa Turk.EvenifIgotomyhometown[inTurkey]theytellmethis.”

Apparently,processingtheseexperiencesledtheplayerto recheckhisaffiliationswithTurkeyandtorethinkhisemotional linkage.Thisfindingisinlineand,atthesametime,notin linewithcurrentresearchonnationalidentityassumingthat “[w]henindividualsexperienceasenseofbelongingbymeans ofself-categorizationasgroupmembersandthenbecomeaware thattheirfellowmemberssharethesameidentification,their worldchanges”(DavidandBar-Tal,2009,p.371).Ontheone hand, theplayercategorizedhimselfasa“Turk”anddefined himselfasamemberofanationalgroup.Ontheotherhand, heexperiencedtobenotperceivedasaTurkbythisgroup. Asaconsequence,his“worldchanges”indeed—butnotinthe waythathisnationalidentificationwithTurkeyrises.Instead, processingtheseexperiencesledtotherecognitionthatGermany actuallyprovidedmorereferencepointsfornationalidentity thanTurkey:

“I’minTurkeyjust,let’ssay,everyotheryear;thus,I’mnotthere often.Idon’treallyseeTurkeyasmyhomecountrysinceI’mnever reallywelcome.InGermany,Ifeelcomfortable.Actually,Isee Germanyasmyhomecountry.SometimesIevenaskmyself,why Isay‘I’mTurkish’althoughGermanyoffersmeeverythingIwant andIfeelcomfortablehere.”

Type3:“AddingUpChances”

The“addingupchances”narrative(Figure3)ischaracterizedby anincreaseofbothstrandsofnationalidentification,thatwith

GermanyandthatwithTurkey.Incontrasttothefirsttwotypes ofnarratives,thesestoriesdonotinclude(significant)decreasing trendswithregardtonationalidentificationwithonenation. Theparticipantswhosestoriesfollowthe“addingupchances” narrativeparticularlyrefertothechancesandopportunitiesin their(sport)biographyandhighlighttheresultingpositiveeffects ontheirnationalidentitydevelopment.Althoughthelevelof identificationwithTurkeyandGermanydifferstosomeextent, nationalidentitydevelopmentitstheresultofaddingupthese chancesandeffects.The“addingupchances”narrativecanbe seenwithinthebiographicalmappingofMurat.

Theplayer’smigrantbackgroundresultsfromhisfather’s familywhooriginallycomesfromTurkey.Hisfathers’ grandparentsimmigratedfromTurkeytoGermany—and wentbacktoTurkeylateron.HisfatherwasborninGermany. Murat’smotherisGermanwithouthavingamigrantbackground. TheGerman-bornplayerisGermancitizen,whichgiveshim theoptiontoplayforbothnationalfootballfederations.He doesnothaveaTurkishpassport.HisfirstlanguageisGerman. HebarelyspeaksTurkish.Onalevelofself-positioning,he describeshimselfasratherGermanthanTurkish.Intermsof hisfootballcareer,MuratplayedforaYPCandforastateteam oftheDFB.Inthecourseofhisinternationaljuniorcareer,he was(atdifferenttimes)nominatedforTurkey(TFF)andfor Germany(DFB).

Thevisualizedstoryofnationalidentitydevelopmentstartsin earlychildhood.Lookingatthetwostrands,itisevidentthat thelevelofidentificationwithGermanyisconstantlymarked higherthanwithTurkey.Atthesametime,Muratreportsto alsohaveastronglocalidentitythatreferstohiscityofbirthin Germany.Generally,Murat’sstoryimpliesseveralreferencesto his“subjectivesenseoftogetherness,we-ness,orbelongingness” (Turner,2010,p.16)toGermanyandtoTurkey:

“Well,I wouldseemyselfabitmoreasGerman,becauseIdon’t knowthelanguageeither,theTurkishlanguage.Butso,soIhavea bitofTurkishbloodinme,sointheemotionssometimes,butyes, ofcourseIseemyselfmoreasapersonfrom[nameofaGerman city]thanaTurk,quiteclear.[...]Well,IseemyselfasGerman, butitwouldn’talsobedifficulttoidentifymyselfasTurkish.This wouldn’tbeaproblem.Igetalongwiththe[Turkish]people.They arekind-hearted.Therefore,Iseenoproblemthere.”

WithinMurat’sstory,Turkeyrepresentstheresidenceofthe relativesonhisfather’sside.Sincehischildhoodanddespitethe hyperinclusionintoeliteyouthfootballtheplayertravelledto Turkeyalmosteveryyearforvacationinordertomeetandspend timewithhisgrandparentsandhisfather’sfamilyoforigin.

“Fromtheprivateside,itwasalwayssothatwewenttoTurkey almosteveryyearforvacation,totherelatives.Whetheritwasnow theuncleofmydadorjustmygrandparents,nomatterwhetherit wasnowin[nameofaTurkishcity]directly,Ihaveactuallyalways feltveryconnectedwithTurkey.”

SeveralplayersreportedastrongattachmentwithTurkey resultingfromfamilyholidaysinTurkey.Thefollowing statementofaTurkishinternationaljuniorplayer,however,

pointsoutthatthisemotionalattachmentdecreasedastheplayer had toinvestmoretimeresourcesintoyouthelitefootball.This biographicalfixationstoppedhimfromtravelingtoTurkeyand tosustainhisemotionalattachment:

“Theconnectionwiththehomeland[Turkey]startedrelatively earlybecause(-)wewereofteninTurkeywhenwewereyoung orIwasofteninTurkeywhenIwasyoung.(...)Yes,thenit[the connectiontoTurkey]wasactuallyrelativelylost.Throughsoccer, becauseIpersonallywasnolongersoofteninTurkey.”

WithinthecaseofMurat,theriseoftheidentificationwith Turkeylineisexplainedbytwoaspects.Firstly,theplayer reportedtobeimpressedbytheTFF’scommitment.Since2010, theTFFwasincontactwiththeplayerandhisparents.Inthis context,theplayertellsaboutmeetingswiththeheadofthe EuropeanOffice(TFF)aimingtoconvincetheplayerandhis parentsofplayingforTurkey.Apparently,thefirstinvitationfor anationaltrainingcourseoftheTFFwasrefusedbytheplayer’s club.AsecondreasonforanincreasedidentificationwithTurkey isthatbeinginvitedandnominatedforinternationalgamesby theTFFamplifiedMurat’sfeelingsofbelongingtoTurkey.The nominationandtheexperiencesaroundtheinternationalgame initiatedaprocesswhichintensifiedandemotionallychargedhis relationswithTurkeysustainably.

“Ofcourse,it[theidentificationwithTurkey]becamestronger whenIwasinvitedhere,thenIlistenedtotheanthemsothatI knewthemelodyatleastalittlebit[laughs]andthenmyinterest forTurkeyclearlybecamestronger,becauseIsomehowalsowanted tobeinterestedinit,wantedtoknowalittlebitmoreaboutthe

countrythanIknewbefore,but(-)andthatactuallycontinuesuntil now,thatInowalsorootforthemorrootmoreforthemnowwhen theyhaveagame,thatIthenalsogetupsetwhytheydonotwin now.ThattheyarenotintheWorldCup,forexample,thatmakes meverysad.Iwouldalsoquiteclearlycheerforthem,noquestion. Soingeneral,theinterestinTurkeyortheattachmentwasactually relativelyhighbecausewewerethereactuallyeveryyear.”

TheidentificationwithGermanylinealreadystartsatahighlevel andislinkedwiththefeelingofbeingrather“German”.From earlychildhooduntillateadolescence,thislineisverystable. Interestingly,andincontrasttotheothertwotypesofnarratives onnationalidentitydevelopment,beinginvitedbytheTFF(and notbytheDFB)inthefirstplace,didnothaveanimpact onMurat’sidentificationwithGermanyatall.Thepeakofthe identificationlinecoincideswiththenominationbytheDFB.To weartheofficialdressandthefeelingofrepresentinghiscountry ofbirtharetoldtobeboostersofnationalidentitydevelopment.

“Yes,that’sactuallyfromthebeginning,Iwouldsaymaybeatnine [theidentificationwithGermany]andthenwhereitgotstraight downtothenitty-gritty,withthenationalteam,thatIhavethen properlyidentifiedwithit,andthatIthenjustrunaroundwith theclothesthatIrepresentmycountry(...).Thatwasactuallythe greatestforme,isstillthegreatestforme.”

AnotherathletewhoplayedexclusivelyforTurkeytellsquitea similarstory:

“SoIwasrelativelyproudofmyselfthatIgotaninvitationfrom thenationalteam,theTurkishteam.Yes,Irememberexactlyhow

FIGURE3| MappingType3.

muchIwaslookingforwardtoit.AndwhenIplayedmyfirstgame, whenI wasalreadywearingthejersey,Istillrememberhowitmade metingle.Ofcourse,whenIlistenedtothenationalanthem,for me,thatwassuchagoosebumpfeeling.That’swhenIrealizedhow connectedIamtomyhomeland[Turkey].”

Generally,withinthe“addingupchances”narrative,the identificationwithGermanyandTurkeylinesarecomparatively stable.ThebiggestleapinMurat’sstoryresultedfromthe nominationfortheTFF.Characteristically,notbeingnominated initiallybytheDFBandlaterbytheTFFdidnotaffecthis feelingsofbelongingtoanation.Atthetimeoftheinterview, theinitialdifferencebetweenthetwoidentificationlinesis significantlyreduced.Typically,withinthe“addingupchances” narrative,havingreachedacertainlevelofnationalidentification meansthatthislevelisatleastmaintained.Nationalidentityis conceptualizedasaratherstableconstructionthatisreinforced bybecominganinternationalplayer.Inthistypeofnarrative, youthelitefootballoffersvariouschancesforprocessingnational identification.Interestingly,nationalidentityispresentedasa growingresourcethatisfedbytheopportunitiesthatgoalong withamigrantbackgroundandaninternationalcareerinyouth football.Inthecourseofthisprocess,experiencesarepositively aggregated,whichistypicalforhybrididentityformationsin immigrationcountries(Faas,2009).

CONCLUSIONS

Incontrasttopreviousanalysesthataskedfortheroleof nationalidentityandnetworkactorsforthenationalteam questionofGerman-borninternationalyouthfootballplayers withaTurkishbackground(Seiberth’setal.,2017;Seiberthetal., 2018;SeiberthandThiel,2021),theaimofthisanalysiswas toexplorethenationalidentitydevelopmentstoriesofthese players.Byconductingandanalyzing10expertinterviewsand biographicalmappings,weconstructedatypologyofnarratives, namely“goingwiththenomination(s),”“reconsideringnational belonging,”and“addingupchances”,thatplayersrelyonwhen constructingtheirpersonalstories.

Generally,thestudyconfirmstheassumptionthatnational identity“isnotastaticfoundationpasseddownfromgeneration togeneration”(DavidandBar-Tal,2009,p.373).Rather,our findings illustratethatnationalidentitydevelopmentinyouth elitesportisahighlyindividualanddynamicprocessthatis particularlyshapedbytheexperiencesinthecontextofacareer inyouthelitesport.Inthissense,thestoriesdescribe(German) youthelitefootballasaspecificsocialcontextthat“provides multilayerconditionsofdifferenttypes,scopes,qualitiesinwhich individualsandcollectivesoperate”(DavidandBar-Tal,2009, p.371).

Inline withcurrentresearch,thestoriesonnationalidentity developmentmostlystartin(early)childhood.Regardingthis earlystageof(national)identitydevelopment,thestoriesinclude episodesofrelevantfamily-relatedexperiences,likefamily holidaysinTurkey,orofthefamilysupportingaspecificTurkish footballclub.Althoughitcanbeassumedthattheseexperiences

hadanimpactonpersonalnationalidentityformations,thispreelite-sportperiodischaracterizedbyaratherconstantlevelof nationalidentificationwithTurkeyandGermany.Apartfrom that,ourfindingsindicatethatthespecificfamilybackground orthestatusoftheparents(e.g.,beingbornornotbeing borninGermany)didnotplayaspecificrolefortheplayers’ nationalidentityformation.Infact,thestoriesrathershow thatseveraloftheinterviewedplayersonlyhaveverylimited knowledgeaboutthefamily’simmigrationhistory.Furthermore, theincreasingcommitmenttoelitesportusuallyleadstoa decreasingcontactfrequencywiththefamily.Atthesametime, thecontactfrequencywithelitesportactors(suchascoaches) rises(SeiberthandThiel,2021).

Generally,thestoriesindicatethatsignificantchangesin nationalidentitydevelopmenttakeplaceinadolescence.Indeed, theclosertheplayerscometotheagewhenthenationalfootball associationsstarttorecruittheirplayers,thehigherarethe dynamicswithinthestrandsofnationalidentitydevelopment. Ontheonehand,thiscanbeexplainedbyanincreasing hyperinclusionintoelitesportsthatleadstheplayerstofocuson thenextcareerstep“juniornationalteam”andforthatreasonto closelyattachconstructionsofnationalidentitytothenational teamquestion.Ontheotherhand,ismustbeconsideredthat dealingwithaspectslikeethnicoriginandreflectingonone’s relationtothecountryofbirthandthecountryofone’sancestors istypicalinadolescence.However,whetherthedynamicsof nationalidentitydevelopmentareage-specificconsequencesof processingquestionsofethnicoriginandnationalbelongingor aneffectoftherecruitmentstructuresinjuniorelitefootball (startingwiththeUnder15-Team)ishardtotell.Weassume thatbotheffectsaggregateifaplayerisnominatedbyoneorboth nationalfootballassociations.

Infact,ourstudyshowsthaterraticchangesofnational identificationarealwayscoupledwithbecominganinternational player,butthatthenominationforanationdoesnotreliablyand sustainablyboosterfeelingsofbelongingtothatnation.Hence, thestoriesindicatethatinternationalcareersnotnecessarily fosternationalidentificationwithanationbutcanalsoreduce feelingsofbelongingtoanation—evenwiththenationthe athleteplaysfor.Particularlynegativeexperienceswiththe nationalfootballfederationorinthecontextofinternational gameshavethepotentialtoreducenationalidentificationwith thatnation.

Thisbringsusbacktoabasicassumptionsofidentity theoryandbiographicalresearch,pointingoutthatindividuals processsuchexperiencesandlifeeventsdifferentlyandcometo alternativeconclusions(Johnetal.,2019).Thethreedifferent types ofnarrativeswithinourstudyillustratethisimpressively. Overall,thestudyconfirmsthatsportisindeed“anidentity formingfactor”(Dóczi,2011,p.3)—onewayortheother. Nonetheless,sinceweassumedpublicandmedianarratives toplayarolewithintheplayers’storiesandalthoughwe mentionedthesemedianarrativesduringtheinterviews,itwas particularlysurprisingthatsuchmasternarrativeswerenot markedas“identityformingfactors”inthestories.Weassume thisfindingtobecloselyconnectedtothedominantroleof athleteidentityinyouthelitesport(SchubringandThiel,2014;

Seiberth’setal.,2017).Apparently,thiselitesportidentitynot justshapesthenationalteamquestionsustainably,butalsohas thepotentialtooverrideothernarratives.Inthissense,athletic identitybecomesadrivingforceforprocessingnationalidentity formationsinyouthelitesport.Whilenon-athleticadolescents withmigrantbackgroundtendtodealwithissuesofnational identityincidentally,youthathleteswithmigrantbackground areforcedtodealwiththisissue(atleastatthecareerlevel) assoonasthenationalteamquestionarises.Weconclude that,althoughtheconceptofnationstateshasdwindledin importancethestudyhighlightsthatnationstatesinelitesport stillare“powerfulidentifiers”(BrubakerandCooper,2000, p.16).

Finally,thestudyneedstobediscussedinthelightofits limitations.Onelimitationreferstothenumberofparticipants. Apparently,oursampleconsistedofacomparativelysmall numberofathletesinGermanyouthelitefootball.Thenumber of10interviewsresultedfromourexplorativedesignthataimed toreconstructindividualstoriesofnationalidentitydevelopment inyouthelitesportandtoidentifyspecifictypesofnarratives. Ratherthanfocusingonrepresentativity,weaimedtoexplorethe processofnationalidentitydevelopmentindetail.Accordingly, thetenathletesarenota“representativesample,butrathera contrastiveselectionofyoutheliteathletes”(SchubringandThiel, 2014, p.81).However,ithastobeconsideredthattheinterviewed players belongtothegroupofabsolutetopperformersinGerman youthelitefootball.Thisgroupisnotjusthardtorecruitbutalso limitedinitsnumber.

Thesecondlimitationreferstothefactthatthestudyfocused onyouthplayerswithTurkishbackgroundonly.Wedecided toaddressthisspecificpopulationbecausepeoplewithTurkish backgroundrepresentthebiggestethnicminoritygroupin GermanyandarehighlyrepresentedinGermanyouthelite football(Seiberth’setal.,2017).Nevertheless,focusingonthis specific groupofyouthelitefootballplayersfurtherreduced thenumberofpotentialintervieweessignificantly.Knowingthat thenumberofGerman-borninternationalyouthplayerswith TurkishbackgroundtraininginYPCsinGermanyisverylimited andhavingidentifiedonly31playersoverallwhomatched theselectioncriteriaatthetimethestudywasconducted,10 interviewsandmappingsaresupposedtobeasolidbasisfor afirstexploratoryanalysis.Nevertheless,werecommendfuture studiestoincludeathleteswithdifferentmigrantbackgrounds.

Astrengthofournarrativeapproachwasthetriangulation ofmethodsanddatabycombiningexpertinterviewsand

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DATAAVAILABILITYSTATEMENT

Theoriginalcontributionspresentedinthestudyareincluded inthearticle/supplementarymaterial,furtherinquiriescanbe directedtothecorrespondingauthor.

ETHICSSTATEMENT

Ethicalapprovalwasnotrequiredforthisstudy.

AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS

KSandATcontributedtoconceptionanddesignofthestudy. KSorganizedthedatacollectionandthedatabaseandwrote thefirstdraftofthemanuscript.KS,AT,andJJperformedthe dataanalysis.JJandATwrotesectionsofthemanuscript.All authorscontributedtomanuscriptrevision,read,andapproved thesubmittedversion.

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Wegratefullythanktheparticipantsforsharingtheirstories andexperiences.Wealsowanttothankthosegatekeeperswho facilitatedcontacttoourparticipants.

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PereiraE,MartinsR,MarquesJF, FloresA,AghdashVand MascarenhasM(2022)Portugal nauticalstations:Strategicalliancesfor sporttourismandenvironmental sustainability. Front.SportsAct.Living 4:982691. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.982691

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© 2022Pereira,Martins,Marques, Flores,AghdashandMascarenhas.This isanopen-accessarticledistributed underthetermsofthe Creative CommonsAttributionLicense(CCBY)

Theuse,distributionorreproduction inotherforumsispermitted,provided theoriginalauthor(s)andthecopyright owner(s)arecreditedandthatthe originalpublicationinthisjournalis cited,inaccordancewithaccepted academicpractice.Nouse,distribution orreproductionispermittedwhich doesnotcomplywiththeseterms.

PUBLISHED 12September2022

DOI 10.3389/fspor.2022.982691

Portugalnauticalstations: Strategicalliancesforsport tourismandenvironmental sustainability

ElsaPereira1,2*,RuteMartins2 , JoãoFilipeMarques2,3 , AdãoFlores2,VahidAghdash3 andMargaridaMascarenhas2,4

1 SchoolofEducationandCommunication,UniversityofAlgarve,Faro,Portugal, 2 ResearchCentre forTourism,SustainabilityandWell-Being(CinTurs),UniversityofAlgarve,Faro,Portugal, 3 Facultyof Economics,UniversityofAlgarve,Faro,Portugal, 4 FacultyofHumanKinetics,UniversityofLisbon, Lisbon,Portugal

Nauticaltourismisatouristproductwithgreatdevelopmentinthe Europeanspace andalotofpotentialtopromoteanddeveloptourist destinations.Consideringthedynamicsofnauticaltourismmanagementand theimportanceofmeetingthespecificitiesofthismarketniche,theobjective ofthisstudywastoanalysethestrategicalliancesforthedevelopmentofthe o erofnauticaltourismproducts,namelythestrategicgoalsandsustainable environmentalpracticesadoptedbytheiractorswhichintegratedthestrategic alliancesinordertocertificateaplethoraofnauticalstationsinPortugal. BetweenSeptemberandDecember2021,17Portuguesenauticalstations’ applicationformswerecollected.ContentanalysisusingNvivosoftware wasthetechniqueusedfordataanalysis.Theresultsshowedamultiplicity ofstrategicobjectivesassociatedwiththestrategicallianceestablished betweenthenauticalstations.Thestrategicvisionofnauticalstationsforthe developmentofstrategicalliancesisbuilt,firstly,ontheobjectiveofstructuring thetourismo er,followedbyincreasinggovernanceandpromotingand marketingnauticaltourismusingtheimageofthedestination.Basedonthese results,itispossibletoinfertheimportanceofnauticalstationsindestination competitivenessandtheroleofstrategicalliancesinfacilitatingpenetrationin thenauticaltourismmarket.Themanagersofnauticalstationsshouldconsider theuseofstrategicalliancestomakeacooperativemarketinginorderto improvetheexperienceoftheclients.Regardingenvironmentalsustainability practices,theresultsexposedtheprominenceofenvironmentaleducation actionsincontrasttothereducednumberofnauticalstationsdeveloping actionsfortheadoptionofsustainabletransport.Thisstudycontributesto abetterunderstandingofnauticaltourismandPortuguesenauticalstations, aprojectofstrategicinvestmentinsportandtourism,inferringonthe objectivesunderlyingtheformationofstrategicalliancesandontheadopted environmentalsustainabilitypractices.Theconclusionsofthisstudypoint totheneedforfuturescientificresearchontheactualoperationalizationof theobjectivesunderlyingtheformationofstrategicalliances,aswellasthe environmentalpracticesdevelopedbynauticalstations.

KEYWORDS

nauticalstations,strategy,sustainability,alliances,sporttourism

Introduction

Thelastdecadesofthetwentiethcenturyhaveobserved thedevelopment ofstrategicalliancesasthemostsignificant changeinthebusinesscontext(Peroffetal.,2017).According tothe authors,theestablishmentofstrategicalliancesisthe onlywaybywhichorganizationshaveattemptedtorespond tochangesinthemarket,whilesimultaneouslymaintaining relationshipswithcurrentcustomersandexpandingtheir relationshipswiththemaincustomers.Themainobjectiveof formingstrategicalliancesistominimizerisk,whilemaximizing marketpresence(HarbisonandPekar,1998)andsynergistically increase theorganization’scompetitiveness,throughaccessto externalsourcesandpromotinglearningandrapidchanges.

Astrategicallianceisalong-standingrelationshipbetween twoormorepartnerswithinademandchaintoimproveand developmutualagreementstrategiesintermsofcommongoals andcontextualopportunities(EisenhardtandSchoonhoven, 1996). Bitranetal. (2002)defineastrategicallianceasastrategic agreementbetweentwo ormoreorganizationswhowantto improvetheircompetitivepositionandperformancethrough sharedresources.

Thelossofidentityandindependenceofcorporations, astheresultofstrategicalliances,hasbecomeanobsolete idea.Hence,thecreationofastrategicalliancebetween organizationsrequiresconsideringtheprocessofalliance adaptationanditsdrivers(ReuerandZollo,2000).Insome nationalandinternational markets,strategicallianceshave changedtheunderlyingmodelofcompetition,fromthe traditionalcompetitionofthecompanytothecompanyto competeagainstthenetwork(KotlerandKeller,2016).Strategic contributionsdifferin termsofthelevelofcooperationof partnersandvalue(Larrinaga,2017).

Ingeneral,thenotionofstrategicalliancesisbasedon threeprinciples(Masselinketal.,2016):(i)thepartnership betweenpartners isformalandinformal;(ii)existenceofat leasttwopartners;and(iii)achievingstrategicgoals.Also,four typesofstrategicalliancescanbeintroduced(Rodrigues,2016):

(a)jointventure—it isthemostcommontypeofunification, bywhichabusinesspartnershipactivityisformedbytwo ormoreorganizationswithstrategicobjectives,generating independentinstitutions,andeachoftheseentitiesallocates operationalresponsibilities,financialhazardsandrewardswhile theirindependenceandidentityaremaintained;(b)consortium ofmutualservices—itistheinvolvementofsimilarfirmsin industriesthatintegratetheirresourcestoobtainadvanced benefitsandtechnology,whichotherwise,wouldbehighly expensivetoachieve;(c)licensingagreement—itisanagreement underwhichtheexportingcompanygrantsalegallicenseto anothercompanytoproducecommodities,andthereceiver companypaysalicensetotheissuingcompany.Thisalliance isusefulwhenthebusinesssignofthedonorcompanyis

well-known;(iv)participationinthevaluechain—itisastrong andcloseunionwhereafirmorbusinessunitformsalongtermagreementwithsuppliersorkeydistributorstogaina competitiveadvantage.

Creatingastrategicalliancehasmanybenefits(Carayannis etal.,2000), suchas:(a)scalesavingsandsavingsresulting fromthe scope;(b)quickandeasyaccesstoknowledgeand market;(c)reducingthecapitalneedsandtherisksinvolved inthedevelopmentofnewproductsandtechnology;(d)effect ofcompetitiononrelevantmarkets;(e)reducethepolitical andfinancialrisk;(f)achieveacompetitiveadvantage;(g) improvementofsalesgrowth;(h)generatingengagementinthe businessportfolio;and(i)increasingrevenue.Severalauthors havestressedthatinsmallandmediumentreprises(SME)this businessstrategyismuchmoreimportant(KipleyandLewis, 2008; Zhao,2014; Sefianietal.,2018).Thestrategicalliancesare alsohighlightedasbeneficialintheproductionandintheservice sectors,suchastourism(delBarrio-GarcíaandPrados-Peña, 2019)andsport tourism(WäscheandWoll,2013).

Tourismandsport arekeyelementsoftoday’scultureand haveaspecialeffectonsocialbehavior.Sportisanimportant activityoftouristsduringtourism,andtourismandtravel products/servicesareaccompaniedbydifferenttypesofsports offers(ItoandHigham,2020).Sportisacommonmotivation fortourists,highlightedbytheirtendencytoparticipateinsports (ItoandHigham,2020).

Sporttourismis interpretedasaleisuresporttripthat temporarilypullsindividualsoutoftheircommunity(Gibson, 2006).Inthisway,itcancovertripsawayfromhome aimingtopracticingsportsandplay,sportwatching,visiting sportsattractions,involvingbothcompetitionandcompetition activities(Hudson,2003).Therefore,itcanbesaidthatanytype oftravel forsportactivitiesiscalledsporttourismandmaytake placeindividuallyorcollectively(Lukovi´c,2013).

Thesporttourism productisamulti-dimensional combinationofservicesandexperienceopportunitiessuchas transport,lodging,sportactivitiesandfacilities,infrastructure, naturalsurroundings,andsocialcontacts(Murphyetal.,2000; Tuppen,2000; ThwaitesandChadwick,2006).Astheauthors stressed,thiskindofofferareprovidedbyavastarrayofactorsin thevisitedregioncontributingtothesporttourismexperience. Thus,thequalityofthewholesporttourismexperienceis determinedbythecombinationandcoordinationofabundle ofdiverseservicesandgoodsprovidedbydifferentstakeholders (actors)withinthetouristregion(WoodsandDeeganm,2006; Elbeetal.,2009).Furthermore,aspectsofphysicalappearance suchasbeautifullandscapes,attractiveandwell-maintained areasandspacesforsporttourism,andtheattitudeoflocal residentstowardsporttourismactivities,arerelevant.Since qualityinsporttourismdependsonofmanydifferentelements, thesporttourismproductmustbeunderstoodastheoverall sporttourismexperienceasperceivedbyavisitor(HarrisonHillandChalip,2005).Differentsocialsystemssuchassport,

economy,thesystemsofhealth,leisure,ecology,andpolitics,as wellas severalsubfieldswithdifferinginterests,createthesport tourismcontextandthereforeacomplicatedfield(Hinchand Higham, 2004). WäscheandWoll (2010, 2013)havestressed thatthisinherentcomplexityresultsinagreatnumberofactors fromdifferentsectorswithdifferentorganizationalcultures, interests,andgoals.Fortheauthors,publicorganizations(e.g., regionaladministrationandinfrastructures,touristboards, andpublicsportspaces/facilities),non-profitorganizations (e.g.,sportclubs)aswellasfor-profitorganizations(e.g., skiingschoolsandsportrentals)playanimportantpartin contributingtoaregionalsporttourismproduct.Furthermore, hotels,retailers,farmers,localresidents,andpressuregroups (e.g.,environmentalprotectionbodies)mustbeconsidered.Itis akeyissueinsporttourismthatrequiresnature-basedresources andinfrastructuralarrangementswhichmighthavesignificant ecologicalandsocialimpactsandsubsequentproblematicissues (Bull,2005; Hall,2005).Insum,thehighlyheterogeneous groupofactorsconstitutesaspecificfeatureofsporttourism andcontributestomakingthemanagementofasporttourism destinationacomplextask(Tuppen,2000; Hall,2005; Wäsche andWoll,2010, 2013; ZiakasandCosta,2011).

FredlineandFaulkner (2001)advocatethatoneofthe mostimportant waysbywhichsporttourismindustrycan improveglobalcompetitivenessistocreatestrategicalliances withothermembersoftheindustry.Concerningregional sporttourismdevelopment,thecooperationofaverydiverse groupofactors(individualorcorporate)fromdifferentsocial systemsiscrucial.Specifically,thedifferinginterestsofvarious regionalstakeholdersinsporttourismhavetobecoordinated. Also,collectiveeffortsarerequiredtoprovideasporttourism experienceforvisitorswithadiverserangeofproducts, aimingforapositiveandsustainableregionaldevelopment. Subsequently,akeychallengeinmanagingregionalsport tourismistheintersectoralintegrationofaheterogeneousgroup ofactors(Tuppen,2000)whoactbothassingleactors,and simultaneously,asacollectiveactorinorganizingandproviding theoverallsporttourismproductofaregion.However, thereisonlylimitedscientificknowledgeaboutorganizational structures,mechanisms,andprocessesinstrategicalliances (WäscheandWoll,2010, 2013; KennellyandToohey,2014). Hence,it iscrucialtounderstandthecomplexinterplayof singleactors’actionsandthedevelopmentofcollectivestructure throughregionalcooperationinsporttourism(Mollahetal., 2021).

Foradeeper understandingofthephenomenon,andsince sporttourismishighlightedbythe WorldTourismOrganization (2019)foritspotentialtopromoteenvironmentalsustainability, bothby raisingawarenessandencouragingtheadoptionof pro-environmentalmeasures,beingoneofthefastestgrowing tourismsegments(AlexandrisandKaplanidou,2014),itis importantto understandthiscomplexinterplayalsoinan environmentalsustainabilityperspective.

Accordingtothe EuropeanCommission (2014),coastal tourismisa largepartoftourism,whichemploysmorethan 3.2millionpeople,producesmorethanone-thirdoftheworld’s economy,atotalof183billioneuros.Around51%ofthe EUaccommodationcapacityisconcentratedincoastalareas (Westonetal.,2019).

Nauticaltourism activityisascatteredindustrybased onsmallbusinesses,hamperingmanagers’controlofall componentsofthetourismsystemand/orallelementsof thedecision-makingprocess(GoniandYustika,2019). Verdet (2002)placesnauticaltourismwithintheframeworkofaset ofrelationships betweenpeoplewhocometogetherwhenthey travelforlessthanayearandwhosemainmotivationistocarry outnauticalactivities.Duetothemultifacetednatureoftourism, newtypologieshavecomeintoexistenceandmanydifferent formsoftourismhaveco-existedoverthelastdecades,aswater tourism(Jennings,2007),laketourism(HallandHärkönen, 2006)andmore recently,nauticaltourism(Lukovi´c,2013). Jennings (2007)advocatestheconceptofwater-basedtourism because it“relatestoanytouristicactivityundertakeninorin relationtowaterresources,suchaslakes,dams,canals,creeks, streams,rivers,waterways,marinecoastalzones,seas,oceans andice-associatedareas”(p.10).Inthispointofview,thisform oftourismisstronglyresource-based,i.e.,thenaturalresource (water)firmlydeterminesthewholedevelopmentandactivity (boating,sailing,surfing,fishing,1-daytours,scubadiving, etc.). Lukovi´ c (2013)definesnauticaltourismasasumofpolyfunctionalactivitiesandrelationsthatarecausedbythetourist staywithinoroutoftheportsofnauticaltourism,andbythe useofvesselsorotherobjectsrelatedtothenauticalandtourist activities,forthepurposeofrecreation,sport,entertainment orotherneeds.Inrelationtothedifferencesthatmayexist betweennautical,maritime,andmarinetourism(Fortezaetal., 2017),there isnounanimityorclarityamongtheauthors.In generalterms,thedifferentiatingelementattributedtonautical tourismisthepracticeofsportingactivitiesatsea(Carrasco, 2001; Lukovi´c,2013)whichcanalsobecarriedoutinother aquaticenvironments(Jovanovicetal.,2013).

Nauticaltourism isconsideredarecentcommercialactivity thathasbeendevelopedbetweenordinarytourismandmaritime activity,comprisingcharacteristicsthatmakeitaspecialtype oftourism(Kovaˇcicetal.,2006).Theauthorspointoutthe importanceof developingarelativelynewnauticalmarket, definingitasasystemthatisdividedintotechnological subsystemsatseaandonland(Kasumetal.,2011).Nautical tourismisa diversifiedbranchofgeneraltourismthathas significantlychangedthestructureandpeculiaritiesofthe tourismindustry(Kovaˇci´candFavro,2012).Theseauthors underlinethatnauticaltourismisavarietyoftourismwiththe seaasadistinctiveelementwherethemarinasareconsidered centralfacilitiesofnauticaltourism,dedicatedtosatisfyingthe complexandgrowingdemandofthenauticaltourist(Benevolo andSpinelli,2018). Itisacomplexsystemthatusesvarious

forms oftechnicalandtechnologicalprocesses,henceitis exposedtocertainrisks(Kasumetal.,2018).Nauticaltourismis arelevant categoryofmaritimetourism,sinceitgeneratesdirect impactsoncoastaldevelopmentanddestinationpromotionand hasbecomeoneofthemostimportantareasofresearch(Baland Czalczynska-Podolska,2019).Ashighlightedby Vázquez (2020), nauticaltourism intheMediterraneanSeaisgreatlydynamic anddeveloped.Especially,fortouristsfromthecoldNorthof Europe,themildMediterraneanclimategivestheopportunity togoonvacationalmostallyearround.Nevertheless,the summerseasonremainsparticularlypopular,creatingastrong seasonalcharacterinnauticaltourism.TheEuropeanAtlantic coastnauticaltourismisverywelldevelopeddespitetheclimate, whichisaconsequenceofthehighdegreeofdevelopmentof countriesinthispartofEurope(Masselinketal.,2016).

Nauticaltourism isahighlydynamicproductwithgreat potentialtodevelopconsolidateddestinationsandcanserve destinationsthatarenotattractivefordevelopment(Javaloyes, 2012).The successofthistypeoftourismdependsonthe widerangeof activitiesitoffersandonthepossibilityof integratingitwithactivetourismandcontactwithnature (Perelló,2013).However,duethethefragilityofcoastal ecosystemsandlandscapes,theEuropeanUnion(EU)and numerousinternationalorganizationshaveconcernedabout themostappropriateapproachforthedevelopmentandthe managementofcoastalzones.

Currently,thepursuitoftheimplementationof sustainabilitybysocietyhasaguidingpoliticalpanel— theSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDG)withinthe UnitedNationsAgenda2030(UnitedNations,2015).The environmentalpillar ofsustainability,definedas“acondition ofbalance,resilience,andinterconnectednessthatallows humansocietytosatisfyitsneedswhileneitherexceeding thecapacityofitssupportingecosystemstocontinueto regeneratetheservicesnecessarytomeetthoseneedsnor byouractionsdiminishingbiologicaldiversity”(Morelli, 2011,p.6), iscontemplatedbytheSDGandhasalready beenembraced bythemaininternationalorganizationsthat leadsport(InternationalOlympicCommittee,2012),and particularly,sporttourism (WorldTourismOrganization, 2019).The creationoftheSportsforClimateActionFramework (UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange, 2019a)isan exampleofthesportcommunity’swillingnessto actonbehalfoftheenvironmentalcause.Thisframeworkcalls forthecommitmentofsportorganizationstoadoptstrategies thataimandoperationalizetheclimateaction,spreadingthe environmentalmessagewithinthesportcommunity.Among theparticipatingorganizations,thereareseveralactinginthe coastalandmaritimecontext(UnitedNationsFramework ConventiononClimate Change,2019b),namely:(a)federations andleagues(e.g.,WorldSurfLeague,CSASurfCanada, WorldSailing,WorldRowingFederation,Internationaland WorldRaftingFederations);(b)nationalteams(e.g.,Sail

GPteam—UnitedStates,GreatBritain,Australia,Japan,France; and(c)sportingevents(e.g.,TheOceanRace).

Inthecontextofnauticaltourism,theFédération EuropéennedeDestinationsTouristiquesNautiquesprepared adeclaration(FédérationEuropéennedeDestinations TouristiquesNautiques,2012),exposingthesector’sconcern regarding theintegrationofsustainability,inwhich10 objectivesareproposed,highlighting:preservationofcoastal ecosystems;protectionofnaturalareasandendangered speciesintheexerciseofnauticalactivities;reductionin theconsumptionofnaturalresources,wasteandpolluting products;promotingenvironmentaleducationandawareness; innovationinthemanagementandmarketingofnautical productsandservicesinordertopromoteenvironmental sustainability;andintroductionofenvironmentalcriteriainthe involvedorganizations’managementpolicies.Inthisscenario, thePortugueseorganization“FórumOceano:Associaçãoda EconomiadoMar,”anassociationthatmanagesthePortuguese seacluster,establishedtheregulationforthecertification ofnauticalstationsthatintendtointegratethenetwork ofPortugueseNauticalStations,includingacriterionfor environmentalsustainability,askingfor“referencetoactions toensuretheenvironmentalsustainabilityofinterventions” (FórumOceano,2019,p.10).Recognizingtheimportanceof implementingandmeasuringenvironmentalsustainabilityin nauticaltourismisnotonlydesirable,butabsolutelynecessary.

Theenvironmentalsustainabilityofsporttourismdeveloped inthecontextofcoastalandmaritimeareashasbeen investigatedinordertounderstandtheinfluenceofthevarious factorsthatcontributetoitsimplementation(Mascarenhas etal.,2021). Forinstances,agreatersportingexperienceof divershasbeenassociatedwithasportpracticethatisless harmfultothemarinebiota(Hammerton,2017).Conversely, theuseof accessories,suchascamerasormusksticks,has beenassociatedwithhigherlevelsofdestructionofthemarine spaceusedbysnorkelersanddiversforsportingpurposes (Hammerton,2017; Giglioetal.,2018).Severalstrategieshave beenadvancedtomitigatethesenegativeimpactsonmarine biota(Giglioetal.,2018),suchas:zoning,i.e.,limitingthe accessoftourists(orthosewithlowsportpracticeexperience)to moreenvironmentallysensitivelocations;andthepromotionof gooddiving/snorkelingpracticesthroughshortvideo-briefings. Additionally,resortingtotheimplementationofartificialreefs cansatisfythevarioussegmentsofdivetourism,wheretourists withlesssportingexperiencecandiveinaspacesuitablefortheir sportskills.Thesestrategiespromotetheprotectionoffaunaand floraindivingspaces,relievingthepressureofmasstourismin thenaturalspace(Belhassenetal.,2017).

Theenvironmental impactofsporttourismisnotjust aresultofthepressureofrecreationinthenaturalspace. Unequivocally,itisalsonecessarytomonitorandanalyse thecarbonemissionsgeneratedbytheactivitiescarried outinthecontextofsporttourism(Mascarenhasetal.,

2021).Thepromotionofenergyefficiency,consumption ofenvironmentally friendlyproductsandimplementation ofrecycling/reuseprogramsbysporttourismoperatorsare frequentlycitedexamplesofgoodenvironmentalmanagement practicesbycoastaltourismoperators(Carneiroetal.,2016; Yfantidouetal.,2017).Inconjunctionwiththeseenvironmental practices, theimportanceofthecollaborativefactorforthe implementationofmoreenvironmentalmanagementhasalso beenhighlyrecommended(Mascarenhasetal.,2021).Examples ofpositiveresultsfortheenvironmentalsustainabilityof nauticaltourismsupporttherecommendationforprocesses ofcollaborationandparticipationofthemainstakeholders: inAljezur,Portugal,amunicipalcharterforsustainable managementwaselaboratedwiththecollaborationofthe mainstakeholders,takingintoaccounttheconvergenceof severalindicators,includingenvironmentalindicatorsregarding thesurfingactivityandthenecessaryactionsforabetter environmentalmanagementofthesurftourisminthe destination(Machadoetal.,2018);inVillefranche-sur-Mer, onthe FrenchRiviera,themanagementofthelocalnautical stationwasreconvertedtomeettheobjectiveofpresentinga currentandenvironmentallyconsciousnauticaltourismoffer. Theobjectivesrelatingtothepromotionofhighenvironmental qualitysupportedthedesignofstrategiesthatincludedthe increaseintheofferofrecreationalandsportingactivities thatmeetcertainenvironmentalrequirements,suchasaqua gym,nauticaltrails,allderivativesofwindsurfing,paddle,sea triathlon,sportswimmingonthehighseas,pedalboats,water poloandscuba(Coglievinaetal.,2016).

However, ashasbeenwidelyemphasized,transportisthe biggestcontributortothegenerationofcarbonemissions inthetourismsector(Scottetal.,2016).Forthisreason, nauticaltourism alsohastoimplementstrategiesandpractices capableofmitigatingclimatechange,withaspecialfocuson transportsustainability.

Withinthemanagementtoolsintendedtofacilitatethe implementationofenvironmentalsustainabilityincoastal tourism,somecanbehighlighted,namelythosefocusingon:(i) theneedforcoordinatedcollaborationbetweenallstakeholders, inordertoinferonconverginganddivergenttopics,enhancing possiblesynergiesbetweenextractive,recreationalandnatural spaceconservationuse,framedintheecosystemconcept(Biggs etal.,2016; Chenetal.,2016);and(ii)theidentification ofindicatorsforassessingsustainability(Driusetal.,2019; CoccossisandKoutsopoulou,2020).Forexample, Drius etal. (2019)presentaconceptualframeworkthataddresses themanagement oftheenvironmentalimpactsofnautical tourismbyanalyzingthetrade-offsbetweenenvironmental threatsfromcoastaltourismandotherhumanactivitiesand coastalecosystemservices.Inturn,thestudydevelopedby CoccossisandKoutsopoulou (2020)elaboratedandapplied atoolformeasuringandmonitoringsustainabilityatthe locallevel(e.g.,anauticalstation).Thistoolintegrates

threetypesofindicatorstoassesssustainabilityinnautical tourism:coreindicators(i.e.,generalindicatorsforsustainable coastaltourism);destinationindicators(i.e.,toaccessthe uniquecharacteristicsofdifferenttourismproducts,such asbeach/maritimetourism,urban/culturaltourism,cruising, recreationalboatingandnature/ecotourism);andarea-specific indicators(i.e.,incorporatingthecrucialandspecificaspects ofeachdestinationtomonitorsustainability).Toensure theeffectivenessoftheoperationalizationofthistool,the importanceofcollaborationamongkeystakeholdersinselecting andprioritizingindicators,andobtainingdata,isalsohighly recommended(CoccossisandKoutsopoulou,2020).

Inadditionto applyingtoolstomonitorandanalyse environmentalindicators,anotheralternativeforthepromotion ofenvironmentalsustainabilityinvolvestheinclusionof marketingstrategiestoenhancethemessageandenvironmental actionofnauticalstations,suchasco-branding.Asamarketing strategy,co-branding“inwhichtwoormorebrandsare presentedsimultaneouslytotheconsumerasoneproduct tocreateasumofbrandassets,thatisgreaterthanthat oftheindividualbrands”(Turan,2021,p.1),mayallowa moreeffectiveconnectionbetweentheenvironmentalimage ofthenauticalstationsandthecorrespondingtouristoffer, highlightingthefactthatthebrandimagefitisoneofthesuccess factorsofthisstrategy(Turan,2021).Inthisregard,thestudy developedby Hsiao (2018)exposedtheincongruityofthecobrandingstrategy inrelationtotheimageofalowcarbonisland thatwaspresentedtotouristsincorporatingarecreationaloffer thatincludedhighcarbonactivities,namelymotorizednautical activities,whichculminatedinamismatchbetweentheimageof theislandanditstouristoffer.

Inthissequence,toachievemutualbenefits(i.e.,either fortheenvironmentalimageforanauticalstation,orfor theimplementationoftheenvironmentalsustainabilityof thedifferentproductsandservicesofnauticaltourism),the followingrecommendationsmustbeobserved:(i)enhancing theofferofmoresustainablealternativesfromtheinventory ofnauticalsportactivities;and(ii)operationalizationand disseminationofmoreenvironmentallyfriendlychoicesinother areasofthetourismoffer,namely,intermsofaccommodation andtransport(Hsiao,2018).

Accordingto theexposed,thefocusofthisresearchisto analysethestrategicalliancesforthedevelopmentoftheoffer ofnauticaltourismproducts,namelyitsstrategicgoalsand sustainableenvironmentalpracticesadoptedbytheactorswhich integratedthestrategicallianceinordertocertificateaplethora ofnauticalstationsinPortugal.

Materialsandmethods

AccordingtotheNationalStrategicPlanforTourism2027 (TurismodePortugalI.P.,2017),Portugalhasanexcellent

coastlineforsurfing,recognizedworldwide,aswellasforsport andnautical activities;vastmarinebiodiversity;andnatural andinfrastructuraltouristicconditionsforcruises.Someof thelinesofactionoftheNationalStrategicPlanforTourism 2027arebasedontheaxisofvalorizationoftheterritory withtheaffirmationoftourismintheeconomyofthesea, namely:(i)ReinforcementofPortugal’spositionasadestination fornautical,sportandleisureactivitiesassociatedwiththe sea,ontheentirecoast,andasaninternationallyrecognized surfingdestination;(ii)Dynamizationandvalorizationof infrastructures,equipmentandservicestosupportnautical tourism,namely,ports,marinasandnauticalcenters;(iii) Nauticalactivitiesforenjoymentoftheseaconnectedto diving,sailing,canoeing,observationofcetaceansandseabirds, fishing,sightseeingtoursandbeachactivitiesthatintegrate sustainabilityinthenauticalcultureofthesea;(iv)Promotion of“routesofexperiences”andtouristoffersaroundtheseaand nauticalactivities;(v)Coastalenhancementactions,including therequalificationofmarginalareasandtheappreciationof beaches;(vi)Tourismprojectsincludinghealthtourism’projects associatedwiththetherapeuticpropertiesofthesea;and(vii) AppreciationofseafoodassociatedwiththeMediterraneandiet (TurismodePortugalI.P.,2017).Theinclusionofnautical tourismas astrategicproductforPortugalisessentialforvaluing theproduct,bothintourismandinsport(MoraisdeBritoand Cordeiro,2020).

Inlinewiththisrecognition,between2014and2015,the BusinessAssociationofPortugal,incooperationwiththeFórum Oceano(FO),developedtheprojectentitledNauticalPortugal (FórumOceano,2019).Themaingoaloftheprojectwasto potentiatethe developmentofacollectivestrategytoaccelerate thestructuringofthenauticalsectorinordertocompetein theglobalmarket.TheaimofFOwastocreate,promoteand certifynauticalstationsinPortugal(FórumOceano,2019).

TheRegulation fortheCertificationofNauticalStations(NS) ofPortugal(MoraisdeBritoandCordeiro,2020)statesthat nauticalstationsare,forthemostpart,coastaldestinations andnauticaltourismwithanexcellentopportunitytoreorient somesunandbeachtourismdestinations.Alongside,thereare conditionsintheinteriorterritoriesforthecertificationofNS,in stablewaterplans,namelyrivers,lakesandreservoirsofdams. Forpotentialvisitors,thenetworkoffering,underthenameof NS,guaranteesthequalityofthetouristproductandtheservices provided,aswellasinformationsupportandreservationof accommodationandservices(MoraisdeBritoandCordeiro, 2020).

ThePortuguese nauticalstations(PNS)isourcase studyasanorganizednetworkthatcontributestothe valorizationofnauticalresourcespresentintheterritory(for moreinformationvisit http://www.forumoceano.pt/index.php). Thisnetworkincludesnauticalactivities,facilitiessuchas accommodation,restaurants,andotherimportantservicesfor attractingtourists.ThemaingoalofthePNSistocreateand

addvaluetoadiverseandintegratedexperience,basedona cooperationplatformbetweenplayerswhoofferanorganized touristicproductorservice.Thedatacollectionwasdeveloped throughthestablismentofaprotocolwiththeFO.TheFO streamlinedtheauthorizationprocessfornauticalstations toallowusaccesstotheNSapplicationformstoobtain certification.Portugalhas29nauticalstationscertifiedfrom northtosouthandfromthecoasttotheinlandwaters,ofwhich 17allowedtheresearchteamtoconsulttheofficialaplications forms.Assuch,inthisstudytheofficialapplicationforms of17certifiedNauticalStationswerecollectedandanalyzed. Forthepurposeofthepresentresearch,twodimensionsof theapplicationsformswereanalyzed,namelythestrategic goalsandtheenvironmentalpracticesdescribedbythediferent partnersofthenetwork.Theinductivecontentanalysiswas themethodpursuedrelatedtothestudyofthementioned dimensions.Accordingto Bardin (1977)“thecontentanalysis appears asatechniqueconjunctionofcommunications’analysis thatusessystematicproceduresanddescriptionobjectivesfrom themessagecontent”(p.38).Thatiswhyitisaneffectivemethod tomanyareasinthesocialempiricalsciencesandoftenused intourismresearch(Rejowski,2010).Theemergentreferences relatedtostrategicgoalsandenvironmentalpraticeswerecoded inopenconcepts.Sistematically,comparisonofconceptsledto thedefinitionofthekeycodefollowedbyanaxialandselective codingwhichinturn,allowedthedefinitionofthesubcategories inthetwoanalyzeddimensions.Thisprocesswasdonebasedon intercoderreliabilityproceduresbetweentreeoftheco-authors. TheNVIVOsoftwarewasusedtothecodificationprocessin ordertoexplorepatternsrelatedwiththedimensionsinstudy.

Resultsanddiscussion

Theresultsshowthemultiplicityofstrategicobjectives associatedwiththeestablishedstrategicalliancerelatedtosport, namelynauticalsport (Table1)

TABLE1Strategicgoalspernauticalstation.

Thenauticalstationsasastrategicallianceconfirmthe Masselinketal. (2016)theorysincethefollowingassumptions areverified:(i) thepartnershipisformalandinformal;(ii)the existenceofatleasttwopartners;and(iii)theachievementof strategicgoals.Insporttourismindustry,strategicalliancescan improveglobalcompetitivenessandthecooperationofavery diversegroupofactors(individualorcorporate)fromdifferent socialsystemsiscrucial(Tuppen,2000).

Nauticalstationscanbeframedintheconceptoftourism destinationcompetitivenesswithaparticularfocusonsport (Happ,2021),asdefinedbytheauthoras“aplace’sabilityto optimizeitsattractivenessforresidentsandnon-residents,to deliverhigh-quality,innovative,andattractivesportstourism servicesandtogainmarketsharesindomesticandglobal marketplaces,whileensuringthattheavailableresources supportingtourismareusedefficientlyandsustainably”(p.67).

Thedatashowtheimportanceattributedbymostnautical stationstothestructuringoftheofferasillustratedbyseveral quotations,suchas:“createanintegratedstrategyforthe developmentofthenauticalproduct,aggregatingtheoffer,with theinvolvementofallsectorsofactivitydirectlyconnectedand othercomplementaryones(NS5).Or:

Structuringthetouristoffer,intermsofnautical, entertainmentactivities,catering,accommodationandother servicesrelevanttotheattractionoftourists.Forthispurpose, itisimportanttocreatepackagesthataresufficiently attractivetocustomersintermsoftheofferperse,quality, follow-upandits relationshipwiththeprice(NS1).

Or:

Enhancetheofferofnauticalactivities,inparticular wakeboarding,waterskiing,canoeing,rowing,stand-uppaddle,touristfishingandnauticaltours,namelythrough thecreationofanetworkofpartners,includingoperators ofnauticalactivities,clubsandnauticalsportscenters, accommodation,restaurantsandbars,andthemain municipaland regionalentities (NS2).

Thestructuringoftheofferisafundamentalstrategic objective asthesporttourismproductisamulti-dimensional combinationofservicesandexperienceopportunitiessuchas transport,lodging,sportsactivitiesandfacilities,infrastructure, naturalsurroundings,andsocialcontacts(Thwaitesand Chadwick,2006; WoodsandDeeganm,2006; Elbeetal.,2009).

Someauthors Zehreretal. (2017), AicherandNewland (2018), NewlandandAicher (2018),and Happ (2021)stressedthat therearedifferent typesofexperiencesanddifferenttypesof sporttourismconsumers,suchasactivetouristsandathletes; summerandwintersporttourists;differentviewsintherange ofstakeholders;newsportstrend.Forexample,foractive sporttourists,thequalityofthesportexperienceandsport

entertainmentwerevital(AicherandNewland,2018);on thecontrary,for athletes,theevent’sreputationandstatus, constantlyrenewedeventexperience,andplayingtothelimit weremoreimportant(GetzandMcConnell,2011).Onthe whole,astherearedifferentconsumerswithdifferentinterests, whenworkingasaNSapproach,thedestinationshouldoffer differentexperiences,creatpackagescomposedbydifferent sportsandatribbuts/atractionsofthedestinationsanddesign specificoffersforeachtargetgroup(e.g.,athletesoractive).

Promotingandmarketingdestinations,aswellasincreasing governance,werealsomentionedasstrategicobjectivesbya largenumberofnauticalstations(11ofthe17NS).Regarding promotion,theroleofNSinprojectingtheimageofthe destinationasanauticaldestinationismentioned(e.g.,NS1; NS3;NS10;andNS14).Asattestedbythequotationofthe NS1“projectthe[]asanauticaldestinationininternational markets,throughacommunicationcampaignaimedatspecific targetgroupsthathaveasaspirationthepracticeofnautical inarticulationwiththenaturalandculturalheritage,”or “promotionoftheterritorytoincreasethemarketshareof visitorsfromabroad(mainlyfromSpain)”(NS14).

Thisobjectivefallswithinthemeaningof Carayannisetal. (2000)whenconsideringthatstrategicalliancesareaquick andeasywayofaccesstomarket. Wäscheetal. (2013)stress thatsport tourismorganizationsshouldengageincooperative marketinginordertoimprovetheexperiencetotheclients. Specifically,inregions“characterizedbysmallbusinessesthis ‘imperativeforcooperation’iscriticalforsuccessfulmarketing andmanagementintourism”(WilkinsonandMarch,2008,p. 27).The Portugalnauticalstationsareamodelofpromotionon aninternationalscale.Thestudyby Lam-Gonzálezetal. (2019) showsthe relevanceofinternationalizationinthecontextof nauticaltourismtoincreasecompetitivenessfordestinations.

Withregardtogovernance,theimportanceofNSis highlightedto“encouragethearticulationofpromotingagents withpublicandprivateentities,creatingpartnershipsthat generatevalueinthedevelopmentofnauticaltourism”(NS16), or“establishwithpartnersandassociatednauticalactors,a regularpolicyofinternalandexternalcommunication”(NS17). Or,asaddedinanotherquotation:

Implementacollaborativenetworkbetweenlocalpublic andprivateactorsrepresentingcivilsocietythatworksasa discussiongroupfordifferentthemesassociatedwithnautical andisanaggregatorelement,lobbyinginstitutionsand guardianshipinordertoinfluencefacilitatingpoliciesand modesofactionoftheeconomicexerciseofthetouristactivity andinparticularthenauticalone(NS1).

Thus,avisionofgovernancewashighlightedinthisstudyto theextent thatsharedmanagement—acollaborativenetwork betweenlocalpublicandprivateactorsthatfunctionsasa discussionanddecision-makinggroup—wasunderstoodasa

strategicobjectiveassociatedwiththecreationofthenautical stations. Klijn (2008)accentuatesthatthetermgovernance appears associatedwiththepurposeofimprovingcoordination betweenrelatedactorsinsolvingsociety’sproblems.Itis underlinedby Emersonetal. (2012)thatthisconceptintegrates, inadditiontopublic administration,stakeholders,civilsociety andthecommunity,whichisinlinewiththefindingsofthis study,asstressedbythequotation“ensuregreateraccessfor localpopulationstonauticalactivities—involvementandaccess ofpopulations,withspecialemphasisonschoolandcompetitive sports”(NS5).Governanceacquiresevenmorerelevanceinsofar as,sincetourismisconsideredasacomplexsystem(Baggio etal.,2010), sporttourism,duetotheintensificationofthe definedcharacteristics,canalsobeconsideredacomplexsystem, implyingthat“thegovernanceofadestinationiscontrolledby alimitednumberofentitiesandisfurtherconfirmationofthe necessityofcreatingcohesiveinter-organizationalnetworksfor theproductionofintegratedtourismexperiences”(Baggioetal., 2010,p.55). Moreover,thecooperationisconsideredcrucialfor theoperativefield ofsporttourismmanagement(Wäscheand Woll,2013).

Sustainability, namelyfromaperspectiveassociatedwith environmentalprotectionandsustainablemobility,isastrategic objectiveforeightofthenauticalstationsunderstudy.Quotes suchas:“promotionofawareness-raisingactionsforthe protectionofthecoastalarea,promotingsustainablebehaviors” (NS16),or“bettingonsustainabledevelopmentasacollective commitment,valuingandrespectingtheenvironmentand territorialbalance”(NS11)attesttotheaspectofecological sustainability.Moreover,“createsustainabledynamicsofuse, enhancementandpreservationofthenaturalandenvironmental heritagelinkedtonauticalactivity,aswellastheculturaland identityheritageoftheregion”(NS5).

Attendingtocooperationasadeterminingfactorforthe implementationofamoreenvironmentalmanagementin sporttourism(Mascarenhasetal.,2021),strategicalliances in sportandtourism shouldconsiderthestrategicdimension relatedtotheenvironmentalsustainability(e.g.,socialand ecologicalcompatibility: Wäscheetal.,2013).Thisdimension isparticularlyrelevantsincethenauticalstationsinscribetheir actioninnaturalecosystemsandtherespectiveresourcesare keyelementsfromtheperspectiveofthesporttouristexperience andhaveapowerfuleffectonthetouristperceptionofachosen sporttourismdestination(HinchandHigham,2004).As Peri´ c etal. (2016)advocate,theenvironmentisoneofthevital elementsinthekeyresourcesofthebusinessmodelinsport tourism.Thus,itisimportanttointegratethisdimensionin productdesign,intheanalysisoftouristflowsandconsequent carryingcapacity,intheanalysisofthreatsandenablingfactors fortourismsustainability,littoralizationandurbanization,landseainteractions,coastalerosionandprotectionmeasures, watermanagement,transportandaccessibility,monitoringand measuringresults.

Theremainingstrategicobjectives—i.e.,objectivesfocused ontraininghumanresources,creatingandimprovingfacilities, organizingevents,intensifyingservicequalityanddeveloping accessibleandinclusiveservices—werenotmentionedinmost oftheanalyzedforms,butworthtobementionedasresults ofthisstudy.Asforexample“NSwillemphasizeitsstrategy intrainingexistingnauticaloperatorsinthesurroundings,to attractnewtargetgroups”(NS8),or“promotionofnauticaland safetytrainingwithnauticaleducationinstitutionspromoting acloserelationshipbetweenthenauticalsector,companies operatinginthefieldandtheschoolcommunity”(NS16).

Theimportanceoftrainingofhumanresourcesand knowledgetransfer,aspointedoutinthisstudy,arerelatedto thestrategicalliances.Inthisline, FerreiraandFranco (2020) showedthatstrategicalliancescreateimportantbenefitson thehumancapitalofthesmallandmediumenterprises.As theauthorspointout,humancapitalisaffectedbystrategic alliancesandtherelationshipsdevelopedbetweenSMEsand othercompaniesareincreasinglyimportantfortheirgrowth.An isolatedperformanceinthemarketcannegativelyinfluencethe developmentcapacityofthistypeofenterprises.

Thecreationandimprovementoffacilities/infrastructures wasconsideredapriorityinsofarasmanyoftheexisting structuresaregearedtowardapurelysportingandnonsports-touristoffer.Asstressedinthequotation“dynamize andenhancetheinfrastructure,equipmentandservicesto supportnauticaltourism”(NS10)or“creationofconditions andincentivesfortherequalificationofexistingspaceslinked tonauticaland/orimplementationofnewsupportstructures” (NS12).Infact, Ivani´ c etal. (2018) refertoinvestmentin infrastructureconstruction asanimportantfactorinthe developmentandenhancementofnauticaltourisminsofaras theexistingfacilitiesdonotincludethetouristvocation.

Itshouldbenotedthatsportingeventsarereferredtoas strategicforattractingtourists,butalsoasawaytoprolongthe stay(NS1;NS10)inassociationwithotherevents,asquoted:

Promote,inpartnership,asetofnauticaleventsin complementarity withotherentertainmenteventslinkedto thelocalcultureandenvironmentthatofferthevisitor thepossibilityofexperiencingdiversifiedexperiencesthat contributeto increasingtheirstayintheterritory(NS1).

Thecategory“others”includesobjectiveswithonlyone occurrence, namely,“capitalizingonknowledgenetworks andtheirtransferbetweenterritories”(NS1),aswellas “creatingnormativeelementsforthedevelopmentofnautical activities”(NS13).

Theresultsofthepracticesofenvironmentsustainability werecategorizedintofiveareasofaction (Table2),evidencing theconcernof theNScoordinatorsforthisworldurgency.

Theresultsleadtotheconclusionthattheenvironmental sustainabilitypracticesofthenauticalstationsfollowthe

trendofimplementingtheenvironmentalpracticesidentified inthecontextofsporttourism,namely,theprevalenceof environmentaleducationandawarenessactions(Mascarenhas etal.,2021) butlittleattentiongiventotheimplementation ofthe sustainabletransport(Martinsetal.,2021; Mascarenhas etal.,2021). Practicesintermsofenvironmentaleducationare mentionedbymost oftheENinthestudy,namelythrough “awarenessactionsonsustainabletourismandenvironmental protection”bothforthenetworkpartnersandforlocal communities,aswellasforthecustomersoftheNS(e.g., NS2,NS4,NS6,NS7,andNS14),namely:“awareness-raising actionsonsustainabletourismandenvironmentalprotection” (NS2);“awareness-raisingandinformationactivities,dedicated inparticulartotheseissues(amongwhichtheeffectsof climatechange,thepresenceofplasticsintheoceansandthe threatofprotectedspeciesgainincreasingexpression”(NS4); “environmentalawarenessactionsamongnetworkpartners” (NS6);“creationoftheEnvironmentalGuideforsailors, whoseobjectivesare:toimproveenvironmentalquality,safety, educatetheyoungestandparticipateinthepreservationof naturalresources”(NS7);and“developandpromoteeducational programsthatencouragegoodpracticesinschools”(NS14).

Astheresultsshowed,theenvironmentaleducation practicesintegrateseverallevelsandinvolvedifferenttypesof actors,suchaschildren,providersandsporttourists.Thisway, byoneside,itisimportantahighdregeeoftrainingofthe managersintheenvironmentalitems,astheyinfluenceseveral actorsandpractices;bytheotherside,theprovidersinsport tourismmustbeinformedaboutsporttouristsbehaviorsin ordertocreateclearexplanationsabouttheactivitiesandtheir rulessonegativeimpactsmaybeminimized(Pericetal.,2016) andbenefits maybemaximizedwheneveritispossible(minmaxapproach).Itisalsoimportanttoraisetheawarenessof theactorsinvolvedintheofferofnauticaltourismtotheneed tocreatemorebenignalternativesfortheenvironment,andto communicateandpromotetheminaneffectiveandpersuasive way,anticipatingthefactorsthatwillinfluencetheiradoption bysporttourismconsumers(Martinsetal.,2021; Mascarenhas etal.,2021). Nauticalstationsarebasedinwater/outdoorsports, mainlyheldedin naturalspaces,andtherefore,consumersand providersmustbeawareofthevariablesthatcandamage theenvironment.Thereareseveralexamplesofthenegative

impactofsporttouristsactivitiesandequipmentsonaquatic resources,namely,theerosionofmarinebiotacausedby divers(Hammerton,2017; Giglioetal.,2018)andthevarious typesof pollutionproducedbyrecreationalboatengines(e.g., noise,lightpollution,oildischarges,andotherwaste: Peri´ c etal.,2016). Nevertheless,watersportsas,forexample,sailing, rowing,canoying,surf,andotherlesspollutingsports,could beinspiringtocreateamoreenvironmentallyfriendlyhumannaturerelationship.

Withinthescopeofresourcemanagement,practicesfocus onthemanagementofwater,beaches,nauticalcenters,marinas andothernauticalsupportinfrastructureaswellasrecyclable waste(NS8,NS9,NS11,andNS16).ThereisaNSthatpresents amanagementplanwiththeresponsibilityofeachactorbyarea ofintervention(NS17):

Partner[X]undertakestoinspectallthoseinvolved intheeventsofgoodpracticesforthepreservationof theaquaticenvironment,attherequestofthepartners responsibleforthem;aswellasinformtheauthoritiesof anyanomalydetected,eitherintheaquaticenvironmentor onitsbanks.Partner[Y]undertakestocarryoutatleast oneenvironmentalawarenesscampaigninschools.Partner [Z]iscommittedtocleaningthespacesurroundingthe wateraccessplatformandraisingawarenessoftheadoption ofbehavioursconsistentwithprotectingtheenvironment, suchasnotthrowingdebrisonthefloor,usingreusable bottles/drumsandnotvoluntarilyexpelsecretionsintothe surroundingenvironment.

Monitoringisreferredtoatseverallevels:(i)numberofvisitors andtheir impacts/carryingcapacities(NS4,NS10);(ii)waste (NS4);(iii)waters(NS9,NS10,NS11,NS15);(iv)biodiversity (NS11,NS15);and(v)consumption(energyandwater)(NS11).

Forexample:

Theenvironmentalandterritorialenhancement andqualificationoftheMunicipalityissupportedby anintegrative,dynamicandtechnologicallyadvanced managementmodelthatallowsthepermanentavailability ofinformationonthevariousenvironmentalcomponents, thuscontributingtothepermanentandobjectivemonitoring oftheconsequencesassociatedwithtakingdecision.Onthe coast,thereismonitoringofbathingwaterquality,and biodiversitymonitoringisalsocarriedout(NS15).

Intheapplicationformsofthenauticalstations,theadoption ofguidelines forenvironmentalresponsibilitywaspointedout: (i)alreadycreatedbyotherentities(e.g.,EuropeanCharterfor SportandSustainableTourism;CodeofConductandGood PracticesofPortugueseGeoparks);(ii)created(NS1)orbeing created(NS2,NS4),withinthescopeofthenauticalstation [e.g.,“intheprocessofadaptingvariousmodels/regulations

and existingmanuals,tocreateaspecificbehaviormanual,for thestation [NSnameomission]orthe[NSnameomission], whichcoverspartnersinthefivemunicipalities,hasaquality benchmarkinpreparation”(NS4)].

Resourcesmanagement,monitoringandguidelines forenvironmentalresponsibilityshouldbeincorporated intopracticesassociatedwithstrategicmanagementof theenvironment. CoccossisandKoutsopoulou (2020) elaboratedand appliedatoolwiththreetypesofindicators toassesssustainabilityinnauticaltourism:coreindicators (i.e.,generalindicatorsforsustainablecoastaltourism); destinationindicators(i.e.,toaccesstheuniquecharacteristics ofdifferenttourismproducts,suchasbeach/maritime tourism,urban/culturaltourism,cruising,recreationalboating, andnature/ecotourism);andarea-specificindicators(i.e., incorporatingthecrucialandspecificaspectsofeachdestination tomonitorsustainability).

Itwasfoundthattherearenauticalstationswithholistic solutions,whichcouldconstitutecasestobeanalyzedin moredepthinordertoreplicateinothernauticalstations. Forexample,NS15hasanEnvironmentalManagement andInformationSystem,withinthescopeoftheMunicipal GeographicInformationSystem,whichconstitutesanonline platformthatintegratesinformationonvariousenvironmental descriptors:Water,Air,Biodiversity,Energy,Soilsand Landscape,Waste,NoiseandEnvironmentalEducation. Asadvocatedby Carneiroetal. (2016)and Yfantidouetal. (2017),thistypeofmeasuresleadtoenvironmentalsavings, e.g.,the promotionofenergyefficiency,consumptionof environmentallyfriendlyproductsandimplementationof recycling/reuseprograms,andaredevelopedbysporttourism operators. Peri´cetal. (2016) advocatethat“oneofthepossible solutionsforreducing negativeeffectsontheenvironmentis fosteringeco-innovations,atechnologicaltermusuallyclosely correlatedtoeco-efficiencyandecologicaldesign”. Kellyetal. (2007)havefoundthatsignificanttouristsupportexisted foroptionsthatcouldincreasetheoveralleco-efficiencyof destinations.Thestudydevolopedby Trstenjaketal. (2020) onnautical tourismintheMediterraneanshowsthatitis importanttohavemoreinformationaboutthecreationofmore environmentallyfriendlyprocessesasitconcludesthatthere arethreemajorobstaclestogreaterrenewableenergysources: “alackofawarenessandknowledgerelatedtoavailableEU fundsintendedforachievingsustainablebusinessmodelsand products,attractivefinancingopportunitiesforsustainable projects,andcomplicatedbureaucraticprocedures”(p.12).

Theareaofsustainabletransportiscontemplatedthrough theimplementationofmoreecologicalmodesofmobility, suchaselectricvehiclesandbicycles,theevaluationofthe variousflowsrelatedtodemandandfeasibilitystudiesregarding theimplementationofpublictransport(NS5,NS6,NS11).As pointedoutinthesequotations:“implementationofsustainable mobilitymeasures”(NS5);“smoothmodesofmobilitysuchas

electricvehiclesandbicyclesareavailableontheroutes”(EN6); “assessmentofdemand-relatedroadflowsandfeasibilitystudies fortheimplementationofpublictransport”(EN11).

Thedevelopmentofalternativestoincludesustainable transportisinfactameasurethatmustbeconsideredin acontextwherenaturalresourcesarethekeytotourist attractiveness.Inthissense, Hsiao (2018)hasalready recommendedfor theimplementationoftheenvironmental sustainabilityofthedifferentproductsandservicesofnautical tourism,theoperationalizationanddisseminationofmore environmentallyfriendlychoicesinotherareasofthetourism offer,namely,transport.Thespecificationofsportservices, takingintoaccountthecharacteristicsofconsumersforthe adoptionofmoresustainablebehaviors,isimportantfor theimplementationofmoreecologicalservices,suchasthe inclusionofsustainabletransportalternatives(Martinsetal., 2021; Mascarenhasetal.,2021).Inthissense,itisofgreat importanceto promotetheseservicesgiventhefactthatsport consumersareinfluencedbyagreateraestheticneedanda strongerconnectiontothelocalcommunitywhenconsidering usingsustainabletransportinthecontextofsporttourism (Martinsetal.,2021).

Conclusion

Toconclude,thisstudyanalyzedthestrategicalliancesfor thedevelopment oftheofferofnauticaltourismproducts, allowingforafirstoverviewofapioneeringprojectin Portugalofstrategicinvestmentinsportandtourism.The mainstrategicgoalwiththeseallianceswastostructurethe nauticaltourismoffer,aswellastoincreasegovernance andtopromoteandmarketdestinations.Althoughinaless pronouncedway,aconcerntointegratesustainabilityinits ecologicalaspectalsoemergedasastrategicgoal.Theresults oftheadoptedenvironmentalsustainabilitypracticesshowed thattherearenauticalstationswithholisticsolutions,which couldconstitutecasestobeanalyzedinmoredepthinorderto replicateinothernauticalstations,namely,theenvironmental educationpractices.

AsPNSisapioneeringprojectandthestructurationofthe nauticaltourismofferisanewareaofsportmanagementin Portugal.FOandmanagersofthenauticalstationsshouldcreate workshopsandworkgroupstotrainingandtopromotethe discussionofsolutions,sharingofknowledgeanddevelopment ofsuchoffer.

Bearinginmindtheurgencyofclimateaction,itis importanttoraiseawarenessofFOfortheimportanceofall nauticalstationsprioritizetheintegrationofsustainabilityas astrategicgoal;futurestudiesshouldfocusoncasestudies onnauticalstationsthatdevelopalternativesforsustainable transport.Inthisway,itwillbepossibletounderstand thecontextoftheimplementationofthistypeofactions,

aswellasthedifferentfactorsthatfacilitateandconstrain theireffectiveness.

FutureresearchshouldtrytoanalyseallthePNSand alsotheremainingdimensionsoftheapplicationsforms 1.Inaccordancewiththeobjectivesofthestudy,the directobservationoftheenvironmentalsustainabilitypractices implementedbythenauticalstationswasnotcarriedout,which constitutesalimitationofthisstudy.Thus,futurestudiesshould carryoutthescientificfollow-upoftheoperationalizationofthe strategicobjectivesandpracticesexposedbytheentities,aswell astherespectiveimpactsonthemanagementofnauticalstations inordertocreatescientificknowledgeforthemanagementof sporttourism,particularly,thenauticaltourism.

Dataavailabilitystatement

Theoriginalcontributionspresentedinthestudyare includedinthearticle/supplementarymaterial,furtherinquiries canbedirectedtothecorrespondingauthor.

Authorcontributions

EP,AF,JM,VA,andMMcontributedtoconception anddesign ofthestudy.VAorganizedthedatabase.EP, VA,andAFperformedtheanalysis.EPandVAwrote thefirstdraftofthemanuscript.EP,AF,JM,RM,VA, andMMwrotesectionsofthemanuscript.Allauthors contributedtomanuscriptrevision,read,andapprovedthe submittedversion.

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Funding

ThisworkwassupportedbyNationalFundsprovided byFCT—FoundationforScienceandTechnologyunderthe projectUIDB/04020/2020.

Acknowledgments

TheauthorsacknowledgethecontributionofFórum Oceanoto thefeasibilityofthisinvestigation,througha protocolsignedwithCinTurs.Theauthorsarealsograteful forthecollaborationofthenauticalstationsthatallowedthe consultationoftheirapplicationforms.

Conflictofinterest

Theauthorsdeclarethattheresearchwasconductedinthe absenceof anycommercialorfinancialrelationshipsthatcould beconstruedasapotentialconflictofinterest.

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Allclaimsexpressedinthisarticlearesolelythoseofthe authors anddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseoftheiraffiliated organizations,orthoseofthepublisher,theeditorsandthe reviewers.Anyproductthatmaybeevaluatedinthisarticle,or claimthatmaybemadebyitsmanufacturer,isnotguaranteed orendorsedbythepublisher.

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OPENACCESS

EDITEDBY

HansWesterbeek, Victoria University,Australia

REVIEWEDBY AdamKarg, SwinburneUniversityof Technology,Australia

*CORRESPONDENCE

ZacharyCharlesTaylorEvans evans11o@uwindsor.ca

SPECIALTYSECTION

Thisarticlewassubmittedto Sports Management,Marketing,and Economics, asectionofthejournal

FrontiersinSportsandActiveLiving

RECEIVED 15June2022

ACCEPTED 29August2022

PUBLISHED 16September2022

CITATION

EvansZCT,GeeSandEddyT(2022)

Buildingbridges:Connectingsport marketingandcriticalsocialscience research.

Front.SportsAct.Living 4:970445. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.970445

COPYRIGHT

© 2022Evans,GeeandEddy.Thisis anopen-accessarticledistributed underthetermsofthe Creative CommonsAttributionLicense(CCBY)

Theuse,distributionorreproduction inotherforumsispermitted,provided theoriginalauthor(s)andthecopyright owner(s)arecreditedandthatthe originalpublicationinthisjournalis cited,inaccordancewithaccepted academicpractice.Nouse,distribution orreproductionispermittedwhich doesnotcomplywiththeseterms.

PUBLISHED 16September2022

DOI 10.3389/fspor.2022.970445

Buildingbridges:Connecting sportmarketingandcritical socialscienceresearch

ZacharyCharlesTaylorEvans*,SarahGeeand TerryEddy

DepartmentofKinesiology,FacultyofHumanKinetics,UniversityofWindsor,Windsor,ON,Canada

Recently,sportmanagementscholarshavecalledforresearcherstocritically evaluatethe waysinwhichresearchquestionsandresultingcontributions trulydisruptwhatisknown,howitisknown,whyitisimportanttoknow, andforwhom.Historically,sportmarketingresearchhasadaptedtraditional researchapproachesfromtheparentmarketingdisciplinetosport.Yet,sport isaconstantlyevolvingsocialandculturalphenomenonandarelianceon conventionaltheories,concepts,andmethodscanservetocrystalizethe discourseinsportmarketinginwaysthatmaylimitknowledgeproduction. Respondingtothiscall,webelievethatsportmarketingresearchhasmuch togainfromengagingwithcriticalsocialscienceassumptions,worldviews, andperspectivestoexaminecomplexissuesinsport.Wepositionthispaper asastartingpointforadvancingthefieldofsportmarketinginmeaningful andimpactfulwaysbyo eringtworesearchpropositions,eachaccompanied byfouractionalrecommendations.Weemployaparticularfocusonthe marketingcampaignsthatactivateandpromotecorporatepartnershipsin sporttoframeourtwopropositions,whichdiscuss(1)consumerculturetheory and(2)thecircuitofcultureastwoimportantframeworksthatbegintobuild bridgesbetweensportmarketingandcriticalsocialscience.

KEYWORDS

consumerresearch,commercialization,circuitofculture,consumerculture theory, corporatepartnerships

Introduction

Researchersofsportandsport-relatedgroupsarebeingnudgedbyinstitutions, fundingbodies, andpublication“gatekeepers”(e.g.,editorsandreviewers)tojustifythe valueoftheirworkinwaysthatmovebeyondaddressingagapintheliterature.While “gap-spotting”isacommonwaytoformulateresearchquestionsfromexistingliterature, SandbergandAlvesson(1)claimthat“itdoesnotactivelychallengetheassumptions underlyingexisting theory”(p.33).Alternatively,theysuggestthatproblematization leadstomoreinnovativeandnovelresearchquestionsthat“disruptthereproductionand continuationofaninstitutionalizedlineofreasoning”[(1),p.32].Recently,Stenlingand Fahlén(2)callforsportmanagementresearchers(broadlyinterpreted)toconsiderwhat is“worthwhile knowledge”andto“clarifyonwhosebehalfastudyisconductedand,thus, forwhom,inwhatways,andwhyitscontributionisimportant”(p.16).Further,their recommendationsforsportmanagementresearchersalignwithSandbergandAlvesson

(1)inthatresearchshoulddisruptprevailingassumptions tobuild“new, significant,andmeaningfulknowledgethat altersthewayweunderstandandexplainsportmanagement practice”[(2),p.16].Inthefieldofsportmarketingspecifically, Kimetal. [(3),p.59]arguethatsportmarketingresearch hashistorically“beenmorenormalresearchpractice focusingonpost-positivistic[consumer]behavior-based studies,”withthenotionof“normalresearch”stemming fromKuhn’s[(4),p.163]referencetoa“highlyconvergent activitybasedfirmlyuponasettledconsensusacquiredfrom scientificeducationandreinforcedbysubsequentlifeinthe profession.”Kimetal.[(3),p.59]highlighttheneedfor “optimalbalance betweennormalresearchwithconvergent thinkingandinnovativepracticeswithdivergentideas”for scientificprogress.

Thepurposeofthiscommentaryistoserveasa pointofdeparturefordiscussionsonprogressingthefield ofsportmarketinginmeaningfulandimpactfulways. WeechoStenlingandFahlén’s(2)“calltoarms”with anexplicit focusonbridgingsportmarketingandcritical socialscience.Weagreewithotherswhoadvocatefor collapsingdisciplinarysilos[e.g.,(5, 6)],andassertthat sportmarketingresearchhasmuchtogainfromengaging withcriticalsocialscienceassumptions,worldviews,and perspectivestoexaminecomplexissuesinsport.Weoutline howsportmarketingresearchersmaychallengethepreexistingassumptionsinthefieldbyencouragingothersto “read‘horizontally’togaina‘multi-silo’perspectiveofthe phenomenonofinterest,therebyfacilitatingthecreation ofknowledgethatmakesusthinkofphenomenainnew ways”[(2),pp.16–17].Inwhatfollows,wediscusstwo researchpropositions,(1)consumerculturetheoryand(2) thecircuitofculture,astwoimportantframeworksthat integratesportmarketingandcriticalsocialscience.From theoutset,weacknowledgethattheseareonlytwoofmany potentialareasforsynthesis,andevenwithintheseframeworks, therearenumerouspossibilitiestoexplore.However,tohelp othersenvisionourproposals,foreachpropositionweoffer actionablerecommendationsasinnovativeresearchdirections thatpromisenewknowledgediscovery.

Frisby[(7),p.2]describescriticalsocialscienceas“a wayofempowering individualsbyconfrontinginjustices inordertopromotesocialchange.”Researchthatadopts criticalapproachesfeaturesprominentlyinsportsociology, withscholarssuggestingthatincorporatingtheseperspectives intosportmanagementresearchcanadvancethefield(8).

Researchersthatutilizeacriticalview“areconcernedabout goalsotherthanprofitandwithrepresentingtheinterestsof thoseaffectedbymanagerialactions,suchasworkers,athletes, volunteers,customers,marginalizedpopulations,andthepublic atlarge”[(7),p.6].Theseapproachesappearinfrequentlyin journalswithin thedomainofsportmarketing,despitetheir

importanceinsportmanagementresearchfor“unpackingthe less-desirableaspectsofsportasasocialsystem,”resulting inastablefoundation“uponwhichpositivechangeinsport canbemade”[(9),p.9].AccordingtoSayer[(10),p.768], thejobof criticalsocialscienceis“to‘unsettle’existing academicideas.”Therefore,incorporatingcriticalsocialscience approachesintosportmarketingresearchmayhelpto“expand ourunderstandingofsport’sroleinsociety,howitmaybean exclusionaryspaceandtoprovideastrongtheoreticalbasisfor practicalimprovementsbychallengingpowerrelations”[(9), p.2].

Sportisa commodityandpractice,andisagloballypopular, highlyvisible,andinfluentialpartofsociety.Corporatebrands usetheappealandexcitementofsporttocommunicatetheir messagestoconsumers(11)andaccomplishtheirbusiness objectives(12).Currentlythereismomentum—andarguably astrongneed—forprofessionalsport(andrelatedcorporate partnerships)tohavepositivesocialimpact,tohelpachieve socialjustice,andtominimize(theeffectsof)inequality. Arguably,sportmarketingplaysanequallyimportantrolein attractinglargeaudiencestosportandassociatingcorporate brandswiththesocialandculturalvaluesofsport.In thissense,marketingcampaignsthatactivateandpromote corporatepartnershipswithsportare“privilegedform[s]of socialcommunication”thatcanbeutilizedbymarketersto influenceculture,socialinteractions,andidentities[(13),pp. 103–104].Throughmarketing,brandscreatepowerfulstories andcompellingnarrativesthatconsumersusetoprocess theirowntensions,desires,andanxietiesthatoriginatefrom broadersocietalproblems(14).Forexample,Nike’s“ForOnce Don’tDoIt”advertisementfollowingtheBlackLivesMatter Movement,Amazon’sClimatePledgeArenainSeattle,and Scotiabank’s“HockeyforAll”campaign,tonameafew.Yet,the “corporatization,privatization,andbranding”ofsocialjustice issuesbycommercialorganizationshasbecome“increasingly complex,messy,andblurred”[(15),p.523],withregards tocorporateintentions and“risingconsumerexpectationsof corporatesocialresponsibility”[(16),p.132].Asconsumers becomemore discerningofcorporatepartnershipswithsport, brandsmaybeperceivedasexploitative,disingenuous,and superfluous(17–20).Additionally,athletesandcoaches,given theircelebrity statusandlargefollowings,can“shapefans’ attitudes,beliefs,andbehaviors”[(21),p.36],whichcan influencehowsport marketerscommunicatewithconsumers. Crucially,framingsportmarketingandconsumerresearchfrom apositionthatupholdssportasadistinctsocialandcultural practiceandqueries why and how definitionsandmeanings ofsportservesomeinterestsoverothers[e.g.,professional athlete,sportorganization,corporateentity,fan/consumer; (22)],beginsalong,convolutedjourneytoproblematizeand disruptourassumptionsabouttheassociationofcorporate brandswithsport.

Consumer culturetheory

ConsumerCultureTheory(CCT)“referstoafamilyof theoreticalperspectivesthataddressthedynamicrelationship betweenconsumeractions,theculturemarketplace,and culturalmeanings”[(23),p.868].Itconsistsoffoursalient, interconnected theoreticaldimensionsconsistingof:“(1) consumeridentityprojects,(2)marketplacecultures,(3)the sociohistoricpatterningofconsumption,and(4)mass-mediated marketplaceideologiesandconsumers’interpretivestrategies” [(23),p.871].AccordingtoCCT,supporterscancreateand attributemeaning totheimages,texts,andobjectivesthatare commerciallyproducedandthroughwhichconsumersmake senseoftheirenvironment,whichcanleadtoconsumers redefiningthemeaningofabrandbasedontheircollective interpretationthereof(14, 24).Thus,supportergroupsmay dictatethesymbolismofbrandsassociatedwithsport,with positivevalues(e.g.,distinctiveness)benefittingthebrand(25), andresistanceoccurringiftheydonotperceivethattheteam derivesvaluefromtheconnection(18).Rokka[(14),p.114] recentlycommented that“CCT’sfuturelookspromisinginits commitmentandabilitytofostercritical,contextuallysensitive, andreflexiveculturalinsightsintomarketing—animportant foundationformarketingstrategyandpractices.”Assuch,CCT canplayaroleinexploringthecontextualfactorsthatinfluence howsupportersandsupportergroupsinterpretandattribute meaningtoabrand.

Atpresent,muchsportmarketingconsumerresearch islargelyinformedbycognitivepsychological(behavioral) oreconomictheories.Whilethesestudiesareimportant forcontinuedunderstandingofconsumerattitudestoward products/servicesandpurchasingbehaviors,thereisan opportunitytoengagewithCCTandsocialtheories(e.g., socialconstructivism,feminism,criticalracetheory)tocritique “thestructuralfoundationsandlimitationsoftheconsumers’ experientialuniverse”[(26),p.386].CCTisoftensetwithinthe contextof socialhistoricalproductionaswellastheprevailing socio-economicconditions,whichcontextualizesconsumerbasedpracticesandperspectiveswithinthestructuresand systemsthattranscendlivedexperience.Thisallows“CCT researchers[tolook]towardunderstandingmarketsystemsand dynamicsand[approach]consumerculturenotjustasamatter ofwhatconsumersdobutalsohowtheworldinwhichtheydo itisconstituted”[(27),p.135].Ultimately,thegoalistogive greaterconsideration to“thecontextofcontexts”[(26),p.396]. Thatis, to“payincreasedattentiontothecontextsthatcondition consumption”[(26),p.389].Sportmarketingresearchneeds to,intheveryleast,considerhowconsumptionexperiences areembeddedwithinbroadersocialstructures,culturalnorms, andideologicalinjustices,including(amongothers):racism, genderrelations,homophobia,andclassism.Thesecontexts cannotbeignoredasconsumersnavigate,engagein,and

challengeeverydayconsumerculture.“Lookingattheways thateverydayconsumptionpracticesreproducelargercultural andsocialframeworksisalsoamatterofaskingnotonlyhow consumptionisinfluencedbysocialformsandprocesses,but howitparticipatesintheconstitutionofsociety”[(26),p.396]. Giventhis discussion,weofferourfirstresearchpropositionand fourcorrespondingactionablerecommendations.

Proposition1: CriticalengagementwithCCTcan providealenstoexaminerealitiesbeyondtheindividual sportconsumer/fan.

ActionableRecommendations:

• Developabetterunderstandingofthemeaningsandvalues linkedwithsigns,symbols,rituals,andtraditionsthat shapebrandcommunityidentitycreationanddevelopment insport.

• Generateabetterunderstandingofthemicro-andmacrolevelcontextualinfluences(systemicandstructural)of marketandsocialsystemsthatguidesportconsumption experiences,identities,andcommunities.

• Seekabetterunderstandingoftheimportantactors(e.g., marketers,sportorganizationexecutives,brandexecutives) thatparticipateinthecontextsofsportconsumption— actorsthathavetheirownsocialandculturalvalues.

• Establishabetterunderstandingof‘sportconsumer-brand consumption’relationshipsasfunctionsofsport,wherein bothsportandconsumptionarerecognizedassocial andculturalpracticesthatcanconferidentity,values, andbeliefs.

Thecircuitofculture

Previousresearchonsport-relatedadvertisingandthe communicationof corporatebrandpartnershipsinsporthave adoptedthecircuitofcultureasaframeworktocritically analyzesport-relatedpromotionandadvertising(28, 29). Accordingly,thecircuitofculture,whichtracesthe“lifecycle” ofacommodityincontemporarysociety(30),hasbecome animportant componentofresearchrelatedtothegrowth ofadvertising,consumption,andcommercializationwithin society(31).Itconsistsoffiveinterrelatedculturalprocesses: production,representation,consumption,andidentity,the componentsnecessarytoadequatelyexaminecommodities(30). Asacircuit,thestartingpointisirrelevant,sincethejourney ofexplainingthemeaningofanartifactinvolvesanalysisat eachmoment;cognizantthattheprocessesarenotdistinct, rathereachelementconverseswithandblendsintothenext (30),overlappingoneanotherand,hence,mutuallydefining andjointlydependent (32).Itisthecombinedarticulationor linkages oftheseprocessesthatbegintoexplainthemeaning culturalartifactspossessandtheidentitiesthattheyconstruct

and/or embody(30).AccordingtoduGayetal.[(30),p.3], thefiveinterlinked spheresfacilitatetheexplorationofcultural artifactsintermsof“howitisrepresented,whatsocialidentities areassociatedwithit,howitisproducedandconsumed,and whatmechanismsregulateitsdistribution.”

Insportcontexts,researchoftenfocusesmoreonthe representationandidentitycomponents,andfailstoexamine consumptionandregulation(31).Thus,thisresearchcaptures moreofthecriticalperspectivethatmisappropriationand inaccuraterepresentationcanhaveongroupsofpeople (28),whileanalyzingtheindividualsthatareresponsiblefor generatingthe advertisements(33).Conversely,sportmarketing researchoftendoesnotconsiderthecontentorsociocultural implicationsofadvertisements(particularlyonmarginalized groups),northatoftheactivationsundertakenbybrands involvedwithsport,insteadfocusingontheconsumption ofproducts(e.g.,purchaseintention),attitudinaloutcomes (e.g.,sponsorimage),andothersponsorshipconstructs, includingsupporteridentification,fit,andawareness(34, 35).

Incritical socialscienceresearch,sport-related advertisementsarecriticallyanalyzedusingthecircuit ofcultureframeworktoexaminethecontent,howthe advertisementwasproduced,howtheculturalintermediaries responsibleforcreatingtheadvertisementchosetorepresent thesexuality,gender,andraceofthepeoplethatappearedin theadvertisement,andhowtheadvertisementwasconsumed andinterpretedbyviewers(28).However,thefocusofthis researchadoptsthecriticalperspectivewithoutconsidering themarketing-relatedoutcomesfortheadvertisedbrand(e.g., awareness,attitudes)aftertheadvertisementhasbeenprocessed andinterpreted.Therefore,marketingresearchevaluating corporatebrandpartnershipsinsportshouldincorporate criticalanalysisoftheproduction,identity,andconsumption containedwithinthecircuitofculturetomovebeyondthe individualconsumerintothebroadersocietalandcultural contextsurroundingthepositioningoftheadvertisedbrand. Giventhisdiscussion,weofferoursecondresearchproposition andfourcorrespondingactionablerecommendations.

Proposition2: Thecircuitofcultureoffersaframework toexplorehowconsumersreacttoandinterpretthecontent ofmarketingcampaignsthatactivateandpromotecorporate partnershipsinsport.

ActionableRecommendations:

• Examinehowadvertisingcontentandmessaginginfluences consumers’subsequentattitudinalandbehavioral responsestotheadvertisements.

• Explorethepowerrelationsbetweencultural intermediariesandmarginalizedpopulationsandany resultingsocialinjustices.

• Investigatehowmarketers’idealizedand/orstereotypical representationsofparticulargroups(e.g.,men/women,

racial,Indigenous,LGBTIQ2S+,etc.)canimpactagroup’s identityandconsumptionbehaviors.

• Analyzethemannerinwhichaproduct’sintended meaningisalteredthroughconsumptionexperiencesand identityregulation.

Conclusion

Inthiscommentary,weproposetworesearchpropositions thatconnectsportmarketingandcriticalsocialscienceresearch. Theseareunorthodoxbutimperativeproposalsthatrequire radicalreconsiderationoftworesearchfundamentals.First, thesepropositionschallengetraditionalontologicalmarketing worldviewsthatembracea(post)positivistparadigm(3), andinstead advocateforontologicalclaimsthat“reality iscreatedthrough[macroand]microsocialinteractions” (interpretivistparadigm)and/or“realityisrootedinthetensions surroundinghistoricallyentrenchedpowerrelations”(critical realistparadigm;[(7),pp.2–3].Second,thesepropositions promptthe needfornewresearchdesigns(e.g.,ethnography) thatnecessitatetheintegrationofqualitativeormulti/mixed methods,whichdivertsfromthe“normalresearch”[(4),p.163] thatis generallyconductedinsportmarketing.Takentogether, weupholdthatthesepropositionsopenuppossibilitiesforsport marketingresearchtobeinnovativeandimpactful,todisrupt repeatedandinstitutionalizedlinesofreasoning/inquiry,andto createnewexpectationsforwhatisworthwhileknowledgein thefield.

Dataavailabilitystatement

Theoriginalcontributionspresentedinthestudyare includedinthearticle/supplementarymaterial,furtherinquiries canbedirectedtothecorrespondingauthor/s.

Authorcontributions

ZEwasresponsibleforconceptualizingandwriting themanuscript. SGandTEofferedguidanceonthe conceptualizationandwritingofthemanuscript,inadditionto edits,revisions,andhelpingtore-writesomepartsofthefinal manuscript.Allauthorshavemadeasubstantial,direct,and intellectualcontributiontothismanuscriptandapprovedthe manuscriptintheforminwhichitwassubmitted.

Conflictofinterest

Theauthorsdeclarethattheresearchwasconductedinthe absenceof anycommercialorfinancialrelationshipsthatcould beconstruedasapotentialconflictofinterest.

Publisher’s note

Allclaimsexpressedinthisarticlearesolelythoseofthe authors anddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseoftheiraffiliated

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EDITEDBY FabienOhl, UniversitédeLausanne,Switzerland

REVIEWEDBY PirkkoMarkula, UniversityofAlberta,Canada

HelleSpindler, AarhusUniversity,Denmark

*CORRESPONDENCE

SørenAndkjær sandkjaer@health.sdu.dk

SPECIALTYSECTION

ThisarticlewassubmittedtoTheHistory, CultureandSociologyofSports,asectionof thejournalFrontiersinSportsandActiveLiving

RECEIVED 09February2022

ACCEPTED 28February2023

PUBLISHED 20March2023

CITATION

AndkjærSandIshøiA(2023)Aloneinthe wilderness Culturalperspectivestothe participants motivesandvaluesfrom participatinginadanishrealityTV-show. Front.SportsAct.Living5:872485. doi:10.3389/fspor.2023.872485

COPYRIGHT

©2023AndkjærandIshøi.Thisisanopenaccessarticledistributedunderthetermsofthe CreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(CCBY) Theuse,distributionorreproductioninother forumsispermitted,providedtheoriginal author(s)andthecopyrightowner(s)are creditedandthattheoriginalpublicationinthis journaliscited,inaccordancewithaccepted academicpractice.Nouse,distributionor reproductionispermittedwhichdoesnot complywiththeseterms.

Aloneinthewilderness—Cultural perspectivestotheparticipants ’ motivesandvaluesfrom participatinginadanishreality TV-show SørenAndkjær* andAstridIshøi

DepartmentofSportSciencesandClinicalBiomechanics,ResearchUnitActiveLiving,Universityof SouthernDenmark,Odense,Denmark

ThispaperfocusontheparticipantsintheDanishversionoftherealityTV-show Alone,namedAloneinthewilderness(AIW),andseekstoexplore Whatmotives andvaluesareimportanttotheparticipantsintheTV-show(AIW)andhowcan theshowbeunderstoodasaculturalphenomenon? Thestudyisqualitative withadesignbasedonatriangulationofdifferentmethods:singleinterviews, transcriptsofprogramsandautoethnographicnotes.Theanalysisisinspiredby ahermeneuticapproachapplyinga6-phasedthematicanalysis.Theparticipants motivesandvaluesfromtheirparticipationintheTV-showreflectideasthat mayberelatedtothesoloexperience.Ononehandtheparticipantsare motivatedbythechallengesofbeingaloneinthewildernessandtheyvaluethe possibilityofpersonaldevelopment.Ontheotherhand,theyvaluenatureand simplelifeintheoutdoors,anexperiencethatseemstogrowmoreimportant totheparticipantsastimegoes.AIWisacompetitionandsomeofthe participantsarehighlycompetitiveaimingatwinningtheshow,whichhowever becomeslessimportantduringtheirstayinthewilderness.AIWasacultural phenomenonreflectsideasandvaluesrelatedtoanunderstandingofadventure andtheNordictraditionof friluftsliv (simplelifeintheoutdoors)andcanbe relatedtotheoriesonlatemodernityfocusingonreflectivityandself-identity. Thestudypresentsnewempiricallybasedknowledgeonthemotives,values andexperiencesofpeopleparticipatinginAIWanditpresentsnewtheoretically basedknowledgeonhowthesemotives,valuesandexperiencescanbe understoodaspartofoutdooreducationandrecreationandasacultural phenomenoninlatemodernsociety.

KEYWORDS

outdoors,soloexperience,friluftsliv,adventure,extremesports,realityTV-show,media, culturalanalysis

1.Introduction

TheAmericanrealityTV-showconceptAloneiswellknowninmanywesterncountries andhasbecomeextremelypopularinrecentyears.Denmarkisnoexception.Since2016 five seasonsofaDanishversionoftheTV-show,Aloneinthewilderness(AIW),whichistaking placeinthenorthernNorway,hasbeenshownonthenationalchannel1(DR1)onSaturday eveningsatprimetime.

RealityTVasagenrehasalonghistory(1)buttheAmericanTV-showAloneisarather newconcept,buildingonaseriesofrealityshowsthattakeplaceinnaturallandscapes.Inthe

conceptAloneagroupofcarefullycasted,butotherwise “ordinary” people,areplacedaloneinthewilderness.Theirchallengeisto manageandsurviveusingalimitedamountofsurvival equipment.Exceptformedicalcheck-ins,theparticipantsare isolatedfromeachotherandallotherhumans.Theymustdeal withinclementweather,hunger,andtheirownsolitude,withthe aimofstayingoutlongerthantheircompetitors,whichthey knownothingaboutwhilestayinginthewilderness.Theyhave anemergencyphonetocallforhelpanda “tapout” buttonto pushiftheywanttobebroughtbacktocivilization.

Theparticipantsusevideo-recordtoself-documenttheir experiencesinsolitude.Fromthelargeamountofmaterial gatheredtheproductioncompanychoosesthemostinteresting partsandcreatesaseriesofaudiencefriendlyepisodes.The participantsarecarefullycastedtoensuredynamic,excitement andemotionsineachepisode,andtheyareshownindifferent, oftencritical,andemotionalsituations.Theepisodesoften contrasttheparticipants’ approachestosurvivalandeachepisode usuallyendswithoneoftheparticipantsdecidingtotapoutand returnhome(2).

Theparticipantsareisolatedfromtheirfriendsandfamilies, theyarebeingexposedtoextremeconditionsinthewilderness, andtheyarebeingexposedtoalargeaudience,dependingon theproducerteamtopresenttheminareasonablepositiveway. IntheDanishTV-showAIWthereisnobigprice,andthe winnerprimarilygetstheexperienceofparticipatingandthe fameofwinning.

Beingaloneinnaturehasfascinatedpeopleformanyyearsand inmanyways,andthereseemstobeanattractionandpower relatedtothesoloexperience(3).IntheTV-showAIWthesolo experiencebecomesamainstreamphenomenon,producedby commercialproductionteams,andbeinggloballyexposed via modernmassmedia.Soloexperiencesthusarebroughtinto people’sliving-roomsintheformofaninternationalconceptof realityTV-shows,andtheparticipantsbecomecelebrities.Itcan bementionedthatinFebruary2020theDanishTV-showAIW wasthe7.mostviewedTVprograminDenmark(https://mir.dk/ 2020/03/10/alle-snakker-seertal/)andin2019the finaleofAIW wasseenby862.000viewersputtingitontop3ofthemost viewedTVprogramsinDenmarkatthattime(https://www.dr. dk/om-dr/nyheder/ugens-tv-top-10-vi-var-vilde-med-vildmarken). TheAmericanrealityconcepthasbeenexportedtomanydifferent countriesandmillionsofpeoplewatchtheTV-show,followingthe participantsanddiscussinghowtheycopewithbeingaloneinthe wildernessandwhowillwin?Thenotionoftheuntouchednatural landscapeincombinationwiththeextremesituation beingalone inthewilderness togetherwiththeelementofcompetitionseems toholdagreatpoweroffascination.LikeotherrealityTV-shows,it isgoodentertainmentasitoffersthepossibilityofpersonal identificationwithrealcharacters(4).

TheparticipantsinAIWvoluntarilychoosetoparticipatein theproductionofarealityTV-showthatforaperiodradically changestheirlives.WithafocusontheparticipantsinAIWwe finditinterestingtoexplorewhypeoplewanttoparticipatein theTV-show exposingthemselvestoextremechallengesandto avastandbroadaudience.Inthispaperweaimtoquestionand

understand: Whatmotivesandvaluesareimportanttothe participantsintheTV-show(AIW)andhowcantheshowbe understoodasaculturalphenomenon? Thesequestionsare interesting,astheTV-show,likeotherculturalphenomena,tells usaboutsocietyandculture(5).Takingacloserlookatthe programandgettingadeeperunderstandingofAIWmight pointtoandperhapschallengetaken-for-grantedunderstandings inourownculture.Challengingandgaininggreaterknowledge oftheseunderstandingsmaybeseenasthefoundationor first steptowardschange,e.g.,accordingtothewaypeople understandandusemediaandnature.

First,weintroducethebackgroundpointingtodifferent traditions,trends, and culturesinoutdooreducationand recreationwithareferencetotheoriesonlatemodernity.After havinglinedupthematerialsandmethodsusedinthestudy resultsarepresentedfollowedbyadiscussionwithreferenceto differenttraditions,trends,andculturesinoutdooreducation andrecreation,anddrawingonGiddenstheoriesonlate modernity.Thepaperisroundedoffwithaconclusionand reflectionsonpossibleimplications.

2.Background

Inthissectiontheambitionistopresentthebackgroundfor studyingAIWasaculturalphenomenon.AIWisbasicallyabout beingaloneinnatureandthusthestartingpointisliteratureon soloexperiences.Afterthatwepresentdifferenttraditions, trends,andculturesinoutdooreducationandrecreationwitha specificfocusonadventureandfriluftsliv,astwoprominent categoriesrelevanttounderstandmotivesandvaluesinAIW. Theoriesonlatemodernityarepresentedtounderstandand explainAIWasaculturalphenomenonfocusingonthediversity anddevelopmentinoutdooreducationandrecreationaspartof modernsociety

2.1.Thesoloexperience

AIWbasicallyisaboutbeingaloneinnature,andasacultural phenomenonitcanberelatedtothesoloexperience.Inliterature we findnumerousexamplesofthefascinationandpowerrelatedto beingaloneinthewilderness,oftenreferredtoasasoloexperience. OnegoodexampleisHenryDavidThoureau,livingalonefortwo yearsinthewoodsnearWaldenPondinConcord,Massachusetts, whopresentedphilosophicalreflectionsontherelationship between “ man ” andnatureandarguedforthevalueofasimple lifeinnature(6).TheNorwegianpolarexplorerFridtjofNansen, asanearlyambassadorfortheNordicconceptof friluftsliv, explicitlyadvocatedforthevalueofbeingaloneinnatureasan indispensableelementinyoungpeople’scharacterbuilding includingacritiqueofmoderncitylife(7).BjørnTordsson,a contemporaryNordicpedagogicphilosopher,describedthecore offriluftslivandsimplelifeintheoutdoorsasvaluableexistential experienceswhich dueto nature’sopenindictment createsan opportunitytomakemeaningfortheindividual(8).Knappand

Smith(3)investigatedthebackgroundtosolotripspointingto indigenouspeople,monks,andhermits,andtosolotripsasrites ofpassagefacilitatingaspecialrelationtoanimalsandthe naturalworldofteninvolvingspiritualexperiences.

Soloexperiencesareusedintherapeuticcontextswithdifferent groups,forexamplebywomenwiththeaimofpersonalgrowth(9), orineducationalcontextsasapedagogicalmethodtobuildup youngpeople’sself-awareness(10, 11).Quiteafewstudiespoint totheimportanceofparticipantsvolunteeringtodoasolo,the pre-solomindsetandtothefacilitationprocessandtheroleof theinstructor(10–13).

Personaldevelopmentandtherelationtonatureseemstobe closelyrelatedtothesoloexperienceandAIWmaybeseenasa modernTV-showthatbuildsonthehistoryandtraditionofthe soloexperiencebutstagedasarealityTV-show.TheTV-show followsthecharacteristicsofrealityshows(4),e.g.,witha particularchallengetotheparticipantsastohowtheyperform andmanagedifferentroles(2).Followingtheoverallresearch questioninthispaper,wewillnotincludetheaspectsofmedia, performance,ortheparticipantsdifferentroles.

2.2.Differenttraditions,trends,andcultures

Aimingatunderstandingmotives,values,andthefascination oftherealityTV-showAIWitseemsrelevanttoinvestigateand furtherdiscussdifferenttraditions,trends,andculturesin outdooreducationandrecreation,e.g.,adventureandfriluftsliv.

TheconceptofAdventureisgenerallyunderstoodas challengingsituationsinnaturallandscapesincludingrisk, uncertainty,realconsequences,andademandforanactive personaleffortfromtheparticipants(14–18).Challengeisused pedagogicallyinaneducationalortherapeuticcontextwithan expectationtoachievepersonaldevelopmentleadingtofor example,increasedself-efficacy,self-awareness,orresilience.The notion,althoughcriticized(19–21),isthatbeingexposedto challenge,onewilllearnaboutphysicalandmentallimitsand capacitiesandthatthisinevitablywillleadtopersonal development.

AnotherprominenttraditionisfoundintheNordictradition offriluftsliv(19, 22–24).Herethefocusisonsimpleliving, identificationwithnatureandreflectionsonhuman-nature relations.Thevaluesofsimplelifeinnatureaccordingtothe Nordictraditionoffriluftslivarebasiclifeinpreferablyunspoiled nature,plentifuloftime,managinglifewithsimplemeans.Ina pedagogiccontext,friluftslivandsimplelifeinnatureisoften connectedtodemocraticvalues,deepreflections,environmental awareness,andacloserelationtotraditionandaspecialplace (19, 24, 25).

Adventureisoverallunderstoodasaglobalconceptwithin outdooreducationandrecreationwithrootsinUSA,GB, Australia,andNewZealand.Friluftslivontheotherhandis understoodasaNordicconceptwhichrelatestoaspecialhistory andspecialvalues,buttodayseemstobespreadingbeyondthe Nordiccountries.Thetraditionofadventure,however,isnota straightforwardandwell-definedconceptwithstudiespointingto

differentcountrieshavingdistinctadventurecultures(18).The samecanbesaidabouttheNordictraditionoffriluftsliv(19, 22, 23)pointingtothediversityandcomplexitywithinOutdoor EducationandRecreationwithmoretrendsandvalues.

2.3.AIWasaculturalphenomenon

TheTV-showAloneisunderstoodasaculturalphenomenon thatmighttellusabouthumanmotives,habits,patternsof behaviorandvaluesrelatedtonatureandsociety.TheTV-show isglobalandreflectsdifferenttrends,whichmakesitan interestingandcomplex,newculturalphenomenon.Despiteits globaldistributionandimmensepopularity,verylittlehasbeen investigatedintermsofitsmeaningtopeopleandtherelationto natureandtosociety.

WithinOutdoorEducationandRecreation,moreconceptsand culturaltrendscanbeidentifiedwhichseemtoreflectgeographical andculturaldiversityaswellashistoricaldevelopment.Culturein thiscontextisunderstoodashabits,patternsofbehavioraswellas valuesandmotivesforbeingactiveinnaturallandscapes.Within thelast20yearssomestudieshavebeenpublishedonthe culturalaspectsofOutdoorEducationandRecreation(18, 19, 26–29).OnonehandtheypointtothesignificanceofOutdoor EducationandRecreationtosocietyandthewaysinwhich traditionsandprogramsreflectgeneralvaluesandtrendsin society.Ontheotherhand,thestudiespointtosocialand culturaldiversitywithinOutdoorEducationandRecreationwith moretraditions,trendsandculturesbeingpromotedatdifferent timesanddifferentplaces.

Theoriesonlatemodernity(30, 31)havebeenusedto understandandexplainthedevelopmentanddiversitywithin OutdoorEducationandRecreationinmodernsociety.Giddens andothersocialtheorists’ pointstomodernsocietybeinga continuationofmoderninstitutionaltransitionsandcultural developments.Giddensarguethatthemodernityof contemporarysocietyisadeveloped,radicalized, “late” modernitywhichtendtobeself-referring,insteadofbeing definedinoppositiontotraditionalism,asinclassicalmodernity. Modernsocietiesaredetraditionalizedleadingtoenhanced reflexivity,bothatthelevelofindividualsandatthelevelof institutions.Inthepost-traditionalorderself-identityisreflexive andpeopleareincreasinglyfreetochoosewhattheywanttodo andwhotheywanttobeleadingtoanincreasedfocuson lifestyles.Peoplethusneedtocreate,maintainandreviseasetof biographicalnarratives,socialrolesandlifestyleswhichcanbe seenindifferentaspectsofmodernlifee.g.,intheirchoicesof outdooractivitiesandmaybealsointheirchoicetoparticipatein realityTV-shows.

Theoriesonlatemodernity,e.g.,Giddensperspectivesand focusonreflexivityandself-identity(30, 31),areoftenusedto understandandexplainmotivesandvaluesinadventureand extremesports(18, 19, 27, 32, 33)inasociologicalandcultural perspective.

InthispaperthefocusisontheDanishversionoftheTV-show Aloneinthewilderness(AIW),questioningtheparticipants

experiencesinrelationtotheirparticipationinAIWtryingto understandtheirmotivesandvaluesandwhytheychoseto participateintheproductionofarealityTV-showthatfora periodradicallychangestheirlives.Bydoingthisweintendto getadeeperunderstandingoftheinherentvaluesandcultural meaningsofAIWasamodernculturalphenomenon.

3.Materialsandmethods

Thisqualitativestudyintendstoexamine,identifyanddiscuss motivesandexperiencesamongaparticulargroupofpeople,and canbeseenasanexplorativecasestudy(34

36)intendingto producenewknowledgeaboutaknownphenomenon.The designaimstofacilitatetriangulationinvolvingthreedifferent methodsandsourcesofempiricalmaterialfromAIW:(1) Qualitativesingleinterviews(37)withtwoparticipantsfrom season3;(2)Transcriptsofprogramsfromseason1and2;and (3)Autoethnographicnotes(38

40)fromaparticipantfrom season2(co-author).

Theempiricalmaterial(see Table1)coversseason1–3,which are,ifnotidentical,comparableintermsofstructure,episodes, participants,andlocation.Thetworespondents(R1&R2)inthe singleinterviews,thetranscriptprograms(P1–P7)andtheautoethnographer(AI)wereselectedtohaveabroadmaterial representingdifferentseasonsanddifferentparticipantsinterms ofgender,age,andexperiencewithoutdooractivities.The empiricaldatacanbecriticizedforcontainingdifferentamounts ofdatafromthedifferentseasonsandforabiasinrelationto genderdistribution(onlymenintranscripts).Thetotalamount ofempiricalmaterial,however,reflectsareasonablebreadthin relationtobothgenderandthedifferentseasonsoftheTV-show.

Thetwointerviewsrangedfrom60to80mininlengthand wereaudiorecordedtoensuretheaccuraterepresentationof participants’ responses.Thesemi-structuredinterviews encouragedthedevelopmentandelucidationofresponsesto understandparticipants’ motivesandexperiences(41).The interviewsweretranscribedverbatimbytheresearchersbefore analysis.

Transcriptsfromtheprogramsfocusonthespokenlanguage andnotonnonverbalactionsorappearances,asthepurposewas tounderstandmotivesandexperiencesamongtheparticipants.

Analyticallyitisimportanttorecognizethattheprograms representaneditedversionofaninterpretedreality.First,the participantschosewhattorecord,thentheproduction-company selectswhichrecordingstoincludeintheTV-show,and finally, thematerialisbeingsubjecttointerpretations.

Theautoethnographicnotesaremadebytheco-author(AI). Thenoteswerewrittendownshortlyaftertheparticipationin AIW,toremembertheexperiencebutwasnotintendedtobe involvedinscientificstudies,whichincreasesthecredibilityof thematerial(42).

Thetriangulationandthethreedifferentmethodsandsources ofempiricalmaterialinvolvedarechosenasitallowsforabroad andthoroughinsightsintotheparticipants’ motivesand experiencesinrelationtotheirparticipationinAIW. Triangulationinvolvingdifferentmethodsandempiricalmaterial wasalsochosentoavoidpossibleadverseimplicationsofa researcheranalyzingownautoethnographicdata.

Theanalysisisinformedandinspiredbyahermeneutic approach(43, 44)aimingtointerpretateandformadeeper understandingoftheparticipantsmotives,experiences,and valuesfocusingonboththeindividualpartsandtheentire material.Thehermeneuticapproachalsoincludesaspecial emphasisonthroughoutthestudytocriticallyquestionown conjecturesandpreconceptions.Thisincombinationwiththe triangulationofmethodsseemshighlyrelevantaccordingtothe researchquestionstoensurethestudy`svalidityandreliability.

Tofollowarelevantstructureandprocessintheanalytical workandtofacilitatethehermeneuticinterpretationthe empiricalmaterialisinterrogatedusingthe6-phasedthematic analysis(45, 46):(1)familiarizingwithdata;(2)generatinginitial codes;(3)searchingforthemes;(4)reviewingthemes;(5) defining andnaming themes; (6)producingthepaper.The analysisfocusesonandreflectstheresearchquestions,while beingopentothepossibilityofunforeseenthemesemerging.

Theempiricalmaterialwasinductivelycodedbythe researchers(47)withthetwoqualitiveinterviewsinitiallycoded andgivenpriority,astheywereexpectedtoprovidethemost comprehensiveempiricalmaterialwiththegreatestdepth.Inthe nextstepthetwoothersourcesofempiricalmaterialwere broughtintotheanalysistoqualifythe findings.Intheanalyzing processweaimedatidentifyingthemesbutalsotryingtoassess theimportanceofthedifferentthemesandtheparticipants’

TABLE1Overviewoftheempiricalmaterial.

prioritiesinrelationtothethemes.Codingandthemesidentified werediscussedinseveralroundsandverifiedina finaldiscussion bythetworesearcherswithreferencetotheentireempirical materialandwithacriticalperspectivetoownpresumptionsand conjectures.Inadditiontothisthe findingswerepeerreviewed bypresentinganddiscussingthemwithtwointernational colleagues(35).Theaccuracyofquotesandinterpretationsof participants’ responseswereverifiedbysendingeachrespondent (R1&R2)adraftcopyofthepaperfortheirreviewand approval(48).

4.Ethics

ThetranscriptsoftheselectedseasonsfromtheTV-show providesnoethicalconsiderations.Regardingthequalitative interviews,theseareanonymized,andtheresearchershave informedconsentfromtherespondents.

Thestudyanditsdata-managementprocedureswereethically approvedbyLegalServices,SDU,RIO(approvalnumber11.413). AlldataismanagedinaccordancewiththeGDPRregulations andarestoredonasecureserveratUniversityofSouthern Denmark.

Theresearchersrepresentnoconflictsofinterestinrelationto thestudy.

5.Results

Theanalysispointstoavarietyofmotivesandimportant experienceslinkedtotheparticipants’ participationintheTVshowAIW,whichoverallseemtoreflectideasandvaluesrelated tothesoloexperience.Theparticipantsaregenerallymotivated bythechallengesofbeingaloneinthewildernessandtheyvalue thepossibilityofpersonaldevelopmentaswellastheclose relationtonature.Throughthethematicanalysisthreerather broadandrecurringthemesemergedfromthedata:(1)challenge andpersonaldevelopment;(2)natureandsimplelifeinthe outdoors;and(3)competitionandwinning.Thethemesreflect theparticipants’ overallmotivesforparticipationandtheir importantexperiencesfromthetimespentaloneinthewilderness.

5.1.Challengeandpersonaldevelopment

The firsttheme, “challengeandpersonaldevelopment” ,seems tobethemostimportantmotivefortheparticipants.Challenges bothphysicallyandmentallyaregenerallyunderstoodaspositive andasaveryimportantpartoftheexperience.Facingchallenges canbelinkedtotheparticipants’ wishtotesttheircapacitiesand thusmeetexpectationsfromthemselvesandothers.Thegeneral understandingamongtheparticipantsisthatmeetingchallenges leadtopersonaldevelopment.Abetterunderstandingofoneself andone’sownmentalandphysicalcapacityandboundariesis seenasthecoreofpersonaldevelopment.Theparticipants

generallyrecognizetheirparticipationasanindividualand,to someextent,aselfishact.

TheparticipationinAIWrepresentsaseriesofveryconcrete physicalandmentalchallengestotheparticipants.Thephysical challengesincludehavingtheskillstomanagethesituation,such asmake fire,buildashelter,andprovidefoodtosurviveinthe wilderness.Perhapsevenmoreimportantisthementalchallenge ofbeingalone,havingtodealwithsolitudeandone’ sown thoughts,missingfriendsandfamilyandcopingwithhunger andfearinanuncertainandextremewildernesssituation.The uncertaintycombinedwiththerealconsequencesoffailingisan importantpartoftheexperienceofchallenges:

“Outhere,everythingbecomesalittlemoreextreme,becausethe consequencesofsucceedingandfailingarealotgreaterthan usual.” (P1).

Mostoftheparticipantsseetheirparticipationasakindoftest, wheretheygettheopportunitytoseekand findtheirownphysical andmentalboundaries.Theunderstandingisthatfacingchallenges cantellthemiftheircapabilities,skills,andmentalstrengtharein linewiththeirownself-understandingandself-image:

“Itwasalsoakindofstudyintomyselfandmyownskills.A studyintowhatyoucontainasahumanbeing,whatone reallycanandcannotdo,butespeciallywhatyoucandothat youdon`tthink,youcando.So,thethingabouttesting boundarieswasalsoaratherimportantfactorinwantingto participate.” (R2).

Theparticipantsgenerallyunderstandthemselvesasrather skilledoutdoorpersonsandhavehighexpectationstotheirown capabilities.Quiteafewofthememphasizethattheir expectationstothemselvesandtheirunderstandingsoftheirown competenciesareimportantpartsoftheirmotivesforparticipation:

“Themostimportantthingformeistogetoutthereandsee,ifI canstilldoallthethings,Ioncecould.” (P2).

“Butingeneral,beingallowedtochallengemyselftothatextent, becauseIwasnaturallybornwiththeabilitytobevery structuredandsystematic,soIspendaheckofalotoftime planningthingswhenIneedsomethingandamtherefore rarelypressured.” (R1).

Theexperienceofbeingphysicallyandmentallychallengedis closelylinkedtoanotionofpersonaldevelopment,andthe participantsobviouslyhaveanexpectationthatexperiencing challengeswillleadtopersonaldevelopment.Thisisavery crucialelementintheirmotivesforparticipationandan importantexperienceaftertheTV-showmentionedbymostof theparticipants:

“… thechallengeIwanttoovercomethemostandbecomegood atistobefamiliarwithmyownmind.Forme,thisiswhatitis allabout itisthe fightagainstmyself.” (P3).

Personaldevelopmentisunderstoodasaprocess,wherethe challengingsituationshelptheparticipantsexperienceandpush theirownphysicalandmentalboundaries,whichhelpthemto getabetterunderstandingofthemselves:

“Ihavesignedup,becauseIlikethechallengeofbeingmyself andthechallengeofbeing ‘manvs.wild’,right?( )thatyou tryyourselfout,youtestyourlimits:whatcanIreallydo? Andyoupushthoselimitsandit’sanenormouslypositive experience,thatyouthink,Icanonlydothisandthenyougo alittlefurther…” (P3).

Thepersonaldevelopmentiscloselylinkedtotheparticipants’ reflectionsonthemselves,ontheirskillsandphysicalandmental capabilities,theirrelationstoothersandtheirlifeingeneral.The personaldevelopment,however,seemspredominantlyrelatedto thementalperspectivesofthechallenges,meaning understanding,expanding,oracceptingone’sownmental capacitiesandlimits.Forsomeoftheparticipantsthese reflectionsareverypositiveandimportant:

“Idon’tthinkthatIasaperson[am]adifferenthumanbeing thanbeforemyparticipation,butIamamuchmoreconscious humanbeing.AwareofmystrengthsandweaknessesandwhatI wantwiththemandhowIwanttousemyselfasatool,soin thatwayithasdefinitelychangedme…” (R1).

Theparticipantsgenerallyareawarethattheirparticipationin AIWisaratherindividualisticproject.Theirmotivesfor participationarecenteredaroundthemselves,andtheyseemto beopenandreflectiveaboutthisandtoaccepttheselfishnessof theprojectaswellasthepossibleconsequencesfortheirfamilies:

“Thereisonedominantpartofit,itisapersonalchallengebeing allowedtodosuchanextremeandwildthingandalittlebit selfish,togooutallaloneandthenhavetomanageyourself, andthentherestoftheworldandDenmarkandyour childrentoo( )theyhavetofendforthemselves.” (R1).

“Itisverymuchadreamcometrue.ThatIcanrunaroundand playRamboformyselfoutthereinnature,but itisan enormouslyselfishacttoleaveone’sfamilyinordertorealize myself.It’sincrediblyselfish.” (P5)

Theparticipants,however,alsovaluenatureandsimplelifein theoutdoors,andthisexperienceseemstogrowmoreimportantto theparticipantsastimegoes.

5.2.Natureandsimplelifeintheoutdoors

Beinginnatureandlivingasimplelifeintheoutdoorsis importanttotheparticipants,asitaffectsthememotionally, mentallyandmakesthemexperiencepeace.Someofthe participantsare,duetothetimeinsolitudeinthewilderness,

inspiredtomoreexistentialreflectionsontheirchildhoodand theirdailylife.

Theparticipantsenjoyasimplelifeintheoutdoorsandthe basicandsimpletasksnecessarytoliveandthrive,suchas making fireandbuildingashelter:

“Itisimportanttohavepeaceinnatureandinyoursoulwhen youareoutthere,inordertobeabletoplanandexecuteyour thingsinthebestpossibleway,sothatyougettheshelter,sothat yougetthefoodyouneedandsothatyouenjoybeingthere becausethat’swhatit’sreallyabout.” (P4).

“Ireallywantedtotestmyownlimitsand findoutwhatit wouldbeliketobealoneforsolong.( )Aswellastryingto createalifeandaneverydaylifeinthemiddleofnowhereall alone.( )AndthenIthinkitwasveryinterestingthatIhad tomanagebymyselflivinginandbynature.” (AI).

Theparticipantsvaluetheexperiencesofjustbeinginnature, andnatureandlandscapeseemstoaffecttheiremotionsin differentways.Primarilynatureandlandscapehelpthem experiencehumilityandrespect,butitalsoaffectsthemmentally andmakesthemexperiencejoyandpeace.Theyexperience natureandlandscapeasbothbeautifulandverypowerful, leavingthemwithafeelingofbeingasmallandfragilepartof nature:

“Natureandtheoverwhelminglandscape,certainlyhelp creatingthisatmosphere.Thishugelake,thehugemountains, andthosevastexpanses.Youjustsitthereandacknowledge thatyouaretiny,andyouarehereatthemercyofnature, andyouonlygetwhatnaturethinksyoudeserve,insome way.Thereisnogivingatthedoorsandthereareno shortcuts.” (R2).

Beinginnatureforalongtimeaffectstheirlevelofstressand theirmentalhealth,andsomeoftheparticipantsmentionthatthey usenaturethiswayintheirdailylife:

“Naturecanoffersomethingthat( )indoorscannot.Itgives anotherkindofpeaceofmindforme,( )abetter foundationforreflecting(…)andbeingabletositandlook outattheweather,onthewater,inthe fire,youcansuddenly dothatformanyhoursandthenstillthinkyouaredoing something.” (R1).

Someoftheparticipants,whilebeingaloneinthewilderness, seemtoexperienceaparticularconnectiontotheplace,which makesthemthinkoftheirchildhoodwheretheyhadaspecial relationtonature.Theseexperiencesleadtomoreexistentialistic reflectionspointingtoamoreexistentialistcohesionwithnature andlandscape:

“Forme,naturemeansaplaceIbelongto.” (P5),

“NaturehasbeenmysanctuarysinceIwasyoung.Istarted runningoutintonature,whenIneededtobealone,andit hasgivenmeasenseofsecurityinnature…” (P1).

Theexperiencesaloneinthewildernessmaketheparticipants reflectonsimplelifeinnatureasacontrasttotheirdailylifeboth accordingtosocialrelations,time,andmateriality.Basiclifealone innaturewithplentyoftimeandonlyfewmaterialthingsseemto bringforthratherdeepreflectionsontheirdailylifeandlifevalues. Theparticipantsappreciatethesimplelifeandemphasizethetime openforreflections,thecalmnessandthevalueofbasicoutdoor activitiesgivingnewperspectivestotheirdailylifeandtheirlife values:

“Ithinkitevokessomethoughtsinusabouttruevalues,andit’ s abitbacktobasic,it’slike,awaywiththephone,nowlet’ ssee eachother,andyoucanlivesimpler,youcanappreciatesome thingsbybeingprimitive.Wedonotneedtohavetwoboats ortwocarsoraholidayhomeineachpartofthecountry.” (R2).

So,Ididn’tforasecondmissallthecommunicationoptionswe havetoday.Purelymaterialistically,IfeltIhadeverythingI needed!” (AI)

Thereflectionsonasimplerlifewithlessfocusonmaterialism arepositiveandvaluableandsomeoftheparticipantsmentionthat theywanttheseexperiencesandreflectionstocontinueaftertheir stayinthewilderness.Duetotheirsolotime,someofthe participantswanttomakeradicalchangesintheirdailylife,and theexperiencesandreflectionsgivebasisforbothself-criticism andtoakindofcriticismtomodernsocietyandculture:

“Andthatsituationtaughtmealotofthings,partlyinrelation tothinkingcarefullyandalsothinkingahead[about environmentalmatters].” (R1).

“Iamfascinatedbythefaiththatourancestorshadhereinthe northandtheapproachtheyhadtolivinginandwithnature. (…)Thisbasicideaoftakingthingsbacktoasimplerlevel,I surecantakethatwithme.” (P6).

Thereflectionsonsimplelifeintheoutdoorsascontrastto dailymodernlifeandthereflectionsonlifevalues,seemtobe mostprominentaspartoftheparticipants’ reflectionsafterthey havereturnedhome.

5.3.Competitionandwinning

CompetitionisacentralpartoftheTVconceptAIW,andthe participantwhomanagestostayaloneinthewildernessforthe longesttimewinstheshow.InAIWthewinnerdoesnotwina lotofmoney,asintheoriginalUS-versionoftheTV-show wherethereisapriceofhalfamillionUSdollars.Instead,the winnergainsfameandrecognition,whichinvolvesbecominga

knownpersonandmaybebeingabletoexploitthefame commercially.

Mostoftheparticipantsclearlyexpressthatthecompetitionis importanttothem,andthattheyarewellprepared,dedicatedand thattheybelievetheywillwintheTV-show:

"IreallythinkIcanwinthis.Ihavegoneintoitwithavery positiveattitude,andIfeelIhavecontrolofmygearandI havecontrolofmyself.AndIwouldalmostgosofarastosay Iwin.” (P7).

"Iamacompetitiveperson.Iwantedto yesparticipateinthis competitionandIreallywantedtowinit,Ireallydid.” (AI)

Mostoftheparticipantsmentiontheelementofcompetitionas averyimportantpartoftheirmotivationtoapplyforAIW,and theygenerallyhavehighexpectationstotheirperformanceand chancestowin.Itseems,however,thattheelementof competitionbecomeslessimportantovertime,whileother values,suchaschallenge,nature,andsimplelife,come significantlymoreintofocus:

“IexperiencedthatIgotupeverydayandwasreallyhappy ( ) AndoneofthebestthingswasthatIthinkalmostfromthe second,Iwasalone,itjustdidnotmatterwiththe competition.Ididn’thavetheurgeIhad,thethreedayswe wereatbootcamp,towin,itjustdisappeared.Istillwantedto staythereforalongtime,butitwasnottowin,itwasno longerthecriterionforsuccess.And itwasjustinsanely liberating andwell,itwasjustnicetofeellikethat.” (AI).

“SowhenIleft,boththegoalofwinningandknowledge, learningandexperiencewereimportant,butifIhadtosay whatismostimportant,Ithink,Ihavetohonestlyadmit,it wasprobablywinning,whichweighedthemost,butquite quickly,Idon’tknowhowlongittakes( )thenitstartsto betheotherpartsthat( )starttoweighmore.” (R1).

6.Discussion

Resultsshowthreemainthemesimportanttotheparticipants’ motivesandexperiencesfromtheirparticipationinAIW:(1) Challengeandpersonaldevelopment,(2)Natureandsimplelife intheoutdoors,and(3)Competitionandwinning.Challenge andpersonaldevelopmentseemtobeanoverallimportant motiveandrepresentvaluableexperiencestotheparticipants. Natureandsimplelifeintheoutdoorsishighlightedbymostof theparticipantstobethemostimportantexperienceespecially aftertheirparticipation.Competitionandwinningseemstobe animportantmotivepriortotheparticipation,butmore participantsexperienceachangeovertimetowardsagreater focusonnatureandsimplelifeintheoutdoors.Thethemescan berelatedtotheliteratureandunderstandingsofsolo experiencesandseemtoreflectdifferenttrendsandvaluesfound

inoutdooreducationandrecreation.Especiallyadventureandthe Nordictraditionoffriluftslivseemtobeprominentfeaturesthat canbeidentifiedintheTV-show.

Inthediscussionthethreemainthemesfromtheresultswillbe discussedinrelationtosoloexperience,differenttraditionsin outdooreducationandrecreationandtotheoriesonlate modernity.

6.1.AIWasasoloexperience

Theparticipantsarealoneinthewildernessforalongerperiod andparticipationinAIWobviouslyisakindofsoloexperience.In thiswayitseemstoreflectthefascinationandpowerrelatedto beingaloneinthewildernessasitisfoundintheliteratureon soloexperiences.Theparticipationisvoluntary,anditincludes anappreciationoftheuntouchedandunspoiledlandscapeasa valueofasimplelifeinnature(6, 7).Italsoseemsobviousthat participatinginAIWindifferentwaysislinkedtoan understandingthatparticipationcanleadtopersonal development(7).Inliteraturethepersonaldevelopmentisoften connectedwithanotionofcharacterbuildingbycopingwith difficultphysicalortechnicalchallengesanddaringtocross personalandmentalboundaries(14–18).InAIW,however,it seemsthatthepersonaldevelopmentispredominantlyassociated withthementalchallengeofbeingaloneforalongerperiod.

Thereareobviousdifferencesbetweenthesoloexperienceasit ispresentedinliteratureandtheTV-showAIW.Thebiggest differencemightbetheentiresetupandorganizationofAIW whichismediadrivenandincludesaproductionteamand broadcasttoanunknownnumberofviewers.Theshow obviouslydoesnothaveanexpliciteducationalortherapeutic purpose,butratherservesacommercialpurposethatliesoutside theparticipants.Thismeansthattheparticipantsknowinglyare inasituationwheretheyononehandarealoneandonthe otherhandwillbecomepubliclyavailabletoalargeraudience.

AIWcanbeunderstoodasanewwayofthinkingand practicingthesoloexperience,whichisnotpedagogicor therapeuticmotivated,butwheretechnologyandmediauseand appearanceisessential(2).Inthissituationtheparticipantsmay haveothermotivesandvaluesforparticipationwhichpointin differentdirectionsinrelationtowell-knownconceptsor culturesofoutdooractivities.

6.2.AIWanddifferenttraditions,trends,and cultures

Theparticipantsmotives,values,andexperiencesfromtheir participationintheTV-showandtheirsoloexperiencepointin differentdirectionsandcanberelatedtodifferenttraditions, trends,andculturesinoutdooreducationandrecreation.

Asoloexperienceischallenginginmanywaysandchallenge andpersonaldevelopmentarecrucialpartsofthemotivesand experiencesimportanttotheparticipantsinAIW.The participantsinAIWaregenerallymotivatedbytherisks,the

uncertainty,andthechallengestheyneedtofacewhilebeing aloneinthewilderness.Theyalsohaveexpectationsthattheir participationmighthaveanimpactaccordingtopersonal developmentandthatitwillaffecttheireverydaylifeina positiveway.Thispointstoadventureasaconcept(14–18),and itcanbearguedthatAIWreproducescentralideasandvalues fromadventurefocusingonrisk,uncertainty,challenge,and personaldevelopment.Theparticipantsarehighlymotivatedby thesevalues,andtheyseetheirparticipationasanindividualistic projectwhichhavecertaincostsfortheirfamilyandothers.The expectationstotheeffectsorsignificanceofthepersonal developmentcanbediscussed(19–21)notleastinrelationtothe long-termeffectsanddurabilityofpossiblechanges.Withinthe frameworkofthisstudy,itisnotpossibletosaywhetherthe participationhasledtopersonaldevelopmentandinanyway haschangedthelivesoftheparticipants.

Theparticipantsare,whilebeingaloneinthewilderness,living arathersimplelifeintheoutdoorsandtheygenerallyvaluenature, landscape,andthebasictasks.Thesimplelifeinnature,the relationtonatureandthereflectionsonlifevaluesareimportant totheparticipantsandseemtoreflectvaluesofsimplelifein naturepointingtotheNordictraditionoffriluftsliv(19, 23, 24) asitislivedandpassedonintheNordiccountries.

Thisappreciationofnatureandthesimplelifeintheoutdoors mayseemlikeaparadoxwithreferencetotheentireset-upand stagingoftheTV-show.Itcouldthusbearguedthat,duetomass media,commercializationandtheelementofcompetition,the proponentsoffriluftsliv,philosopherssuchasNansen,Næss,and Faarlund[seee.g.,(7, 22, 49)],wouldnotapproveofAIWandthey wouldmostlikelynotseeitasareflectionoffriluftslivandsimple lifeinnature.Inthatperspectiveitmayseemparadoxical purposefullyandvoluntarilytoseekthevalueofsimplelifein naturebyparticipatinginaninternationalrealityTV-show instead ofjustgoingoutandliveasimplelifeinnaturewithoutcameras, production-team,audience,andcompetition.Theappreciationof natureandthesimplelifeintheoutdoorsisunderstoodasacentral motiveandvaluerelatedtoparticipationinAIWbutinacultural perspectivethisobviouslypresentsaparadox.

TheelementofcompetitionrepresentsaperspectivetoAIW thatinmanywaysseemdifferentfromtheconceptsofadventure andfriluftsliv.Extremesportsareoftendescribedanddefinedby anumberofcharacteristics,e.g.,thewildernesssetting,the extremeconditions,andtheelementofcompetition(33, 50, 51). Duetothesecharacteristics,obviouslybeingcentralpartsof AIW,itispossibletounderstandAIWinthelightofextreme sportsreproducingcentralelementsthatinasociological perspectivedefineextremesports:theunfamiliarenvironment, theconcreterisks,theuncertainty,andinparticularthe competition(33, 50).

Extreme sports,e.g.,whitewaterkayaking,extremeskiing,or Base-jumping,however,areinliteratureoftendescribedand relatedtoexperiencesofspeed,actionandmorethrillingand sensationalexperiencesandchallenges(33, 50, 51).Thisisvery differentandfarfromtheparticipantsexperiencesinAIWwhere theatmosphereandenergypredominantlyarecharacterizedby calmness,routinesandbyadifferentrelationshiptotime.

Competitionandthevaluesrelatedtoextremesportsseemsto becomelessimportanttotheparticipantsduringtheirtimeinthe wildernessandafterwards.Theobviousattractionandpossibilityof winningthecompetitionseemstofadeandbereplacedbyother valuesrelatedtonature,theprocessandjustbeinginnature.A possibleexplanationmightbethatAIWdoesnotinvolveallthe centralcharacteristicsofextremesports,andespeciallylacksthe experiencesofspeed,action,thrill,andsensationandperhaps evenmoreimportantthatthroughouttheprocessothervalues standoutmoreclearlyandbecomevaluable.

Aimingatunderstandingtheparticipantsmotivesandvalues andespeciallytheprocessoftheirstayinthewildernessandthe changesthatemergeaninterestingreflectionseemsrelevant. Beforetheirparticipationmanyoftheparticipantsarehighly attractedtoandmotivatedbythecompetitionandthepossibility towintheshowaswellastheprospectofpersonaldevelopment thatcanaffecttheiridentityandfutureeverydaylife.However, astheyarealoneinthewildernessandaftertheshowwhenthey reflectontheirparticipation,theyseemtovaluethebasiclife andjustbeinginnature.Thedifferenceandthedevelopment canbeunderstoodasamovementfrommotivespredominantly relatedtoapersonaloutcometowardsmotivesandvalues predominantlyrelatedtotheexperienceorprocessofjustbeing innaturewhichcanberelatedtofriluftslivandsimplelifeinthe outdoors(19, 23, 24).

6.3.AIWandlatemodernity

Giddensperspectivesonlatemodernityhavebeenused intendingtounderstandandexplainmotivesandvaluesin adventureandextremesportsinasociologicalandcultural perspective(18, 27, 32, 33).Itthusseemsrelevanttodiscussthe TV-showAIWandtheparticipant’svaluesandexperiencesin relationtothesetheories.

Giddenscharacterizedlatemodernsocietiesbytheirdynamic andrapidlychangingcharacteraswellasbyanoverallelement ofglobalization(30, 31).TheTV-showAlone,asanAmerican concept,hasbeenexportedtomanycountrieswhichpointsto globalizationasacentralelementreflectinglatemodernity.The elementofcompetitionrelatedtoandunderstoodinthelightof extremesports(33, 50, 51)canbeseenasanotherexampleof thereproductionofglobalmodernvalues,placingemphasison individualityandprogress.

Theprominentelementofchallengeandpersonaldevelopment inAIWrepresentspossibilitiesfortheparticipantstobetestedin extremesituations,andthusachieveanexpectedpersonal development.ImportantissuesinAIWthusaretheparticipants’ processandtheireffortsandchallengestorevise,createand maintaintheirownidentityandlifestyle,whichcanbe understoodasafocusonreflexivityandself-identity(31).The participantsinAIWexperiencethattheirparticipationisan individualprojectandresponsibilitywhichoffersthemapossible waythroughchallengeandpersonaldevelopmenttocreateselfidentity.Theparticipantś motivesforparticipationfocusingon

adventureandchallengethuspointstoAIWasacultural phenomenonreflectingfeaturesandvaluesfromlatemodernity. Notall findings,however,canbeunderstoodorexplainedin thelightofthetheoryoflatemodernity.Natureandsimplelife intheoutdoorspointsinanotherdirectionandmakesitabit morecomplex.Simplelifeinnature,relatedtotheNordic conceptoffriluftsliv(8, 19, 22, 23)reflectsideasandvalueson nature,time,simplicity,socialrelations,andarelationtoplace andlandscapethattosomepointcontrasttheoriesand understandingsoflatemodernity.Thevaluespointtoamore traditionalsocietywheretheprocess,tradition,and craftsmanshiparecentralculturalvalues.Theparticipants obviouslyappreciatethebasicvaluesthatcontrastwiththeir dailyculturalandmodernlife.Simplelifeinnatureincluding deepreflectionsondailylifeandlifevaluescanthusbeseenasa contrast,ormaybeevenanelementofcriticismtomodern society.Thesereflectionsarenotprominentpartsofthe participant’smotivesforparticipationratheraproductofbeing aloneinnatureforalongerperiod.Theparticipantś reflections onlifevalues,however,canbelinkedtoanunderstandingof self-identityandreflexivityleadingtopossiblechangesin lifestyle.Itcanbearguedthatthesereflections arenecessary in latemodernsociety(30, 31).

AIWcanbeunderstoodasacomplexculturalphenomenon thatreflectsvaluesandcomplexitiesfromlatemodernitywitha focusonglobalization,reflexivityandself-identityoftenrelated toanunderstandingofadventureandextremesports(18, 27, 32, 33).AtthesametimeAIWpresentsradicallydifferentideasand values,whichpointtoamoretraditionalviewonhistory, culture,andsociety.Theseideasandvaluesseemtorepresenta potentialcriticismtoeverydaylifeandmodernsocietyasitis foundintheNordicconceptoffriluftsliv(8, 19, 22, 23).

7.Conclusionsandimplications

TheparticipantsinAIWvoluntarilychosetoparticipateinthe productionofarealityTV-showthatforaperiodradicallychanges theirlives.Weinitiallyasked: Whatmotivesandvaluesare importanttotheparticipantsintheTV-show(AIW)andhowcan theshowbeunderstoodasaculturalphenomenon?

ParticipatingintheTV-showAIWcanbeunderstoodasa modernversionofasoloexperiencestagedasamediatedreality TV-show.Thethematicanalysishighlightsthreethemes:(1) challengeandpersonaldevelopment;(2)natureandsimplelife intheoutdoors,and(3)competitionandwinning.Challenge andpersonaldevelopmentseemtobethemostimportantmotive fortheparticipantspriortotheirparticipationinAIW.Nature andsimplelifeintheoutdoorsisimportanttomanyofthe participantsespeciallyasavaluableexperienceaftertheir participation.Thecompetitionandpossiblechanceofwinningis animportantmotivetomanyoftheparticipantspriortotheir participationbutseemstobecomelessimportantasthe participant`slivesinsolitudeunfold.

AIWcanbeunderstoodasanextremepopularcultural medializedandglobalphenomenonthatrelatestodifferent

trendsandtraditionsinsociety,andwhichproducesandreflects centralideasandvaluesinmodernsocietytoday.AIWonone handreflectsandpresentsvaluesrelatedtoanunderstandingof adventurefocusingonchallengeandself-development,andon theotherhandreflectsvaluesonnatureandsimplelifeinthe outdoors,pointingtotheNordictraditionoffriluftsliv.

OverallAIWcanbeseenasaculturalphenomenonthatpoints toandcanbeexplainedbytheoriesoflatemodernity(30, 31).AIW reflectstheradicalchangesinsociallifeinmodernsocietywitha specialperspectivetoglobalization,reflexivity,andself-identity. Atthesametimevaluesrelatedtonatureandsimplelifeinthe outdoorsarebeingproducedandreflected.Thesevaluesseemto contrasttheoriesandunderstandingsoflatemodernitypointing toamorebasiclifestyle,andtheycanbeunderstoodasa potentialcriticismtoeverydaylifeandsociety.TheTV-show AIWthuscanbeunderstoodasacomplexmodernmedialized culturalphenomenonthatpointstovaluesinlatemodernitybut alsoholdsmotivesandvaluesthatpointstootherwaysofliving andotherlifestyles.

ThestudyonAIWpresentsnewknowledgeaboutthe participantsandtheTV-show,whichservesmorepurposes.The studypresentsnewempiricallybasedknowledgeonthedifferent motives,valuesandexperiencesofpeopleparticipatingina popularDanishrealityTV-show.Itpresentsnewtheoretically basedknowledgeonhowthesemotives,valuesandexperiences canbeunderstoodaspartofoutdooreducationandrecreation andasaculturalphenomenoninlatemodernsociety.

Thestudycanbeseenasawaytoapplyacriticalcultural perspectivetoeverydayculturalphenomenasuchasTV-shows andoutdooractivitiesandthusserveasanexampleofhow culturalanalysisandsociologicaltheoriescanbeusedto understandthedeepercomplexitiesofeverydayphenomena,and howthesemayproduceandrepresentdifferentmotives,ideas, andvalues.Thiskindofknowledgeisoftenunder-prioritizedbut maybehighlyrelevantbothinaneducational,sociological,and publichealthcontext.

Thethreeprominentthemespointindifferentdirectionsand seemtoreproduceratherdifferentmotivesandvalues.AIW,as anexampleofaglobalandmedializedrealityTV-show,attracts abigaudienceandmayimpactpeople’sperceptionsand attitudestowardsnature.RealityTV-showslikeAIW,byvirtue oftheirpoweroffascinationandidentification,haveanimpact onpeople’sunderstandingofe.g.,mediaandnature,whichare oftenbasedontaken-for-grantedunderstandingsand expectations.Thestudy,however,doesnotgiveanswerstohow theseideasandvaluesaretransformedtoanaudienceandhow thismayaffectthem.

TherealityTVconceptAloneisarathernewcultural phenomenonanddespiteitsglobaldistributionandimmense popularity,verylittlehasbeeninvestigatedanddocumentedin termsofitsmeaningorsignificancetopeopleandsociety.Due tothepowerofmediaandthegreatpopularityoftheTV-show,

ithasahugepotentialtoinfluenceothers(1, 4).Thereachand fascinationofmodernmediaandtheelementofidentification pointtotheimpactoftheTV-showAIWtobestrong promotingculturalvaluesinsocietywhichcallsforanincreased researchinterestinmodernculturalphenomenasuchasreality TV-showswithafocusonmeaningandsignificance,andwith theuseofdifferentdesignsandmethods.

Dataavailabilitystatement

Theoriginalcontributionspresentedinthestudyareincluded inthearticle/SupplementaryMaterial,furtherinquiriescanbe directedtothecorrespondingauthor.

Ethicsstatement

ThetranscriptsoftheselectedseasonsfromtheTV-show providesnoethicalconsiderations.Regardingthequalitative interviews,theseareanonymized,andtheresearchershave informedconsentfromtherespondents.ThestudyanditsdatamanagementprocedureswereethicallyapprovedbyLegal Services,SDU,RIO(approvalnumber11.413).Alldatais managedinaccordancewiththeGDPRregulationsandare storedonasecureserveronUniversityofSouthernDenmark.

Authorcontributions

Authorsagreetobeaccountableforallaspectsoftheworkin ensuringthatquestionsrelatedtotheaccuracyorintegrityofany partoftheworkareappropriatelyinvestigatedandresolved.All authorscontributedtothearticleandapprovedthesubmitted version

Conflictofinterest

Theauthorsdeclarethattheresearchwasconductedinthe absenceofanycommercialor financialrelationshipsthatcould beconstruedasapotentialconflictofinterest.

Publisher’snote

Allclaimsexpressedinthisarticlearesolelythoseofthe authorsanddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseoftheiraffiliated organizations,orthoseofthepublisher,theeditorsandthe reviewers.Anyproductthatmaybeevaluatedinthisarticle,or claimthatmaybemadebyitsmanufacturer,isnotguaranteed orendorsedbythepublisher.

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