URBG 70200 Structure of the Urban Region

Caitlin Chan Final Exam 1. In what ways did Americans plan to acquire natural resources (water, land, natural resources for industry, etc.) required for large-scale metropolitan development? What were the costs and benefits of the unregulated, large-scale, market-driven approach to natural resources? What is the legacy of such an aggressive approach to industrial growth and suburban land development?

Through advancement of transportation technology, it allowed for wealthy Americans to acquire the necessary natural resources in order to build new large scale metropolitan development. In the early development stages, transportation was considered a luxury due to the high expenses needed to support the system therefore only the wealthy had access. These specific groups of people were able to live closer to the center of activity where natural resources were easy to find. This is what caused a disparity between classes and what caused the creation of marginalized groups who could not defend themselves. The suburbs became the home for the poor and marginalized. Early cities became disease-ridden with poor sanitation and an influx of overcrowded residential areas. Improvements in technology further expanded suburban development which played an important role for the metropolitan economy. Later on manufacturing promoted urbanization due to concentrated economic activity. Transporting goods were expensive therefore sources of labor and services had to be able to keep up with the expanding labor pool. Urban growth was directly related with industrial expansion. These towns relied on specific industries like steel in order to keep up with the economy, today many of these towns no longer have these industries therefore the population dropped and the living conditions worsened over time. Many immigrants who entered the U.S. in the nineteenth century ended up in the towns and cities more than as agricultural settlers. Developers, residents and small suburbs all with their different interests resulted in the political fragmentation of the metropolis. Transportation innovations, especially the electric streetcar encouraged suburbanization. For these new metropolitans, major points of focus include downtowns, selected inner-city areas, and favored suburban neighborhoods. This resulted in a lack of investment in inner suburbs which can be seen today. (Cities and Suburbs, ch 2-5) 2. How and why did the United States develop a regional-scale mass transit system in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? What happened to that system, and why, in the twentieth century? Why has regional mass transit since the 1960s, even with federal and state aid, been so difficult to sustain at a high quality in the United States (as contrasted, for instance, with Toronto)? How does failing mass transit affect regions and broader planning goals? What role does race play in transit service quality?

Due to the success of rail lines at the time, the most efficient method of travel was because of its speed and being able to carry large cargo. However once again improved technology made it easier for people to travel through the invention of the automobile. In the United States there are roads and highways that stretch across the entire country. As the years go by people are now able to afford personal vehicles, we see the rate of purchasing cars exponentially increase. Now that more drivers are on the road, this influences cities to build more roads since it is easier and faster for people to get to where they need to go. However congestion rates reached a high

level that became hard to deal with, new environmental studies concluded that the carbon emissions and the pollution were destroying the environment and jeopardizing the health of our ecosystem. Failing mass transit prevents an even distribution of wealth and diversity. Racism is “embedded into the core of power, the economy, culture, and society.” Historian Manning Marable quotes “The result is that Black people have been intentionally sacrificed to feed America’s growth and expansion. The democratic government and free enterprise system are the way they are in order to “maximize Black oppression.” White people have made it hard for non-white people to reach a level of stability in society. Planners failed to keep in mind the impacts on Black communities which resulted in “many Black communities inhospitable for success and economic opportunity.” The federal-aid highway act of 1956 allowed for the expansion of new highways and helped to destroy Black communities. All of the effects are still persistent to this day in many cities. There is a need to reform and advocate for new laws to counter the effects from the past leaders. (Archer) In order to be able to build outside of the city boundaries, it is emphasized that the main controlling body which in this case is seen in Metropolitan Toronto, must be the one to authorize and manage anything related to water, sewage, parks, transportation, land use control, roads, policing, and education. In the greenbelt plan it lacks substantial areas of prime agricultural land. The narrow band will eventually fill up therefore another problem is future plans will cross over the belt, a revision is needed and the main point is to allow an additional 1.2 million acres. Transportation in Toronto was on the verge of building an extensive light rail system however in 2010 a newly elected mayor who valued roads for cars caused the project to be delayed at least two years. Today the light rail is an efficient mode of transportation, accessible to all with stops all over the city. You are able to access airports through the metro rail. (Toronto: Transformations in a City and its Region) In the United States today, known to be democratic and opportunistic for all, “actively supports resource hoarding, typically by affluent white homeowners.” The American political economy unfortunately allows for “soaring wealth inequality, declining social mobility, and persistent racial and ethnic economic divides.” Authors suggest allowing another policy option which is found in London and Toronto where city and county governments merge to create “powerful metropolitan institutions.” It is possible with the help of policy levers to change the system and allow for more locals to have some power in preventing future hoarding. (Varieties of Urbanism) No mass transit also prevents further expansion and interconnectivity within the region. The general public who does not have a personal vehicle will find it harder to travel. This results in overcrowded, resource heavy residential areas with others failing to provide accessibility to basic necessities.

3. Why have highways and roads proved so much more successful than mass transit on a regional scale? What interests (institutions, social groups, etc.) controlled and benefited from highway development, and why does this matter? What role did race play in highway planning, and what is the enduring influence of race on highways today? What can we learn about regional planning success/failure from the history/current reality of highway development in the United States?

Parkway ideals receded as highway engineers designed new urban freeways for growing volumes of motor vehicles. City planners and architects could not implement a plan that encompassed mass transit and sufficient pedestrian space. Engineers were not aware of the

impacts of freeways in “shaping future urban development.” One example is the Bureau of Public Roads Chief Thomas H. MacDonald argued that new freeways would not get rid of housing and it would only affect slums and buildings that will be torn down. In other words, it would help to get rid of slums and thus help solve that problem. MacDonald denied that these new freeways will act as barriers between neighborhoods and will instead preserve links and increase accessibility for local commute. He was focusing on the expansion of freeways rather than improvement of existing road infrastructure specifically in the central area of cities. Many lies were voiced however this influenced more people with political power to push for more freeways. It was not easy to gain support for the idea of adding mass transit, especially since it was mostly privately owned and at the time not seen as a public entity. People were under the impression that to create a great city it relies on a large network of highways and as many cars as possible. (DiMento and Ellis, 73-102) From the 1940s to 1980s due to the expansion of freeways there was a loss of 62% in mass transit ridership and a 160% increase in motor vehicle ownership. There was also a significant increase in traffic accidents and fatalities. As people decide to move and live in the suburbs, downtowns are left to suffer and fend for themselves. The interstate “propelled the growth of automobile ownership, sapped the vitality of central cities, and spurred suburban sprawl, creating the most auto-dependent nation on earth.”

As soon as people can afford a car they will immediately buy one or even two for one household. This has taken a large toll on the health of the environment. Federal funding has also allowed for the vast expansion of the interstate. One benefit is the middle income and working class households have been able to own a home. Ultimately this led to a 198% increase in urban VMT in the United States from 1956 to 1980. (Jones, 108-136) From 1960 to 1980 when transit associations across the United States were created, racism was already embedded in their plans. Majority of the transit system was black and brown city residents. The target audience for congestion relief was largely white suburbanites. The focus was on reaching white comfort and it can still be seen today. The disparities we see are in the amount of amenities, service efficiency, and quality of policing. Bus lines compared to rail lines get way less funding and are poorly managed. Prices are also a major issue which influences riders to use buses. Transit police look for broken windows in transit systems, research shows that most of the people who are arrested on transit are black riders. Social workers will instead use referrals to help those on trains instead of allowing for more arrests. We need to make better choices today in order to create an equitable future for transit. (TransitCenter) We know how difficult it is to successfully complete projects for city planning so imagine how hard it is when applying to regional planning. There are many groups of citizens who are not willing to meet in the middle. It requires political support and government partnership to truly approve of anything meant for the entire region. In most cases people are not aware of the changes and/or reluctant to voice their opinions because they feel they are meaningless.

4. Why has the United States developed a regionally divided housing system? How successful have planning efforts been in reducing social segregation (related to housing and other public services) between poor cities/wealthy suburbs and affluent suburbs/poor suburbs? How do these differences contribute to and encourage the “patchwork metropolis” with enormous differences in race, social mobility, family wealth, K-12 education, and health? Can these divided regions prosper in the long term?

The author emphasizes the importance of class and location as seen in today’s urban centers where the majority are young people and the poor and disadvantaged are pushed to the suburbs. The patchwork metropolis is a metropolitan landscape that is split into areas of tightly clustered zones of concentrated advantage and disadvantage that crisscross cities and suburbs alike. There are four types of metropolitan area, the first type the advantaged creative class recolonizes the urban center while remaining highly concentrated in the suburbs. The second type is when the creative class remains concentrated in the suburbs with more limited movement back to the urban center. The third type is when the entire metropolis is essentially cleaved in two, with the advantaged creative class and the disadvantaged service class occupying entirely separate blocks of territory spanning the urban center and suburbs. The fourth and last type is when the more affluent creative class is found in small self contained clusters surrounded by less advantaged classes. The factors that differentiate which type defines a metro area are proximity to the urban core, proximity to transit, proximity to major universities and other knowledge based institutions, and proximity to natural amenities. (Florida, 121-150) Even with access to the same amenities like the local library, in comparing two communities there is a clear difference in societal values. Children in non-affluent neighborhoods use the internet as entertainment rather than an information superhighway.

People who have low income jobs are faced with more difficulty to travel between work and home. Owning a car is expensive therefore people with low incomes rely on public transit even though it is slow and inaccessible in some parts of the city. “If you live in a neighborhood with high unemployment, your social network will be less valuable in helping you find a job, regardless of how skilled, honest, or hardworking you are.” Large supermarkets avoid low income neighborhoods because they are focused on finding more profitable neighborhoods.

Financial institutions are targeting low income and minority communities for high cost and even predatory products. Fringe banks help to create disadvantaged neighborhoods. It is hard to access top quality healthcare without spending a fortune. The living conditions of low income neighborhoods are a cause for increases in health problems. “Residents of high poverty neighborhoods have fewer social ties.” The added stress and the need for material goods lead to high levels of crime. Without police, residents of disadvantaged neighborhoods choose to use violence to survive. (Dreier, Mollenkopf, and Swanstrom, 59-102) First, America’s blacks are living in blocks that are roughly two-thirds less diverse than the U.S. population overall. Second, micro-segregation processes accounted for only half of all segregation between blacks and whites in the United States. Third, estimates show that small national changes occurred in the 1990s, but this was due to countervailing demographic processes at many different levels of geography. Micro segregation increased outside of metropolitan central cities. There is a need for more research in rising segregation at the fringe and in smaller communities. Lastly, they conclude that Asians and Hispanics are substantially more segregated from blacks than they are from whites. (Parisi, et al., 829-846) These divided regions may not prosper in the long term because there are no physical boundaries between each region. They influence each other in more ways than meets the eye, they rely on networking in order to thrive.

5. In what ways did America plan well for a decentralized, regional-based system of education and culture? Be specific. What positive dimensions have developed from the regional decentralization of cultural and higher-education institutions? What are the drawbacks of

decentralizing educational systems? How have city centers come back as necessary regional cultural and educational resources?

In Denver, the authors conducted a study to determine how the influence of discriminatory policies and social mechanisms has on residential geographies and access to parks. They concluded that there was evidence that major impacts affected access to these amenities.

Denver’s largest and most exclusive parks and parkways were controlled by wealthy white neighborhoods therefore it was seen as something exclusive. Low income people of color are pushed out and cannot access these parks easily. Recommendations include exposing the racist outcomes of current “colorblind policies and initiatives”, pushing to reverse the exclusion of marginalized groups by engaging them in contemporary planning processes, allowing park planners to collaborate with other city departments to counter “the negative impacts of environmental gentrification”, engage in the nonprofit sector to encourage communities to reach out to their elected officials to prioritize part equity, and lastly creatively increase access to parks for marginalized people whether it be introducing linear parks and improving transit and rail access. (Rigolon and Nemeth) In order to create public space it involves learning to work with other groups even with all of the disagreements. Unfortunately today, due to privatization there is limited access to public resources due to one’s background. Places like Las Vegas require new homeowners to appeal to their homeowners’ association in order to build a house according to the law. Public schools in the suburbs rely on the zoning law, so it is not easy for any student to be enrolled. Academic tracking causes students to believe they must stick with their “own people” in order to reach “personal advancement.” There is a lack of equity towards residents who are non-white and low income. The recommendations are to get rid of the boundaries between cities and suburbs, apply tax to everyone, update rezoning rules to open up streets for all, inform gated communities that they too apply to the general public, open public schools to outsiders, reorganize suburbs to help support crime control efforts, fund for public transit improvement projects, support the creation of a democratic system in controlling business improvement districts, and “organize our tax system, our city services, and our regulatory authority to promote an inclusive form of democratic self-government rather than privatization.” (Kruse and Sugrue, 205-220) To address the question in what ways does place and race/ethnicity influence students’ educational opportunities and how the two combined concludes how students and educators feel about their self worth, the authors studied five districts (Grantsville, Belvedere, Clearview, Lakewood, Leesburg) to find answers. The Grantsville school district is stable, predominantly black and latino with concentrated poverty.

The Belvedere public schools are stable, predominantly white and mostly affluent school districts of concentrated privilege. The Clearview school district is racially diverse and stable.

The Lakewood school district is unstable with changing racial demographics and poverty rates.

The Leesburg union school district is unstable with changing racial demographics and poverty rates. The authors found that public school expenditures and finances are not utilized for the students and in some cases they are used for private interests, school curriculum and identities influence students to understand what they are worth rather than encourage all possibilities of their future careers, it is no surprise that race/ethnicity and social class are closely tied to access to educational opportunities, biased political power leads to inequality in school districts, instead of creating programs to help promote cross district cooperation it actually encourages separateness, and lastly diverse school districts like clearview are both indications of

possibilities of success in these types of districts but it also acts as a warning for others about unstable boundaries. (Wells, 22-81) The difference between city universities and state universities involves the different pools of funding provided for students and resources. State universities are part of the city but located in more rural or suburban districts therefore a disconnect emerges which is part of the reason there is a large disparity in the quality of classrooms and the size of each campus. Many of these state universities act as a center that boosts the economic development of the surrounding community. Cities like Buffalo rely on the growth of the university in order to receive more funding and resources to further expand and maintain infrastructure. A major issue in these institutions are the demographic makeup of the students and faculty. Some schools are looked to as poor and undesirable therefore they are underfunded and overlooked. (Bloom, 151-162) Universities are important institutions for cities to have because they act as a vital resource in maintaining the future of the city. The university of Chicago and the Illinois institute of technology both boost Chicago for example by providing “new technologies, research opportunities, global economics and urban dynamics” which can revitalize cities to draw attention of new residents. Public campuses are also important facilities for the residents nearby which adds to the character of the neighborhood. Especially downtown universities which add “vitality and diversity” to the city, many facilities are provided for both visitors and students. Without universities it would be difficult to build a city because they provide plans for real estate, professionals, and chances to partner with other businesses and organizations. (Haar, 149-184) The decentralization of cultural and higher education has allowed for more economic development in different neighborhoods which assists the region as a whole. Resources become more accessible and it draws the attention of new residents. This can also draw the attention of new companies who are looking for students who just graduated.

Local governments will be able to gather and provide more necessary services that will strengthen its city center.

6. How successful has regional growth planning been in the United States? What are the legal and political challenges to growth management? Be specific about the advantages/disadvantages of America’s complex system, including local, state, and federal policy references (and zoning). What do the successful stories of regional planning tell us about the potential of regional planning?

Suburbs were able to expand and grow due to policies at the time which include: federal infrastructure funds for roads and highways and a lack of investment in public transit systems; federal investment in housing mortgages through FHA; federal funding for new, public infrastructure such as sewers and schools; low federal taxes on gasoline; and lack of systematic environmental regulations across regions. The Advisory Commissions on Intergovernmental Relations or ACIR was responsible for the creation of Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) to help urban areas be able to deal with problems related to the rapidly expanding population. The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act or ISTEA was created to involve the public, promote a planning process that reflects a variety of issues including land use planning energy conservation and environmental management, the involvement of major investment studies, the development and implementation of management systems, development of financial plans for implementing the transportation plan and require the transportation plan meets the standards of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. President

Ford signed the Housing and Community Development Act which created the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) program. These projects must follow at least one of the requirements which include: principally benefit low- and moderate-income individuals; eliminate or prevent slums; or remedy urgent threats to the health or safety of the community. (Hanln, Short, and Vicino, 197-220) “Mixed land uses have been operationalized as an anti-sprawl measure and they are considered highly relevant to sustainable urban form.” As the population expands it is necessary to have the convenience of goods and services within each neighborhood. “Neo-Traditional neighborhoods with mixed land uses are likely to promote walkability and thereby offer some health benefits.” This would avoid food deserts as well as improve the health of each neighborhood. The importance of corner stores offer an option to residents to have access to local resources within walking distance, especially those without transit options or have disabilities. “Urban growth managers often promote development in a nodal pattern centered on transit stations, since transit-oriented developments increase transit patronage. More extensive provision of public transit service is associated with fewer choices of driving alone. Transit-supportive development also has air quality benefits. Development of more transit-oriented neighborhoods is likely to enhance neighborhood social ties.” Transit oriented developments not only allows for growth for residential and commercial areas but it also reduces carbon emissions and creates a more sustainable living environment. (Weitz, 394-401) The author argues after world war II the population and employment rate have decreased to a point where there is a need for a policy change to save the northern states.

States are concerned with growth and economic stability. Each state provides their own incentives for people with businesses and locational advantages. American Federalism put states into mutual competition. There is evidence that the government tries to control regional development by keeping it even throughout the nation however “declining cities received proportionately the same as fast growing cities, high unemployment cities the same as low unemployment cities, and low income cities the same as high income cities…” In the 1970s, it was the beginning of a deficit in the trade of manufactured goods. By the mid 1970s, 70 percent of all American products were competing with imports. The United States was becoming more reliant on imports and less competitive on the export market, manufacturing employment began to decline swiftly relative to the service producing occupations. The author concludes states and communities should emphasize on improving business and entrepreneurial activity within state borders and target industries that will expand demands in the market. (Eisenger, 55-82) “Rail transit is a powerful tool to drive development, and to help shape it-but its effectiveness depends heavily on the accompanying approach to land use and urban design.” Effectively utilizing rail transit can open to many opportunities for expanding urban form to outside of the central city however it depends on the selected planning practices. “Designing quality public space is alot about transportation. It means aligning transportation philosophy with the planning approach-making the streets match the buildings.” The mobility within the space is important for how people choose to interact with the public space. In the end if no one can engage with the space, it would not draw any attention therefore the opposite of growth. “Density can also be a powerful tool, but it must be conserved. Its effectiveness is subject to considerations of time, absorption, and critical mass.” Without the representation of the community there will be no way of creating a sustainable future that will benefit all who are involved. (Zimmerman) Successful stories of regional planning give insight that it is possible to create a more unified network.

Instead of pockets of high growth, all towns and cities will be able to join together to promote new businesses, eco-friendly practices, and strive towards a sustainable future.

7. How was the United States a pioneer in creating regional park systems? What state and federal laws have enabled the enhancement/preservation of nature on a regional scale from the 1960s onward? What new design methods were developed to plan for environmental suitability from the 1960s to today? Have the new legal protections and innovative planning efforts helped restore/maintain a high-quality environment and access to nature? What has an environmental justice perspective added to the environmental tradition?

To reach sustainability the author writes that it is essential to “require making environmental planning a political priority, with the goals of curbing sprawling land development, and changing lifestyles and business practices.” In the 19th century to early 20th century, planners focused on the idea of making the city beautiful with conservation and implementing urban parks. Towards the late 20th century, planners focused on regional ecological planning, EISs, pollution control, state level planning, gathering financial incentives, introduction of land trusts and NGOs and today we are focusing on sustainability, the global environment, and urban ecological planning.

We evolved from including green space to benefit the human population to now preserving and supporting ecosystems around the world. The most important global environmental challenges include climate change and global warming but also include for example the loss of crop and soil erosion, extinction of species, our ozone depleting, population growth, and the lack of freshwater. To move the world towards sustainability it is important to move taxes or trading systems to retard climate change, change or end programs that subsidize sprawl and environmental degradation, increase funding for mass transit and renewable energy, give more authority to the EPA, and compel local governments to do better environmental planning.

(Daniels, 187-191) The new legal protections and innovative planning efforts helped to fix and replace deteriorating natural environments. With these necessary improvements we see more participation in these green spaces as well as more visits from different wildlife. The waterfront should be open to the public and be easily accessible. Paul Friedberg was hired by the Gateway Citizens Committee in 1974 to “create a metropolitan open space matrix that extended from the front door to the regional park.” The proposal encompasses conservation of both the natural environment and the potential of human energy. Floyd Bennett Field, previously a dump site, would be the heart of Gateway which would be linked to water, transportation, and forestry.

Gateway had to be inclusive to all, accessible to all transit modes, and had clean running water.

The planners promise to involve individuals, citizens groups, agencies and institutions-public,private, and volunteer” in park planning. There were certain groups with biased interests however in the end Gateway’s neighbors were not displaced and their interests were accounted for. In the first summer Gateway opened, the beach was densely occupied with people from all different backgrounds. (Mogilevich, 136-159) Wetlands play a “vital role in the metropolitan hydrological system.” Not only does it benefit humans but also the overall ecosystem, these are great breeding grounds for many species. Wetlands are a source of fish and shellfish harvests therefore are an important part of the economy. Advocates were able to convince local governments that without regulations to protect wetlands we would not be able to have fresh water, clean air, and food to eat. Hillside development may change surface tension therefore there was a need for regulations for cuts and fills. It opened a new perspective that

building a house requires paying attention to each environmental impact it may involve whether it affects sewage systems or unprecedented weather events. Officials needed engineering and geological surveys before construction in order to prevent disasters. The gains from flood control works were offset by a great increase in floodplain development. By planning man away from flood prone areas it would solve any property damages and would allow nature itself to deal with the excess water. (Rome, 87-118) In the late 1970s, Kettleman City, a small farm worker town, was able to win the fight against the Chemical Waste Management, Inc who was dumping toxic waste without the community’s knowledge or consent. It wasn’t until the early 1980s that residents came to realize what the Chem Waste company was doing in their neighborhood. When there was news that Chem Waste was planning to build a toxic waste incinerator at the dump site, many of the residents began to research and attend the hearing of the plan. A community group, People for Clean Air and Water, was created to find out more about the hidden dump site which eventually led them to sue the company. The result of the lawsuit was successful due to the lack of environmental review in their own language. However this is seen in more communities of color and low income neighborhoods which sparked the debate on environmental racism. The movement for environmental justice focuses on not only cleaning up existing infrastructure and regulations but also to create clean jobs, build a sustainable economy, guarantee safe and affordable housing and achieve racial and social justice. (Cole and Foster, 1-33) 8. Why is regional planning more common and influential in Europe and Canada? What are the legal and political differences, for instance, that encourage effective, long-term regional planning? How do differences in zoning also impact differences in global urban form? Are any of these global examples relevant for planners in the United States?

In Sweden, despite the state’s physical planning efforts, locales have stronger control over land use and other issues in their territory than locales in the remainder of continental Europe, including the rest of Scandinavia, although their autonomy is weaker than that of U.S. locales.

Swedish locales also exercise strong control over development because of the high percentage of urban land and housing that they formally own-percentages that are generally higher than in the United States. In Sweden, like other parts of Europe, local control is mediated by regional planning and is framed by national planning legislation. Swedish cities, like their German counterparts, are covered by hundreds of detailed plans which include graphic and text components that outline and illustrate various rules related to land use, bulk, and density and designate area for public space and infrastructure. (Hirt, 60-89) In order to be able to build outside of the city boundaries, it is emphasized that the main controlling body which in this case is Metropolitan Toronto, must be the one to authorize and manage anything related to water, sewage, parks, transportation, land use control, roads, policing, and education. In the greenbelt plan it lacks substantial areas of prime agricultural land. The narrow band will eventually fill up therefore another problem is future plans will cross over the belt, a revision is needed and the main point is to allow an additional 1.2 million acres. Transportation in Toronto was on the verge of building an extensive light rail system however in 2010 a newly elected mayor who valued roads for cars caused the project to be delayed at least two years. Today the light rail is an efficient mode of transportation, accessible to all with stops all over the city. You are able to access airports through the metro rail. (Relph, 147-165) In the United States today, known to be

democratic and opportunistic for all, “actively supports resource hoarding, typically by affluent white homeowners.” The American political economy unfortunately allows for “soaring wealth inequality, declining social mobility, and persistent racial and ethnic economic divides.” Authors suggest allowing another policy option which is found in London and Toronto where city and county governments merge to create “powerful metropolitan institutions.” It is possible with the help of policy levers to change the system and allow for more locals to have some power in preventing future hoarding. (Freemark, 20-26) 9. How does the structure of the American government shape regional urban affairs? In what ways do issues like race and class shape governance? For instance, how does the defeat of Hochul's Housing Compact reflect the governmental challenges to planning and housing?

Majority of the 20th century, towns surrounding NYC would use racial covenants and restrictive zoning laws to prevent Black Americans and minority groups from being able to live in the suburbs. They were even supported by the federal government through practices such as redlining. The fair housing act of 1968 concluded that it was illegal to have discrimination against race in housing ownership and development but it was still full of loopholes. “As a result, the tighter zoning laws became associated nationally with increased racial segregation, as well as a diminished housing supply.” Hochul’s housing proposal is a good step towards addressing zoning laws that are in need of revision but in suburban New York it is heavily controlled by the local government. “Middle class families, single young professionals and aging residents of all races are being shut out of the housing market.” (Gay) Cities with residential abandonment are usually in low income and often minority race or minority ethnic neighborhoods. Fallen cities are due to the loss of disinvestment and the lack of preparation for the changing times. With the loss of population and housing it influences property abandonment and in the end “jeopardizes the quality of life for remaining residents and businesses.” Causes include the suburbanization of employment and population, federal and state policies encouragement, residents becoming isolated as metropolitan areas remained segregated by race and ethnicity, loss of businesses and residents that lead to loss of property tax and revenue for city government. Corruption is a key factor as well, especially affecting African American households. It is important to learn from these abandoned cities because there are still people who live in these cities and still want to find a place to call home. Every city has the same issues that must be dealt with because eventually the problems will be the same or worse compared to cities who have already fallen.

(Thomas and Dewar, 1-14) To address the affordable housing issues it involves two main methods, one method was to disperse poor households throughout a metropolitan region by providing them with rental vouchers for use in privately owned housing, and the other method was to combine low income and higher income households in the same development. Instead of dispersing poverty into affluent neighborhoods, the other method includes having mixed income to attract higher income households. However there are policy issues, including the isolation of poor and African American populations in most metropolitan areas due to racial and income segregation policies. Criticism towards affordable housing include: racial imbalance and racial transition, crime and dysfunctional families cannot be maintained in assisted-housing developments, influx of poverty, non-desirable neighbors, neighborhoods will become stigmatized and will lead to lower property values. It is important to bring affordable housing to middle class suburbs in order to prevent all of the criticisms. This allows access to jobs and

redistributes poverty to prevent high concentration in one area. (Hamilton and Atkins, 167-199) The defeat of Hochul’s Housing Compact reflects that the government is still divided in how to address challenges to housing and planning. The infrastructure needs to be revised and repaired in order to face the neverending need of more housing and new urban developments.

The system is full of gaps and lack of partnerships which is no surprise that things that seem to be good for the region throughout America are treated as a dream.

10. How can we view intercity services through a regional lens? Why have aviation and airports prospered more than rail in the United States? What would it take to develop a new generation of intercity, regional transport rail?

Intercity services are what allows regional success, from economic development to accessibility to goods and services. Cities are constantly changing and those with many trade options and job opportunities draw lots of potential residents. By combining the influence of many cities it creates a stronger sense of community therefore allowing for more growth throughout the region. Regions that fail to create everlasting connections through their cities see a loss in population and slowly watch their infrastructure disappear. These undesirable living conditions are what drives away people and without people there is no region. “By the mid-1980s, moreover, the airlines had largely exhausted the potential of yield management pricing to increase their load factors and of using larger aircraft to increase the average number of seats available on each flight; and they were increasingly attuned to the importance of service frequency as a competitive advantage. So the number of flights, which had risen just 14 percent from 1970 to 1985, rose nearly four times as rapidly (54 percent) from 1985 to 2000.” In 2000 Congress doubled the grant program for federal aviation programs, this improved air traffic control and helped airport hubs to gather revenue. (Altshuler and Luberoff, 168-175) To develop a new generation of intercity, regional transport rail it would be important to inform the public of what they are misunderstanding about what rail lines can do for them. American cities are not aware of the benefits of passenger rail because they are not exposed to them and are distracted by the newest automobile gadget. (Fisher) Advocate groups and community boards should work together to grab the attention of local legislation to convince state legislation and to the federal government of the need to build rail compared to cars because it can create more benefits in bulk, help to reduce congestion, and allow for more environmentally conscious methods of travel.

References Hanlon, Short, and Vicino, Cities and Suburbs, Ch 2-5: 15-111.

Hanlon, Short, and Vicino, Ch 10, 197-220.

Deborah N. Archer, “Transportation Policy and the Underdevelopment of Black Communities,” https://drive.google.com/file/d/1H2bSlpPMoRMscfQ3LYtsz7wtGBsYAMi_/view?usp=sharing Yonah Freemark, “Varieties of Urbanism,” https://drive.google.com/file/d/110etY3kAfnE45KhDpIaEamg8ZLPKKUMp/view?usp=sharing Joseph DiMento and Cliff Ellis, Changing Lanes: Visions and Histories of Urban Freeways (2012), “Postwar Urban Freeways” Chapter 4, 73-102 https://www.dropbox.com/s/bmgquvxsafcqvjp/Cliff%20Ellis%20Interstate%20Design.pdf?dl=0 David W. Jones, Mass Motorization + Mass Transit (2010), “The Interstate and Pervasive Motorization,” Chapter 5, 108-136: https://www.dropbox.com/s/v1oaugr11k39kcq/Motorization%20and%20Interstates.pdf?dl=0 TransitCenter, The Legacy of Racism in Transit: https://vimeo.com/617199975 Richard Florida, “Patchwork Metropolis,” https://www.dropbox.com/s/3y0urmia8as95kn/Patchwork%20Metropolis.pdf?dl=0 Dreier, Mollenkopf, and Swanstrom, Place Matters, Chapter 3, pages 59-102 Parisi, et. Al, “Multi-Scale Residential Segregation,” Social Forces(2011): https://www.dropbox.com/s/4qn8p0gcpai6kvz/parisi2011_residentialsegregation%20%281%29.p df?dl=0 Alessandro Rigolon and Jeremy Nemeth. (2021).“What Shapes Uneven Access to Urban Amenities”. ACSP. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1QPa8Q8bia4nJMhw-oBaQ2_4sP9HqdIYn/view?usp=sharing Kevin Kruse and Thomas Sugrue, The New Suburban History (2006), “The Legal Technology of Exclusion in Metropolitan America,” Chapter 10, 205-220: https://www.dropbox.com/s/ta1ijrtg2z0iamz/Frug%20Exclusion.pdf?dl=0 Amy Wells, Why Boundaries Matter: A Study of Five Separate and Unequal Long Island School Districts(2009): https://www.dropbox.com/s/ylfswfxnfuh5vd8/Wells2009_FinalReport%20%281%29.pdf?dl=0 Nicholas Dagen Bloom, How States Shaped Postwar America, “The Metropolitan State University System,” https://drive.google.com/file/d/1PCV86yhLBloSPiobk0_W13r1W4odDeAO/view?usp=share_link Sharon Haar, City as Campus: Urbanism and Higher Education in Chicago(2011), “University Space in the Global City, Chapter 7, 149-184: https://www.dropbox.com/s/o36xap92yenumfv/CIty%20as%20Campus.pdf?dl=0 Jerry Weitz, “Growth Management in the United States, 2000-2010” (Journal of Planning Literature, 2012), 394-401 https://www.dropbox.com/s/bv7hg2cbqym3zz9/GrowthManagementLiterature%20%281%29.pdf ?dl=0 Peter Eisenger. The Rise of the Entrepreneurial State. https://drive.google.com/file/d/19eMmuExwOZ-3KOrkjzcddfVvjnM5Ca6p/view?usp=sharing Christopher Zimmerman. Suburban Remix, Arlington’s Experiment in Urbanizing Suburbia. https://www.dropbox.com/s/lm59odg8tzjjp58/Suburban%20Remix.pdf?dl=0

Adam Rome, The Bulldozer in the Countryside(2001), “Septic-Tank Suburbia,” Chapter 3, 87-118 and “Where Not To Build,” 153-188: https://www.dropbox.com/s/4a0cve81wls2wol/Rome%20Bulldozer.pdf?dl=0 Carl Abbott, Greater Portland: https://drive.google.com/file/d/10pW7kjLW2eAoWz6YBQ67vJc5KKFnqYEu/view?usp=share_lin k Thomas Daniels, “A Trail Across Time: American Environmental Planning from City Beautiful to Sustainability” (JAPA, 2009): https://www.dropbox.com/s/ihekruud3me8snb/Environmental%20Planning%20Overview.pdf?dl= 0 Luke W. Cole and Sheila R. Foster, From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Rise of the Environmental Justice Movement, 1-33, https://www.google.com/books/edition/From_the_Ground_Up/R6rj8XMSjx4C?hl=en&gbpv=1&d q=environmental+racism+regional&pg=PR11&printsec=frontcover Mariana, Mogilevich, “Renewal on the Waterfront”: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uAEd02URQ2FT3gm5R8WxA_BTLKu6ObtS/view?usp=sharing Edward Relph, Toronto: Transformations in a City and its Region, Chapters 4-5 and Chapter 9 https://drive.google.com/file/d/1TtsBxhoM5ZKstFSxMHk6NQ0I4qZJHeoI/view?usp=share_link https://www.dropbox.com/s/ccfwbyffmj6wk3s/Toronto.pdf?dl=0 Not Just Bikes: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KkO-DttA9ew Adam Something. American vs. European Suburbs (and why US suburbs suck) (2023).

YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mV6ZENGko1I Sonia Hirt, Zoned in the USA (2014),“How Others Do it,” Chapter 3, 60-89: https://www.dropbox.com/s/megmo0uqdo6ayzl/Hirt%20Zoning%20Abroad.pdf?dl=0 Michael Hamilton and Patricia Atkins, Urban and Regional Policies for Metropolitan Sustainability (2008), “Affordable Housing Policies in Metropolitan Areas,” Chapter 6, 167-199: https://www.dropbox.com/s/482kk0yzmtnu2wo/Hamilton2008_MetroAffordableHousing%20%28 1%29.pdf?dl=0 Mara Gay, “The Era of Shutting Others Out of New York’s Suburbs is Ending,” The New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/21/opinion/housing-new-york-city.html June Manning Thomas and Margaret Dewar, The City After Abandonment, read the Introduction: https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_City_After_Abandonment/zYj7XZ5VlUgC?hl=en&gb pv=1 Alan Altshuler and David Luberoff, MEGA-PROJECTS(2003), “Building New Airports and Expanding Older Ones,” 123-175: https://www.dropbox.com/s/ufk6irmtnjx5uvc/Building%20Airports.pdf?dl=0 Nicholas Dagen Bloom, The Metropolitan Airport, https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uryHpa4wNySy9TefevbkRKItyf6gPuZp/view?usp=sharing Alan Fisher. Americans Don’t Understand Passenger Trains. 2021. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eBtDEFGOJNg&list=PLhycIWhOLttikNg2Z1aJvGPoqijpGs9 qh&index=28