Urban Planning In Cities of the Indus Valley

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URBAN PLANNING IN CITIES OF THE INDUS VALLEY

DO NOT CITE IN ANY CONTEXT WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR

Caroline A. VanBuskirk School of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning, University of Cincinnati, 2600 Clifton Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA

Competing Interests: The author declares none.

INTRODUCTION

The Indus Valley in southern Asia is the birthplace of Indian culture and existed from about 2600 to 1900 B.C. Excavations of the Indus Valley offer great insight into the civilization and urban environment of ancient sites in the region. Excavations of city sites within the Indus Valley reveal ancient town planning. The planning created the foundation of the city, the foundation for architecture, and reinforced Indus culture. Through the exploration of excavated Indus cities, the urban planning can be discussed and linked to the rise of Indus civilization itself, and a provide greater understanding of Indus culture.

Geography. The Indus Civilization covered modern day areas spanning from Pakistan, the Gujarat, north-western India, and part of Afghanistan (Biagi & Starni 2020). The Indus River begins in the Himalayan mountains and travels nearly 2,000 miles before is pours into the Indian Ocean. (Gregory 2008). The river has been imperative in the development of ancient and modern civilizations around it, as it has been essential for trade, travel, and agriculture. Aside from the Himalayan mountains in the north, the Indian subcontinent is bordered by the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. Lush rainforests created another border in the east. Within the mountainous terrain in the northern portion, there lies the Indus River to the west and the Gangetic basin to the east. The plains of the Indus River converge into the Thar Desert in the south, which lies 500 feet above the floodplain. (Scarre & Fagan 2016: 135-136). The geographical barriers surrounding the Valley provided the Indus people protection from other empires, enabling the rise of a distinct civilization and cultural footprint, uninhibited by the threat of competing states.

Origins. The Indus Civilization has been characterized into distinct periods of its history and development, although there is variation within how the history is divided. The Early Period

took place from 3200-2600 BCE, Mature from 2600-1900 BCE, and Late from 1900-1300 BCE, which encompasses the collapse of the civilization (Sugandhi 2015). The earliest villages developed along the Indus River. The river flowed into the Indus Plains where silt deposits offered soft soil, able to be used for agriculture. This region was one of an extreme climate, with hot summers, cold winters, and outside the monsoon region, meaning farmers had to get the water needed for crops from rivers and streams that arose in the mountains (Scarre & Fagan 2016: 136). Larger walled settlements emerged, along with intensified agricultural production, craft production and trade. New settlements arose that encompassed a landscape of nearly one million square kilometers (Sugandhi 2015). Over hundreds of years, the Indus Valley became an intricate web of irrigation systems, with settlements built above the floodplains. During this period, most of the settlements were constructed of mud baked brick architecture. The early phases of Indus civilization are difficult to understand due to the fertile, alluvial soil that has hidden archeological origins. Despite this, the agricultural potential of the region enabled the expansion of settlements, eventually leading to the formation of cities. “The leaders of these new communal efforts may have been chieftains, priests, and kin leaders, who acted as intermediaries between the people and the gods, although the nature of Indus society and government remain frustratingly obscure” (Scarre & Fagan 2016: 138-139). While the political and social organization of the Indus civilization remains somewhat of a mystery, the characteristics of the Mature period offer some insights into what the culture may have looked like.

Mature Indus Culture. Pillars of Mature Indus culture encompass large-scale manufactured shell working, bead making, and production of copper and bronze goods. Many seals have been found that depict script. The script is unable to be deciphered because it is not related to any other type of language known presently; there is no biscript that has been

discovered that would enable the deciphering of the script. Settlements were laid out according to a walled-grid plan, with extensive water systems for both civic and domestic purposes. Craft items have been discovered from various archeological sites, providing evidence for a network linking various villages, towns, and urban centers together (Sugandhi 2015). The excavation of these urban centers and their town planning provides additional insight into the culture of the ancient Indus civilization.

REHMAN DHERI, SURKOTADA, & KALIBANGAN

Rehman Dheri. Rehman Dheri is one of the oldest planned sites found in Southern Asia, revealing a town plan from early in the Indus civilization’s history. Rehman Dheri is a low lying mound spanning roughly 500 meters by 325 meters, located 20 kilometers northwest of the town Dera Ismail Khan (Durrani et al. 1995: 2). The city plan itself is a classic grid pattern. The total size of the site is about 22 hectares and was likely home to 10,000-14,000 people (Gregory 2008). Although the site is quite large, the mound was not excavated until 1969-70. The site contained archeological evidence of craft activities as an occupation, with remnants of ceramics, slag, and valuable stones at different stages in the manufacturing process. Furthermore, the topological contours of the site revealed that fortifications existed. Rehman Dheri was abandoned in prehistoric times, allowing architecture and brick walls to be easily seen. An aerial photograph of the site further enforced that there was diligent planning involved in the formation of the town (Durrani et al. 1995: 2-3). The shape of Rehman Dheri is rectangular and it was surrounded by a substantial wall. The location of the site proves to be imperative for connection and trade, as Rehman Dheri was bisected by a major artery running southeast to northwest.

Perpendicular to this artery were lots for individual dwellings, surrounded by intermittent pathways (Gregory 2008).

Surkotada & Kalibangan. Considered to be the successor of the Rehman Dheri plan is the Surkotada site in Kutch, which dates to 2500-2000 BCE. While Surkotada is smaller in scale compared to Rehman Dheri, it contained the same grid pattern. Surkotada was surrounded by stone rubble and brick walls, producing two separate areas. Anothter site, Kalibangan, is similar to Surkotada and Rehman Dheri in that it was surrounded by a large wall. The site dates to the early Indus period, around 3000 BCE. Kalibangan was composed of two mounds instead of one. The smaller mound was termed the citadel, which was located to the west and measured about 240 meters by 120 meters in size. The larger mound was called the lower city and was much bigger than the citadel, measuring 360 meters by 240 meters. The larger mound also contained a grid plan like Rehman Dheri and Surkotada. The block size in the lower mound was determined to be approximately 40 meters wide, with the width of streets ranging from 1.8 meters to 7.2 meters. Despite the variation in size, each lane is a multiple of 1.8 meters (Gregory 2008).

DHOLAVIRA

Proportions. The town planning in Dholavira is reliant upon proportions for its elaborate town planning, containing many enclosures. Dholavira is located in the Rann of Kachchh and has a plan that is for the most part undisturbed, and covers approximately 47 hectares. Indus town planning was typically based on a “duality acropolis,” and Dholavira is unique in that it is considered to be a triple acropolis. The site consists of, “…an acropolis or upper town [citadel] consisting of a massive ‘castle’ and an adjacent ‘bailey,’ a middle town) including a huge

ceremonial ground), and a lower town, a large part of which was occupied by a series of reservoirs.” (Danino 2008: 1). Dholavira was located between two seasonal streams that would supply water during the monsoon season to fill the reservoirs in the southern portion of the city. A complex draining system was built into the upper part of the city, the “castle,” to let the monsoon waters run-off (Biagi & Starnini 2020).

Enclosures. The other factor that makes Dholavira unique is its use of ratios and proportions in its numerous enclosures. “1. The ‘castle’ reflects the city’s ratio of 5:4 (0.9% inner, 2.4% outer); 2. The ‘bailey’ is square (ratio 1:1); 3. The middle town’s length and breadth are in a ratio of 7:6 (0.5%); 4. The ceremonial ground’s proportions are 6:1 (0.7%); 5. The city’s length (east-west axis) and width (north south) are in a ratio of 5:4 (0.0%, a perfect match).” (Danino 2008: 3). All ratios are verified to be within 1%. This is an impressive feat when the irregularities of the terrain, tectonic plate movement, and erosion are taken into consideration. The exception of this ratio are the dimensions of the outer “castle,” which are accounted for by the explanation that this formed the earliest part of the city, and was altered when the middle portion of the town was built in the mature period of Indus civilization (Danino 2008: 3).

Characteristics. The city of Dholavira is characterized by a grid pattern, substantial systems of walls, rampants, gates, passages, and bastions. It is known that an impressive number of semi-precious metals and stones that were re-used and re-sized come from Dholavira, demonstrating a substantial manufacturing industry in the city (Biagi & Starnini 2020). What is clear from excavating and studying the city of Dholavira is that ample amounts of time and energy were spent on forming spaces, rather than individual monuments.

Background. Perhaps the most well-known town in ancient Indus civilization is MohenjoDaro. The town is located on a floodplain on the Indus River, with the city occupying about one square kilometer, more than five times larger than Kalabangan. Mohenjo-Daro also utilizes a grid system, spanning approximately 180 square meters that are divided into 16 sections that are each about 40 square meters. The city was originally planned the same way that Kalabangan was: an oblong city with a wall divided into a citadel and downtown with divided open space. However, during its existence from 2500-2000 BCE, Mohenjo-Daro faced a lot of flooding, resulting in the grid system being frequently modified.

Layout of the city. Like the previous cities, Mohenjo-Daro depicts the parallel grid street layout that has characterized Indus cities (Gregory 2008). The city is divided into two parts, the Citadel and the Lower City. The citadel is known to have had space for public baths, two large assembly halls, and supported about 5,000 citizens in its large residential structures. (Sindhav 2016). The citadel in Mohenjo-Daro stands atop a platform that is 12 meters high and extends over 20 hectares. Construction of such a site was carefully planned and would not have been possible without some sort of authority managing the labor and workers. A hallmark of the city plan in Mohenjo-Daro is the Great Bath. Water supply for Mohenjo-Daro and the Great Bath was achieved by wells that were built vertically inside of the urban environment. Sloping drains made of baked bricks were built along the main streets, as were private bathing platforms with toilets on the street side of the house (Biagi & Starnini 2020). The city had a central marketplace and a central well, as well as smaller wells throughout the city where groups of households would obtain their water. Waste water was filtered out into covered drains that lined city streets. Most houses had a bathing area, drainage, courtyards, and doors that opened onto side lanes. Mohenjo-

Daro was fortified with guard towers to the west of the city, and defense to the south. Like virtually any other Indus city, Mohenjo-Daro lacked monumental temples or palaces. (Sindhav 2016). The size of the city, public buildings, and facilities within it suggests a high level of social organization and skill. The city was well planned and had an elaborate drainage system, demonstrating skilled urban planners and the ability to manage water systems.

CONCLUSIONS

Cities of the ancient Indus civilization leave no doubt that they were meticulously thought out and well planned. Comparisons between excavated city sites reveal the commonality of the grid pattern. The grid pattern seen in Indus cities is seen in ancient cities throughout the world, and continues to be one of the most common and influential street plans in cities and planning today. It is worth considering the tremendous influence planned cities of the Indus Valley have had on both ancient and modern cities. The excavated cities flourished for thousands of years, demonstrating the effectiveness of the planned urban environment, and highly developed skills of Indus planners.

Planning and Culture. The planned environment mirrors the cultural environment. The building of baths as well as the complexities of water and drainage system indicate the importance Indus people placed on water, shedding light on possible religion in the culture, which is comparable to Hindu religion. Artifacts found within city sites reveal another layer of the complexity of Indus civilization. Certainly, complexity in the artifacts and their craft, but also in the fact that similar artifacts have been found at different sites, suggesting that Indus cities were well connected, and the Indus civilization as whole fostered a complex trade network. The

uniformity in artifacts also suggests some sort of uniformity and connectedness in authority or government. The fact that these cities did not have palaces, temples, or monuments, offers insight into what government may have looked like in Indus civilization, suggesting that their rulers were not elite or god-like in the way that other ancient civilizations have demonstrated. Furthermore, the obvious planning and proportions demonstrated in excavated sites shows that a tremendous amount of energy was put into planning the cities. This fact, combined with the lack of temples and palaces, demonstrates the emphasis placed on the creation of space, rather than an individual site. The importance of public space is apparent in the planning of Indus cities with the inclusion of public baths, citadels, assembly halls, and even the courtyards of citizen’s homes. It can be argued that the focus on public space in Indus urban planning contributes to the understanding Indus culture in that there was greater focus on group rather than individual. The design of space is essentially the foundation of urban planning. Cities in the Indus Valley demonstrate how an effective city plan enables the connection of cities to themselves and to each other, and how a well-designed place fosters the development of culture.

References Cited

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