Carolina Planning Journal : Volume 44 / Changing Ways, Making Change
evacuations to identify opportunities and barriers for utilizing shared use mobility and social media to potentially make evacuation planning more equitable.
LITER ATURE REVIEW Transportation Vulnerability and Determinants of Evacuation Behavior In the context of evacuation planning, the notion of transportation vulnerability is multifaceted. Transportation vulnerable primarily includes carless populations, defined as: “Anyone, for any reason, that does not have access to an automobile or [the option] to use it for purposes of evacuation (no money for gas/ lodging, fearful of operating it under stress, etc.). This includes the young, elderly, disabled, poor, and anyone else that does not drive.” (Renne et al. 2008) Another vulnerable group is comprised of individuals with special needs, namely the elderly and those with medical conditions. These individuals may require ongoing medical attention and other support or may be afflicted with a condition that prevents a long journey by car (Renne et al. 2008). The homeless comprise another vulnerable group (Transportation Research Board 2008). More broadly, those living in poverty are included in the population of transportation vulnerable individuals. Hurricane Katrina demonstrated how the lack of access to automobiles complicated the evacuation effort, and researchers have documented the high poverty rate in New Orleans as contributing to the lack of automobile access (Guion 2007). Access to a personal vehicle may not be the only hindrance to evacuation; there are multiple factors that influence evacuation behavior. Research has shown that there is not a universal set of determinants, but potential factors include the clarity and prevalence of evacuation messaging, the evacuation behaviors of neighbors, and perceived risk (Guion et al. 2007; Stein et al. 2010). Studies have found that social and demographic characteristics are not predictors of evacuation, yet they may place constraints on evacuation behavior (Stein et al. 2010).
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While there is overlap between the vulnerable populations above and the traditionally transportation-disadvantaged groups that are the focus of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Title VI Program (FHWA 2017), it also includes groups that are not considered vulnerable in a non-emergency context, such as tourists and individuals who opt for a car-free lifestyle (Renne 2011). For effective evacuation planning, is it important to not consider transportation vulnerable populations as a monolith. An individual may experience multiple layers of vulnerability simultaneously (Renne et al. 2008). Therefore, local emergency planners must understand and address the travel patterns, locations, and information needs and preferences for each vulnerable population (Renne et al. 2008).
Evacuation Planning for Vulnerable Populations Federal law requires that local emergency planning officials prepare for mass evacuations and since 2006 has also mandated evacuation assistance for populations with special needs (Transportation Research Board 2008). However, guidance on implementation has been less clear. Furthermore, metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs)—the entity federally-mandated and -funded to conduct regional transportation planning—are not required to participate in emergency evacuation planning (Renne 2011). The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina prompted multiple research studies that examined the state of evacuation planning. Several common themes emerged pertaining to the evacuation of vulnerable populations, which are outlined below.
Current Plans Lack Adequate Specificity The severity of the 2005 hurricane season prompted interest in the state of the practice of transportation and evacuation planning. Multiple studies found that existing evacuation plans were vague and lacked focus