CHAPTER THREE: CONSTRUCTIONIST THEORIES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is NOT one of the constructionist theories of deviance?
a) labeling theory
b) phenomenological theory
c) control theory
d) conflict theory
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 34-51
Answer: c) control theory
2. Labeling theory interprets deviance as a(n)
a) totally subjective experience.
b) expression of human animalistic tendencies.
c) process of symbolic interactionism.
d) outcome of conflict between powerful groups.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 35-39
Answer: c) process of symbolic interactionism.
3 Which of the following statements reflects the symbolic interactionist’s view of human beings?
a) Humans are simply a medium on which social forces operate in a neutral way.
b) Humans face, deal with, and act toward the objects they encounter.
c) Human behavior largely follows well-established patterns.
d) Individuals have little awareness about what is going on around them.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 35-37
Answer: b) Humans face, deal with, and act toward the objects they encounter.
4 According to labeling theory, the focus of sociological research should be on
a) how the person who behaves in a deviant way interprets reality.
b) the historical creation of deviant and normal labels.
c) the economic structure of society.
d) the interaction between the supposed deviant and conventional people.
Difficulty: 2
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
Page Reference: 36
Answer : d) the interaction between the supposed deviant and conventional people.
5. According to labeling theory, being labeled deviant produces
a) positive consequences.
b) negative consequences.
c) no consequences whatsoever.
d) some consequences whose nature cannot at present be understood.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 36-38
Answer: b) negative consequences.
6 According to labeling theory, the final step leading to secondary deviation involves
a) stronger penalties and rejections.
b) formal action taken by the community against the deviant.
c) hostilities and resentment on the part of those who penalize the deviant.
d) acceptance of and adjustment to deviant social status by the deviant.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 37-38
Answer: d) acceptance of and adjustment to deviant social status by the deviant.
7. According to Lemert, what is the first act in the sequence of interaction leading to secondary deviation?
a) primary deviation
b) a deviant impulse
c) tertiary deviation
d) the confession of deviance
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 36-37
Answer: a) primary deviation
8. Which of the following groups is most likely to be involved in imposing labels?
a) the poor
b) the criminal
c) the powerful
d) women
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 36-37
Answer: c) the powerful
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
9. According to Erikson and others, labeling other persons as deviant has
a) positive consequences for the community or individuals who apply the label.
b) negative consequences for the community or persons who apply the label.
c) positive consequences for the person who is labeled by the community.
d) little impact beyond the social control of the person who is deviant.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 36-38
Answer: a) positive consequences for the community or individuals who apply the label.
10 One negative criticism of labeling theory is that it
a) is not a sociological theory.
b) does not actually explain the causes of deviance.
c) is too deterministic a theory.
d) emphasizes the causes of deviance too much.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 38-39
Answer: b) does not actually explain the causes of deviance.
11. One reason why labeling theory has enjoyed tremendous popularity among sociologists is because this theory
a) supports many of the basic ideas of traditional theories of deviance.
b) firmly locates the role of the powerful in creating deviant labels.
c) is easy for students to understand.
d) has considerable data to support some of its basic ideas.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 38
Answer: d) has considerable data to support some of its basic ideas.
12 Which of the following theories examines the subjectivity of people, including their attitudes, feelings, and opinions about deviance?
a) conflict theory
b) labeling theory
c) positivist theory
d) phenomenological theory
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 39
Answer: d) phenomenological theory
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
13. What do phenomenologists mean by the term deviant reality?
a) the nature of deviant behavior as seen by scientific sociologists
b) the characteristics of deviance as shown by objectively acquired data
c) the reality of deviance as defined as such by the powerful
d) the subjective meaning that deviants impute to their own deviant experience
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 39-40
Answer: d) the subjective meaning that deviants impute to their own deviant experience
14 According to phenomenologists, what deviance means is
a) obvious to all observers.
b) fundamentally problematic.
c) insignificant for the understanding of deviant behavior.
d) an objective fact.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 39-40
Answer: b) fundamentally problematic.
15. At the heart of the conflict between phenomenologists and positivists is
a) different philosophical views of humanity.
b) different views on the punishment of deviants.
c) whether deviance is a primary or secondary phenomenon.
d) whether sociology should even study immoral behavior like deviance.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 39-41
Answer: a) different philosophical views of humanity.
16. According to Jack Douglas, there are two types of meanings: abstract meanings and __________ meanings.
a) immoral
b) moral
c) independent
d) situated
Difficulty: 2
Page reference: 39-40
Answer: d) situated
17 To phenomenologists, “constructs of the second degree”
a) reflect the real meaning of deviance.
b) reflect deviants’ subjective views.
c) are far removed from the reality of deviant experience.
d) are truly objective, because they are free of emotional judgment.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 40-41
Answer: c) are far removed from the reality of deviant experience.
18. To analyze how their subjects feel and think about deviance, phenomenologists use the method of
a) construction.
b) surveys.
c) ethnography.
d) introspection.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 41-42
Answer: c) ethnography.
19. Ethnography is defined as the style of research that seeks to understand
a) the meanings the people under investigation ascribe to their experiences.
b) the factual aspects of behavior that people follow.
c) the causes of behavior under study.
d) why the larger society considers some behavior as deviant and other behavior as normal.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 41-42
Answer: a) the meanings the people under investigation ascribe to their experiences.
20 Harold Garfinkel studied Agnes, who was a person seeking a sex change operation, and discovered that she considered herself
a) both a man and a woman at the same time.
b) a normal woman with a physical defect (a penis).
c) a sexual freak.
d) a normal man with several physical defects.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 41-42
Answer: b) a normal woman with a physical defect (a penis).
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
21. The sociologist Jack Katz studied a variety of murderers and armed robbers and discovered that they
a) felt intensely guilty about their crimes.
b) experienced a sense of powerlessness over their behavior.
c) felt morally superior to their victims.
d) labeled themselves as morally inferior.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 41-42
Answer: c) felt morally superior to their victims.
22. All of the following are criticisms of phenomenological theory EXCEPT that phenomenologists
a) cannot keep a totally open mind in understanding the essence of deviant reality.
b) cannot examine subjective experience in a totally unbiased way.
c) incorrectly assume that powerless deviants are powerless people who have little free will.
d) fail to see the relevance of the objective study of deviance.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 42
Answer: c) incorrectly assume that powerless deviants are powerless people who have little free will.
23. The incompatible interests, needs, and desires of diverse groups of people in society can lead to
a) deviant behavior.
b) social conflict.
c) cultural conformity.
d) social strain.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 43
Answer: b) social conflict.
24. The essential idea of conflict theory is that conflict as well as its resulting criminality is
a) an inherent, normal, and integral part of complex modern societies.
b) a rare and inconsequential occurrence in modern society.
c) best understood through the exploration of subjective experiences.
d) best understood through the labeling perspective.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 43
Answer: a) an inherent, normal, and integral part of complex modern societies.
25 Chambliss called the observing of how legal authorities actually discharge their duties the study of
a) the law on the books.
b) the law in action.
c) the process of legal change.
d) the ideal of the law.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 43-45
Answer: b) the law in action.
26. Chambliss’s analysis of the English legal system showed that the vagrancy laws
a) helped the poor to improve their lives.
b) benefited the ordinary citizens the most.
c) aggravated the crime problem.
d) served the interests of the influential members of society.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 43-44
Answer: d) served the interests of the influential members of society.
27 Chambliss stated that the tendency of the police, prosecutors, and judges to become tools of power and privilege is caused by the __________, or the need of organizations to compel their members to maximum rewards.
a) phenomenal reality
b) social reality
c) organizational imperative
d) organizational dysfunction
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 43-45
Answer: c) organizational imperative
28. According to Richard Quinney, there are different ways for the dominant class to define the social reality of crime. Which of the following is NOT one of them?
a) It defines as criminal those behaviors that threaten its interest.
b) It applies the laws to ensure the protection of its interests.
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
c) It engages in behavior that is defined as criminal.
d) It constructs and diffuses an ideology of crime.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 44-45
Answer: c) It engages in behavior that is defined as criminal.
29 Quinney and other conflict theorists see something terribly wrong with existing society and have called for
a) a more extensive study of the sociology of deviance.
b) political action.
c) less deviant behavior.
d) more police and stricter enforcement of the law.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 44-45
Answer: b) political action.
30 According to the Marxist explanation of deviance, the cause of deviance can be traced to
a) the gap between the goals of success and the means of achieving them.
b) the breakdown of the family and other social controls.
c) the presence of diverse cultural groups in American society.
d) the exploitative nature of capitalism.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 46
Answer: d) the exploitative nature of capitalism.
31 What Marxists call “marginal surplus population” refers to
a) employed workers.
b) those who are relatively superfluous or useless to the economy.
c) families with more than two children.
d) the capitalist elite, who need not work.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 46
Answer: b) those who are relatively superfluous or useless to the economy.
32 All of the following are the results of capitalism’s creation of economic marginality and coercive control of the workers, EXCEPT for
a) loss of self-esteem.
b) resentment.
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
c) a greater reliance on the family.
d) a sense of powerlessness and alienation.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 46
Answer: c) a greater reliance on the family.
33 Which of the following are ways feminist theory shifts the focus of theories of deviance?
a) a focus on women as offenders and victims related to their subordinate roles
b) a concentration on women as economically more successful
c) a focus on the greater deviance of men
d) a recognition of a new and growing goals-means gap
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 47-48
Answer: a) a focus on women as offenders and victims related to their subordinate roles.
34 Feminist theorists argue that most theories of deviance
a) stereotype women.
b) are only about men.
c) call for the exploitation of women by men.
d) are not related to gender.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 47-48
Answer: b) are only about men.
35. According to the power theory, the types of deviance and the types of persons who commit deviant acts are strongly influenced by
a) anomie.
b) world political events.
c) social equality.
d) social inequality.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 48
Answer: d) social inequality.
36 All of the following are reasons the powerful are more prone to deviance EXCEPT for
a) stronger deviant motivation.
b) greater deviant opportunity.
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
c) greater deviant tendencies.
d) the weaker application of social controls.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 48
Answer: c) greater deviant tendencies.
37 Which of the following is NOT a statement about the nature of postmodernist theory?
a) It is an attack on modern science’s emphasis on a search for the objective truth.
b) It leads to the deconstruction of events, revealing their contradictions and assumptions.
c) It studies “linguistic domination,” among other topics.
d) It is relatively disinterested in the most modern forms of deviant behavior.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 49-50
Answer: d) It is relatively disinterested in the most modern forms of deviant behavior.
38. When the language of the strong dominates the language of the weak, the weak experience
a) postmodern anxiety.
b) the labeling of their behavior as deviant.
c) positivistic pressures.
d) linguistic domination.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 49-50
Answer: d) linguistic domination.
39. The conflict approach contributes to our understanding of deviant behavior by showing how
a) unconscious drives and motives lead to some forms of deviance such as child molestation.
b) the subjective experiences of deviance can lead to fear and anger.
c) youth gangs are at the root of most deviance.
d) social inequality influences the making and enforcing of norms and laws.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 50
Answer: d) social inequality influences the making and enforcing of norms and laws.
40. According to this theoretical perspective, power, or the lack of it, determines the type of deviance one is likely to commit.
a) postmodernist theory
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
b) power theory
c) Marxist theory
d) social reality theory
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 48
Answer: b) power theory
41. This theoretical perspective attributes deviance to the unequal distribution of resources brought about by the exploitative capitalist system.
a) postmodernist theory
b) legal reality theory
c) social reality theory
d) Marxist theory
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 46
Answer: d. Marxist theory
True/False Questions
1. Labeling and phenomenological theories concentrate on understanding the causes of deviance.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 35-42
Answer: False
2 Labeling theory is based on the study of social interaction in which people actually impute meanings to each other’s acts. True False
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 36
Answer: True
3 Labeling a person as deviant may have some consequences for the person so labeled but hardly any for the labeler. True False
Difficulty: 2
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
Page Reference: 37-39
Answer: False
4. When a person who is labeled a deviant passively accepts the stigmatizing label and undertakes a deviant career, this behavior is called secondary deviance.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 38
Answer: False
5 Labeling theory has been most often criticized for failing to locate the actual causes of deviance.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 39
Answer: True
6 Research has consistently supported the thesis that the deviant label induces a person into further involvement with deviance.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 39
Answer: False
7. Phenomenological theory focuses on people’s subjectivity, including consciousness, perception, and opinions about deviance.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 39-43
Answer: True
8. Phenomenologists are largely in agreement with sociologists who adopt a positivist view of deviance. True False
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 40
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
Answer: False
9. When phenomenologists analyze how their subjects feel and think about their deviance, they use the method of ethnography.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 41-43
Answer: True
10. To phenomenologists, the deviant’s subjective experience is the heart of deviant reality.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 38
Answer: True
11. To phenomenologists, the meanings of deviant phenomena are essentially problematic.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 40-41
Answer: True
12. Conflict sociologists begin with the idea that modern societies have achieved a high degree of social and cultural unity.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 43
Answer: False
13 There is a significant discrepancy between the law on the books and the law in action.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 43-44
Answer: True
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
14 By organizational imperative, Chambliss refers to the inevitable tendency of a lawenforcing agency to compel its members to create red tape.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 43-44
Answer: False
15. Quinney and other Marxist criminologists attribute the existence of crime directly to the capitalist system.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 44
Answer: True
16. Feminist theorists argue that women’s experience of deviance is essentially no different from the experience of men.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 47-48
Answer: False
17. Powerful people have less need to engage in deviance because they have so much already.
Difficulty: 1
Page-Reference: 48
Answer: False
18. Two reasons why the powerful are likely to commit profitable deviance are a greater deviant opportunity and a strong deviant motivation.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 48
Answer: True
© 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
19 One new approach to the study of deviance is the postmodern analysis of linguistic domination, or how the language of the powerful group dominates linguistic interaction.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 49-50
Answer: True
20. Conflict theory greatly contributes to our understanding of how social inequality influences the making and enforcing of norms, rules, and laws.
Difficulty: 1
Page-Reference: 50
Answer: True
21. The feminist theory attributes deviance to the exploitative capitalist system.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 47-48
Answer: False
22 Conflict theory attributes deviant behavior to the unequal distribution of resources.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 43-48
Answer: True
Fill-In Questions
1. According to __________ theory, deviance is a collective action and involves the meanings imputed to people’s actions.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 35-39
Answer: labeling
2. If someone is considered a deviant by others, and comes to see him or herself in the same way, that person is called a __________ deviant.
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 37-38
Answer: secondary
3. According to __________, people attach meanings to symbols.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 36-38
Answer: symbolic interactionism
4. According to phenomenologists, the most important aspect of deviant reality is the __________ meaning that the deviant person imputes to his or her own deviant experience.
Difficulty: 2
Page-Reference: 40-42
Answer: subjective
5. William Chambliss pointed out that the law __________ is different from the laws on the books.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 43
Answer: in action
6. According to the __________ theory of deviance, almost all deviant theories are about the behavior of men.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 47
Answer: feminist
7. The __________ theory sees technology and innovation as intervening variables when it comes to explaining deviant behavior.
Difficulty: 2
Page-Reference: 49-50
Answer: postmodernist
8. The __________ theory pays attention to the power structure between sexes.
Difficulty: 1
Page-Reference: 47-48
Answer: feminist
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
9 According to the __________ theory, deviant behavior is due to the unequal distribution of limited resources.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 46
Answer: conflict
10 According to the __________ theory, power, or the lack of it, determines the type of deviance one commits.
Difficulty: 1
Page Reference: 48
Answer: power
11 The __________ theory attributes deviant behavior to the unequal distribution of resources brought about by the exploitative capitalist system.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 46
Answer: Marxist
12 One of the weakness of the __________ theory is that it fails to answer what causes deviance in the first place.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 39
Answer: labeling
13 When it comes to the law, the __________ theory pays attention to what ought to happen, and what actually happens.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 43-44
Answer: legal reality
Essay Questions
1. Choose one of the positivist theories presented in Chapter 2 and compare it to one of the constructionist theories presented in this chapter. In what ways are the two approaches the same, and how do they differ?
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 17-50
2. Compare primary and secondary deviants. How do they differ, and how does each represent a stage of the labeling process?
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 37-39
3. Evaluate the labeling perspective on deviance. What are some pros and cons of this approach? How does it relate to the more general process of social interaction?
Difficulty: 3
Page Reference: 36-39
4. Define ethnography and provide one example of how it serves as a method for the phenomenological approach to deviance. That is, how can ethnography be used to look at the subjective aspects of behavior?
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 41-42
5. Evaluate the central ideas of the conflict approach to deviance. In what ways is economic and cultural conflict involved in the definition and control of deviance? Are all deviants simply oppressed workers, or is deviance caused by other factors? How so?
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 43
6. Assess the strengths and weakness of the conflict theory in explaining deviance.
Difficulty: 2
Page Reference: 41-43
Copyright © 2013, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.