Etextbook 978 0077861964 experience psychology 3rd edition

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e c n e i Exper

PSYCHOLOGY THIRD EDITION

LAURA A. KING

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Sleep Disorders 141 Dreams 143

Sensation and Perception 84

How We Sense and Perceive the World 85 The Processes and Purposes of Sensation and Perception 85 Sensory Receptors and the Brain 87 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Can We Feel the Future? 90 Thresholds 91 Perceiving Sensory Stimuli 93 Sensory Adaptation 95

2 The Visual System 96 The Visual Stimulus and the Eye 96 Visual Processing in the Brain 101 Color Vision 102 Perceiving Shape, Depth, Motion, and Constancy 104 3 The Auditory System 110 The Nature of Sound and How We Experience It 110 Structures and Functions of the Ear 110 Theories of Hearing 112 Auditory Processing in the Brain 114 Localizing Sound 114 4 Other Senses 115 The Skin Senses 116 The Chemical Senses 118 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Why Salt Is the Salt of the Earth 119 INTERSECTION: Emotion and Sensation: What Do Feelings Smell Like? 121 The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses 121 SUMMARY 123 KEY TERMS 124 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES

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124

States of Consciousness 125

The Nature of Consciousness 126 Defining Consciousness 127 Consciousness and the Brain 127 Theory of Mind 128 Levels of Awareness 128 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: On Second Thought, Is Conscious Reflection Required for Moral Behavior? 130

2 Sleep and Dreams 133 Biological Rhythms and Sleep 133 Why Do We Need Sleep? 134 Stages of Wakefulness and Sleep 136 Sleep Throughout the Life Span 139 Sleep and Disease 140

3 Psychoactive Drugs 146 Uses of Psychoactive Drugs 146 Types of Psychoactive Drugs 147 4 Hypnosis 157 The Nature of Hypnosis 157 Explaining Hypnosis 158 Uses of Hypnosis 159 5 Meditation 160 Mindfulness Meditation 160 Lovingkindness Meditation 161 INTERSECTION: Consciousness and Social Psychology: Can Lovingkindness Meditation Reduce Prejudice? 162 The Meditative State of Mind 162 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Meditation at Work 163 Getting Started with Meditation 163 SUMMARY 164 KEY TERMS 165 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 165

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Learning 166

Types of Learning

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2 Classical Conditioning 169 Pavlov’s Studies 169 Classical Conditioning in Humans 173 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Marketing Between the Lines 176 INTERSECTION: Learning and Social Psychology: Can Classical Conditioning Help Us Understand the Meaning of Life? 177 3 Operant Conditioning 178 Defining Operant Conditioning 178 Thorndike’s Law of Effect 179 Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning Shaping 180 Principles of Reinforcement 181 Applied Behavior Analysis 188 4 Observational Learning

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5 Cognitive Factors in Learning Purposive Behavior 191 Insight Learning 192

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6 Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors in Learning 194 Biological Constraints 194 Cultural Influences 196 Psychological Constraints 196 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Do Learning Styles Matter to Learning? 197 SUMMARY 199 KEY TERMS 200 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 200

C on t en t s

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CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Is There a Link Between Creative Genius and Psychopathology? 255

Memory 201

The Nature of Memory

202

2 Memory Encoding 203 Attention 203 Levels of Processing 204 Elaboration 204 Imagery 205 3 Memory Storage 207 Sensory Memory 207 Short-Term Memory 208 Long-Term Memory 211 4 Memory Retrieval 219 Serial Position Effect 219 Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task 220 Special Cases of Retrieval 222 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Can Children Be Reliable Eyewitnesses to Their Own Abuse? 226 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Using Psychological Research to Improve Police Lineups 228 5 Forgetting 229 Encoding Failure 230 Retrieval Failure 230 INTERSECTION: Cognitive Psychology and Social Psychology: If We Can Forgive, Does That Help Us Forget? 233 6 Tips from the Science of Memory—for Studying and for Life 234 Organizing, Encoding, Rehearsing, and Retrieving Course Content 235 Autobiographical Memory and the Life Story 236 Keeping Memory Sharp 237 SUMMARY 238 KEY TERMS 240 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 240

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Thinking, Intelligence, and Language 241

The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology 242

2 Thinking 244 Concepts 245 Problem Solving 245 Reasoning and Decision Making 248 Thinking Critically and Creatively 252 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Help Wanted: Critical and Creative Thinkers 253

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3 Intelligence 256 Measuring Intelligence 257 Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence 260 Extremes of Intelligence 262 INTERSECTION: Educational Psychology and Social Psychology: Do Teachers Have Stereotypes About Gifted Children? 264 Theories of Multiple Intelligences 266 4 Language 268 The Basic Properties of Language 268 Language and Cognition 269 Biological and Environmental Influences on Language 271 Language Development over the Life Span 273 SUMMARY 276 KEY TERMS 277 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 277

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Human Development 278

Exploring Human Development 279 Research Methods in Developmental Psychology 279 How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? 280 Do Early Experiences Rule Us for Life? 280 Nature, Nurture, and You 281 Three Domains of Development 282

2 Physical Development 283 Prenatal Physical Development 283 Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood Physical Development in Adolescence 288 Physical Development in Adulthood 290

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3 Cognitive Development 294 Cognitive Development from Childhood into Adulthood 294 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: The Joy of the Toy Cognitive Processes in Adulthood 300

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4 Socioemotional Development 302 Socioemotional Development in Infancy 302 INTERSECTION: Developmental and Social Psychology: Is Attachment an Enduring Aspect of Life? 304 Erikson’s Theory of Socioemotional Development 305 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Is Parenthood Associated with Happiness? 312 5 Gender Development 314 Biology and Gender Development 314 Cognitive Aspects of Gender Development 315 Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development 315 Nature and Nurture Revisited: The John/Joan Case 316

6 Moral Development 317 Kohlberg’s Theory 317 Critics of Kohlberg 318 Moral Development in a Socioemotional Context 318 7

SUMMARY 323 KEY TERMS 324 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES

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358

SUMMARY 360 KEY TERMS 361 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 361

Death, Dying, and Grieving 319 Terror Management Theory: A Cultural Shield Against Mortality 320 Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Dying 320 Bonanno’s Theory of Grieving 321 Carving Meaning Out of the Reality of Death 321

8 Active Development as a Lifelong Process

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5 Motivation and Emotion: The Pursuit of Happiness Biological Factors in Happiness 358 Obstacles in the Pursuit of Happiness 358 Happiness Activities and Goal Striving 359

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Motivation and Emotion 325

Theories of Motivation 326 The Evolutionary Approach 326 Drive Reduction Theory 326 Optimum Arousal Theory 327

2 Hunger and Sex 328 The Biology of Hunger 328 Obesity 330 The Biology of Sex 332 Cognitive and Sensory/Perceptual Factors in Sexuality 333 Cultural Factors in Sexuality 334 Sexual Behavior and Orientation 335 3 Beyond Hunger and Sex: Motivation in Everyday Life 340 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs 340 Self-Determination Theory 341 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: What Motivates Suicide Bombers? 342 Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation 344 Self-Regulation: The Successful Pursuit of Goals 344 INTERSECTION: Motivation and Behavior Genetics: Why Do We Procrastinate? 346 4 Emotion 347 Biological Factors in Emotion 347 Cognitive Factors in Emotion 350 Behavioral Factors in Emotion 352 Sociocultural Factors in Emotion 353 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Expressing Ourselves Online: The Psychology of Emoticons 355 Classifying Emotions 355 Adaptive Functions of Emotions 356

Personality 362

Psychodynamic Perspectives 363 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 363 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Defense Mechanisms and the Psychology of Hypocrisy 366 Psychodynamic Critics and Revisionists 368 Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspectives 370

2 Humanistic Perspectives 371 Maslow’s Approach 371 Rogers’s Approach 372 Evaluating the Humanistic Perspectives 373 3 Trait Perspectives 374 Trait Theories 374 The Five-Factor Model of Personality 375 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Is There One Really Great Personality? 378 Evaluating the Trait Perspectives 380 4 Personological and Life Story Perspectives 381 Murray’s Personological Approach 381 The Life Story Approach to Identity 382 Evaluating the Life Story Approach and Similar Perspectives 383 5 Social Cognitive Perspectives 383 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 384 Mischel’s Contributions 385 Evaluating the Social Cognitive Perspectives

387

6 Biological Perspectives 388 Personality and the Brain 388 Personality and Behavioral Genetics 391 Evaluating the Biological Perspectives 391 7

Personality Assessment 392 Self-Report Tests 392 INTERSECTION: Personality and Neuroscience: How Do the Brain's Hemispheres Complete a Questionnaire? 394 Projective Tests 395 Other Assessment Methods 396

SUMMARY 397 KEY TERMS 398 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 398

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Social Anxiety Disorder 446 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 447 OCD-Related Disorders 447 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 448 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: The Psychological Wounds of War 449

Social Psychology 399

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3 Disorders Involving Emotion and Mood Depressive Disorders 450 Bipolar Disorder 453

Defining Social Psychology 400 Features of Social Psychology 400

2 Social Cognition 402 Person Perception 402 Attribution 404 The Self as a Social Object and Social Comparison 406 Attitudes 406 Persuasion 408 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Making the Sale! 409 3 Social Behavior 410 Altruism 410 Aggression 413 4 Close Relationships 417 Attraction 417 Love 418 Models of Close Relationships

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SUMMARY 434 KEY TERMS 435 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 435

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Psychological Disorders 436

Defining and Explaining Abnormal Behavior 437 Three Criteria of Abnormal Behavior 437 Culture, Context, and the Meaning of Abnormal Behavior 438 Theoretical Approaches to Psychological Disorders 438 Classifying Abnormal Behavior 440 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Does Everyone Have ADHD? 442

2 Anxiety and Anxiety-Related Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder 443 Panic Disorder 444 Specific Phobia 445

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4 Eating Disorders 454 Anorexia Nervosa 454 Bulimia Nervosa 455 INTERSECTION: Clinical Psychology and Emotion: Does Positive Emotion Play a Role in Anorexia Nervosa? 456 Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa: Causes and Treatments 456 Binge-Eating Disorder 457 Binge-Eating Disorder: Causes and Treatments 457 5 Dissociative Disorders 458 Dissociative Amnesia 459 Dissociative Identity Disorder 459

5 Social Influence and Group Processes 420 Conformity and Obedience 420 INTERSECTION: Social Psychology and Cross-Cultural Psychology: Why Are Some Nations More Conforming Than Others? 422 Group Influence 425 Social Identity 427 Prejudice 429 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Why Does a Cell Phone Look Like a Gun? 431 Improving Intergroup Relations 432

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443

6 Schizophrenia 461 Symptoms of Schizophrenia 462 Causes of Schizophrenia 463 7

Personality Disorders 466 Antisocial Personality Disorder 466 Borderline Personality Disorder 468

8 Suicide

469

9 Combatting Stigma 472 Consequences of Stigma 472 Overcoming Stigma 474 SUMMARY 474 KEY TERMS 476 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 476

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Therapies 477

Approaches to Treating Psychological Disorders 478 The Psychological Approach to Therapy 478 The Biological Approach to Therapy 478 The Sociocultural Approach to Therapy 480

2 Psychotherapy 481 Central Issues in Psychotherapy 481 Psychodynamic Therapies 483 Humanistic Therapies 485 Behavior Therapies 486 Cognitive Therapies 488 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Seeking Therapy?

There Is Probably an App for That 491 Therapy Integrations 491

3 Biological Therapies 492 Drug Therapy 493 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Are Antidepressants Better Than Placebos? 495 Antipsychotic Drugs 496 Electroconvulsive Therapy 496 Psychosurgery 498 4 Sociocultural Approaches and Issues in Treatment 499 Group Therapy 499 Family and Couples Therapy 500 Self-Help Support Groups 501 Community Mental Health 502 Cultural Perspectives 502 INTERSECTION: Clinical and Cultural Psychology: How Can Cognitive-Behavior Therapy Work Across Different Belief Systems? 503 SUMMARY 505 KEY TERMS 506 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES

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506

Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine The Biopsychosocial Model 508 Connections Between Mind and Body 509

524

5 Toward a Healthier Body (and Mind): Behaving as If Your Life Depends upon It 527 Becoming Physically Active 527 Eating Right 529 PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Environments That Support Active Lifestyles 530 INTERSECTION: Health Psychology and Cognition: Can Mindless Processing Enhance Healthy Eating? 532 Quitting Smoking 532 Practicing Safe Sex 533 6 Psychology and Your Good Life

Health Psychology 507

1

4 Toward a Healthier Mind (and Body): Controlling Stress 520 Stress and Its Stages 520 Stress and the Immune System 521 Stress and Cardiovascular Disease 522 Stress and Cancer 523 Cognitive Appraisal and Coping with Stress Strategies for Successful Coping 525 Stress Management Programs 526

534

SUMMARY 535 KEY TERMS 536 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 536 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH) McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY APA DOCUMENTATION STYLE GUIDE

508

2 Making Positive Life Changes 510 Theoretical Models of Change 510 The Stages of Change Model 510 3 Resources for Effective Life Change 514 Motivation 514 Social Relationships 515 Religious Faith 516 Personality Characteristics 517 CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: How Powerful Is the Power of Positive Thinking? 519

■ Glossary

G-1

■ References R-1 ■ Name Index

NI-1

■ Subject Index SI-1

C on t en t s

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preface Experience Psychology Some Students Take Psychology . . .

Others Experience It! Informed by student data, Experience Psychology helps students understand and appreciate psychology as an integrated whole. The personalized, adaptive learning program, thought-provoking examples, and interactive assessments help students see psychology in the world around them and experience it in everyday life. Experience Psychology is about, well, experience—our own behaviors; our relationships at home and in our communities, in school, and at work; and our interactions in different learning environments. Grounded in meaningful real-world contexts, Experience Psychology’s contemporary examples, personalized author notes, and applied exercises speak directly to students, allowing them to engage with psychology and to learn verbally, visually, and experientially—by reading, seeing, and doing. Function is introduced before dysfunction, building student understanding by looking first at typical, everyday behavior before delving into the less common—and likely less personally experienced—rare and abnormal behavior. Experience Psychology places the science of psychology, and the research that helps students see the academic foundations of the discipline, at the forefront of the course.

With the learning system of Experience Psychology, students do not just “take” psychology but actively experience it.

Experience a Personalized Approach How many students think they know everything about introductory psychology but struggle on the first exam?

A PERSONALIZED EXPERIENCE THAT LEADS TO IMPROVED LEARNING AND RESULTS Students study more effectively with SmartBook.

■ Make It Effective. Powered by LearnSmart®, SmartBook makes study time as productive and efficient as possible. It identifies and closes knowledge gaps through a continually adapting reading experience that introduces personalized learning resources at the precise moment needed. This ensures that every minute spent with SmartBook is the most value-added minute possible. The result? More confidence, better grades, and greater success.

xii // P r ef ace

■ Make It Informed. Real-time reports quickly identify the concepts that require more attention from individual students—or the entire class. SmartBook detects the content a student is most likely to forget and brings it back to improve long-term knowledge retention.

PERSONAL NOTES FROM THE AUTHOR THAT PROMOTE UNDERSTANDING Experience Psychology, emphasizes a personal approach, with an abundance of personal pedagogical “asides” communicated directly by author Laura King to stuAdaptation, adaptability, and dents to guide their understanding and stimulate their interest as they read.

Some of these helpful notes highlight important terms and concepts; others adapt: Psychologists use these prompt students to think critically about the complexities of the issues; still terms when referring to the ability others encourage students to apply what they have learned to their prior to function in a changing world. reading or to a new situation. These mini-conversations between the author and the reader help develop students’ analytical skills for them to carry and apply well beyond their course.

Experience the Power of Data Experience Psychology harnesses the power of data to improve the instructor and student experiences.

BETTER DATA, SMARTER REVISION, IMPROVED RESULTS For this new edition, data were analyzed to identify the concepts students found to be the most difficult, allowing for expansion upon the discussion, practice and assessment of challenging topics. The revision process for a new edition used to begin with gathering information from instructors about what they would change and what they would keep.

Experts in the field were asked to provide comments that pointed out new material to add and dated material to review. Using all these reviews, authors would revise the material. But now, a new tool has revolutionized that model.

McGraw-Hill Education authors now have access to student performance data to analyze and to inform their revisions. This data is anonymously collected from the many students who use LearnSmart, the adaptive learning system that provides students with individualized assessment of their own progress. Because virtually every text paragraph is tied to several questions that students answer while using LearnSmart, the specific concepts with which students are having the most difficulty are easily pinpointed through empirical data in the form of a “heat map” report.

THE HEAT MAP STORY

APPRECIATING THE POWER OF STUDENT DATA

STEP 1. Over the course of three years, data points showing concepts that caused students the most difficulty were anonymously collected from Connect Psychology’s LearnSmart for Experience Psychology, 2e.

STEP 2. The data from LearnSmart was provided to the author in the form of a Heat Map, which graphically illustrated “hot spots” in the text that impacted student learning.

STEP 3. Laura King used the Heat Map data to refine the content and reinforce student comprehension in the new edition. Additional quiz questions and assignable activities were created for use in Connect Psychology to further support student success.

RESULT: Because the Heat Map gave Laura King empirically-based feedback at the paragraph and even sentence level, she was able to develop the new edition using precise student data that pinpointed concepts that caused students the most difficulty.

Preface

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PERSONALIZED GRADING, ON THE GO, MADE EASIER Connect InsightTM is a one-of-kind visual analytics dashboard—now available for both instructors and students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding student performance. The immediate analysis from Connect Insight empowers students and helps instructors improve class performance efficiently and effectively.

■ Make It Intuitive. Instructors and students receive instant, at-a-glance views of performance matched with student activity.

■ Make It Dynamic. Connect Insight puts real-time analytics in the user’s hands for a just-in-time approach to teaching and learning.

■ Make It Mobile. Connect Insight is available on demand wherever and whenever needed.

Experience an Emphasis on Critical Thinking C h a ll e n g e YO

UR THINKING

ion cious Reflect ought, Is Cons On Second Th d for Moral Behavior?

2012; (Dawes & others, to nicer behavior Require tions might lead showed that, while

ies that automatic reac ple, a series of stud e money with another r an iceberg. An 2011). For exam Zaki & Mitchell, to be selfish or shar arine traveling unde One crewon were more of a military subm that allowed them en. much deliberati playing a game am is the captain el with limited oxyg ining oxygen decision without 2012). n has left the vess who made their rema le Greene, & Nowak, osio d, The peop expl (Ran die. on, ard inly rous pers onbo gene instructed to ed. He will certa way to save injur were only ally who The le mort is ive. peop surv member Similarly, and his crew to more generous Sam were h for gh hunc enou follow their first in the sub is not injured to think were instructed to shoot dead the than those who his crew is for Sam gh carefully. Such for Sam to kill him? their decisions throu times, automatic crewman. Is it okay ma, this moral dilem est that, at sugg lts resu As you consider moral of selfish but reflect ct the two kinds reactions are not see if you can dete d—at matic and controlle goodness. processes—auto t involve must rely on ces migh choi tion l reac mora c our mati Perhaps s and work. Your auto g the emotional processe the thought of killin both automatic outright horror at ly, we have gh, you processes. Sure you reflect, thou slower reflective crewmember. As makes g because they killing that man ways of processin two e thes y we do, s might consider that man in important thing man will die, but both play a role va & rational sense: One n illustrates what is right (Kole d. This conclusio including deciding others will be save ols, 2011). Underthat considers Nich & one e, on Mall stanc ; l others, 2012 a utilitarian mora ber. c and controlled num mati test auto grea of the for standing the roles behavior the greatest good Jon Haidt (2001) l judgment and processes in mora Social psychologist acter of el of moral into the very char l-intuitionist mod offers a glimpse proposed a socia often el claims that we re itself. mod natu The g. an onin hum c, reas to explore and based on automati s like ld sion wou deci l you If out ive, make mora morality, check . From this perspect reflect on your own ted by emotional reactions h to rg, a website crea is used not so muc www.yourmorals.o , where conscious thought fy them s social psychologists sions, but to justi tock/Getty Image Haidt and other about mas, reach those deci more dilem © Naypong/iS l learn mora arch using te in surveys, and cipa ts parti after the fact. Rese men nts, judg l assessme n that mora you can take self2; like Sam’s, has show l processes and autoene & Haidt, 200 minds” work. tiona ral (Gre emo “mo ght lve how thou s invo often indiful consciou rather than care that are active while matic reactions, the brain regions k, 2014 ). Indeed, amygdala) are often Think?

Lai, Haidt, & Nose mas (such as the What Do You & Greene, 2014; onal moral dilem faced? dilemma you reactions (Shenhav viduals resolve pers l tiona emo c the last moral automati ■ What was those involved in it? e morbe solv to , 2013).

How did you tions less likely reac to c ans mati Xue, Wang, & Tang hum auto for we think are based on it be adaptive ons for the way t moral ■ Why might Are decisions that tion with implicati s of thinking abou Are automatic a fascinating ques have two way rally good or bad? ally right? That is lly Are people natu f. tiona ? itsel tradi mas re ugh natu dilem about human they be kind? Altho that is, behavior ly selfish or can prosocial behavior— impulses essential c often assumed that ride one’s automati psychologists have the ability to over suggests rs—is based on recent research more 8), that benefits othe 200 (DeWall & others, ests inter sh selfi

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behavior. reasoning and ain of moral the ways is in the dom ing focused on recent research al decision mak However, a great deal of hlberg, 1981). interested in mor sts (Ko t logi on men cho scious reflecti ced moral judg Historically, psy con uen of infl g role reasonin Your stion the that conscious see Challenge e begun to que ut this work, scientists hav abo e ntly mor rece e mor To read al dilemmas. in resolving mor Thinking.

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Experience Psychology stimulates critical reflection and analysis. The Challenge Your Thinking features involve students in debates relevant to findings from contemporary psychological research.

Thought-provoking questions encourage examination of the e­ vidence on both sides of a debate or issue. For example, the Challenge in the “Thinking, Intelligence, and Language” chapter asks students to reflect on whether there is a link between creative genius and psychopathology while “Social Psychology’s” Challenge prompts them to consider how ethnicity might influence the tendency to misperceive harmless objects (such as wallets, car keys, and cell phones) as handguns.

INTERSECTI

scio usn ess

F

us to smell different

Th e Ki ne st he

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ON

y species, it is adaptive to members of a group. Such call send out alarm calls to women smelled s do not always noises. Sometim the pads (along involve es while various with some unu when faced with they involve smells. For exa measures wer sed “control pad mple, a hungry pred release chemic e taken. First, s”) measured faci ator, a nervous als that inform the researchers al muscle acti fish might other fish in its Unfortunately precisely vity to see if the sions conform school to esc for these pote women’s facial ed to ape the ntial snacks, sha . emotions the markable sen expresthey emitted the men rks also have se of smell. So, wer e exp sweat. Results a rewhen a fish sen warning signals, showed that wom eriencing while more likely to ds out chemic members of its show a fear face en’s faces wer al fear. In nonhum school (and sha when smelling e more likely to an animals, suc rks) can smell the fear sweat show the h “chemosigna way to commun and sweat. In addition a disgust face while smelling ls” provide a quic icat the disgust , the heart rate k mans do not hav e alarms. It has long been s for the wom sniffing the fear assumed that e chemosigna en swe wer at. e huhigher while Finally, the emo ls, that our emo us to smell a cert sweat influenc tion associated tions do not cau ain way to othe ed the type of with the se (Wyatt, 2003). rs sniffing that occ women were However, rese urred. For fear more likely to arch has begun to sweat, take a big sec suggest that our ond whiff of the emotions may sweat, but for disgust swe affect the odo at, the second PM rs we emit. In particul 4/24/15 1:38 sniff was muc ar, our sweat h sma ller. may Imp smell different ortantly, the smelling port when we are ion of the stud feeling afraid. In one y was a doublestudy, particip blind procedu ants who smelled re, meaning that the sweat exc neither the wom reted by people who en nor the researcher were afraid wer runn ing e more cautiou the study knew whi s than those who ch pads were smelled sweat which, and only excreted by peo the researcher ple through physica knew that the l activity (Zho odors in the pad u& Chen, 2009). s were from diffe rent kinds of swe In several stud at.

Of cou rse, if they kne ies, Jasper de w what they Groot and his were smelling colleagues (de , all of the wom Groot & others, 2012; en might have bee de Groot, Sem n pret ty in, & disgusted!

Smeets, 2014) You might assu have examined me that what whether the che © Tom Merto people do to n/OJO Image mical signals communicate s/Getty Image emits ted by a person fear is SCREAM. But while feeling a this research particular emo same emotion sugges ts that humans tion fosters that in another pers , like other anion who smelled In one study, the mals,useseveral visual, and eve that person’s researchers first n cha olfa nne ctor swe ls—auditory, y—to warn of at. very warm room collected swe us that if we wan danger. The stud at. Men, seated , watched one t to appear calm y reminds of two film clip in a ings of fear (sce we might ame and cool even s meant to fost nes nd “Never let under duress er feelfrom the televisio from the movie The Shining) them see you , let them smell or n show Jackas sweat” to “An your sweat, eith s), while absorbe disgust (scenes tucked into thei d never er.” r armpits. The nt pads were se pads were needed for the then frozen unti second part of l the study. In that second part, \\ What other emotion

Experience Psychology’s Intersection features are also designed to spark critical thought. Showcasing studies in different areas of psychological research that focus on the same topic, the Intersections shed light on the links between, and the reciprocal influences of, this exciting work, and they raise provocative questions for student reflection and class discussion.

For example, the selection for the “Motivation and Emotion” chapter, “Motivation and Behavior Genetics: Why Do We Procrastinate?” prompts students to think about whether genes can predispose individuals to procrastinate.

Sta tes of Con

Emotion and Se ns What Do Feelin ation: gs Smell Like? or man

tic an d Ve st

ib ul ar Se ns

s cause to others?

es

You know the difference betw een walking and up. To perform running and betw even the simples een t act of motor a book off a shel kinesthetic sens coordination, such lying down and sitting f or getting up es out of a chair, as reaching out Senses that prov dinate informa the brain ide to take tion from every part information abou give you informa of the body. You must constantly receive and t coortion about you r body has two movement, post r movement and ure, to maintain bala kinds of senses orie nce and orientatio that ntat .

The ion kin in n. esthetic senses space, as well and orientation. as help you vestibular sense provide informa The vestibular tion about mov sense provides eme nt, information abo posture, Sense that provides information ut balance and movement. mov about balance and ement.

Oth er Sen ses

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involvement in complex, integrative functions.

typed patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping,

FOREBRAIN

You try to understand what all of these terms and parts of the brain and turning to atmean. You talk with friends and plan a party for this weekend. You remember that it tend to a sudden has been 6 months since you went to the dentist. You are confident you will do well on noise. the next exam in this course. All of these experiences and millions more would not be possible without the forebrain, the brain’s largest division and its most forward part.

Before we explore the structures and function of the forebrain, let’s stop for a moment and examine how the brain evolved. The brains of the earliest vertebrates were smaller and simpler than those of later animals. Genetic changes during the evolutionary process were responsible for the development of more complex brains with more parts and more interconnections (Brooker & others, 2015; Simon, 2015). Figure 12 compares the brains of a rat, cat, chimpanzee, and human. In both the chimpanzee’s brain and (especially) the human’s brain, the hindbrain and midbrain structures are covered by a forebrain structure called the cerebral cortex. The human hindbrain and midbrain are similar to

forebrain In addition, the Psychological Inquiry features draw students into analyzing and interThe brain’s largest division and its most forward preting figures andpart.photos by embedding a range of critical thinking questions in selected captions.

PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY Cerebral cortex Cerebral cortex Cerebellum Brain stem

Cerebellum

Cerebral cortex

Cerebral cortex Cerebellum

Brain stem

Cerebellum Brain stem

Rat

Cat

Brain stem

Chimpanzee

Human

FIGURE 12

The Brain in Different Species This figure compares the brain of a rat, a cat, a chimpanzee, and a human being. As you examine the illustrations, remember that each organism’s brain is adapted to meet different environmental challenges. > What structures are similar across the species? > Why do you think there are some common features, and what does this commonality tell us about these brain structures? > Why don’t rats have a large cerebral cortex? > How might life be different for a rat or a cat with a human brain?

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CHAPTER 2

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The Br a in a nd Be ha vio r

Experience an Emphasis on Active Engagement kin61965_ch02_041-083.indd 60

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Do It!

Through Do It!, a series of brief, recurring sidebar activities linked to the text reading, students get an opportunity to test their assumptions Go on a caffeine hunt. Check out the ingredient lists on your favorite and learn through hands-on exploration and discovery. Reinforcing that beverages, snacks, and painkillers. the science of psychology requires active participation, Do It! selections Which of these contain caffeine? You include, for example, an exercise on conducting an informal survey to might be surprised by how much observe and classify behaviors in a public setting, as well as an activity caffeine you consume every day guiding students on how to research a “happiness gene.” Such exercises without even knowing it. provide vibrant and involving experiences that get students thinking as psychologists do.

Concept Clips help students comprehend some of the most difficult ideas in introductory psychology. Colorful graphics and stimulating animations describe core concepts in a step-by-step manner, engaging students and aiding in retention. Concept Clips can be used as a presentational tool in the classroom or for student assessment.

Preface

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Through the connection of psychology to students’ own lives, concepts become more relevant and understandable. Powered by McGraw-Hill Education’s Connect Psychology, NewsFlash exercises tie current news stories to key psychological principles and learning objectives. After interacting with a contemporary news story, students are assessed on their ability to make the link between real life and research findings. Many cases are revisited across chapters, encouraging students to consider multiple perspectives.

Experience the Course You Want to Teach The Instructor Resources have been updated to reflect changes to the new edition; these can be accessed by faculty through Connect Psychology. Resources include the test bank, instructor’s manual, PowerPoint presentation, and image gallery.

Easily rearrange chapters, combine material, and quickly upload content you have written, such as your course syllabus or teaching notes, using McGraw-Hill Education Create. Find the content you need by searching through thousands of leading McGrawHill Education textbooks. Arrange your book to fit your teaching style. Create even allows you to personalize your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course information. Order a Create book, and you will receive a complimentary print review copy in three to five business days or a complimentary electronic review copy via e-mail in about an hour. Experience how McGraw-Hill Education empowers you to teach your students your way: http://create.mheducation.com ®

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Capture lessons and lectures in a searchable format for use in traditional, hybrid, “flipped classes” and online courses by using Tegrity (http://www.tegrity.com). Its personalized learning features make study time efficient, and its affordability brings this benefit to every student on campus. Patented search technology and real-time Learning Management System (LMS) integrations make Tegrity the market-leading solution and service.

McGraw-Hill Education Campus (www.mhcampus.com) provides faculty with true single sign-on access to all of McGraw-Hill Education’s course content, digital tools, and other high-quality learning resources from any LMS. This innovative offering allows for secure and deep integration, enabling seamless access for faculty and students to any of McGraw-Hill Education’s course solutions, such as McGraw-Hill Education Connect® (all-digital teaching and learning platform), McGraw-Hill Education Create (state-of-the-art custom-publishing platform), McGraw-Hill Education LearnSmart (online adaptive study tool), and Tegrity (fully searchable lecture-capture service).

McGraw-Hill Education Campus includes access to McGraw-Hill Education’s entire content library, including ebooks, assessment tools, presentation slides, multimedia content, and other resources. McGraw-Hill Education Campus provides instructors with open, unlimited access to prepare for class, create tests/quizzes, develop lecture material, integrate interactive content, and more.

Chapter-by-Chapter Changes Experience Psychology, Third Edition, includes important new material while content was streamlined where possible; each chapter is up-to-date to capture the latest trends and findings in the field. The key content changes, chapter by chapter, include but are not limited to the following:

CHAPTER 1: THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY ■ New discussion of psychological research on the real versus the virtual (online) world.

■ New explanation of the concept of operational definition.

■ New, more detailed explanation of negative and positive correlations.

■ Updated research on the long-term impact of positive emotions.

■ New content on random assignment in the context of research.

■ New, more detailed explanation of independent versus dependent variables.

■ New Intersection feature: “Personality Psychology and Social Psychology: Does Being with Others Lead to Happiness or Is It the Other Way Around?”

■ New discussion of correlational versus experimental research designs.

■ New material on ethics and the potential unforeseen impact of research on subjects.

■ Updated Challenge Your Thinking selection: “Is It Ethical to Use Deception in Research?”

CHAPTER 2: THE BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR ■ New discussion of the way changes in the brain can produce unexpected changes in a person.

■ Expanded explanation of efferent neurons.

■ Expanded explanation of the impact reinterpretation has on stress levels in challenging situations.

■ Expanded explanation of the parallels between the action of morphine and endorphins.

■ New research covering the impact of oxytocin on new fathers.

■ New information on fMRI studies of the brain at rest.

■ New Intersection feature: “Neuroscience and Emotion: How Does the Brain Recognize What Is Funny?”

■ New information on the association cortex.

■ Updated coverage of athletes and brain injury.

■ Updated research on neurogenesis.

■ Updated findings from the Human Genome Project on the number of genes in humans.

■ New coverage of the genome-wide association method to identify genetic variations linked to particular diseases.

■ New explanation of the genotype to phenotype process.

CHAPTER 3: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION ■ New research on using virtual reality to combat phantom limb pain.

■ New discussion and figure on top-down and bottom-up processing.

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■ New discussion of sustained attention and executive attention.

■ New examples of timbre.

■ New Intersection selection: “Emotion and Sensation: What Do Feelings Smell Like?”

CHAPTER 4: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS ■ Updated research on brain–computer interfaces.

■ New research on metacognition and the metacognitive experience.

■ Updated research on how the brain functions to produce consciousness.

■ New Challenge Your Thinking feature: “On Second Thought, Is Conscious Reflection Required for Moral Behavior?”

■ Updated research on the impact sleep has on memory, other cognitive processes, and immune system functioning.

■ New research on dreaming as a form of mind wandering.

■ New research on adolescent drug use.

■ New data on cigarette smoking rates.

■ New discussion of increased rates of marijuana use and legalization of medical marijuana in some states.

■ Updated discussion of meditation and meditative practices.

■ New Intersection selection: “Consciousness and Social Psychology: Can Lovingkindness Meditation Reduce Prejudice?”

CHAPTER 5: LEARNING ■ New introduction about the complex skills and learning of service dogs.

■ New Intersection feature: “Learning and Social Psychology: Can Classical Conditioning Help Us Understand the Meaning of Life?”

■ New tip on distinguishing operant from classical conditioning.

■ Expanded explanation of negative reinforcement.

CHAPTER 6: MEMORY ■ Updated treatment of the concept of priming.

■ Updated discussion of memories related to traumatic events.

■ Updated discussion of errors related to eyewitness testimony.

■ New Intersection selection: “Cognitive Psychology and Social Psychology: If We Can Forgive, Does That Help Us Forget?”

CHAPTER 7: THINKING, INTELLIGENCE, AND LANGUAGE ■ New research on the effectiveness of effortful reflection compared with intuitive ­decision making.

■ New coverage of loss aversion.

■ New Challenge Your Thinking feature: “Is There a Link Between Creative Genius and Psychopathology?”

■ New coverage of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

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■ New research on the effect of childhood experiences on IQ. ■ New coverage related to identifying gifted children.

■ New Intersection selection: “Educational Psychology and Social Psychology: Do Teachers Have Stereotypes About Gifted Children?”

■ New thinking about general intelligence and the analytical skills measured by IQ tests.

CHAPTER 8: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ■ New chapter opener about the quick-tempered childhood of Albert Einstein.

■ New marginal note explaining cross-sectional versus longitudinal research designs.

■ New research on alcohol consumption during pregnancy.

■ Updated discussion of the problems of preterm infants.

■ New research on the difficulties of early-maturing girls.

■ Updated findings on context-induced brain plasticity and the adolescent brain.

■ New section on nativist views of cognitive development and what infants bring with them into the world.

■ All new sections on cognitive processes in early, middle, and late adulthood.

■ New section on the cultural context of parenting.

■ Extensively revised treatment of socioemotional development in late adulthood, including an examination of Carstensen’s socioemotional selectivity theory.

■ New Intersection feature: “Developmental and Social Psychology: Is Attachment an Enduring Aspect of Life?”

■ New section with updated research on marriage and families.

■ Updated Challenge Your Thinking selection: “Is Parenthood Associated with ­Happiness?”

CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION ■ New chapter opener about Medal of Honor Recipient William Kyle Carpenter ■ Updated data on obesity.

■ New discussion of the psychological factors related to hunger and mindless eating.

■ New material and research on gender differences in sexuality and attitudes about casual sex.

■ Coverage of new developments related to same-sex marriage legislation.

■ New material on self-regulation, impulsivity, and procrastination.

■ New Intersection feature: “Motivation and Behavior Genetics: Why Do We Procrastinate?”

■ New research on compound facial expressions.

■ New discussion and research on gender and emotions.

CHAPTER 10: PERSONALITY ■ New chapter opener about childhood friends reuniting in adulthood.

■ Expanded explanation of Freud’s view of sex as anything pleasurable.

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■ New margin note on remembering the difference between ego and id.

■ Coverage of new research on conscientiousness and its link with grade point averages versus other personality traits.

■ New Challenge Your Thinking selection: “Is There One Really Great Personality?”

■ New research on delay of gratification in early childhood and its link with body mass index in later life.

■ New coverage of the MMPI-2-RF and how it differs from the MMPI-2.

■ Expanded discussion of face validity for measures of the big five personality traits.

■ New Intersection feature: “Personality and Neuroscience: How Do the Brain’s ­Hemispheres Complete a Questionnaire?”

CHAPTER 11: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY ■ New chapter organization that moves from dyads, to ever larger social contexts.

■ New presentation of the definition of social psychology and the extraordinarily social quality of our species.

■ New discussion of the distinction between social psychology and sociology.

■ All new discussion of the broad range of topics researched in social psychology and its overlap with other areas of psychology.

■ Expanded discussion of the bystander effect.

■ Expanded and updated information on first impressions, stereotypes, and stereotype threat.

■ Updated research on positive illusions.

■ New discussion and example of altruism, with updated research.

■ New discussion and research on the psychological factors involved in altruism.

■ Updated research on the role of hormones on aggressive behavior and vice versa.

■ New research on the impact of love in young adults: increased depression and anxiety but better sleep quality.

■ New discussion of the awkwardness involved in openly discussing race in the United States and the problems with labels.

■ New Challenge Your Thinking feature: “Why Does a Cell Phone Look Like a Gun?”

CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS ■ New chapter opener describing the life stories of people suffering from schizophrenia and other psychological disorders.

■ Explanation of the vulnerability-stress hypothesis as it relates to the development of psychological disorders.

■ Information on the Affordable Care Act coverage for psychological disorders.

■ Extensively updated Challenge Your Thinking selection on ADHD. ■ New research on the involvement of neurotransmitters and the limbic system in OCD. ■ Updated discussion of biological factors related to depressive disorders.

■ New data on suicide rates among adolescents compared with emerging adults.

■ Updated section on psychological factors that contribute to suicide.

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■ New Intersection selection: “Clinical Psychology and Emotion: Does Positive Emotion Play a Role in Anorexia Nervosa?”

■ Clarification of research on structural brain differences at birth and schizophrenia.

■ New discussion of connections between schizophrenia and regulation of the neurotransmitter dopamine.

■ Updated research on how psychologists view the role of life experience in relation to schizophrenia.

■ Extensively revised section on the role of sociocultural factors in schizophrenia.

■ Updated research on factors that may produce antisocial personality disorder.

■ New end-of-section Self-Quiz on factors and theories related to suicide.

■ New material on stereotypes regarding violent behavior of those with psychological disorders.

CHAPTER 13: THERAPIES ■ Updated chapter opener on the importance of social media in determining when someone needs help.

■ New section comparing psychological and biological approaches to treatment; new description of the controversy over prescription privileges for clinical psychologists.

■ New organizational structure, lending prominence to psychological approaches to treatment.

■ Clarification of the differing approaches of biomedical and psychotherapeutic perspectives in treating psychological disorders; new research on empirically supported treatments and the controversy of whether samples used in studies are representative of the individuals clinicians see in practice.

■ New coverage of research on applied behavior analysis in treating individuals with autism; and research studying the success of early and intense behavioral treatment for autism spectrum disorders.

■ Expanded coverage of the effectiveness of psychotherapy and the factors involved with successful treatment; systematic desensitization; distinctions between different therapies (insight versus immediate symptoms/skills and directive or nondirective); research on cognitive-behavior therapy in treating many disorders, including anxiety disorders, disorders of emotion and mood, schizophrenia (in combination with drug therapy), and personality disorders; and research on integrative therapy to adjust the treatment to the individual client.

■ Updated listing of medications for treating anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia; new research on side effects of antipsychotic medications.

■ Reorganization and revision of chapter to reflect current treatment practices.

CHAPTER 14: HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY ■ New chapter opener on decision making related to health and health care.

■ Exploration of new research on the power of optimism in promoting positive functioning.

■ Expanded explanation of implementation intentions as they relate to motivation and health goals.

■ New material on the effect of social support on loneliness and depression.

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■ New research on the role of church-based social support for African Americans.

■ Updated information on the link between stress and immune system functioning.

■ Updated research on the link between stress and factors related to cardiovascular disease.

■ Updated material on obesity and overeating.

■ New Intersection selection: “Health Psychology and Cognition: Can Mindless Processing Enhance Healthy Eating?”

■ Updated data on smoking rates.

■ Updated data on AIDS deaths.

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acknowledgments The quality of Experience Psychology is a testament to the skills and abilities of so many people, and I am tremendously grateful to the following individuals for their insightful contributions during the project’s development.

Eileen Achorn, University of Texas–San Antonio Geraldine Acquard, Howard Community College Stacy Alves Labore, Forsyth Technical Community College Marina Baratian, Brevard Community College– Melbourne Michael Barnett, University of North Texas Aarika Barrett, Liberty University Kathryn Becker Blease, Oregon State David Baskind, Delta College Lilia Bermudez, Columbus State Community College E. Andrew Blair, Palm Beach State College– Lake Worth Jack Bodden, Texas A&M University Marti Bonne, Joliet Junior College Gerald Braasch, McHenry County College Megan Bradley, Frostburg State University Pamela Bradley, Sandhills Community College Nicole Brandt, Columbus State Community College Victor Broderick, Lincoln Land Community College Melissa Buelow, Ohio State University–Newark Kerry Burd, Rock Valley College Kate Byerwalter, Grand Rapids Community College Casey Carlton, JS Reynolds Community College Marlene Carrilho, Liberty University Pamela Carroll, Three Rivers Community College Lore Carvajal, Triton College Christie Cathey, Missouri State University Jenel Cavazos, Cameron University Charles Cocores, Three Rivers Community College Jay Cohen, Oakton Community College Barb Corbisier, Blinn College–Bryan Bonnie Curran, Liberty University Sammie Davis Dyson, Lorain County Community College Bonnie Dennis, Virginia Western Community College Stephanie Ding, Del Mar College

Sundi Donovan, Liberty University Vicki Dretchen, Volunteer State Community College C. Jeffrey Dykhuizen, Delta College Ashley Emmerich, University of Texas–San Antonio Kathy Erickson, Pima Community College–East Paul Falencki, Lorain County Community College Roy Fish, Zane State College Brent Fonville, Delta College Lisa Fosbender, Keene State Michelle Foust, Baldwin Wallace College April Fugett-Fuller, Marshall University Lynne Gabriel, Lakeland Community College Steven Gomez, William Rainey Harper Eulalio Gonzalez, Lorain County Community College Chris Goode, Georgia State University Andrea Graves, Lorain County Community College Jeff Green, Virginia Commonwealth University Cathleen Greenan, Dutchess Community College Lindsay Greenlee, The Citadel Christine Grela, McHenry County College Jonathan Grimes, Community College Baltimore County–Essex Isabel Gutierrez, Raritan Valley Community College Michael Hall, Dutchess Community College Joe Hammond, Greenville Technical College Frank Hammonds, Troy University Christine Harrington, Middlesex County College John Haworth, Chattanooga State Technical Community College Lori Henderson, Southeastern Community College Mark Hicks, Lorain County Community College Brooke Hindman, Greenville Tech College Joe Horvat, Weber State Cory Howard, Tyler Junior College Vivian Hsu, Rutgers University Mildred Huffman, Virginia Western Community College Brandon Jablonski, Sinclair Community College Jay Jackson, Indiana University

Joan Jensen, Central Piedmont Community College Monique Johnson, Saint Philips College Paul Johnson, Oakton Community College James Jordan, Lorain County Community College Donna Kearns, University of Central Oklahoma Patricia Kemerer, Ivy Tech Community College Pamela Kerouack-Warner, Three Rivers Community College Shirley Kuhn, Pitt Community College Shannon Kundey, Hood College Kristin Kwasny, Sinclair Community College Caleb Lack, University of Central Oklahoma Heather LaCost, Waubonsee Community College Richard Lamborn, Ivy Tech Community College Karla Lassonde, Minnesota State University Karen Leadem, Liberty University Julie Lee, Cape Fear Community College Don Lucas, Northwest Vista College Theresa Luhrs, DePaul University Lynda Mae, Arizona State University–Tempe Mike Mangan, University of New Hampshire Gina Mariano, Troy University Susan McClure, Westmoreland County Community College Dan McConnell, University of Central Florida Jason McCoy, Cape Fear Community College Sean Meegan, University of Utah–Salt Lake City Megan Mericle, Lorain County Community College Dawn Molina, Lorain County Community College Sara Neeves, Virginia Western Community College Robert Nelson, Liberty University Margaret Olimpieri, Dutchess Community College Brian Parry, Colorado Mesa University Lois Pasapane, Palm Beach State College–Lake Worth David Payne, Wallace Community College– Dothan Kerri Peach Churches, Rock Valley College Catherine Peters, Liberty University Kathleen Peters, Brevard Community College– Melbourne

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Pete Phipps, Dutchess Community College Robin Popp, Chattanooga State Technical Community College M. Christine Porter, College of William & Mary Wendy Quinton, SUNY–Buffalo Stacey Ray, Hibbing Community College Cynthia Rickert, Ivy Tech Community College Vicki Ritts, Saint Louis Community College– Meramec Kirkwood Shani Roberts, Liberty University Famika Robertson, JS Reynolds Community College Edie Sample, Metropolitan Community College– Fort Omaha Nancy Schaab, Delta College Spring Schafer, Delta College Shannon Scott, Texas Woman’s University Donald Shull, Ivy Tech Distance Education Alicia Sichan, Marymount California University

Stu Silverberg, Westmoreland County Community College Randy Simonson, College of Southern Idaho Lee Skeens, Southeastern Community College Cindy Sledge, San Jacinto–South Anissa Snyder, University of Texas–San Antonio Donna Steckal, Eastern Arizona College Kerri Stephens, Cameron University Paul Susen, Three Rivers Community College Rachelle Tannenbaum, Anne Arundel Community College Eloise Thomas, Ozarks Technical Community College Elayne Thompson, William Rainey Harper Natasha Tokowicz, University of Pittsburgh– Pittsburgh Ronald Truelove, Ball State University Irene Tsapelas, Medgar Evers College Lori Van Wallendael, University of North Carolina–Charleston

Victoria Van Wie, Lone Star–Cyfair Lora Vasiliauskas, Virginia Western Community College Fabian Vega, Baltimore City Community College Pamela Vincent, Lorain County Community College Mark Vosvick, University of North Texas Bernadine Waller, Adelphi University Shannon Warman, University of Northwestern Ohio Carmon Weaver Hicks, Ivy Tech Community College Marylou Wells, Sinclair Community College Shannon Westphal, Black Hawk College Colin William, Ivy Tech Community College Ralph Worthing, Delta College M. Liz Wright, Northwest Vista College Anthony Yankowski, Bergen Community College

Personal Acknowledgments Returning to Experience Psychology for this third edition has been quite an adventure. I very much appreciate all those at McGraw-Hill Education who brought their characteristic levels of innovation, enthusiasm, and encouragement to bear. I especially wish to thank Cara Labell for her efforts in conveying the information from LearnSmart heat maps to inform this revision, making it as responsive to students’ needs as possible. A very special thank you as well to Jennifer Gordon whose painstaking copyediting was once again invaluable and whose hard work made a difficult year much easier; and to Sandy Wille and Matt Backhaus who, respectively, managed the production process and design development with expertise. I also want to thank Sheryl Adams for her unflagging support of me and Experience Psychology.

A special thanks goes out to the many students and faculty I visited around the country this year.

Whenever I felt down or overwhelmed by the sheer enormity of this undertaking, my experiences with you were a huge shot in the arm. Those visits were rejuvenating and stimulating. It meant so much to me to have students come up, take selfies with me, and chat about psychology. I treasure the times I have heard you say, “You sound just like you do in the book!” That’s what Experience Psychology is all about, and nothing could be more gratifying. It has been an honor to share your introductory psychology experiences with you. Thanks to Nancy Welcher, A. J. Laferrera, and Ann Helgerson for finding innovative ways for me to reach out to faculty and students, whether in person or through technology.

Thanks to my colleagues at the University of Missouri, for their enthusiasm, advice, patience, and support. I owe a special debt of gratitude to Samantha Heintzelman, Sarah Ward, and Jerry Mitchell, my graduate students, who have patiently endured having an advisor who is not only a journal editor but also an author and teacher, while generating their own very exciting scholarship. Finally, a heartfelt thank-you goes to my family and friends who have supported and inspired me, especially Lisa and Sam.

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1

The Science of Psychology

The Virtual and the Real You

M

any of us live in two worlds at once—the real world and a virtual one that exists on computers, smartphones, and gaming servers. In the real world, we have friends we see daily, but in the virtual world, we may know hundreds or even thousands more. We connect with these folks on social media, online message boards, or multiplayer games. In the virtual world, we may do things we never would in the real world, such as share thoughts and feelings we wouldn’t in person or occupy roles that don’t really exist (like a clumsy zombie or his enemy a wily pea plant). Still, the real and virtual worlds are connected. Research shows that college students often use online profiles to express their true selves (Back & others, 2010) and status updates to share their intimate feelings (Manago, Taylor, & Greenfield, 2012). Even though they occur in the virtual world, being friended feels good and being unfriended feels bad (Sibona, 2014). College students with large Facebook networks report higher feelings of life satisfaction (Manago, Taylor, & Greenfield, 2012). Sometimes events in the two worlds collide: The most common reason for unfriending a coworker is that person’s behavior in the (real) workplace (Sibona, 2014).

One thing the real and virtual world have in common is you—the person who occupies them both.

Psychologists are scientists who are interested in all of the things you do, in all of the worlds you occupy.

Like a fan following the minutiae of a celebrity’s Twitter feed, psychologists are passionate about what they study—and what they study is behavior. Thousands of dedicated scientists investigate phenomena such as how the human brain responds to a picture flashed on a screen and how the eyes adjust to a sunny day and how a person feels when she discovers she’s been unfriended. There is not a single thing people do that is not fascinating to some psychologist somewhere.

Las t ©Aandresr/Getty Head Images // 1

This chapter begins by defining psychology and reviewing the history of the field. Next we survey seven broad approaches that characterize psychological science today.

Then, in sequence, we examine the elements of the scientific method, review the different kinds of research psychologists do, and consider the importance of conducting psychological research according to ethical guidelines. We conclude with a look at applications of psychology to daily life—a central focus of Experience Psychology.

Defining Psychology and

1 Exploring Its Roots Formally defined, psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. psychology Let’s consider the three key terms in this definition: science, behavior, and mental The scientific study of behavior and processes.

What is your definition of mental processes.

As a science, psychology uses systematic methods to observe human behavpsychology? When you think of the word ior and draw conclusions. The goals of psychological science are to describe, psychology, what first comes to mind? predict, and explain behavior. In addition, psychologists are often interested in science The use of systemcontrolling or changing behavior, and they use scientific methods to examine atic methods to observe the natuinterventions that might help, for example, reduce violence or promote happiness. ral world, including Researchers might be interested in knowing whether individuals will help a stranger who human behavior, has fallen down. The researchers could devise a study in which they observe people walk- and to draw ing past a person who needs help. Through many observations, the researchers could come conclusions. to describe helping behavior by counting how many times it occurs in particular circumstances. They might also try to predict who will help, and when, by examining characteristics of the individuals studied. Are happy people more likely to help? Are women or men more likely to help? After the psychologists have analyzed their data, they also will want to explain why helping behavior occurred when it did. Finally, they might be interested in changing helping behavior, such as by devising strategies to increase helping.

Behavior is everything we do that can be directly observed—two people kissing, a mental processes behavior Everything we do that can be baby crying, a college student riding a motorcycle to campus. Mental processes are the The thoughts, feeldirectly observed. thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be ings, and motives that people experiobserved directly. Although we cannot directly see thoughts and feelings, they are none- ence privately but theless real. They include thinking about kissing someone, a baby’s feelings when its that cannot be obmother leaves the room, and a student’s memory of a motorcycle trip. served directly.

Behavior includes the observable act of two people kissing; mental processes include their unobservable thoughts about kissing. (both) © Betsie Van Der Meer/Taxi/Getty Image

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T h e S ci e n ce of P sy c h ol ogy

The Psychological Frame of Mind What makes for a good job, a good marriage, or a good life? Psychologists approach these big life questions as scientists. Psychology is a rigorous discipline that tests assumptions, bringing scientific data to bear on the questions of central interest to human beings (Jackson, 2015; Kantowitz, Roediger, & Elmes, 2015). Psychologists conduct research and rely on that research to provide evidence for their conclusions. They examine the available evidence about some aspect of mind and behavior, evaluate how strongly the data (information) support their hunches, analyze disconfirming evidence, and carefully consider whether they have explored all possible factors and explanations (Stangor, 2015). At the core of this scientific approach are four attitudes: critical thinking, curiosity, skepticism, and objectivity.

Like all scientists, psychologists are critical thinkers. Critical thinking is the process critical thinking of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence (Stanovich, The process of thinking 2013). Critical thinkers question and test what some people say are facts. They examine deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the research to see how soundly it supports an idea (Christensen, Johnson, & Turner, 2015). evidence.

Critical thinking reduces the likelihood that conclusions will be based on unreliable personal beliefs, opinions, and emotions. Critical thinking also comes into play when scientists consider the conclusions they draw from research. As critical thinkers who are open to new information, scientists must tolerate uncertainty, knowing that even longheld views are subject to revision.

Critical thinking is very important as you read Experience Psychology. Some of what you read might fit with your beliefs, and some might challenge you to change or reconsider them. Actively engaging in critical thinking is vital to making the most of psychology. As you study the field, think about how what you are learning relates to your life experiences and your assumptions about human behavior.

Scientists are also curious. The scientist notices things in the world (a star in the sky, an insect, a happy person) and wants to know what it is and why it is that way. Science involves asking questions, even very big questions such as where did the earth come from, and how does love between two people endure for 50 years? Thinking like a psychologist means opening your mind and imagination to wondering why things are the way they are.

In addition, scientists are skeptical (Smith & Davis, 2013). Skeptical people challenge whether a supposed fact is really true. Being skeptical can mean questioning what “everybody knows.” There was a time when “everybody knew” that women were morally inferior to men, that race could influence a person’s IQ, and that the earth was flat. Psychologists, like all scientists, look at assumptions in new and questioning ways. Psychology is different from common sense because psychologists are skeptical of commonsensical answers.

Psychological research often turns up the unexpected in human behavior. Such results are called counterintuitive because they contradict our intuitive impressions of how the world works. Consider the following study, which demonstrates how a little dose of negative information can actually make consumers feel more positive about a product (Ein-Gar, Shiv, & Tormala, 2012). Students who were on their way to an exam were approached by an experimenter offering to sell them chocolate bars. All of the participants were told that the chocolate bars were a favorite among consumers, that they were nicely chilled (the study was conducted on a hot day in California), and that they were being offered at a special discount of only 50 cents. However, half of the participants received You might be wondering about one more piece of information: The chocolate bars were just a little broken. the names and dates in parentheses.

The experimenter showed them an example of a bar with minor breakage.

Participants who were given this mild negative information ended up purchasThey are research citations that identify ing more chocolate bars than those who heard only the positive informathe authors of particular studies and the tion. Why? year each study was published. If you The experimenters reasoned that when we have encountered positive inforsee an especially interesting study, you mation about something, a little bit of negative information causes us to stop might look it up in the References at the and reconsider that positive information. We think about it more and eventually end of the chapter and check it out online come to evaluate a mildly “blemished” product as actually really good. Note that these results were limited to students who were preoccupied by a test. Other students or in your school's library.

Defi ni ng Psyc hol ogy an d Explorin g I t s Root s

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who were not thinking about a test bought less chocolate when it was presented as broken.

The researchers’ explanation is that when we do not have time or energy to think things through, a minor blemish can enhance evaluations of a product.

Last, practicing science also means being objective. Being objective involves trying to see things as they really are, not just as the observer would like them to be. Scientific knowledge ultimately is based on objective evidence. empirical method To gather objective evidence, scientists rely on empirical methods. The empirical Gaining knowledge through method involves gaining knowledge by observing events, collecting data, and reasoning the observation of events, logically. For scientists, objectivity means waiting to see what the evidence tells them the collection of data, and rather than going with their hunches. Does the latest herbal dietary supplement really logical reasoning. help relieve depression? A scientist would say, “That’s an empirical question,” meaning that hard evidence is required to answer it. An objective thinker insists on sound evidence before drawing conclusions. Like critical thinking, relying on evidence This is why researchers often to provide the foundation for conclusions means being open to uncertainty. say that a study supports a particular Empirical evidence provides the best answers to questions at any given moment.

Once you start to think like a psychologist, the world begins to look like a prediction, but rarely if ever say that it different place. Easy answers and simple assumptions will not do. As you can proves anything. probably imagine, psychologists, as a group, are people with many different opinions about many different things. If a number of these critical thinkers were to gather around a table, it is a safe bet that they would have a lively conversation.

Indeed, as you will see throughout Experience Psychology, there are many things about which psychologists disagree, and psychology (like any science) is filled with debate and controversy. For example, one controversy in psychology concerns the emergence of so-called Generation Me (Twenge, 2006). Jean Twenge and her colleagues (Twenge, 2006; Twenge & Campbell, 2010) argue that Americans born since the 1980s are different from previous generations in that they are unusually self-confident, selfassertive, and self-centered. Based on her research examining scores on questionnaires concerning narcissism (a condition of intense, unhealthy self-love) over many years, Twenge (2006) refers to these individuals as Generation Me. She suggests that we are in the midst of an epidemic of narcissism. Other psychologists, however, sharply challenge this claim. In doing so, they present data showing no changes in narcissism over the last three decades (Trzesniewski & Donnellan, 2010).

So, debate and controversy are a natural part of thinking like a psychologist. Psychology has advanced as a field because psychologists do not always agree with one another about why mind and behavior work the way they do. Psychologists have reached a more accurate understanding of human behavior because psychology Clinical Industrial fosters controversies and because psychologists think deeply and reflec24% 12% tively and examine the evidence on all sides. A good place to try out your critical thinking skills is by revisiting the definition of psychology.

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Academic 34% Other 4%

Private practice 22% Schools 4%

FIGURE 1 Settings in Which Psychologists Work More psychologists work in academic settings (34 percent), such as colleges and universities, than in any other setting.

However, clinical (24 percent) and private practice (22 percent) settings—both of which are contexts in which many psychologists in the mental health professions work—together make up almost half of the total settings.

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Psychology as the Science of All Human Behavior As you consider the general definition of psychology as the science of human behavior, you might be thinking, okay, where’s the couch? Where’s the mental illness? Psychology certainly includes the study of therapy and psychological disorders. Clinical psychologists are psychologists who specialize in studying and treating psychological disorders. By definition, though, psychology is a much more general science (Shiraev, 2011), practiced in several environments in addition to clinical settings (Figure 1). In fact, the most common place to find psychologists is in academic settings (colleges or universities). How did we end up with the idea that psychology is only about mental illness? Surely, psychological disorders are very interesting, and the media often portray psychologists as therapists. Yet the view

T h e S ci e n ce of P sy c h ol ogy

of psychology as the science of what is wrong with people started long before TV was even invented.

When they think of psychology, many people think of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).

Freud believed that most of human behavior is caused by dark, unpleasant, unconscious impulses pressing for expression. For Freud, even the average You have probably heard of a person on the street is a mysterious well of unconscious desires. Certainly, Freudian slip.

Freud s name has become Freud has had a lasting impact on psychology and on society. Consider, part of our everyday language. though, that Freud based his ideas about human nature on the patients he saw in his clinical practice—individuals who were struggling with psychological problems. His experiences with these patients, as well as his analysis of himself, colored his outlook on all of humanity. Freud once wrote, “I have found little that is ‘good’ about human beings on the whole. In my experience most of them are trash” (1918/1996).

Freud’s view of human nature has crept into general perceptions of what psychology is all about. Imagine, for example, that you are seated on a plane, having a pleasant conversation with the woman (a stranger) sitting next to you. At some point you ask your seatmate what she does for a living, and she informs you she is a psychologist. You might think to yourself, “Uh oh. What have I already told this person? What secrets does she know about me that I don’t know about myself? Has she been analyzing me this whole time?” Would you be surprised to discover that this psychologist studies happiness? Or intelligence? Or the processes related to the experience of vision? The study of psychological disorders is a very important aspect of psychology, but it represents only one part of the science of psychology.

Psychology seeks to understand the truths of human life in all its dimensions, including people’s best and worst experiences, and everything in between. Research on the human capacity for forgiveness demonstrates this point (Balliet, Li, & Joireman, 2011; Harper & others, 2014; McCullough, Kurzban, & Tabak, 2011, 2013). Forgiveness is the act of letting go of anger and resentment toward someone who has done something harmful to us. Through forgiveness we cease seeking revenge or avoiding the person who did us harm, and we might even wish that person well (Lin & others, 2014; Tuck & Anderson, 2014).

In October 2006, after Charles Carl Roberts took 10 young Amish girls hostage in a one-room schoolhouse in Pennsylvania, eventually killing 5 of them and wounding 5 others before killing himself, the grief-stricken Amish community focused not on hatred and revenge but on forgiveness. As funds were being set up for the victims’ families, the Amish insisted on establishing one for the murderer’s family. They prepared simple funerals for the dead girls, and the community invited the killer’s wife to attend. The science of psychology has much to offer to our understanding not only of the violent acts of the perpetrator but also of the forgiveness of the victims.

The willingness of these Amish people to forgive this horrible crime is both remarkable and puzzling. Can we scientifically understand the human ability to forgive even what might seem to be unforgivable? A number of psychologists have taken up the topic of forgiveness in research and clinical practice (Jacinto & Edwards, 2011; Worthington & others, 2011). Michael McCullough and his colleagues (McCullough & others, 2010) have shown that the capacity to forgive is an unfolding process that often takes time. For the Amish, their deep religious faith led them to embrace forgiveness, while many others might have been motivated to seek revenge and retribution. Researchers also have explored the relationship between religious commitment and forgiveness (McCullough, Bono, & Root, 2007), the cognitive skills required for forgiveness (Pronk & others, The murder in 2006 of five Amish schoolgirls evoked 2010), and even the potential dark side of forgiveness, which might feelings in the community not of hatred and revenge emerge, for example, when forgiveness leads an abusive spouse to but of forgiveness. © William Thomas Cain/Stringer/Getty Images feel free to continue a harmful behavior (McNulty, 2011).

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Defi ni ng Psyc hol ogy and Explorin g I t s Root s

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Some psychologists argue that the field has focused too much on the negative aspects of humanity and neglected topics that reflect the best of human life (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder, Lopez, & Pedrotti, 2010). Others insist that psychology would benefit more from studying human weaknesses (Lazarus, 2003). The fact is that to be a truly general science of human behavior, psychology must address all sides of human experience. Surely, controversy is a part of any science. Healthy debate characterizes the field of psychology, and a new psychological perspective sometimes arises when one scientist questions the views of another. Such ongoing debate is a sign of a lively discipline. Indeed, the very birth of the field was marked by debate. Great minds do not always think alike, especially when they are thinking about psychology.

Psychology in Historical Perspective Psychology seeks to answer questions that people have been asking for thousands of years—for example: How do we learn?

■ What is memory?

■ Why does one person grow and flourish while another struggles?

■

The notion that such questions might be answered through scientific inquiry is relatively new. From the time human language included the word why and became rich enough to let people talk about the past, we have been creating myths to explain why things are the way they are. Ancient myths attributed most important events to the pleasure or displeasure of the gods: When a volcano erupted, the gods were angry; if two people fell in love, they had been struck by Cupid’s arrows. Gradually, myths gave way to philosophy—the rational investigation of the underlying principles of being and knowledge. People attempted to explain events in terms of natural rather than supernatural causes.

Western philosophy came of age in ancient Greece in the fourth and fifth centuries b.c.e. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and others debated the nature of thought and behavior, including the possible link between the mind and the body. Later philosophers, especially René Descartes, argued that the mind and body were completely separate, and they focused their attention on the mind. Psychology grew out of this tradition of thinking about the mind and body. The influence of philosophy on contemporary psychology persists today, as researchers who study emotion still talk about Descartes, and scientists who study happiness often refer to Aristotle (McMahan & Estes, 2011).

In addition to philosophy, psychology has roots in the natural sciences of biology and physiology (Kardas, 2014; Schultz & Schultz, 2012). Indeed, it was Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), a German philosopher-physician, who put together the pieces of the philosophy–natural science puzzle to create the academic discipline of psychology. Some historians like to say that modern psychology was born in December 1879 at the University of Leipzig, when Wundt and his students (most notably E. B. Titchener) performed an experiment to measure the time lag between the instant a person heard a sound and when that person pressed a telegraph key to signal that he had heard it.

What was so special about this experiment? Wundt’s study was about the workings of the brain: He was trying to measure the time it took the human brain and nervous system to translate information into action. At the heart of this experiment was the idea that mental processes could be measured. structuralism This focus ushered in the new science of psychology.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Wundt’s approach Wundt and his collaborators concentrated on discovering the basic elements, Wundt founded the first psychology to discovering the laboratory (with his two coworkers) in 1879 or “structures,” of mental processes. Their approach was called structuralism basic elements, or because of its focus on identifying the elemental parts or structures of the structures, of menat the University of Leipzig in Germany. human mind. The method they used in the study of mental structures was tal processes. © Bettmann/Corbis

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T h e S ci e n ce o f P sy c hol ogy

introspection (literally, “looking inside”). For this type of research, a person sat in Introspection has its limits. a laboratory and was asked to think (to introspect) about what was going on Many behaviors are hard to explain mentally as various events took place. For example, the individual might be subjected to a sharp, repetitive clicking sound and then might be asked to using introspection. Think about talking, report whatever conscious feelings the clicking produced. What made this for example. You somehow know where method scientific was the systematic, detailed self-reports required of the you are heading even as the words are person in the controlled laboratory setting. tumbling out of your mouth, but you Although Wundt is most often regarded as the founding father of modern cannot say where those words are psychology, it was psychologist and philosopher William James (1842–1910), coming from. perhaps more than anyone else, who gave the field an American stamp. From James’s perspective, the key question for psychology is not so much what the mind is (that is, its structures) as what it is for (its purpose or function). James’s view was eventually named functionalism.

In contrast to structuralism, which emphasized the components of the mind, function- functionalism alism probed the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual’s James’s approach to mental adaptation to the environment. Whereas structuralists were looking inside the mind and processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of searching for its structures, functionalists focused on human interactions with the outside the mind and behavior in the world to understand the purpose of thoughts. If structuralism is about the “what” of the individual’s adaptation to the mind, functionalism is about the “why.” environment.

A central question in functionalism is, why is human thought adaptive? When we talk about whether a characteristic is adaptive, we are concerned with how it makes an organism better able to survive. So, the functionalist asks, why are people better off because they can think than they would be otherwise? Unlike Wundt, James did not believe in the existence of rigid structures of the mind. Instead, James saw the mind as flexible and fluid, characterized by constant change in response to a continuous flow of information from the world.

Not surprisingly, James called the natural flow of thought a “stream of consciousness.”

Functionalism fit well with the theory of evolution through natural selection proposed

by British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882). In 1859, Darwin published his ideas in On the Origin of Species. He proposed the principle of natural selection, an evolu- natural selection tionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive Darwin’s principle of an and, importantly, produce offspring. Darwin noted that members of any species are often ­evolutionary process in which organisms that are best locked in competition for scarce resources such as food. Natural selection is the process adapted to their environment by which the environment determines who wins that competition. Darwin asserted that will survive and produce organisms with biological features that led to survival and reproduction would be better ­offspring. represented in subsequent generations. Over many generations, organisms with these characteristics would constitute a larger percentage of the population. Eventually this process could change an entire species. If environmental conditions changed, however, other characteristics might become favored by natural selection, moving the process in a different direction (Cowan, 2015).

If you are unfamiliar with Darwin’s theory of evolution, it might be helpful to consider the simple question, why do giraffes have long necks? An early explanation might have been that giraffes live in places where the trees are very tall, and so the creatures must stretch their necks to get their food— leaves. Lots of stretching might lead to adult giraffes that have longer necks.

This explanation does not tell us, though, why giraffes are born with long necks. A characteristic cannot be passed from one generation to the next unless it is recorded in the genes, those collections of molecules that are responsible for heredity (Cummings, 2014).

According to evolutionary theory, species change through random genetic mutation (Mader, 2014). That means that, essentially by accident, some members of a species are born with genetic characteristics that make them different from other members (for instance, some lucky giraffes being born with unusually long necks). If these changes are adaptive (for example, if they William James (1842–1910) help those giraffes compete for food, survive, and reproduce), they become James’s approach became known as more common in members of the species. So, presumably long, long ago, functionalism. some giraffes were genetically predisposed to have longer necks, and some © Bettmann/Corbis

Defi ni ng Psyc hol ogy a n d Explorin g I t s Root s

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giraffes were genetically predisposed to have shorter necks. Only those with the long necks survived to reproduce, giving us the giraffes we see today. The It turns out that giraffes don t survival of the giraffes with long necks is a product of natural selection. Evoeat food from tall trees. Instead, they lutionary theory implies that the way we are, at least partially, is the way that use their long necks to fight! is best suited to survival in our environment (Buss, 2012; Johnson, 2015).

Darwin’s theory continues to influence psychologists today because it is strongly supported by observation. We can make such observations every day. Right now, for example, in your kitchen sink, various bacteria are locked in competition for scarce resources in the form of those tempting food particles from your last meal. When you use an antibacterial cleaner, you are playing a role in natural selection, because you are effectively killing off the bacteria that cannot survive the cleaning agents. However, you are also letting the bacteria that are genetically adapted to survive that cleaner to take over the sink. The same principle applies to taking an antibiotic medication at the first sign of a sore throat or an earache. By killing off the bacteria that may be causing the illness, you are creating an environment where their competitors (so-called antibioticresistant bacteria) may flourish. These observations powerfully demonstrate Darwinian selection in action.

If structuralism won the battle to be the birthplace of psychology, functionalism won the war. To this day, psychologists continue to talk about the adaptive nature of human characteristics. Indeed, from these beginnings, psychologists have branched out to study more aspects of human behavior than Wundt or James might have imagined. We now examine various contemporary approaches to the science of psychology.

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1. Which of the following statements is correct?

A. There are many controversies in the field of psychology.

B. Psychologists on the whole agree among themselves on most aspects of the field.

C. Psychologists do not engage in critical thinking.

D. There are few controversies in the field of psychology.

2. Of the following, the characteristic that is not at the heart of the scientific approach is A. skepticism.

B. critical thinking.

C. prejudging.

D. curiosity.

3. Charles Darwin’s work is relevant to psychology because A. Darwin’s research demonstrated that there are few differences between humans and animals.

B. Darwin’s principle of natural selection suggests that human behavior is partially a result of efforts to survive.

C. Darwin stated that humans descended from apes, a principle that allows psychologists to understand human behavior.

D. Darwin created functionalism.

APPLY IT! 4. Two psychologists,

Clayton and Sam, are interested in studying emotional expressions. Clayton wants to determine whether emotional expression is healthy and if it has an influence on well-being. Sam is interested in describing the types of emotions people express and building a catalog of all the emotions and emotional expressions that exist. In this example, Clayton is most like and Sam is most like .

A. Wilhelm Wundt; William James B. William James; Wilhelm Wundt C. Wilhelm Wundt; Sigmund Freud D. Sigmund Freud; Wilhelm Wundt

Contemporary Approaches

2 to Psychology In this section we survey seven different approaches—biological, behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive, evolutionary, and sociocultural—that represent the intellectual backdrop of psychological science.

The Biological Approach

biological approach An approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system.

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Some psychologists examine behavior and mental processes through the biological approach, which is a focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. For

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T h e S ci e n ce o f P sy c h ol ogy

example, researchers might investigate the way your heart races when you are afraid or how your hands sweat when you tell a lie. Although a number of physiological systems may be involved in thoughts and feelings, perhaps the largest contribution to physiological psychology has come through the emergence of neuroscience (Botvinick & Braver, 2015; Qiu, Mori, & Miller, 2015).

Neuroscience is the scientific study of the strucneuroscience The scientific study ture, function, development, genetics, and biochemof the structure, istry of the nervous system. Neuroscience emphasizes function, developthat the brain and nervous system are central to ment, genetics, understanding behavior, thought, and emotion (Van and biochemistry of the nervous sys- Horn, 2014; Zhao & others, 2014). Neuroscientists tem, emphasizing believe that thoughts and emotions have a physical that the brain and basis in the brain. Electrical impulses zoom throughnervous system out the brain’s cells, releasing chemical substances are central to unthat enable us to think, feel, and behave. Our remark- Richard J. Davidson of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, shown with derstanding beable human capabilities would not be possible with- the Dalai Lama, is a leading researcher in behavioral neuroscience. havior, thought, and emotion. out the brain and nervous system, which constitute Courtesy of Richard Davidson, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Photo by Jeff Miller. the most complex, intricate, and elegant system imaginable. Although biological approaches might sometimes seem to reduce complex human experience to simple physical structures, developments in neuroscience have allowed psychologists to understand the brain as an amazingly complex organ, perhaps just as complex as the psychological processes linked to its functioning (Casey, 2015).

The Behavioral Approach The behavioral approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral behavioral approach responses and their environmental determinants. It focuses on an organism’s visible An approach to psychology behaviors, not thoughts or feelings. The psychologists who adopt this approach are called emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavbehaviorists. Under the intellectual leadership of John B. Watson (1878–1958) and B. F. ioral responses and their enviSkinner (1904–1990), behaviorism dominated psychological research during the first half ronmental determinants. of the twentieth century.

Skinner (1938) emphasized that psychology should be about what people do—their actions and behaviors—and should not concern itself with things that cannot be seen, such as thoughts, feelings, and goals. He believed that rewards and punishments determine our behavior. For example, a child might behave in a well-mannered fashion because her parents have rewarded this behavior. We do the things we do, say behaviorists, because of the environmental conditions we have experienced and continue to experience.

Contemporary behaviorists still emphasize the importance of observing behavior to understand an individual, and they use rigorous methods advocated by Watson and Skinner (Gariépy & others, 2014). They also continue to stress the importance of environmental determinants of behavior (Martin & Pear, 2014). However, not every behaviorist today accepts the earlier behaviorists’ rejection of thought processes, which are often called cognition (Bandura, 2011a, 2011b).

The Psychodynamic Approach The psychodynamic approach emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society’s demands, and early childhood family experiences. Practitioners of this approach believe that sexual and aggressive impulses buried deep within the unconscious mind influence the way people think, feel, and behave.

psychodynamic approach An approach to psychology emphasizing unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society’s demands, and early childhood family experiences.

Contem porary Approa c h es t o Ps ych ology

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Sigmund Freud, the founding father of the psychodynamic approach, theorized that early relationships with parents shape an individual’s personality.

Freud’s theory (1917) was the basis for the therapeutic technique that he called psychoanalysis, which involves an analyst’s unlocking a person’s unconscious conflicts by talking with the individual about his or her childhood memories, dreams, thoughts, and feelings. Certainly, Freud’s views have been controversial, but they remain a part of contemporary psychology. Today’s psychodynamic theories tend to place less emphasis on sexual drives and more on cultural or social experiences as determinants of behavior (Borden & Clark, 2012).

The Humanistic Approach The humanistic approach emphasizes a person’s positive qualities, the humanistic capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one’s destiny. approach Humanistic psychologists stress that people have the ability to control their An approach to psychology emlives and are not simply controlled by the environment (Maslow, 1971; phasizing a perSigmund Freud (1856–1939) Rogers, 1961). They theorize that rather than being driven by unconscious son’s positive Freud was the founding father of the impulses (as the psychodynamic approach dictates) or by external rewards qualities, the capsychodynamic approach. (as the behavioral approach emphasizes), people can choose to live by higher pacity for positive © Ingram Publishing human values such as altruism (an unselfish concern for another person’s growth, and the freedom to choose well-being) and free will. Many aspects of this optimistic approach appear in research any destiny. on motivation, emotion, and personality psychology (Keltner & others, 2014; Sheldon, Cheng, & Hilpert, 2011; Sheldon & Schüler, 2011).

The Cognitive Approach According to cognitive psychologists, your brain houses a “mind” whose mental processes allow you to remember, make decisions, plan, set goals, and be creative (Sternberg, 2014a, 2014b). The cognitive approach, then, emphasizes the mental processes involved in know- cognitive ing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve approach problems. For example, cognitive psychologists want to know how we An approach to psychology solve math problems, why we remember some things for only a short ­emphasizing the time but others for a lifetime, and how we can use our imaginations to mental processes plan for the future (Kuo & others, 2014; Siegler & Thompson, 2014). involved in knowCognitive psychologists view the mind as an active and aware problem- ing: how we direct solving system. This view contrasts with the behavioral outlook, which our attention, perceive, remember, portrays behavior as controlled by external environmental forces. From think, and solve the cognitive perspective, an individual’s mental processes are in control problems. of behavior through memories, perceptions, images, and thinking.

The Evolutionary Approach

According to humanistic psychologists, warm, supportive behavior toward others helps us to realize our tremendous capacity for self-understanding. © Rick Diamond/Getty Images

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evolutionary

Although arguably all of psychology emerges out of evolutionary approach An approach to theory, some psychologists emphasize an evolutionary approach that psychology cenuses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural tered on evolutionselection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors. David ary ideas such as Buss (2012) argues that just as evolution molds our physical features, adaptation, reprosuch as body shape, it also influences our decision making, level of duction, and natural selection as the aggressiveness, fears, and mating patterns. Thus, evolutionary psy- basis for explainchologists say, the way we are is traceable to problems early humans ing specific human faced in adapting to their environments (Cosmides, 2011). behaviors.

T h e S ci e n ce o f P sy c hol ogy

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have

two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise, come in for a blowing-up.

The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala, shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.

Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde bush:—