4.4. Howard Gardner

‘Learning is more than the acquisition of the ability to think; it is the acquisition of many specialized abilities for thinking about a variety of things.ʼ(Jing et al., 2019,p. 85).

Vygotsky's best-known concept is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), a key construct in Lev Vygotsky's theory of learning and development (Vygotsky, 1978). The Zone of Proximal Development is defined as the space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable and skilled peers. The term ‘proximal’ refers to those skills that the learner is ‘close’ to mastering. It is a theory where a teacher or a peer with more relevant skills helps the learner reach their full potential. A good teacher or moreknowledgeable-other (MKO) identifies a learner's ZPD and helps them stretch beyond it. Then the MKO gradually withdraws support until the learner can perform the task unaided. Other psychologists have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary platforms on which construction workers stand) to Vygotsky' s theory. Scaffolding is the temporary support that an MKO gives a learner to do a task. Everyone has hidden potential that can be reached with proper support, and one should never ‘judge the book by its cover’. It is important to note that the terms cooperative learning, scaffolding and guided learning all have the same meaning within the literature.

Zone Of Proximal Development (ZPD) - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY BY VYGOTSKY - GROUP: MOCKINGJAY (google.com)

What we should remember:

⮚ In order to develop the ZPD,the trainer should consider/elicit the previous knowledge from the learners. ⮚ Art and physical activity help young people to reach their full potential, their ZPD. ⮚ Assign tasks that students cannot do on their own but which they can do with assistance and provide an environment that enables students to do harder tasks than would otherwise be possible. Art and sport settings are good examples of such environments.

4.4. Howard Gardner

Howard Gardner is the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Research Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. He is also an adjunct professor of psychology at Harvard University and senior director of Harvard Project Zero. He has received numerous honours and, in recognition of his contributions to both academic theory and public policy, he has received honorary degrees from 31 colleges and universities. He has been elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, the National Academy of Education,and the Londonbased Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.In 1990,

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he was the first American to receive the University of Louisville' s Grawemeyer Award in Education. In his book Multiple Intelligences, Gardner (1996) defines intelligence as the ability to process information, solve problems or create products that are valuable to a particular community or culture. He sees that ability coming back in different areas of human activity. His vision is pluralistic: he tries all kinds of ‘intelligent behaviour’toprovide a place and to take into account the different ways in which people know and can. During his studies, Howard Gardner identified different kinds of intelligence: linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence (which together make the typical concept of intelligence, measured in conventional tests), spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, physical-aesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, and then he added the naturalistic intelligence.

1. Linguistic-Verbal intelligence: ⮚ referred to as linguisticintelligence; ⮚ someone who is linguistically strong uses language as a means of understanding the world, solving problems, and making products by asking for explanations, reading, putting words into words; ⮚ you find this intelligence mostly in professions such as writers, poets, journalists. 2. Logical-Mathematical intelligence: ⮚ analytical, logical, ordered and systematic intelligence, in which concepts and ideas are entirely dissected; ⮚ someone who is logically-mathematically strong always wants to know precisely what the situation is; ⮚ it is a necessary intelligence for scientists. 3. Visual-Spatial intelligence: ⮚ based on the spatial or visual proposals of concepts and ideas; ⮚ this intelligencecan be created by both images and language; ⮚ it is typical for visual artists, pilots, architects, chess players and surgeons. 4. Musical intelligence: ⮚ should not necessarily be identified with singing or playing an instrument; ⮚ it is primarily about feeling and recognising sounds, rhythm, repetition, pattern; ⮚ it is indispensable for musicians and singers.

5. Bodily-Kinaesthetic intelligence: ⮚ people who are strong inthis intelligence (also called tactical-motor intelligence) learn and create by manipulating things, doing things themselves; ⮚ it is essential for dancers, athletesand mechanics.

6. Interpersonal intelligence: ⮚ those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other people;

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⮚ these individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of those around them,and are cooperative.

7. Intrapersonal intelligence: ⮚ individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their emotional states, feelings, and motivations; ⮚ they tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming, exploring relationships with others, and assessingtheir strengths; ⮚ peoplelike philosophers and writers have this intelligence.

8. Naturalistic intelligence: ⮚ it is characterised by the recognition of broader connections or interconnections; ⮚ individuals who are high in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature but just as well in society; ⮚ they are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about other species; ⮚ professions like biologists, conservationists, gardeners, farmershave this naturalistic intelligence.

Cherry, Kendra, (2021). Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Verywell mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/gardners-theory-of-multiple-intelligences-2795161

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