Watershed Monitoring Framework: Iloilo City, Philippines

A Monitoring Framework to Communicate Watershed Health in Iloilo Province, Philippines Prepared By: Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office (PENRO) of the Iloilo Provincial Government and University of the Philippines Visayas (UPV).

With technical support provided by the Canadian Urban Institute (CUI) This work was carried out with the aid of a grant from the International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada July 2016 www.canurb.org

CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................................. iii 1.

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 1

2.

WHAT GETS MEASURED GETS MANAGED: THE NEED FOR INFORMATION ........................................... 2

3.

OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................... 2

4.

GETTING STARTED ........................................................................................................................................ 3 4.1.

Pilot Surveys ................................................................................................................................................ 3

4.2.

Describing Monitoring Areas ...................................................................................................................... 3

5.

WHAT GETS MONITORED ............................................................................................................................. 4 5.1

Natural Cover.................................................................................................................................................. 4

5.2.

Biodiversity ............................................................................................................................................... 13

5.3.

Agriculture and Land Use.......................................................................................................................... 23

5.4.

Water ......................................................................................................................................................... 26

5.5.

Waste Management ................................................................................................................................... 41

5.6.

Governance ................................................................................................................................................ 41

6.

CONCLUSION ...............................................................................................................................................44

7.

LITERATURE CITED .....................................................................................................................................50

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Map of Iloilo Province (Panay Island) Showing the Tigum-Aganan and Jar-ao Guimbal Watersheds ........ iv Figure 2: Illustration of Forest Cover Quantity by Watershed ...................................................................................... 5 Figure 3: Permanent Forest Sampling Plots for Iloilo Province Watersheds ................................................................ 5 Figure 4: Permanent Forest Monitoring Station in Jar-ao, Tangyan-Guimbal Watershed ............................................ 6 Figure 5: Permanent Forest Monitoring Station in Tigum-Aganan Watershed (Municipality of Maasin) ................... 6 Figure 6: Where to Measure Tree Diameter at Breast Height ....................................................................................... 9 Figure 7: Map of Iloilo Province with River Monitoring Stations Highlighted .......................................................... 11 Figure 8: Monitoring the Quantity of Forest Cover within the Riparian Zone ........................................................... 12 Figure 9: Monitoring the Quantity of Forest Cover within the Riparian Zone ........................................................... 13 Figure 10: Sampling Station Map for Biodiversity ..................................................................................................... 15 Figure 11: Illustration of a Transect Walk ................................................................................................................. 21 Figure 12: Surveying Transect Cruise Routes by water .............................................................................................. 22 Figure 13: Agricultural Monitoring Stations for Jar-ao, Tangyan-Guimbal Watershed ............................................. 23 Figure 14: Agricultural Monitoring Stations for the Tigum-Aganan Watershed. ....................................................... 23 Figure 15: Protection Forests of Central Panay Mountains......................................................................................... 26 Figure 16: Method for Collecting Shallow Water Samples ........................................................................................ 31 Figure 17: Kemmerer and Van Dorn Water Samplers for Deep Water ...................................................................... 32 Figure 18: Water Sampling Bottles ............................................................................................................................. 33 Figure 19: Laboratory Chain of Custody Form ........................................................................................................... 35 Figure 20: Sampling Stream Cross-Section for Base Flow ......................................................................................... 38 Figure 21: Watersheds in Iloilo Province .................................................................................................................... 42 i|Monitoring Framework v.8.16

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Inventory of Tree Species and Other Forest Products ..................................................................................... 8 Table 2: Percent Forest Cover and Corresponding Disasters ........................................................................................ 9 Table 3: List of Indicator Species Selected for Monitoring ........................................................................................ 16 Table 4: List of Flagship Species (“Big Five”) Selected for Monitoring .................................................................... 17 Table 5: Calculating Species Diversity ....................................................................................................................... 17 Table 6: Sample Data Sheet for a Transect Cruise ...................................................................................................... 20 Table 7: Patrol Report/ Field Diary Form for Aquatic Transects ................................................................................ 22 Table 8: Estimates of the distance for complete mixing in watercourses.................................................................... 27 Table 9: General Variables to Monitor (Mäkelä and Meybeck, 1996) ....................................................................... 29 Table 10: Standard Set of Water Quality Parameters (Toronto and Region ............................................................... 30 Table 11: Sampling Frequency as Recommended in Global Environmental Monitoring System .............................. 31 Table 12: Prescribed Water Sampling Containers ...................................................................................................... 33 Table 13: Sample Holding Time and Preservation ..................................................................................................... 34 Table 14: State of Ground Water Well Inventories ..................................................................................................... 39 Table 15: State of Ground Water Well Inventories by Municipality .......................................................................... 40 Table 16: List of Important Organizational Instruments for Watershed Management Councils ................................ 43 Table 17: List of Important Regulatory Instruments Used to Assess Watershed Management Council Effectiveness43 Table 18: List of Important Management Instruments Existing at Watershed Management Councils ....................... 43 Table 19: Selected Stakeholders Participating in Watershed Management Councils ................................................. 44 Table 20: Summary of Data Sources for Watershed Monitoring in Iloilo Province ................................................... 45

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY All of us live in a watershed. The health of our watersheds is unquestionably linked to healthy communities and sustainable regions. The ongoing well-being of watersheds is strengthened with a systematic approach in place for collecting and evaluating data on indicators that will tell a story about conditions over time. A common monitoring framework will bring consistency across the region. Resultant information will facilitate decision-making, priority setting, and short and long-term initiatives to protect, restore and celebrate watersheds.

The document sets out a simple watershed monitoring framework in the Province of Iloilo, Philippines. The ultimate goal is to increase the capacity for evidence-based planning on a watershed basis in Iloilo province. The monitoring framework is intended to be a model for other local governments across the Philippines that are striving to improve the state of the country’s watersheds and reduce the risk of natural disasters.

To start, the monitoring framework is targeted at the Tigum-Aganan and Jar-ao, Tangyan-Guimbal watersheds (Figure 1). The framework identifies baseline information where it exists, data collection methods, collection frequency, sampling locations, data sources and responsibilities. Over time it is expected that this first generation monitoring framework will evolve and be revised to keep pace with information needs, technology, and enhanced resource allocation.

Although responsibility for monitoring may, in large part, be delegated to government agencies, support must be shared for maximum results. Setting out roles for municipalities, educational institutions, businesses, associations, interest groups and community volunteers is suggested. The best monitoring framework will benefit by cooperative partnerships that bring together resources, knowledge and commitment.

This document builds a project completed in 2013 that included the development of A State of the Watershed Report (SoWR). The SOWR summarized the current characteristics of the Tigum-Aganan watershed (TAW) – a watershed located in Iloilo province on Panay Island in the Western Visayas Region of the Philippines The SoWR was part of the Metro Iloilo-Guimarus Sustainable Bioregion Initiative; a project made possible by a financial contribution of Global Affairs Canada (then Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development) through the Canadian Urban Institute (CUI). After producing the SoWR, the next logical step was to develop a “Watershed Report Card” Program that included a monitoring framework. Local partners came together with the Canadian Urban Institute and were awarded funding from Canada’s International Development and Research Centre (IDRC) to deliver the “Evidence-Based Decision-Making for Watersheds in the Philippines”.

The Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office (PENRO) of the Iloilo Provincial Government and University of the Philippines in the Visayas (UPV) acted as the key partners responsible for research, consultation and developing the final products. The Canadian Urban Institute (CUI) delivered technical advice and project management. The Toronto Region and Conservation Authority also provided technical assistance through seconding Gary Wilkins, a former TRCA staff person to the project; Mr. Wilkins also acted as principal author of this document.

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Figure 1: Map of Iloilo Province (Panay Island) Showing the Tigum-Aganan and Jar-ao, Tangyan-Guimbal Watersheds

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1. INTRODUCTION The Canadian Urban Institute (CUI) received a financial contribution from the Government of Canada through the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) to implement “Evidence-Based Decision-Making for Watersheds in the Philippines”. One of the project’s deliverables is the development of a template to guide the preparation of report cards to communicate current watershed conditions based on important indicators of health and sustainability. As watershed report cards depend on collecting and evaluating current data, the project also includes the preparation of this monitoring framework to guide Philippine watershed managers in the collection of useful information that can be presented in future watershed report cards and in other applications. This framework is a starting point. As capacity increases over time, the framework will require modification to stay current with information needs, technology and resource allocation.

The Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office (PENRO) of the Iloilo Provincial Government and the University of the Philippines in the Visayas (UPV) partnered with CUI and worked collaboratively to develop this monitoring framework for urban and rural watersheds. Gary Wilkins, a former Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA) staff person acted as principal author of this document.

Through the technical support of various Philippine agencies and Non-Government Agencies (NGOs), and the experience of the Canadian Urban Institute in managing watersheds, the Iloilo Watershed Management District (IWMC) started designing a watershed management strategy. This strategy addresses variables such forest cover, biodiversity, water, governance, waste management and agriculture. The monitoring framework will guide the collection of information about these variables. It is an offshoot of the efforts of the Iloilo Provincial Government through the Iloilo Watershed Management Council in institutionalizing the protection and restoration of watersheds Since 2013, the efforts of Iloilo Province’s Watershed Councils have been recognized through the Governor’s Prize on Blue Waters Competition. With three years of experience in evaluating watersheds, this project was timely in tapping into CUI’s expertise in improving score cards on the health of watersheds by using an “evidence-based” approach.

Since the start of this project in June 2015, a series of consultations, workshops and validation activities were designed and conducted to capture the opinion of subject experts and a wide range of community stakeholders.

In time, the cumulative body of information generated by regular monitoring will identify long-term changes, provide the basis for statistical analysis of the possible causes, and demonstrate trends in measured conditions. This information will aid in communicating to decision makers and the public about how watershed health may be getting better or worse. Ultimately, the project will increase the capacity of the Province of Iloilo for evidence-based planning on a watershed basis. The project also aims to establish a model that will be replicated by academic institutions and other local governments in the Philippines that are striving to improve the state of the country’s watersheds.

The recommended watershed monitoring framework is initially being tested in two watersheds in Iloilo Province: the Tigum-Aganan watershed and the Jar-ao,Tangyan-Guimbal watershed. It is expected that the framework will be rolled out through Iloilo province. The framework identifies baseline information where available and data sources, and offers guidance on selecting sampling locations, variables to be measured, collection methods, frequency of sampling, information management, and responsibilities.

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2. WHAT GETS MEASURED GETS MANAGED: THE NEED FOR DATA The overall aim of the monitoring framework is to help characterize the condition of entire watersheds. Subwatershed level reporting is often the most effective scale (Conservation Ontario, 2013) and communities better relate to smaller units; especially those that are closest to where the target audience live or work.

Sub-watershed reporting allows environmental changes to be detected more easily over time and this facilitates program targeting based on environmental need. The actual size and number of sub-watersheds chosen will vary based on a variety of factors. The key is to identify sub-watersheds that are meaningful and identifiable to the intended audiences. For example, a watershed that is known already by name and identified by the local public would be an appropriate choice. Presenting information by a municipality wherever possible is also affective went communicating to communities and decision–makers. Government organizations benefit by knowing how their jurisdiction fares against other units. Processes and human interventions affecting environmental quality and their influences should also be considered when selecting sampling sites.

Monitoring programs can yield information that is valuable for understanding watershed health, decision-making, priority setting, and for guiding actions (Mäkelä and Meybeck, 1996). Types of information that may be generated include the following examples: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

How watershed conditions relate to the expectations and requirements of the users; How environmental conditions relate to established standards; How environmental conditions are affected by natural processes and human induced interventions; The effectiveness of management actions on watershed conditions; Trends in environmental conditions as a result of human activities; The chemical or biological variables that are discovered which impact beneficial uses; Hazards that may occur due to poor environmental conditions; and The effects that diminished environmental quality have on plant and animal life.

3. OBJECTIVES The initial objectives of the monitoring framework are as follows: 1. Ensure information is collected using widely accepted procedures and protocols so that it is replicable and defensible; 2. Select sampling stations that will yield information on actual and potential conditions over time; 3. Identification of baseline conditions; 4. Understanding how current conditions compare to national, provincial or other standards and criteria; 5. Detection of environmental deterioration or improvement over time; and 6. Evaluation of the effectiveness of management interventions to protect, restore and improve watershed conditions.

It is important that the objectives of the monitoring framework be understood and accepted by those who are expected to use it. In time, the framework will be revisited and amended based on the original findings, availability of resources, and the need for more information or different kinds of data.

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4. GETTING STARTED 4.1. PILOT SURVEYS Before embarking on an all-out monitoring campaign it is advisable to first test the sampling network. This gives an opportunity for staff to be trained and small problems remedied before staff and volunteers are deployed to remote areas. Consider how variations will be captured in the sampling due to annual cycles, climatic conditions, land-uses, width and depth of watercourses, size and accessibility of terrestrial habitats. For groundwater, it is important to sample from a single aquifer only. For indicators such as residential water use, agriculture, waste management and governance it is important that background information, sources of data, and contacts be recorded so this can all be retraced for the issuance of future environmental report cards. Operational considerations should be tested through a pilot project. Validate details such as the ease of on-site collections, sample preservation and transport methods to ensure samples reach test facilities in good condition so the quality of the data is not diminished.

4.2. DESCRIBING MONITORING AREAS Managers should describe the watershed they are monitoring. In some cases, such as the Tigum-Aganan watershed, this has been done in significant detail and is presented in a State of the Watershed Report (Tigum-Aganan Watershed Management Board and Canadian Urban Institute, 2013). Brief reports of other watersheds need only describe the existing general characteristics of the watershed.

At a minimum the watershed description should include the following details.

1. Definition of the boundaries of the subject area.

• Clearly articulate using maps and written descriptions the limits of the catchment being monitored.

2. Summary of the environmental characteristics, processes and human activities that may be affecting the condition of the watershed.

• Watershed characteristics (i.e. natural cover) may have an impact on quality, which is helpful when evaluating monitoring data.

• Note natural processes since they may affect watershed conditions and the interpretation of monitoring data.

• Describe watercourses and map features such as waterfalls and rapids. Include details on man-made structures such as dams and bridges.

• Describe lakes, reservoirs and other impoundments. These will have an effect on the condition of watercourses.

• Describe aquifers including details on soil/rock types, water levels, recharge areas and discharge areas.

3. Summary of the actual and potential uses of the watershed resources.

• Human population, settlement areas, industry, mining, agriculture forestry, fisheries and recreation will all have an impact on watershed condition.

• Note present uses such as water withdrawals and quantities taken.

4. Weather and hydrological information.

• Rainfall and runoff are important when evaluating parameters such as total suspended solids and flow.

Reliable data for mean annual flow and monthly flow can be achieved by establishing permanent gauging stations. Measured values are better than making estimates.

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5. WHAT GETS MONITORED 5.1 NATURAL COVER 5.1.1.FOREST QUANTITY Monitoring natural cover can be done using geographic information systems (GIS) to get current data for analysis of the relative health of the natural heritage system. Desired cover types such as forest need to be identified and clearly defined in the records so data can be collected in a consistent fashion each time it is measured for analysis. The most current imagery should be used. Since imagery is not updated very often changes in forest quantity may not be determined and reported as often as desired.

Authorities have determined the amount of natural cover that is considered necessary (targets) to provide meaningful form and function for a healthy natural heritage system. The long-term forest cover target for Iloilo Province is 45% or greater of the total watershed area. Actual numbers can be compared to long-term targets to form the basis of communicating the health of forest cover or other components of the natural heritage system. When historical data are available comparisons can be made and trends observed.

There are considerations to be noted in conducting forest inventories. Philippine partners have determined the frequency of data collection to be every five years. The following will be reviewed before every inventory.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Location of all tract corners and boundary lines Relative costs, size and density of forest resources Area to be covered Precision desired Number of people available for field work Time available

The monitoring framework needs to identify baseline information availability and data sources. It offers guidance on selecting sampling locations, variables to be measured, collection methods, frequency of sampling, information management and responsibilities.

Google Earth imagery can be imported into GIS software if applicable. Begin monitoring forest cover by delineating all forest cover patches within the watershed that are greater than 0.5 hectares in area, at least 10% closed canopy with trees a minimum of 5 meters tall. Ensure the geometry is clean with no overlapping polygons, slivers or gaps.

Store the GIS data in a geo-database. Changes in forest quantity can vary between sets of data, not because of real loss or gain in forest cover, but due to polygon delineation by those people doing the work. This needs to be considered when evaluating and reporting on the data.

Collect forest cover data so that it can be retrieved on a watershed, sub-watershed and municipal basis. Municipal boundaries are usually not well aligned to watershed boundaries. Therefore, the municipal data within the subject watershed or sub-watershed needs to be separated from the municipality as a whole.

Delineate forest cover in all parts of the watershed including the Alien and Disposable land-use designation. A sample illustration of all the forest cover greater than 0.5 hectares in a watershed is illustrated in Figure 2. Add subwatershed and municipal boundaries, and a sufficient number of place names as reference points so readers can relate to the map within a larger geographic context. Place names will include, watershed, sub-watershed, and watercourse names, and some primary urban settlements as a minimum.

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Figure 2: Illustration of Forest Cover Quantity by Watershed

Forest cover data is available from the Iloilo Provincial Environment and Natural Resource Office (PENRO), Provincial Planning and Development Office (PPDO), and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). Municipal data are also to be used as baseline for the Watershed Management Councils in producing watershed-based forest maps. These offices are reliable sources of forest cover data. The validated forest cover map will be checked against the “desk-truthed� data to set the accuracy level. Selected sampling plots are identified in each watershed area to guide future validation activities (Figure 3). These sampling plots will be monitored every five years to document changes in quantity and quality of the forest.

Figure 3: Permanent Forest Sampling Plots for Iloilo Province Watersheds

a) Establishment of Permanent Sampling Plots The permanent sampling sites must be marked on a map and detailed directions to these locations described in the records so it can be found in all future monitoring efforts (Escantilla, 2014). The exact location of the sampling stations must be located at ridges and gullies of the watershed areas in order to capture all the data in the multi-story 5|Monitoring Framework v.5.16

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structure of the forest. The location of permanent sampling plots for forests in two Iloilo province watersheds are illustrated in Figures 4 and 5.

Figure 4: Permanent Forest Monitoring Station in Jar-ao, Tangyan-Guimbal Watershed

Figure 5: Permanent Forest Monitoring Station in Tigum-Aganan Watershed (Municipality of Maasin)

b) Steps for Establishing Permanent Sampling Plots for Upland Forests Materials needed includes GPS, compass, notebook and pen, camera, map and meter tape. The recommended steps are as follows: Step 1:

Determine plot sizes and shape. The shape of forest monitoring plots are commonly dictated by customs, tradition and experience. The size of the plot that has been adopted for this application is 20m x 20m.

Step 2:

A 250m line using a nested quadrat technique will be established. A meter tape will be used to layout the 250m line along the slope to cover different elevations. Mark the transect with highly visible flagging tape. The line is not necessarily straight. Establish transects along trails for better accessibility.

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Step 3:

Determine a 20m X 20m quadrant for measuring upper canopy diversity. For large woody plants whose diameter is equal to or greater than 10 centimeters, measure diameter at breast height (DBH), merchantable height (MH), and total height (TH) inside the 20m x 20m quadrant. The coordinates of the four corners must be read and recorded. The 20m X 20m quadrant is to be established using four sets of 20-meter nylon ropes that are already pre-calibrated in the base camp. Each set has wooden pegs on each end for easier marking.

Step 4:

Determine how many plots are needed for reliable forest or timber estimates. You must know the sample area and forest area. A minimum of two or three sampling plots need to be established for every river system.

Step 5:

Determine the sampling design. In this step, select the non-overlapping plots for field measurement.

The most common design is random, stratified and systematic sampling.

Step 6:

Inventory 100% of the large woody plants (where diameter is equal to or greater than 10 centimeters) inside the sampling plots. Record data in table format. Schedule inventories every 5 years on the same date for consistency.

Step 7:

Collect specimens. For species that cannot be identified in the field take sample specimens and photograph each species that is collected. Record and individually tag the specimens. Each of the plant samples collected needs to have at least three leaves with its stem. All the species are to be geotagged.

Bring collected samples to the base camp and process them at the end of the survey day to preserve the specimens for identification at the end of the survey period.

Step 8:

Identify collected specimens. Several techniques for identifying the collected plant materials are as follows: •

Include representatives from local academe who teach plant taxonomy and dendrology in the group doing on-site plant identification.

•

For off-site plant identification, the collected specimens are to be studied and compared to relevant literatures provided by resource persons. References include: •

Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants and Lexicon of Philippine plants; and

•

Reliable taxonomic websites showcasing on-line image database and interactive identification keys for plants.

c) Diameter Measurement This is the most frequent tree measurement done by foresters. a. Diameter at breast height (dbh). Dbh is defined as the stem diameter outside the bark at a point 4.5ft or 1.3m above ground as measured from the uphill side of the stem. b. Stem diameters for irregular trees. The following are important considerations for measuring dbh of irregular stems.

• For trees growing on slopes, dbh should be measured from the uphill side of the tree; • When swellings, bumps, depressions or branches occur at dbh, a tree diameter should be taken just below or above the irregularity at the point where the abnormality ceases to affect normal stem form; o If a tree forks immediately above dbh, it is measured below the swelling resulting from the double stem; o Stems that fork below dbh are considered as two separate trees; 7|Monitoring Framework v.5.16

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o

Trees with large buttresses are measured above the pronounced swelling or “bottle neck” and are referred to as normal diameters.

Dendrometers are the instruments used in determining tree diameters. Examples of diameter measuring instruments are the following: a. Diameter tape. Tree circumference is the variable actually measured.

C= π D D= Cπ Π= 3.1416 Where: C= circumference of the tree D= diameter Π= equivalent to 3.1416 in the graduation interval on the diameter tape. b. Wooden or steel tree caliper. This provides a quick and simple method of directly measuring dbh. c. Biltmore stick. A straight stick specially graduated to take direct readings of dbh. Following the principle of similar triangles, the stick should be held horizontally against the trees’ dbh at a predetermined distance from the observer’s eye. d) Tree Height Measurement a.

Total Height (TH) This refers to the linear distance from the ground to the upper tip of the tree crown. The measurement of the total height is more applicable to conifers which have well-defined branching characteristics. Broad-leave deciduous species with scattered branching patterns.

b.

Merchantable Height (MH) This is the usable or sound portion of the stem. For smooth, straight stems, MH maybe defined as the length from an assumed stump height (0.5 meters from the ground) to an arbitrarily fixed upper stem diameter called a restrictor. Some of these restrictors include large branches, crooks or other defective portions. A minimum crown diameter may also be chosen as a percentage of dbh. For timber sized trees, upper stem diameter limits may be set at 60%, 50% and 40% of dbh for small, medium and large trees.

An inventory of trees must be summarized using the format illustrated in Table 1.

Location: Coordinates: Enumerator:

Date: Sampling Plot No.

Table 1: Inventory of Tree Species and Other Forest Products

Local Name

Common Name

dbh

TH

MH

Indigenous/ Exotic

Remarks

The percentage of watershed area with forest cover and the documented number of disasters will be presented in a table as illustrated in Table 2. DRRM offices of the Municipal LGUs will be the primary contact and information source for this set of data and its analysis.

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Table 2: Percent Forest Cover and Corresponding Number of Disasters

Nature of disasters

Number of Reported/Observed Occurrences Year 1990-1999 Year 2000-2009 Year 2010-2016

% Forest Cover (ha) Landslides Flooding Storm Surge e) Steps for Establishing Sampling Plots for Mangrove Materials needed for establishing sample plots include hand held compass for establishing transects, GPS, notebook and pen, camera, map and meter tape.

Step 1:

Establish transect lines from the forest margin at right angles to the edges of mangrove forest, and throughout the mangrove areas of the selected monitoring sites. Lay-out 10m x 10m plots at 10m intervals along each transect, and at right angles to the transect line. Trees within the plot that are larger than 4cm in diameter are recorded as to number of individual species and their diameter at breast height (dbh). Measuring tree diameter may not be typical at all times. The following guidelines are provided to ensure measurements are done using a standard method. Also refer to Figure 6 for illustrations on how to measure atypical trees. a. When a stem forks below breast height, or sprouts from a single base close to the ground, measure each branch as a separate stem. b. When the stem forks at breast height or slightly above, measure the diameter at breast height or just below the swelling caused by the fork. c. When the stem has prop roots or a fluted lower trunk, measure the diameter above the prop roots or fluted trunk. d. When the stem has swellings, branches or abnormalities at the point of measurement, take the diameter slightly above or below the irregularity where it stops affecting normal form.

Figure 6: Where to Measure Tree Diameter at Breast Height

Step 2:

Lay out 5m x 5m plots at the corners of the 10m x 10m plots. Saplings with diameters smaller than 4cm and a height more than 1m are identified and the number of individuals by species are counted.

Step 3:

Lay out 1m x 1m plots at the same corner of the 5m x 5m plots. Seedlings with heights lower than 1m are identified and the number of individuals by species are counted.

Step 4:

Determine the soil type, salinity, temperature and pH and record this information.

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Step 5:

Classify species zonation by calculating the percentage of relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance, where: Relative density = number of individuals of species x 100 total of individuals of all species Relative frequency = frequency of species x 100 sum of frequency of all species Relative dominance = basal area of species x 100 total basal area of all species 5.1.2.FOREST QUALITY

Raw data gathered from sampling plots will be further evaluated and classified into indigenous and exotic species categories. Using the Simpson index (D) for the dominance of species in a given area, the bigger the number the greater the forest diversity. A percentage of 60% or more of indigenous species equates to good forest quality.

There are two versions of the formula for calculating “D”. Either method is acceptable, but be consistent.

D=

(n / N)2

n = the total number of organisms of a particular species N = the total number of organisms of all species 5.1.3. RIPARIAN AND COASTAL ZONES Riparian areas are regional hot spots that support a disproportionately high number of wildlife species, and provide a wide array of ecological functions and values (Naiman et al. 1993, Fischer and Fischenich 2000, National Research Council 2002). Riparian monitoring stations are illustrated in Figures 7, 8 and 9. The width of riparian zone easements is different for each ecosystem. It’s 40 meters for timberland areas, 20 meters for agricultural areas and 3 meters for urban zones. This easement area is measured from the highest water level mark of the river.

The data that will be gathered for riparian zone is the percentage of the riverine areas complying with the vegetation requirement of the easement law. This data will be collected by implementing the steps described below.

Mangrove and beach forests along coastlines have many ecological benefits as well. In addition to providing corridors for wildlife movement they play an important role in buffering shorelines from erosion thus improving water quality and safeguarding human lives and personal property. The coastal zone of interest is a 30 m wide buffer along the interface between watersheds and the ocean. The coastal zone is measured seaward from the high tide mark.

Step 1:

Collate Watershed Council data regarding the length of riparian zones within their watersheds.

Step 2:

Gather secondary data through Liga ng mga Barangays or other association and LGU bodies to determine actual riparian zone compliance to easement law.

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Step 3:

Triangulate data using GIS and community information to gather validated riparian compliance.

Step 4:

Conduct ground validation in sampling plots marked as permanent riparian sampling zones.

Step 5:

Geo-tag the area and observed vegetation for database.

Figure 7: Map of Iloilo Province with River Monitoring Stations Highlighted

Riparian and coastal zones are relatively easy to measure and monitor using Geographic Information System technology. Use the following steps to calculate the percent of riparian and coastal zone with forest vegetation (Conservation Ontario, 2011).

Step 1:

Identify watercourses either as a single coloured line for small watercourses or a polygon for rivers wider than 20 m. For wider rivers, the riparian zone should start at the edge of the water polygon, not the center line of the watercourse.

Step 2:

Place a 30 m buffer on both sides of the watercourse line for a total of 60 m.

Step 3:

Place a 20 m buffer along the coast line seaward from the high tide mark.

Step 4:

Lay out 250m x 30m permanent sampling plots every 5km of the entire riparian buffer zone for each sub-watershed.

Step 5:

100% inventory will be conducted.

Step 6:

Query the vegetation data and measure the area of the forest cover in m2 that is found within the buffer zone for each sub-watershed and coastal zone.

Step 7:

Divide the area of existing riparian and coastal forest cover by the area of the total buffer zone and multiply by 100 to arrive at the percent of riparian and coastal zone that is forested. Use only one

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decimal point of accuracy.

Step 8:

Record and monitor data on a watershed, sub-watershed and municipal basis depending on how the information is best communicated to serve specific objectives and target audiences. Add subwatershed and municipal boundaries, and a sufficient number of place names as reference points to your maps so readers can relate to the geographic context. Place names will include, watershed, subwatershed, and watercourse names, and some primary urban settlements as a minimum.

Figure 8: Monitoring the Quantity of Forest Cover within the Riparian Zone (Jar-ao, Tangyan-Guimbal)

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5.2. BIODIVERSITY 5.2.1. SPECIES RICHNESS Biodiversity is an important element in the foundation of healthy watersheds and sustainable communities. The amount of biodiversity that exists in any given place indicates the stability and health of an ecosystem. The extent of urban development and other human intervention reduces the diversity of habitats and the plant and animal species that inhabit them. Non-native species, pollution and overuse are also common causes of reduced biodiversity.

Unfortunately, losses in biodiversity are often irreversible. The Philippines is one of the most heavily impacted of the biodiversity hotspots, with over 93% of its original natural vegetation gone (Mittermeier, 2002).

BiodiversityFigure indicators require hard data and synthesized information to make them effective communication tools.

9: Monitoring the Quantity of Forest Cover within the Riparian Zone (Tigum & Aganan) Monitoring biodiversity change helps managers better understand what is changing in the ecosystems and why. By integrating long-term information on species trends/cycles with other characteristics a more complete profile of a watershed can be prepared.

Roberts-Pichette (1995) recommends a number of guidelines for monitoring biodiversity over the long-term.

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a) General Guidelines 1. Information must be comparable over time and space.

2. Employ standard protocols in the study design, sampling procedures, sample and data analysis and reporting methods. Consider widely used international protocols such as those developed by the Smithsonian Institution for the UNESCO Program on Man and the Biosphere (Dallmeier, 1992); and, 3. Gather relevant climatic data since this is interconnected with many watershed conditions. b) Specific Guidelines 1. Define the reason(s) for undertaking biodiversity monitoring using indicator species in the selected location(s); 2. Define what, where and when - these questions will be answered by the objectives, the specific study design, and the general and specific protocols for selected ecosystems and species; 3. Define how - this question will be dealt with in site planning sessions, and by study design; 4. Ensure that methods are in place for managing collected datasets and linking them to other related datasets, and to making them available for inclusion in more extensive monitoring networks; and, 5. Ensure that the processes for analyzing, synthesizing, assessing and disseminating the results are in place.

5.2.2. ESTABLISHING PRIORITIES Factor in the following elements when establishing priorities: 1. The availability of expertise on site, at universities, museums or elsewhere; 2. Species monitoring and research activities already under way; 3. Availability of representative species of the selected ecosystems. The selection should consider very common and dominant species; exotic species; species identified by the general public as important; species that represent problems for human populations, and species in ecosystems subject to intensive management/use/pressure (e.g. agriculture, ecotourism, forestry, settlement, transportation); and, 4. Availability and integration of other data for use in compiling, synthesizing and interpreting the results obtained from biodiversity monitoring. Examples include sources and impacts of pollutants, basic meteorological data within as well as outside the vegetation canopy, and ecosystem structure and function.

5.2.3. CONSIDERATIONS In setting objectives and priorities consider the following: 1. Which species or groups of species to select for concentrated or specialized study; 2. Which relevant ecosystems to include — both unmodified and deliberately modified; 3. What can be routinely accomplished by researchers and technicians working in an area; 4. How results will be distributed in scientific and popular media; 5. How to attract interested specialists to undertake special studies; and, 6. How to involve volunteers.

5.2.4. TERRESTRIAL VOLUNTEER MONITORING Properly trained staff and volunteers can be an important component of any monitoring framework established to understand biodiversity.

The use of community partners can be incorporated into all of the recommended protocols although some require participants to have a certain level of experience mostly involving species identification. Properly designed training courses will help to ensure that the collection of information is accurate. Community partners engaged in monitoring expands geographic coverage, augments the frequency of observations, builds awareness, and potentially changes people’s attitudes and behaviours towards watersheds and biodiversity. But even with training, data collected by

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volunteers should be audited, validated by technical persons to ensure quality control, and kept separate from data collected by science-based professionals. a) Monitoring Site Selection The Toronto Region and Conservation Authority (TRCA) recommends monitoring sites ten hectares in size, located on both public and private lands, and distributed throughout the subject watershed. Sampling design should also include rural, urban and urbanizing zones. Figure 10 illustrates sampling station locations for Iloilo province.

Figure 10: Sampling Station Map for Biodiversity

Choose sampling sites randomly within available natural cover patches. Record and describe the locations on appropriate mapping so they can be easily found for future sampling periods. Some adjustments to the final monitoring sites may be necessary should private landowner permission not be granted or site conditions pose dangerous circumstances for monitors.

Use the following criteria for helping to choose Monitoring Sites.

1. Intact or partially intact wetland habitats such as marshes, swamps, flood plains, and intertidal mudflats; 2. Wetland habitats in proximity to settlements or used by local communities; and, 3. For each municipality, areas with intact wetlands or large congregation of water birds or flying foxes. b) Establishing Indicator and Flagship Species It is not practical or even desirable to monitor every species. Selection of monitoring indicators is necessary, and decisions must be made about how many species to monitor, as well as which species. By doing so, the indicator species approach reduces the time and cost invested in training, and increases its effectiveness, making this method a good choice; particularly for volunteer-based monitoring.

The presence or long-term absence of individual species that are native to the region and their habitats provides information about the species and the underlying habitat characteristics and conditions on which they depend.

Therefore, select a robust set of indicator species that are representative of various aspects of ecological integrity in the area under study.

Select indicator species that have reasonably well known and understood requirements and sensitivities. The native species selected as indicators should have been common and well distributed across the region. As a point of 15 | M o n i t o r i n g F r a m e w o r k v . 5 . 1 6

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reference, TRCA (2013) collected presence data for a group of 50 indicator species at 56 fixed, 10 hectare sample sites across a 2,500 km2 area.

Since the incidence of alien species is becoming more widespread, tracking the severity of invasive species is added to the protocol. TRCA (2013) conducted two surveys each year to determine the extent of invasion of each site.

The following information is based on literature published by TRCA in 2013.

Select native species that represent a range of forest, wetland, grassland, riparian and coastal zone habitats as well as the transition zones or "edge habitat" between them. The chosen species should reflect varying degrees of specialization on specific habitat components, and ranges of ecological sensitivities.

For Iloilo province the indicator species set includes flora (trees, ferns, grasses, herbs& palms) and fauna (birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, arthropods). Regionally native species and invasive species are required. Indicator species should be recorded for future reference using Table 3 format.

Table 3: List of Indicator Species Selected for Monitoring

Common Name

Scientific Name

Habitat Forest Mangrove Riparian Beach, forest, other

Choose indicator species using the following species-based criteria. Record species for future reference using a format such as that illustrated in Table 3.

1. Indicator species A plant or animal species that can be used to infer conditions in a particular habitat.

2. Keystone species Species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend, such that if it were removed the ecosystem would change drastically.

Note: Indicator and keystone species are often habitat specialists.

In wetlands, water birds are ideal keystone and indicator species.

Choose species easily recognized by local people. These could be species hunted for food, medicine, or as a means of livelihood.

4. Globally-mandated species • Included on International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List • National Red List • Ramsar Convention • Decline in population • >1% global population in one area 5. Invasive and disturbance species • Not historically known in a given area (alien species).

• Those that invade habitats and displace (or even consume) native species.

• Associated with habitat disturbances.

• Indicators of declining habitat quality.

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• • •

Flying foxes Large Mammals (deer, pigs, macaques) Other large mammals

For Iloilo province, the flagship species set includes the five regionally native species listed in Table 4.

Table 4: List of Flagship Species (“Big Five”) Selected for Monitoring

Common Name Mabitang Rafflesia Spotted deer Tarictic Warty pig

Scientific Name Varanus mabitang Rafflesia speciosa Rusa alfred Penelopides panini Sus cebifrons

Habitat Forest Forest Forest Forest Forest

c) Measures of Species Diversity Managers will determine species heterogeneity. This looks at the number of species, species abundance and the relative proportion of the populations of different species.

Managers will also determine species richness. This is the number of existing species (s) as the simplest measure of species diversity in relation to total abundance.

Records of species found on each fixed monitoring site are used to calculate native species richness scores by site.

Species richness scores for the total group of indicator species are reported on a 0-100 scale; where 0 reflects the absence of all indicator species and 100 when all indicator species are found. Since pristine sites harbouring all selected indicator species are highly unlikely, the good scores could be considered a target for ranking watershed condition and for implementing protection, mitigation and restoration activities.

A common tool for determining species diversity is the Simpson index. The Simpson index is a dominance index because it gives more weight to common or dominant species. A few rare species with only a few representatives will not affect the diversity. The larger the index number the greater the diversity. Species need to be recorded as illustrated in Table 5. The formulae used for determining diversity is provided below.

Table 5: Calculating Species Diversity

Local Name

Description

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# of individuals (n)

N(n-1)

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Simpson Index (D) =

(n / N)2

or

n = the total number of organisms of N = the total number of organisms of all species

a

particular

species

d) Department of Environment and Natural Resources Survey Methods The monitoring protocol requires at least 2 to 3 sites per watershed with regular data gathering at least once every 5 years around the same time of year. Each effort is focused on detecting specific species of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and plants representative of the range of ecological needs, sensitivities and habitat types.

Survey timing, length of survey, search method and observation method are tailored to suit the species. Methods are selected to maximize the likelihood of finding and correctly identifying individual species. Furthermore, in the case of most fauna indicators, surveys are conducted during the breeding season for each species in order to provide the best evidence available with respect to whether the site provides breeding habitat.

Since a measure for severity of invasion is needed for the invasive plant indicator species, surveys for these indicators should follow a more detailed protocol that categorizes the number of occurrences found as well as the size of the largest occurrence for the indicator species present.

In all cases, participants must be trained on the correct monitoring protocols and species identification.

The Iloilo Watershed Management Council has adopted the following DENR general procedure in data gathering.

1. Establishing sampling plots for flora. a. Establish a line transect or line intercept 5m x 5m for understory diversity. b. Inventory species c. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with local communities 2. Transect and opportunistic sampling for fauna a. Establish transect cruise route b. Walk transect c. Inventory species d. Focus Group Discussion with local communities

i.Establishing Sampling Plots for Flora Step 1: Establish three plots per watershed, determine plot sizes and shape.

Shape of field plots are commonly dictated by customs, tradition and experience. In this case, the size of the plot will be 20m x 20m.

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Step 2:

A 250m line using a nested quadrat technique will be established.

A meter tape will be used to layout the 250m line along the slope to include different elevation gradients.

Mark the line with highly visible flagging tape. The line is not necessarily straight. It can be established along the trails for better accessibility.

Step 3:

Establish 5m X 5m quadrats for understory diversity surveys.

Identify the 5m X 5m quadrats using two sets of 5 meter long nylon ropes that are pre-calibrated in the base camp.

Attach wooden pegs to each end of the ropes for easier marking.

Identify and count the small trees (< 10 cm DBH and greater than one meter in height), poles, saplings and shrubs found inside the 5m x 5m quadrat.

Epiphytes nesting on trees inside the 5m x 5m quadrat are to be identified.

Step 4:

Establish 1m x 1m quadrats using a Biltmore stick for ground cover diversity.

Identify species and estimate the percentage of cover of grasses and other ground cover species (vines, ferns, sedges) inside the 1m x 1m quadrat. Also record other cover types such as forest litter, barren soil and tree base inside the quadrat.

Step 5:

Inventory all large woody plants inside the sampling plot with dbh equal to and greater than 10 cm.

Record data using Table 1 format.

Step 6:

For species that cannot be positively identified in the field, take sample specimens, record, tag, geotag, photograph and preserve each species. Each of the plant samples must have at least three leaves with its stem. Process at the end of the survey day at base camp.

Step 7:

Identify collected specimens.

• Representatives from the Academe who teach plant taxonomy and dendrology will be included in the group for on-site plant identification.

• For off-site plant identification, the collected specimens are to be studied and compared to relevant literatures provided by resource persons, such as: • Enumeration of Philippine flowering plants and lexicon of Philippine plants; and • Reliable taxonomic websites showcasing on-line image databases and interactive identification keys for plants.

ii. Establishment of Transect Cruise Routes on Land Step 1:

At the selected 2-3 kilometer transect cruise routes, mark the starting and end points with permanent marker or paint. Place markers on a large rock or mature tree at the lake shore or river bank.

Step 2:

Record the coordinates of the starting and end point. Plot the coordinates on a map.

Step 3:

To the extent possible, establish permanent markers every 500 meters along the transect cruise routes.

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Step 4:

Note the habitat types (mudflats, marsh, swamps) and describe the condition of these habitat types.

The condition may be noted as intact, disturbed, and the presence of any resource extraction every 500 meters along the transect route.

Step 5:

Note the following data using Table 6 format when establishing transects. a. Transect name. This can be the name of the sitio, or barangay where the transect is located. b. Transect location (province, municipality, barangay, sitio). c. Coordinates of start and end point. d. Total length.

Table 6: Sample Data Sheet for a Transect Cruise

Observer:

Transect Line:

Location: (province, municipality, barangay, sitio)

Date of Sampling:

Length of Transect: Starting Time: Species/ Resource Use Recorded

End Time: Number/ Incidence

Time Recorded

Remarks on what was Recorded

iii.Transect Walk • This method is adapted from the conventional line transect cruise which is conducted in dry areas.

• This method is also applicable to wetland habitats accessible on foot.

• It is ideal for wetland habitat types and mosaics of hardwood forests and marshlands which can be situated quite far from lake shores or are not bisected by river channels as illustrated in Figure 11.

• It can be used to observe wetland and forest-associated wildlife species.

• The steps in selecting, establishing, and conducting transect walks are similar to transect cruises. The types of data to be recorded is illustrated in Table 6.

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Figure 11: Illustration of a Transect Walk Alignment

iv. Conducting Transect Cruises on Water Step 1:

Survey the transect cruise route using a boat (motorized or with paddle), and sail at a low speed (Figure 12).

Step 2:

It is recommended that the two-kilometer route be finished in two hours. This translates to a sailing speed of 15-20 meters per minute.

Step 3:

In lakes, stay close to the shore (at a safe depth) so as to observe wildlife species up close.

Step 4:

Always begin the transect cruise between 5:30am and 6:30am and finish before 9:00am.

Step 5:

Keep noise from the observers, boat driver, and the boat motor to a minimum avoid disturbing wildlife species.

Step 6:

Record all priority species and count their numbers (Table 7).

Step 7:

Record using Table 7 format any type of past and present resource extraction including its geographic coordinates/location; number or extent of resources extracted (e.g. estimated one hectare expansion of rice field, or 10 pieces of logs).

Step 8:

Note the time when each species and resource use was observed, the habitat where species was recorded, its behavior, and the part of the route where it was observed and recorded.

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Figure 12: Surveying Transect Cruise Routes Using a Boat

Table 7: Patrol Report/ Field Diary Form for Aquatic Transects

Observer: Locality: (Province, municipality, barangay, sitio): Period of Observation:

A. For people encountered and their activities Types of products Quantity Use gathered

Market Price

Exact Location

Exact Location

Date Observed

Examples: Fish, shells, orchids, birds

B. Major unsustainable Practices Activities

Number of People Conducting Activities

Extent of Destruction (area, number of trees extracted, number of fish caught)

Mining Destructive Fishing Constructing Buildings and Roads Without Permit

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Date Observed

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e) Data Management and Analysis Survey data must be maintained in a compatible, reliable and accessible electronic database. Data contributed by volunteers needs to be audited and validated before including them into the record. In some cases, professional science staff should make verification visits to the affected site. Always separate data supplied by volunteers from that of science educated professionals.

5.3. AGRICULTURE AND LAND USE Agriculture is an important contributor to the economy and the livelihoods of the Philippine people. It will always be important for maintaining secure, safe and healthy food production close at hand to city regions to ensure a sustainable region in the future. Having abundant agricultural land close to large populations also helps to avoid added costs of packaging and transportation, and reduces energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions But as has been seen in the past, there is a constant competition between maintaining good agricultural land for food production close to large populations and alternative urban development uses.

Monitoring and communicating how well agricultural land is being protected is important because of the need to be able to grow healthy food close to people. Agricultural monitoring stations in the Jar-ao,Tangyan-Guimbal and Tigum-Aganan watersheds are illustrated in Figures 13 and 14.

Figure 13: Agricultural Monitoring Stations for Jar-ao, Tangyan-Guimbal Watershed

Figure 14: Agricultural Monitoring Stations for the Tigum-Aganan Watershed.

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Relative to agriculture are the basic issues of land use conversion, quality of forest areas, conversion of forest areas into agriculture, the farming technologies being employed by the farmers, and the optimal use of water for agriculture. This monitoring framework will provide guidelines to help ensure technical and defensible data will be the basis for the following agriculture and land use indicators.

1. Presence or absence of data on land conversion.

2. Percentage of prime agricultural land and non-irrigated agricultural land converted to other land uses.

3. Percentage of production and protection forests converted to agriculture.

Prime agricultural land conversion is one of the major causes of reduced food resiliency. Prime agricultural lands are divided into two major classes as provided below.

1. Prime agricultural lands which are irrigated lands; and 2. Rain-fed areas.

5.3.1.CONVERSION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDS TO OTHER USES In Iloilo, the prime agricultural areas are mostly located within the urban sprawl zones. This enhances the chance of agricultural land being converted to residential or commercial use.

The Local Government Code of the Philippines (RA 7160) allows the Local Government Units to re-classify agricultural lands under the following conditions: 1. When the land ceases to be economically feasible and sound for agricultural purposes as determined by the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR).

2. Where the land shall have substantially greater economic value for residential, commercial or industrial purposes.

The Code also allows the LGU to convert a certain percentage of agricultural land as follows.

1. Highly urbanized and independent component cities - 15% 2. Component cities and 1st to 3rd class municipalities - 10% 3. Municipalities in the 4th to 6th class category - 5% In monitoring the conversion rate of agricultural lands, the Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) of the LGUs can be used as the main source of information. Baseline information will be taken from the data of CLUP 2000. a) Presence or Absence of Data on Land Conversion The first set of data will verify documentation and organize information on the existence and extent of agricultural land conversion. Based on the historical data in the CLUPs of the Municipalities within each watershed, the following information will be used.

1. Number of member Municipalities with an updated Comprehensive Land Use Plan. The most updated version is the 2015 but since the majority of the Municipalities have not updated their CLUPs, the 2002-2012 version will be used until revised.

2. Documented conversion of agricultural lands to other uses.

3. Percentage of area with non-compliant land use based on existing approved land classification. b) Rate of Conversion of Prime and Non-irrigated Agricultural Land to Other Uses This indicator will be monitored based on land conversion data as determined according to section 5.3.1. In cases 24 | M o n i t o r i n g F r a m e w o r k v . 5 . 1 6

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where the CLUPs have not captured the information on land conversion but other documentation and Key Informant Interviews of FGDs have yielded data, field verification may be conducted to validate the information.

To monitor the extent of agricultural land conversion, the following steps will be followed.

Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4: Step 5: Step 6: Step 7:

Data regarding the rate and percentage of conversion will be used as the basis.

Review CLUP (at least 2 versions) and note changes in land use/classification. Use local maps, CLUP / Land use, FLUP maps, standard scale data maps (1:50,000 for watershed area or 1:10,000).

For large areas that were converted, compare parcellary (tax) map with reference to tax declaration.

Cross check with Municipal Agriculture Office or Municipal Agrarian Reform Office.

Compare land uses through remote sensing method (current year vs 2000).

Overlay data with current image of Google map / GIS. Note coordinates of converted agricultural lands and conduct field validation.

Prime agricultural lands will be analyzed separately from the non-irrigated lands. For prime agricultural lands or farm areas with irrigation systems, the data will be categorized in two â&#x20AC;&#x201C; less than 5% conversion, and greater than 5% conversion.

For large areas and whenever feasible, ground validation will be conducted. Most often, converting agricultural lands are not legally documented and former rice land may have been slowly changed to residential use but its land classification in the legal documents may still be agriculture. In cases like this, the actual land use, and not the land classification will prevail.

Valuing the agricultural production loss due to conversion of agricultural land to other uses is important. The crop and its potential yield prior to conversion will be documented. Crop yield based on major crops that have been grown in the area will be presented as part of the crop and food product lost due to the conversion. This will be documented using standard yield per hectare information for irrigated lands. The following steps need to be addressed.

1. Conduct field interviews regarding past crops grown in the area.

2. Coordinate with the Agriculture office and solve for the average crop yields and multiply by the hectares of lands converted.

3. Solve for the annual production loss.

The same procedure will be used to monitor conversion of non-irrigated agricultural lands. This data will be recorded in separate monitoring reports.

For both the prime and non-irrigated agricultural lands, CLUP data will be overlaid with the real-time google map data. The variations between the actual land use and the reported land use classification will be documented. The data will be collected once every year.

5.3.2. RATE OF CONVERSION OF PROTECTION AND PRODUCTION FOREST LANDS TO AGRICULTURE USE Forest conversion to agriculture use, though beneficial for agriculture production for the first year, will ultimately do more harm than good in terms of ecosystem services and agricultural productivity. The data on these protected forests will be the basis for determining the conversion rates.

Timberland areas are categorized as protection forests and production forests. For protection forests, Philippine laws strictly prohibit the conversion of protection and production to other land uses. In reality, protection forests are increasingly being used for upland rice and corn production. In Iloilo province, the main protection forests are the timberland areas located in the Central Panay mountain range, which are also classified as Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA). Refer to Figure 15.

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Figure 15: Protection Forests of Central Panay Mountains

Monitoring the extent of forest conversion to agriculture will start by reviewing and documenting existing forestland maps and comparing this with the actual land uses. The state of the timberland areas in year 2000 will be used as the baseline. The rating method will use the percentage of total forestland areas converted to other land uses. Greater than or less than 5% conversion will be the basis for communicating the conversion of forestland to other uses. The percentage conversion is determined using the following equation.

% of conversion=

Timberland Converted to Other Uses (ha) Total Timberland Area (ha)

In addition to the loss of forest habitats in the timberland land use areas are the reduction in goods and services that are being provided by this resource. Carbon sequestration, water storage, habitat of important flora and fauna, and soil conservation are some of the major losses that must be acknowledged. A cost benefit analysis will be conducted based on the hectares of forest area converted to agriculture.

5.4. WATER 5.4.1.GENERAL The number of sub-watersheds should be practical to monitor on a long-term basis given the available resources of the local partners. For example, it is preferred to have one surface water quality monitoring site per sub-watershed that represents the quality of water at the outlet. However, it is left to the discretion of each governing jurisdictions to determine the appropriate surface water quality site or sites to represent conditions in the sub-watershed. Where there is not yet a monitoring site established in a particular sub-watershed, this should be indicated as a data gap and this would qualify as a recommendation for future action. Generally, the number of sub-watersheds used by Conservation Authorities in Ontario, Canada for watershed report cards ranges from 5 to 20.

Sampling sites are general locations from which samples are taken. Sampling sites must be marked on a map and directions to this location described in the records so it can be found in all future monitoring efforts. The exact location where the sample is taken is called the sampling station. This location also needs to be adequately described so samples are taken from the same spot for consistency (Mäkelä and Meybeck, 1996).

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5.4.2.SURFACE WATER QUALITY a) Selecting Surface Water Sampling Stations i.

Rivers Select stations where the water will be sufficiently mixed so a single sample will be representative. Complete mixing of two tributaries that join may not take place for many kilometers downstream of the confluence. Factors such as flow, gradient and substrate will affect mixing. Table 8 provides estimates of the distance for complete mixing in watercourses (Mäkelä and Meybeck, 1996).

Table 8: Estimates of the distance for complete mixing in watercourses.

Average Width (m) 5

10

20

50

Mean Depth (m) 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 3 5 7 1 3 5 10 20

Estimated Distance for Complete Mixing (km) 0.08-0.7 0.05-0.3 0.03-0.2 0.03-2.7 0.2-1.4 0.1-0.9 0.08-0.7 0.07-0.5 1.3-11.0 0.4-4.0 0.03-2.0 0.02-1.5 8.0-70.0 3.0-20.0 2.0-14.0 0.8-7.0 0.04-3.0

Rapids will accelerate the mixing process. However, for dissolved oxygen data, samples should be taken upstream of rapids because the turbulence will cause the water to be saturated with oxygen. If in doubt about the degree of mixing take multiple samples across the width and depth of the river at the beginning of the monitoring program to see if there are any major discrepancies.

Bridges make good sampling stations because they are easily identifiable and can be easily described for repeat visits. If sample results don’t vary significantly across a river then a single station at mid-stream is satisfactory.

Otherwise a composite sample of 3-5 points is required.

Once a station is confirmed it should be permanently marked with stakes, flagging tape and the coordinates recorded using a geographical positioning system.

General characteristics to consider when setting up monitoring stations on watercourses are as follows (Gartner Lee Limited, 2006).

1. Where possible establish stations at or near surface water discharge gauging stations for determining constituent transport loads.

2. Where flow gauging is not available choose a sampling location where instantaneous measurements of discharge are possible.

3. Along straight reaches with uniform flow, uniform and stable bottom contours and where constituents are mixed across the width of the watercourse.

4. Above and below confluences of tributary streams point source discharges, bridges or culverts and other structures and restrictions that will prevent good mixing.

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5. At or near a location where other data such as biological, hydrological or historical data is available.

6. At a cross-section where samples can be collected safely any time of the year.

Sample Collection Techniques The grab sampling technique is the method most commonly used. Commence sampling downstream and advance upstream. Always collect water samples first before taking measurements such as dissolved oxygen. Collect water samples upstream of flow measurements and other collections that will disturb the bottom and artificially affect water quality results. A recommended procedure (Gartner Lee Limited, 2006) is summarized as follows.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Record station name, time, weather and air temperature.

Collect samples from a single point near the centre of the flow or well-mixed location.

Do not stir up bottom sediments to avoid contaminating the water sample.

Rinse sample bottle three times before filling. Leave headspace in the sample bottle for BOD analysis.

Immerse the sample bottle approximately 15 cm with mouth of bottle directed upstream until it fills.

Cap sample bottles immediately and store in a cooler.

Once water samples have been collected proceed to collect other parameters such as pH and dissolved oxygen following equipment instructions.

8. Refer to detailed instructions of sampling equipment and the laboratory facilities where water samples will be analyzed. ii.Lakes and Reservoirs Choose sampling stations that are representative of the water body. Consider factors that will have an influence on water quality such as inflows from watercourses or effluents, wind and shape.

Mäkelä and Meybeck, 1996 suggest a lake that is 10 km2 requires one sampling station, 100 km2 requires two sampling stations, and so on.

If vertical stratification occurs water quality may differ at different depths. Stratification can be detected by measuring temperature 1 m below the surface and 1 m off the bottom. A significant difference of 3C or more indicates a thermocline. In cases such as this, more than one sample is necessary. The minimum samples should consist of: • 1 m below the surface, • Just below the depth of the thermocline, and • 1 m above the bottom sediments.

Where the thermocline is several meters in depth several samples should be taken within the thermocline to fully characterize the water quality.

Returning to the same location for each monitoring routine is important so describing the location electronically and having easily identifiable landmarks makes the monitoring results more reliable.

Sample Collection Techniques A recommended procedure (Gartner Lee Limited, 2006) is summarized as follows.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Sample the deepest point of the waterbody using a weighted line or other method for determining depth.

Avoid structures such as boat ramps, piers and fuel docks to avoid contamination of the sample.

Select a site with a record of historical data, if possible.

Select a site that is accessible year round.

Set a permanent marker at the station. Record landmarks and bearings on a map of the waterbody.

Record the GPS coordinates of the sampling station to one metre accuracy.

Record date, time, temperature, weather conditions, depth and water colour.

Collect water samples using standard grab techniques.

If measuring parameters such as dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity and conductivity do so just below the surface and at 1meter intervals to a maximum of one meter off the bottom.

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10. Refer to detailed instructions of sampling equipment and from the laboratory facilities where water samples will be analyzed.

11. Collecting individual samples at a station is generally acceptable on a monthly basis for characterizing water quality for longer than a year (Mäkelä and Meybeck, 1996). For targeting specific issues or if significant differences are expected then weekly, daily or continuous sampling would be more appropriate. Collect samples at approximately the same time of day because water quality can vary over the course of the day.

Detecting daily variations or peak concentrations will require samples on an hourly basis.

12. Collect enough samples to enable an accurate calculation of the mean concentrations of the water quality variables of interest. b) Monitoring Variables Water quality can be described by one variable or a combination of many variables. Deciding which variables to monitor depends on the objectives of the project and the intended uses of the resource. Drinking water, irrigation, industrial and recreation all have specific quality standards. Using this information in a watershed report card will help communicate environmental conditions or health.

Baseline monitoring is the simplest and produces the bare minimum of information on which watershed condition can be based. More sophisticated monitoring looks at other variables such as nutrients, metals and organics. These should be added to the monitoring regiment when no baseline information exists or when a known or suspected pollutant may be present.

Mäkelä and Meybeck, 1996 describes variables (Table 9) that should be monitored to detect degraded conditions or govern uses. This information is summarized below.

Table 9: General Variables to Monitor (Mäkelä and Meybeck, 1996)

Pollution Condition

Source

Variables to Measure

Organic Waste

Biological oxygen demand, total phosphorus, fecal coliforms Nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, total phosphorus

Pesticides and Herbicides

Sewage, food processing and agricultural industries Nutrients from agricultural land and other point sources Fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides Agricultural chemicals

Industrial Effluent

Industrial processes

Effluents and Leachate from Mining

Minerals being mined

Eutrophication Agriculture and Irrigation

Total suspended solids, boron, selenium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and fecal coliform Aldrin/dieldrin, chlordane, DDT, heptachlor, and heptachlor epoxide, hexachloro benzene, lindane, metoxychlor Hydrocarbons, phenols, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, iron, manganese, nickel, zinc Dissolved and particulate fractions of metals

Water quality variables for baseline and trend stations used by Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (2014) have been identified in Table 10. The World Health Organization (1991) recommends similar parameters for basic monitoring. These parameters provide a quick but comprehensive indication of the water quality at each station.

Elevated concentrations of these parameters may point to natural and/or anthropogenic sources within the watershed.

The initial Iloilo monitoring framework will concentrate on total coliforms, E. coli, chloride, nitrates and nitrites in groundwater, total suspended solids, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, lead, chromium, copper, iron, manganese and E. coli in surface water.

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Table 10: Standard Set of Water Quality Parameters (Toronto and Region Conservation Authority)

General Chemistry

Nutrients

Metals

Microbiological

Alkalinity Biological Oxygen Demand Calcium Chloride Conductivity Dissolved Oxygen Hardness Magnesium pH Potassium Sodium Total Dissolved Solids Total Suspended Solids Turbidity Water Temperature

Ammonia Nitrate/Nitrite Nitrogen Total Phosphate

Aluminum Arsenic Barium Beryllium Cadmium Chromium Cobalt Copper Iron Lead Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Strontium Vanadium Zinc

E.coli

Numerical or narrative ambient surface water quality guidelines determined in the Philippines will represent the desirable level of water quality for the region, province or country. Guidelines typically establish limits to protect all forms of aquatic life and all aspects of their aquatic life cycles during indefinite exposure to the water. Guidelines also establish limits for human consumption as well as protecting recreational water usage based on public health considerations and aesthetics. Managers should compare the results of each parameter that is monitored to the local water quality objectives to determine the health of current conditions. i.Frequency of Sampling If no advance information is available, a preliminary survey should be conducted first to understand variations. This can then be followed by a fixed sampling routine that can be modified as the need arises.

Results are intended to provide a general characterization of surface water quality conditions. When annual sample size is small (n=12) for each station, only one or two high values (e.g. storm events) are required to skew results upwards. Therefore, one year of data cannot be assumed to represent normal conditions. A single year of data only gives a general overview of conditions and a description of ranges of water quality parameters at stations across the study area.

For more informative interpretations of results, the Ontario Ministry of Environment (2003) recommends a minimum sample size of 30 samples per station (or 2.5 years of monthly data) to reduce the influence of unusual conditions such as spills, extreme runoff events, and drought. Five years of water quality data is considered by Toronto Region Conservation as a sufficient sample size to characterize conditions at stations and watersheds. This sample size has been considered representative of typical conditions within a watershed.

Frequency of sampling guidelines recommended by WHO (1992) are provided in Table 11. Five years of water quality data is considered by Toronto Region Conservation Authority (2014) as a sufficient sample size to characterize conditions at stations and watersheds, and can be considered representative of typical conditions within the jurisdiction. High concentrations of some pollutants can be expected during low flow when dilution is minimal.

Suspended solids on the other hand can be expected to be high during peak flows.

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Table 11: Sampling Frequency as Recommended in Global Environmental Monitoring System (WHO, 1992)

Waterbody Baseline river stations Trend river stations Groundwater

Minimum Optimum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Karst Aquifer

Frequency 4 per year, with high and low stages included 24 per year; weekly for total suspended solids 12 per year over 100,000 km2 watershed 24 per year under 10,000 km2 watershed 1 per year for large stable aquifers 4 per year for small aquifers Same as rivers

ii.Specific Methodologies for Surface Water Quality Sampling Monitoring water quality requires a lot of advance preparation. This includes training for the technicians who will collect and analyze the samples, preparation of materials and equipment needed for the sampling, and the laboratory analysis. The following are the recommended steps in collecting water samples.

In shallow water less than 1 meter deep, samples may be taken directly using water containers. The following procedures are to be observed.

1. Put on protective gloves and wading boots.

2. Wade into the water to the center of the river channel where the water is deepest and current has the greatest velocity.

3. Rinse the container at least three times with the river water.

4. Lower the sample container into the water face down as illustrated in Figure 16. Do NOT touch the inner part of the container.

5. Slowly lift the container towards the flow.

6. Cap or cover the container.

Figure 16: Method for Collecting Shallow Water Samples

Collecting samples in water deeper than 2 meters is done using a Kemmerer Sampler and Van Dorn Water Sampler as illustrated in Figure 17.

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Figure 17: Kemmerer and Van Dorn Water Samplers for Deep Water

The Kemmerer and Van Dorn water samplers are designed with lock mechanisms using messengers to trigger the apparatus when collecting water samples at a desired depth. The monitoring team can take water samples from bridge crossings or in motorized boats along coastal and estuarine waters.

Safety orientation prior to field work must be conducted for the team. The health and safety of each team member must never be compromised. Some safety precautions are as follows.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Always use boots and cover-alls when wading in shallow waters.

When the water is too deep for wading, use a dip/pond sampler or the appropriate deep water samplers.

Always use a life vest when taking samples along coastal areas or deep river locations.

Always use gloves when taking samples. Even if the water is â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;clearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, this is no guarantee that water is not polluted.

5. Designate a person to manage vehicular traffic especially when sampling from bridges.

iii.Time and Frequency of Monitoring 1. Water samples should be collected in the morning to facilitate processing in the laboratory. The availability of the sampling equipment and test kits must also be considered.

2. The holding time for selected parameters such as coliform bacteria must be taken into account. For instance, water samples collected for coliform analysis must be kept cool and brought to the lab no later than 6 hours after the sample has been collected. iv.Sampling Equipment and Test Kits At least three days prior to actual sampling monitoring staff need to: 3. Reserve the sampling equipment and test kits and test them to ensure they function properly.

4. Calibrate test kits (pH meter, conductivity meter, DO meter) on the day of the sampling to ensure accurate readings. v.Sampling Containers Sampling containers (as per American Public Health Association Guidelines Table 12 and Figure 18) may be provided by the laboratory where the samples will be brought for analysis. Sampling bottles must be properly labeled, sealed and signed so as to avoid confusion and sampling errors.

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Table 12: Prescribed Water Sampling Containers

Parameters

Container

BOD Total Coliform Temperature Color pH Turbidity Conductivity Salinity DO TDS TSS Arsenic Cadmium Hexavalent chromium Cyanide Lead Copper Mercury Ammonia Oil and Grease Surfactants Nitrate-N Phosphate Phenols Chloride

P/G Sterilized Bottle P/G P/G P/G P/G P/G P/G BOD bottle P/G P/G P/G P/G 24 hours P/G P/G P/G P/G P/G Glass; wide mouth P/G P/G Glass Amber Glass P/G

Sampling Volume required 1 liter 250 ml 100 ml 100 ml 100 ml 100 ml 500 ml 240 ml 300 ml 200 ml 200 ml 500 ml 500 ml 100 ml 2 liters 500 ml/ 100 gms 500 ml/ 100 gms 500 ml 100 ml 1 liter 250 ml 100 ml 100 ml 500 ml 50 ml

Figure 18: Water Sampling Bottles

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vi. Transport and Handling of Samples 1. All water samples collected must be transported on ice to the EMB lab or designated DENR accredited lab.

2. Special arrangements shall be made with the laboratory in terms of sample acceptance (i.e., availability of the lab to accept volume of samples, dates and times).

3. Refer to Table 13 for details on sample holding times and sample preservation guidelines.

Table 13: Sample Holding Time and Preservation

Parameters BOD Total Coliform Temperature Color pH Turbidity Conductivity Salinity DO TDS TSS Arsenic Cadmium Hexavalent chromium

Holding Time 24/48 hours Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t exceed 24 hours 15 minutes 48 hours 15 minutes 48 hours 28 days 6 months 15 minutes 7 days 7days 6 months 6 months 24 hours

Preservations Refrigerate at 4C Cool to 4C Refrigerate at 4C Refrigerate at 4C Refrigerate at 4C Refrigerate at 4C Refrigerate at 4C

Cyanide Lead Copper Mercury Ammonia

14 days 6 months 6 months 28 days 28 days

Oil and Grease Surfactants Nitrate-N Phosphate

28 days 48 hours 48 hours 48 hours

Phenols Chloride

28 days 28 days

Add NaOH to pH >12, Refrigerate Add HNO3 to pH <2 Add HNO3 to pH <2 Add HNO3 to pH <2 Analyze as soon as possible or add H2SO4 to pH<2, refrigerate Add HCl or H2SO4 to pH <2, refrigerate Refrigerate at 4C Analyze as soon as possible, refrigerate For dissolved phosphate filter immediately, Refrigerate Add H2SO4 to pH <2, refrigerate None required

Analyze immediately Refrigerate at 4C Refrigerate at 4C Add HNO3 to pH <2 Add HNO3 to pH <2 Refrigerate at 4C, Analyze immediately, From EPA reference, preservation: cool, â&#x2030;¤6C, pH = 9.3 - 9.7, maximum holding time 28days

vii.Quality Control Procedures The following quality control procedures must be adopted.

1. Each field instrument must be checked and examined before sampling.

2. Follow specific preventive maintenance schedule and calibration for some equipment (e.g., DO meters, temperature meters, and pH meters).

3. Always bring spare parts, batteries, probes, standard solutions, and glassware.

4. Clean equipment thoroughly after each sampling day.

5. Use laboratory water to rinse filters and filtration apparatus.

6. After drying, place equipment into sealed plastic bags until needed.

7. Wear latex gloves during all phases of equipment cleanup.

8. Plastic beakers used in collecting samples should be washed daily.

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9. Use field filter or cartridge blanks to determine if contamination has been introduced through contact with sampling equipment or to verify effectiveness of equipment cleaning procedures. viii.Chain of Custody Form A chain of custody (COC) form (Figure 19) must be completely filled out and submitted to the testing laboratory to ensure physical security of samples, data and records. This must contain project information, station, date and time when the sample was collected, and parameters for analysis.

Figure 19: Laboratory Chain of Custody Form

c) Field Sampling Procedures for Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved Oxygen (DO) should be collected using the following steps. Refer to other Philippine guideline documents for specific collection methodologies for other parameters such as total suspended solids and pH, 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Collect sample in a 250 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 300 ml DO Bottle.

Add 1 ml manganese sulfate.

Add 1 ml alkali-iodide-azide reagent below the surface of the liquid sample.

Stopper DO bottle and mix by inverting the bottle.

Allow the solution to settle and add 1 ml concentrated sulfuric acid.

Re-stopper bottle and by gentle inversion, mix until the cloudiness disappears into an amber solution.

Transfer 200 ml of the solution into an Erlenmeyer flask.

Titrate with 0.025 N Thiosulfate until the solution turns a pale straw color.

Add 1 to 2 ml starch solution to turn the solution to blue.

Titrate until the first sign of blue color disappearing.

Determine DO - 1 ml of 0.025 N Thiosulfate titrated is equivalent to 1 mg/L DO.

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5.4.3.FLOW a) Measuring Monthly Flow and Mean Annual Total Discharge Measurement of surface water flow is an important component of water quality monitoring frameworks. Flow data can be used for a variety of purposes, including problem assessment, watershed project planning, assessment of treatment needs, targeting source areas, design of management measures, and project evaluation.

Flooding, stream geomorphology, and aquatic life are all directly influenced by streamflow. Runoff and streamflow drive the generation, transport, and delivery of many nonpoint source (NPS) pollutants. Discharge data are essential for the estimation of loads of sediment or chemical pollutants exported from a river or stream. One of the most common uses of flow data by watershed managers is pollutant load calculation.

Meals and Dressing (2008) provides a concise overview of measuring surface water flow. Determining discharge requires one to determine the velocity of moving water (m/s) and the cross-sectional area of the water in the channel (m2). The product of these two measurements gives discharge in m3/s.

Stream stage is an important parameter of streamflow measurement. The depth of flow (m) is most commonly measured as stage, the elevation of the water surface relative to an arbitrary fixed point. In a particular location, stage is often measured relative to a fixed point using a staff gauge, a rigid metal plate graduated in meters attached to a secure backing and located in a part of the stream where water is present even at low flows. During installation, staff gauges are usually related by survey to a fixed reference (e.g., a bridge deck) so that the elevation of the gauge can be checked periodically and re-established if it has been disturbed. Stage measurements are taken by simply noting the elevation of the water surface on the graduations of the staff gauge. Such instantaneous stage data are easily collected by volunteers. Volunteers can, for example, record stage observations each time they collect a sample or make a field measurement in order to place results in context of general flow conditions. In the case of very large rivers, stage can also be read by measurement of the distance from a fixed overhead point to the water surface (e.g., using a weighted wire or tape lowered from a bridge beam).

The greatest utility of stage measurements is in the construction of a stage-discharge relationship, also known as a stream rating. A stage-discharge relationship is an equation determined for a specific site that relates discharge to stage, based on a linear regression of a series of concurrent measurements of stage and discharge. This equation should be based on measurements taken over a full range of streamflow conditions. With a valid stream rating, discharge can be determined simply from a stage observation plugged into the equation or read from a table.

A network of stream gauges should be established at the discharge point of selected sub-watersheds and near the mouth of the watershed. Bridge crossings are often a convenient and easily identifiable location for these sampling sites. Construct stream rating charts based on depth and water velocity data. Where a project seeks to measure pollutant load over time or to assess relationships between stream discharge and pollutant concentrations or aquatic life, it usually becomes necessary to measure discharge continuously.

Streamflow measurements may be done using either the float method or mechanical/digital method. The float method is highly recommended for community volunteers and watershed council technical working groups considering that they may not have any instrument or equipment to conduct the digital methods.

The float method determines water velocity using distance travelled by a float divided by the time consumed. In its simplest equation, it is showed as: V=d/t Where V= Velocity (m/s) d= distance travelled by the float (m) t=time of travel (seconds) The following specific steps are recommended when using the float method.

1. On one side of the streambank, measure and mark and straight distance parallel to the centerline of the stream.

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2. A suitable float may be selected from either a fisherman’s buoy, tennis ball, or any material that will float. In choosing the float, consider that a surface float will travel with at least a 1.2 correction factor compared to a partially submerged (1/3 or ½ of its part) float that will yield a mean velocity closer to the mean velocity of the water column beneath the surface.

3. Observers and recorders will be stationed at the upstream and at the downstream portion of the marked streambank. Observers/recorders will be holding blank data sheets, pen and stop watch.

4. The float will be released before the upstream mark. The upstream observer will signal at the exact time the float passes by his marked station.

5. At the signal from the upstream station, the downstream observer will start the stopwatch and stop it when the float reaches the downstream mark. The time will then be recorded in the data sheet.

6. Several float tests should be measured in wide watercourses. b) Measuring Base Flow Base flow conditions represent the lowest stream flows that are sustained in a watercourse during periods of dry weather. Base flow is usually supplied primarily by groundwater discharge occurring along the stream corridor and the gradual release of water from wetlands, ponds, lakes and reservoirs during periods of dry weather.

Indicator stations are usually located at the outflow of each major sub-watershed. Any other base flow monitoring stations are distributed within each watershed and should be measured systematically every 5 to 7 years in order to obtain a higher resolution of ground and surface water interactions.

Timing is a critical element in the measurement of base flow, as it must be ensured that all overland runoff has ceased and river flows are comprised solely of base flow before any sampling can be done.

Discharge in a small, shallow stream can be measured using the following process described by Meals and Dressing (2008). Refer to Figure 13.

1. Select location – Choose a straight reach, reasonably free of large rocks or obstructions, with a relatively flat streambed, away from the influence of abrupt changes in channel width. The transect should be well upstream or downstream from any bends or meanders, and the riverbanks should not be undercut.

2. Establish cross-section – Determine the width of the stream and string a cable or measuring tape across the stream at a right angle to the flow. Divide the width into 20 to 25 panels using tape or string to mark the center of each segment on the cable. Typically, the stream is divided into enough panels so that each one has no more than 10 percent of the total streamflow. Alternatively, the panels should be approximately 5% of the width of the watercourse (TRCA, 2009). Panels do not have to be uniform width along the cross section. If an area of the river is moving significantly faster than the rest, the panels could be narrowed. If there is a slow pocket of water the opposite is true. Streams less than 3 m wide may not allow 20 panels. If less than 20 panels is all that is possible use as many panels that you can without them being narrower than 40mm wide (TRCA, 2009).

3. Measure depth of each segment – At each mark across the stream, measure the depth from the water surface to the bottom with a graduated rod or stick.

4. Measure water velocity – At each mark, measure the velocity of the water (see below). Where depth is less than 0.8 m, a single velocity measurement at 0.6 of the total depth below the water surface gives a reasonable estimate of the average velocity with respect to depth. For depths of 0.8 m or more, the average of velocity measurements taken at 20% and 80% of the depth from the surface is preferred (Meals and Dressing, 2009).

Accurate velocity measurements are a critical component of the area-velocity technique. Several simple methods have been used to obtain rough estimates of velocity. Measuring the time required for a floating object (usually an orange or a tennis ball) to travel a length of stream is a common technique. This approach has the obvious limitation of measuring only velocity at or near the water surface. In most cases, velocity is best measured using some sort of current meter.

5. Calculate discharge for each segment – For each segment, stream discharge is the product of width of the segment and the measured depth (giving area) multiplied by the velocity measured in that segment.

6. Sum discharges – Total stream discharge is the sum of all segment discharges.

7. Prepare a map that clearly illustrates where monitoring stations are located.

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This final discharge figure is referenced with the closest upstream discharge and compared for accuracy and continuity. Should the figures show a discrepancy, the site is re-assessed, and another sampling may be required.

Figure 20: Sampling Stream Cross-Section for Base Flow

5.4.4.MEASURING PRECIPITATION An effective monitoring network includes meteorological data that covers the entire watershed. Sufficient quantity and quality of information is necessary to allow for required analytical work.

Precipitation data is the most widely used information currently being collected in many jurisdictions. TRCA (2008) reports precipitation gauges as a direct source of information to help understand the condition of water quantity in rivers such as flow and annual discharge. Stream flow is also linked to water quality, as there is a correlation between flow and contaminant levels associated with runoff. Precipitation data is very supportive in understanding biological conditions of aquatic habitats and species. Precipitation measurements can be used in the analysis of flooding in urban drainage systems, the design of drainage systems, agricultural irrigation needs, flood control facility design and flood forecasting/warning needs.

Because of its usefulness precipitation monitoring is an important element in a regional database that could be utilized by government and non-government organizations, educational institutes, and others for a multitude of purposes.

Gauging can range from continuous sampling stations where precipitation is measured by tipping bucket or weighing gauges on an annual basis. Monitoring can also use seasonal gauges which monitor rainfall on a continuous basis for less than a complete year. Managers can also manually read gauges which only record the total rainfall on a daily basis. In time, all precipitation gauges could be telemetered to provide real-time access to the daily and continuous data. Refer national and provincial organizations whose primary task is to collect meteorological information.

5.4.5.GROUND WATER QUALITY Millions of people rely on groundwater from municipal and private wells as their primary source of drinking water.

Many commercial, industrial, agricultural and institutional operations are also dependent on a reliable supply of good quality groundwater. Overdrawing and contaminating groundwater can have serious implications on individuals and other users. Therefore, monitoring and communicating current groundwater conditions is an important early warning system for detecting and responding to changes in water quality and water levels in wells.

Prepare maps of groundwater quality monitoring sites.

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Sampling groundwater is done where there is access to an aquifer such as in an existing well. Samples of groundwater should usually be taken at one depth.

One sample from a deep, confined aquifer is usually enough to describe the quality of the water because of long residence time in the well. Monthly sampling is more appropriate for shallow, unconfined wells (Mäkelä and Meybeck, 1996) where contamination may be a greater threat.

The sampling station should be described. Important information includes location of the well, depth, depth to well screen, length of screen, and the amount of fluctuation of the static water level when the well is pumped. Avoid wells with damaged casings as these wells may be contaminated by surface water.

Springs are possible groundwater sampling points if adequately protected from surface contamination. Springs are often shallow aquifers and may not share the same qualities as deep wells.

The initial groundwater quality parameters to monitor are nitrates/nitrites, chlorides, total coliform bacteria and E. coli bacteria.

For collection procedures refer to the detailed instructions of the sampling equipment and those from the laboratory facilities where water samples will be analyzed.

5.4.6.GROUND WATER QUANTITY Ground water quantity is one of the data gaps in the watershed indicators. To monitor ground water quantity will require baseline data to measure improvements or setbacks for this critical resource.

For the initial stage of monitoring, the focus should be to check the completeness of the data that have been gathered and documented by each watershed council. To start, a complete inventory of deep wells, water levels 1 and 2 and water taking permits should be a priority. In the future, extraction and recovery rates should to be monitored in wells and reported.

The following needs to be done to initiate a good record on ground water quantity.

1. Map all water well sources in the watershed including shallow wells, deep wells, jetmatic pumps, and National Water Resources Bureau (NWRB) licensed deep wells.

2. Collate data on water extraction per groundwater source.

3. Solve for the total ground water extraction per watershed per year.

Communicating the status of groundwater quantity management in the short term will be based, in part, by using Table 14. Report well data by Municipality as recommended in Table 15.

Table 14: State of Ground Water Well Inventories

Groundwater Quantity Management Completed Inventory of Deep Wells, Water Levels and Permits Inventory 50% Complete No Inventory

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Table 15: State of Ground Water Well Inventories by Municipality

Municipality

Degree of Inventory Completeness

1 2 3 4 etc.

5.4.7.WATER CONSUMPTION AND WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT The greatest pressure on water consumption in Iloilo province comes from the need to service a growing population.

From 2000 to 2010 average daily water consumption grew by almost 27%. In the next 10 years, the Metro Iloilo Water District (MIWD) estimates that daily demand for water will be twice the MIWDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current capacity (TAWMB and CUI, 2013).

Data on water consumption for the Metro Iloilo (liters/per capita/day) is kept by the Metro Iloilo Water District. This information will be evaluated by MIWD and forwarded to PENRO annually or as requested to establish a benchmark for Level III water consumption. a) Residential and Domestic Use 1. Determine water demand: a. Solve for water consumption per capita of the total population in the watershed based on household end use such as toilet, kitchen, laundry, and bath. b. Determine volume of water used/# of clients from data provided by water service providers. c. Obtain data from Provincial Health Office and Provincial/Municipal Sanitary Inspectors on water per household served by each water source.

2. Solve for number of government offices, hospitals, schools, airports their water consumption. This is based on end use of water such as toilets, bath, kitchen, landscape, carwash, and cleaning.

3. Solve for residential and domestic use volume of consumption by adding (1) and (2) above and convert to cubic meters The Philippine per capita consumption of water is 164 liters per day. In the absence of any specific per capita consumption data within the watershed, this figure will be used as the current benchmark. b) Agricultural 1. Characterize the demand by solving for total agriculture land in the watershed.

2. Map agricultural land and determine the number of hectares per crop.

3. Obtain water duty per crop information and multiply this number by the number of hectares of each crop per year.

4. Solve for total water consumption for agriculture in cubic meters. c) Commercial and Industrial 1. Characterize the demand by listing all industrial and commercial establishments in the watershed area.

2. Solve for water consumption for every industrial and commercial establishment listed.

3. Formulate a water consumption figure for industrial and commercial use in cubic meters.

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The total water consumption can be determined using the sum of A, B, and C above. The easiest measurement to use is cubic meters to compare supply with demand to determine if there is an excess or deficit water volume in the watershed.

5.5. WASTE MANAGEMENT 5.5.1.RESIDENTIAL WASTE DIVERSION FROM LANDFILL SITES To solve for the amount of wastes diverted from landfill sites, the following steps will be taken: 1. Conduct monitoring of volume of wastes dumped at landfills by LGUs per day.

2. Check schedule of wastes collection and dumping.

3. Record number of dump truck trips per day.

4. Record volume of wastes dumped per day.

5. Consolidate collected data.

6. The volume of waste will be the benchmark for the total waste per day.

7. Compare the past two years of available data to document if there are reductions in the volume of wastes dumped at landfills.

8. Graph the reduction trend and solve for the volume of waste reduced.

5.5.2.UTILIZATION OF THE DIVERTED WASTES 1. Based on the result of step â&#x20AC;&#x153;Aâ&#x20AC;? above use the data on waste diverted from landfill as the benchmark.

2. Conduct actual sampling and analysis of wastes diverted from landfill sites (% recycled, % degraded biologically and converted to farm inputs).

3. Consolidate data collected and submit data for use in State of Watershed Reports.

5.5.3.SANITATION 1. From Provincial Health Office data, adopt the results of the sanitation criteria being used by the Provincial and Municipal Sanitary Inspectors.

2. Using PHO Standard formula and the zero defecation certification.

3. Ground validate data and present in maps.

5.6. GOVERNANCE 5.6.1.WATERSHED MANAGEMENT COUNCILS Good environmental governance involves the state, market place and civil society in making decisions and taking actions as a means of managing environmental matters. Each is bound by rules, procedures, processes and widely accepted behaviors.

The condition of watersheds is driven by governance. In some cases, it is directed by the decisions and programs of governments. It can also be affected by how businesses operate, and the attitudes and behaviors of all citizens whose daily lives impact watersheds.

The condition of watersheds will be influenced by the collective efforts of all stakeholders. These efforts should be tracked. Recognizing partners and their accomplishments is important. Key accomplishments can be communicated through the watershed report cards. Other media opportunities should be used to periodically acknowledge stakeholders who are making important contributions to protecting, restoring and celebrating their local watersheds.

Iloilo Province is divided into 42 Municipalities and 1 component city. These political subdivisions are within the 5 Congressional Districts of the Province. All these political divides are grouped into 26 Watershed Management Units based on watershed boundaries as illustrated in Figure 21.

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Figure 21: Watersheds in Iloilo Province

These watersheds are not just within the political area of the Province of Iloilo. Some watershed areas have their headwaters in the Provinces of Aklan and Antique while some include the agricultural plains of Capiz Province.

In 2001, the Iloilo Watershed Management Council (IWMC) was organized through Iloilo Province Executive Order 260 and Provincial Ordinance No. 2000-041 dated, October 2, 2000. The IWMC includes Local Chief Executives and their Environment Offices, NGOs, Academes, and National Government Agencies. In 2000, the Tigum-Aganan Watershed Management Council was organized under the IWMC. To date, there are 23 organized and operating Watershed Management Councils.

The Iloilo Watershed Management Council was organized to fulfil the following objectives.

1. To facilitate the formulation, integration and adoption of a comprehensive management and development plan covering all watersheds in the province.

2. Oversee and monitor development activities, programs and projects concerning the observation, development, protection, rehabilitation of watersheds in the province.

3. Provide for a legal framework to rationalize watershed management in the province and provide legislative support for watershed management programs in terms of executive orders, ordinances and resolutions.

4. Obtain technical and logistical assistance from national government agencies and other partner sources.

5. Supervise the activities of the provincial technical working group on watershed management.

6. Assist in the creation and establishment of local watershed management councils.

7. Reconcile conflicts between and among watershed stakeholders which cannot be settled among themselves.

8. Generate revenues and undertake fund raising activities, and assist LGUs in developing and marketing investment packages for watershed development and management.

Tables 16, 17 and 18 illustrate how to report on values considered to be important elements of a functional and effective Watershed Management Council interested in good watershed management. a) Organizational Instruments Monitoring organizational standards will require a review of primary data available from the Watershed Management Councils. The set of officers, election or selection schedules, and number of members present during the selection of the officers will be checked and recorded. Presence and appropriateness of the committees will also be checked. Availability of funds and the system of contribution from members will likewise be analyzed. Meetings will be monitored by their frequency, attendees and minutes of proceedings.

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Table 16: List of Key Organizational Instruments for Watershed Management Councils

Organizational Set of Officers

Committees

Funds

Meetings

b) Regulatory Instruments The effectiveness of the Watershed Management Council can be judged by the number of ordinances or policies approved and implemented. Another measure is the presence of a Memorandum of Agreement among members and partners, and organizational or implementing guidelines.

Table 17: List of Key Regulatory Instruments to Assess Watershed Management Council Effectiveness

Regulatory Instruments Recommended Ordinance/ or organizational Policy

MOA

Guidelines formulated per indicator

c) Management Instruments Every Watershed Management Council is expected to formulate its own State of the Watershed Report (SOWR), an annual watershed score card and Watershed Council plans. These management instruments must be checked every year.

Table 18: List of Important Management Instruments Existing at Watershed

Management Council

Management Councils

Management Instruments State of Watershed Report Score Card

Plans

5.6.2. STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION IN WATERSHED MANAGEMENT COUNCILS Stakeholder participation in watershed management is an important indicator of strong watershed governance. In monitoring stakeholder participation, data on the following will be gathered.

1. Number of meetings with other watershed-based interest groups.

2. Membership and attendance of government-organized watershed bodies like Water Quality Management Areas (WQMA) and Protected Area Management Boards (PAMB); and 3. Co-management projects between watershed management councils and partner agencies or communities.

In areas of planning, assessment and evaluation, the level of stakeholder participation is crucial. To monitor this, information must be kept that will enable managers to determine the degree of participation in Watershed Management Councils as presented in Table 19.

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Table 19: Selected Stakeholders Participating in Watershed Management Councils

Selected Stakeholders Participating in Watershed Management Councils Full participation of most stakeholders Full participation of majority of stakeholders Full participation of some stakeholders Participation of majority of stakeholders in consultations Participation of some stakeholders in consultations

6. CONCLUSION A monitoring framework is necessary to guide the collection of information on watersheds. Over time this information may have multiple benefits and suit the needs of many stakeholders but it is intended initially to support the preparation of periodic reports on the health or condition of watersheds.

Many partners can contribute in various aspects of the monitoring program. This is summarized in Table 20. What is important is the need for the data to be collected using proper protocols. This way the data is reliable, consistent and defensible. Over time the data will be comparable and will tell various stories on the condition of watersheds and what actions and programs may be affecting the results.

This monitoring framework is the first step. It is recognized that available resources may limit how much monitoring gets done in the short-term. But over time it should be a priority to address gaps, broaden the investigations, and make more sophisticated observations and recommendations that will influence watershed management in the future.

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Table 20: Summary of Data Sources for Watershed Monitoring in Iloilo Province Data to be Collected

Available Baseline Data

Collection Method

• DENR forest statistics • 2010 forest cover map • NAMRIA map • Watershed map (WMC)

• • • • • •

Frequency of Collection

Responsible Agency Collecting Data

Documents Needed

Natural Cover Forest Quantity Natural Forest (Upland)

Mangrove/Beach

Riparian

• Satellite image/ Google Earth (LGU)

Indigenous

• Every 5 years

• • • •

WMC- MLGU/ PENRO-LGU DENR Academe

• Maps • Data • Actual data gathering • Satellite images from Google Earth

• Permanent sampling plots • Percentage of Indigenous vs Exotic • Ground-truthing

• Every 5 years

• PENRO-LGU • DENR • WVSU

• Actual data gathering

• Permanent sampling plots • Inventory of seedlings, saplings, poles and timber

• Every 5 years

• PENRO-LGU • DENR • WVSU

• Actual data gathering

Responsible Agency Collecting the Data • PENRO-LGU (Mines Div.) • MMT (MRFC)

Documents Needed

• Remote Sensing • Establishment of permanent sampling plots

• Secondary data collection • Ground validation based on reported data • Compile and compare data from secondary data • Conduct actual site inspection.

Measure actual area and conduct actual inventory of the number of trees/ species in the reported site • Document data through pictures and geotagged information

Built-up/Urban (Alien and Disposable Areas)

Forest Quality Species Composition

Secondary data collection Collection of GIS maps Vegetative map Land use map Topographic map Watershed map

• SOWR/WMC • Watershed characterization reports/DENR • DENR, LGU

Exotic Forest Growth Stages

Riparian and Coastal

Available Baseline Data

Collection Method

Frequency of Collection

Compliance with easement (riparian, mangrove, beach)

• Easement maps • SMD

• Ground-truthing

• Every year

Quarry compliance to ECC

• Municipal & Provincial LGU • List of quarry permits/ PENRO LGU and EMB • BFAR, DENR, LGU • DENR, LGU

• Collect data re. quarry operations • ECC’s monitoring reports • Compliance monitoring

• Every year

• PENRO-LGU (Mines Div.) • MMT (MRFC)

• Actual data gathering

• Secondary data

• Every 5 years • Every 5 years

• PENROLGU,BFAR • PENRO-LGU, DENR

• Actual data gathering • Actual data gathering

Mangrove Beach

• Secondary data

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• Actual data gathering

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BIODIVERSITY

Available Baseline Data

Collection Method

Frequency of Collection

Species Richness

• SOWR/WMC, Watershed characterization reports/ DENR. LGU, FLUP Data

• •

Permanent sampling plots (flora) Transect and opportunistic sampling (fauna)

•

Flagship Species (Historical Data)

• DENR, LGU (FLUP Data): Academic Research, Academe, Historical Accounts, National Museum

•

Focus group discussion with local communities

WATER

Available Baseline Data

Collection Method

Every 5 years

Responsible Agency Collecting the Data • PENRO-LGU, DENR, WVSU, Academe, Concerned Agencies

Documents Needed •

Actual data gathering

•

•

Historical accounts/state ments

PENRO-LGU, DENR, WVSU, Academe, Concerned Agencies

Responsible Agency Collecting the Data

Documents Needed

• RSI, EMBI

• River Map, GPS

•

•

GPS Maps, SMEWW, PNSDW

•

GPS Maps, SMEWW, PNSDW

Surface Water Quality • • • • • • •

TSS, TDS, DO, BOD, E. Coli, Total Coliform Temp, Salinity, pH (conductivity) Turbidity Pesticides Metals Nitrites, Phosphates

• WQMA (IBRS, TAW, JRB)

• •

River sampling Bacteria test using Collilert colour test

• • •

•

Spot calibration Float method Calibrated/computer based stream flow methods (with no more flow repors) Accessibility to the observer, not dangerous to the data gatherer, note format of reporting All river systems

• •

Section 9060 A (SMEWW) LGU, LWD

Surface Water Quantity •

Mean Annual Total Stream Flow and Monthly Flow (by watershed, by river, and by river class)

•

Ground Water Quality • • •

•

Chlorides Nitrates, Nitrites E. coli, Total Coliform* (required for treated water only) TDS, Temp, pH

•

Data from PHO for baseline data assessment

•

Section 1060 B (SMEWW) LGU, LWD

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•

• • •

PSI, EMB, LGU Water Service Providers DENR/EMB LGU Water Service

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WATER

• • •

• • •

Available Baseline Data

Collection Method

Responsible Agency Collecting the Data

(conductivity) Pesticides Metals Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Arsenic (As) Iron (Fe) Salinity, Turbidity, Phosphates

Potable Water

Providers

• • • • • • • •

Ground Water Quantity • Well-level monitoring data. In absence of such, data regarding extractive water use (water district, water vendors, and pumps, will be inventoried)

Documents Needed

MIWD Bacteriological aspects Physical aspects Chemical aspects Pesticides and heavy metals Biologicals (syano bacteria) PHO Annual Report (A1) PIR- Program Implementation Review

• • • •

• •

Actual monitoring procedure Cleaning of taps, disinfection Allow the water to flow for a few minutes Collect water sample for analysis (Note: Depends on type of container and the volume required) Through provincial sanitary inspector Through provincial and municipal inspector

*Suggested monitoring protocol • Barangay-level data gathering/bhw as front liners • MHO- MSI- level lab analysis for bacti and coliform • PHO technical assistance and consolidation of municipal-level data • • • • • • • •

Inventory of all water sources (shallow wells, deep wells) c/o LGUs NWRB list of deep wells Link with monitoring well data of NWRB especially during el Niño Listahang Tubig master list CLUP data on water resources (check updated version of CLUP) PHO master list of water sources Existing ordinance on monitoring water use at the Municipal/barangay level Comprehensive data banking on demographics of Iloilo

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• • • •

MIWD MIWD MIWD MIWD

• • • •

• •

PHO MLGU, BLGU

Monthly/ quarterly report/ baseline data

Service area Service area Service area Service area

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WATER

Available Baseline Data

Collection Method

Responsible Agency Collecting the Data

Documents Needed

Household Water Consumption

•

Water service providers (volume of water used/# of clients) PHO/PSI/MSI data on water Watershed Units SOWR Water audit data PHO data (Households served /water source) NWRB water rights granted PHO/MHO data to be used as source of water consumption Case studies

•

•

PSI,MSI, WMC, Water Service Providers and Water Districts

• •

Population data Water source reports

Crop consumption of water/ hectare • Irrigation yield/hectares of croplands • Water duty per crop - 1.5lps/ha plus 1.65lps/ha

•

NIA, DA, OPA, IAs, WMC

•

Crop

•

•

• • • •

• •

• Agricultural Water Consumption

Commercial and Industrial Water Consumption

•

•

WASTE MANAGEMENT •

Percent of solid waste diverted from disposal facility (totality on waste management effort)

• •

EMB report for industrial water use WQMA data on water users (commercial/Ind ustrial)

Available Baseline Data/Source

• •

10-Year MSWMP data (2000) Latest 10year SWMP and WACS result (2014)

•

Secondary data gathering of household water consumption Through complementary programs such as Nurse Deployment Program (NDP)

Statistical review and WEAP software (Discharge, diverted and dam intake) Water duty x hectares x crops

•

Industrial and commercial water use listing

Collection Method* •

•

Secondary data by watershed monitoring

Steps in Data Collection

•

• • • •

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Conduct monitoring of volume of wastes dumped by LGU per day Check schedule of wastes collection and dumping Check # of trips per day Check volume of wastes dumped per day Consolidate data collected

Responsible Agency Collecting the Data

Frequency of Collection •

Every 3 years and/or every 5 years

•

DENR-EMB, LGU (Province, Municipal, Brgy.), NGO, Private Sectors

Documents Needed • • • •

10-Year MSWMP (2000) Updated 10year MSWMP (latest) Location and area of the disposal sites Operation status

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WASTE MANAGEMENT •

Percentage of diverted waste utilized - % recyclable - % biodegraded - % residuals

•

• • •

•

Percent of LGUs in compliance to four EMB requirements Segregation at source Presence and utilization of MRF Status of dumpsite – closed, full or partial Status and implementatio n of submitted or approved 10 year action plan)

Available Baseline Data/Source

• • •

• • • •

10-year SWM Plan (Latest) junkshops Alternative technologies (vermi, bioreactor, recycling activities, eco-blocks, etc.)

PENRO 2015 SWM Status Report EMB-R6 2015 Status Report Latest municipal report Brgy. data

Collection Method* •

Secondary data by watershed monitoring

Steps in Data Collection

• • •

• •

•

Interview using monitorin g/ assessme nt tool Reports submitted

by LGUs

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• • • •

Responsible Agency Collecting the Data

Frequency of Collection

Collect secondary data per LGU Conduct ocular inspection and site visit Conduct actual sampling/ wastes analysis of wastes diverted Consolidate data collected

•

Collect data per LGU through documentations Conduct monitoring and assessment using SWM Tool Conduct ocular inspection and site visit Consolidate data collected

•

DENREMB, LGU (Province, Municipal, Brgy.), NGO, Private Sectors

DENR-EMB, LGU (Province, Municipal, Brgy.), NGO, Private Sectors

Documents Needed •

Available data per LGU Picture documentati on

•

• •

Available data per LGU Picture document ation

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7. LITERATURE CITED Conservation Ontario. 2011. Guide to Developing Conservation Authority Watershed Report Cards.

Dallmeier, F. (ed.). 1992. Long-term Monitoring of Biological Diversity in Tropical Areas: Methods for establishment and inventory of permanent plots. MAB Digest 11. UNESCO, Paris.

DENR, Volume 1: Water Quality Monitoring Manual EMB, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines DENR, DAO 34 and 35. Environmental Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines Escantilla, Maria Lea. 2014 “LGU-Led Ridge to Reef Development Approach with Innovative Climate Change Adaptation Programs and Watershed Score Card System” 1st International Scientific Conference on Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences: Towards Disaster and Climate Change. UPV, Manila Observatory, UNESCO. Iloilo, Philippines Escantilla, Maria Lea, 2013. Watershed Management-The Iloilo Watershed Management Experience”. National Watershed Conference, NWMC, BSWM, Manila.

Gallego, Francisco Jr. 2013. The Jar-ao, Tangyan-Guimbal Approach to Watershed Management Council Organizing. National Watershed Conference, NWMC, BSWM, Manila.

Gartner Lee Limited. 2006. Field Protocols: Surface water Quality Sampling.

Mäkelä, A. and M. Meybeck. 1996. In Water Quality Monitoring – A Practical Guide to the Design and Implementation of Freshwater Quality Studies and Monitoring Programs. United Nations Environment Program and the World Health Organization.

Mc Ghee, T. Water Supply and Sanitation (3rd Ed).

Meals, Donald A. and Steven A. Dressing. 2008. Surface water flow measurement for water quality monitoring projects, Tech Notes 3, March 2008. Developed for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by Tetra Tech, Inc., Fairfax, VA, 16 p.

Mittermeier, R.A. 2002. In Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priorities: A Second Iteration of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Dept. of Environment and Natural resources-Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Conservation International Philippines, Biodiversity Conservation Program-University of the Philippines Centre for Integrative and development Studies, and Foundation for Philippine Environment, Quezon City, Philippines.

Naiman, R., H. Decamps, and M. Pollock. 1993. The role of riparian corridors in maintaining regional biodiversity.

Ecological Applications 3(2): 209-212.

Naiman et al. 1993, Fischer and Fischenich 2000, National Research Council 2002 National Research Council (NRC). 2002. Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management. National Academy Press, Washington, DC Ontario Ministry Environment and Energy (OMOEE). 2003. Water Sampling and Data Analysis Manual for Partners in the Ontario Provincial Water Quality Monitoring Network (DRAFT).

Roberts-Pichette, P. 1995. Framework for Monitoring Biodiversity Change (Species and Species Groups) Within the Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Network in Canada. Canadian Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, 50 | M o n i t o r i n g F r a m e w o r k v . 5 . 1 6

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Ontario, Canada.

Standard Methods for Water & Wastewater Analysis APHA, 20th Edition Tigum-Aganan Watershed Management Board and Canadian Urban Institute. 2013. State of the Tigum-Aganan Watershed Report.

Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). 2007. Terrestrial Natural Heritage Program Data Collection Methodology.

Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). 2008. Regional Watershed Monitoring Program Review 2001-2008.

Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). 2009. Base flow and Water Use Assessment â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Report on Current Conditions. Don River Watershed Plan.

Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). 2009. Terrestrial Fixed Plot Monitoring: Regional Watershed Monitoring Program Protocols.

Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). 2012.

Terrestrial Longâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;term Monitoring - Baseline Conditions Report.

Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). 2013. Terrestrial biodiversity in the Toronto region 2003 2012: A decade of monitoring under the Terrestrial Volunteer Monitoring Program Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA). 2014. 2013 Surface Water Quality Summary: Regional Watershed Monitoring Program World Health Organization. 1992. GEMS/WATER Operational Guide. Third Edition, Unpublished WHO document GEMS/W.92.1, World Health Organization, Geneva

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