Archinomics: Culture, Craft, and Capital for Igbo Regional Development - Chidozie Ezeh

ARCHINOMICS Culture, Craft, and Capital for Igbo Regional Development

Lent 2022

Chidozie Ezeh

ARCHINOMICS Culture, Craft, and Capital for Igbo Regional Development

i

CONTENTS Introduction Chapter I: Igbo History, Crafts, and Legacy The Igbo of South-East Nigeria The Igbo House Igbo Political Economy

iii 2 3 5 7

Chapter II: Organising For The Future Craft & Making in post-Colonial Nigeria Toward Modernism Self-Organising in a Market

8 9 11 13

Chapter III: Building For A Global Commons Mapping a Global Commons Rethinking Value: Learning from Culture Rights of Nature

18 19 23 27

Chapter IV: Cultural Reintegration Tactical Aspiration Agenda 2063

29 30 30

Conclusion

33

Appendix

35

Notes

51

Illustrations

58

Bibliography

61 ii

INTRODUCTION In its 1987 report, the United Nations Brundtland Commission Report, defined sustainability as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Commission , 1987). The UN’s Sustainable development goals (SDGs) are lauded as commitments to making the world a better place for all, but taken as a holistic strategy, the scheme contains performative contradictions fatal to its viability.

Following the 2015 global adoption of the SDGs, critics began to raise concerns about the practical implications of the SDGs in their current form (Hickel, 2015): the sustenance and reproduction of inequalities, problematic assumptions of poverty and development, the globalization of politics and its role in perpetuating exploitation, and commercialization of life systems through WTO obligations and trade agreements; implied by the reliance on SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals) as the vehicle for realizing other SDGs. But developing nations are not devoid of systems capable of spurring development from within. Amongst the Igbos of SouthEastern Nigeria, crafts played key historical roles in cultural, social, and economic development. Such craft-based traditions can be understood as systems of regional industrialization producing not for markets and commerce but for culture and collective memory. With this attitude now threatened by the Globalized industrial system, can a development strategy emerge from the cultural and craft traditions of the Igbos? A system which, through self-organizing, can be integrated into modern industrial systems that incentivise sustainable practices from the level of the individual to the level of the institution. iii

This essay will introduce and describe the relationship between crafts-based Igbo culture and political economy before and after colonisation, and propose a way of thinking about a critically regional modern Igbo development, within the developmental, economic, and environmental framework of the emerging globalisation of environment.

iv

1

CHAPTER I: IGBO HISTORY, CRAFTS, & LEGACY

2

The Igbo of South-East Nigeria

Fig 1: Map of Nigeria Showing Igboland, SE Zone

3

I seized the moment, and, by our interpreter, told Tshukuma, that we had come to make his acquaintance and his friendship, and to ascertain if the people were willing to trade with us. After our salutations, I spoke of friendship, of trade, and of education, and particularly enlarged upon the evils of war, and the benefits of peace, all of which was well received.

W. B. Baikie, On trading with the Obi, Chukwuma

of Aboh, Now Delta State. Excerpt, 1854.

Igbo crafts date back to 6000 BC (See dating of Okigwe Pottery, 1978). In addition to the Okigwe pottery, discoveries have been made which claim to prove the existence of Igbo material cultures of metal and stone dating back to between 3000 BC to 4500 BC (Anyabolu, 2000). 1939 discoveries in Igbo-Ukwu unearthed a network of 9th century metalworks. This discovery attracted the attention of Dr. Thurstan Shaw who, between 1959 and 1964, led Archaeological digs in the region (Ed Keazor et al, 2015).

Traditionally, Igbo crafts were of great spiritual, cultural, and economic importance. In fulfilment of his spiritual role, the craftsman produced the sacred objects used in rituals and ceremonies to appease the Alusi (the local deity), Ala (the earth goddess), the Chi (the personal guiding spirit of the individual), and utilitarian items produced for domestic use and trade. For the Igbo, the making of the object was as important as the product. Trade was and remains a key attribute of the Igbos. The Igbo calendar consists of four sequential market days – Eke (East), Orie (West), Afor (North), and Nkwo (South) – representing the four cardinal points maintaining the social order (Allo Isichei, 1997). The market days were a form of social governance for trade and culture.

4

The Igbo House

C

SEMI-PRIVATE

C

B

B

Crafts Spaces Teaching Spaces

B C

C

B B

A

Fig 2: A Study of A Traditional Igbo House

5

A

C

PRIVATE

C

Living Spaces Cooking Spaces C

C

Worship Spaces

C

C

A

A

PUBLIC

A

Meeting Spaces Communal Spaces

6

The traditional Igbo house embodied the complex and dynamic relationship between domestic life, cultural responsibility, and social standing. It was a home, a place of worship, a living archive, a meeting place, a retreat, a school, and a factory. These diverse range of uses was often articulated internally and externally through visual linguistic illustrations on the walls of buildings. Igbo settlements were typically sparsely populated. Although private property rights were observed, community forests, along with the local stream or river, were considered a natural store of resources for the community and not subject to private ownership (Anyanwu et al., 2019).

Personal success and distinction were highly regarded amongst the Igbos, but greed was seen as a vice primarily for its propensity to sow discord amongst the Umunna (clansmen from the father’s side) or within the nuclear family.

A Political Economy In addition to his domestic responsibilities, a man was also expected to contribute to the social welfare of the clan through direct participation or resources. For the craftsman or artisan there were two key methods for passing on knowledge: To one’s own child (Preferred), or through Imu-Oru (Apprenticeships). Despite the rich Igbo craft traditions, there remain concerted efforts to adopt Western models of industrialization in South-East Nigeria.

Ethnographic studies have demonstrated that following a brief peak in the production of Igbo pottery during the decolonisation period, production declined immediately after due to the introduction of Western methods and ideologies of mass production (Egwu, 2014).

7

CHAPTER II: ORGANIZING FOR THE FUTURE

8

Craft & Making in post-Colonial Nigeria Nigeria’s manufacturing industry began in the 1950s with the production of light consumer goods (Muhammad, 2019). The process was driven by international capital keen on the leveraging cheap labour and easier access to primary goods in a market which, under colonial rule, could be protected. In 1955, British textile company David Whitehead & Sons reached an agreement with the Northern Nigerian officials to build a large textile mill in Kaduna; Kaduna Textiles Ltd. Production began in 1957 and by the 1970s the factory was supplying several regional companies (Salihu et al., 2013). However, operations had slowed by 1997 and by 2007 all factories associated with the project had closed. The failure of the project and others like it was due in large part to conflict riddled regime changes which made it impossible to effect stable policies, and the currency deregulation and structural adjustment IMF/World Bank program of 1986 (Salihu et al., 2013).

Fig 3: Kaduna Textile Ltd Project Proposal, 1955

9

In 2005, the Millennium Development Villages project was launched and promised to be a blueprint for poverty alleviation and better living in Africa (Sachs, 2019). Why did it fail? African voices like Kenyan Lawyer Patrick Lumumba posit that the project failed because it failed to integrate with local cultures and therefore was not bought into by people it was intended for. When, under colonial rule, large scale manufacturing was introduced to Nigeria, it was assumed that with the technology available, industrialisation would rapidly take root with the alteration of customs, traditions, and local institutions not aligned with the colonial project (Falola, 2008). The crafts encouraged were those which, like metalsmithing, produced utilitarian goods which were used locally by colonial officers or exported back to England (Neaher, 1979).

Fig 4: British empire exhibition metalwork display at the Nigerian Pavilion, 1925

10

Toward Modernism After Nigeria regained independence in 1960, it became clear that the cultural incompatibility of the amalgamated regions of the Northern and Southern Protectorates had become a source of intertribal conflicts, and ultimately to the Biafra war of 1966 (Uzokwe, 2003). The post-war rebuilding was characterised by a zeal for modernism in the architecture of the growing metropolis of Lagos after its official recognition as a state in 1967. Apapa Quays port was established by the British in 1913 (Nigerian Ports Authority) and served as the loci of international trade and commerce. The cosmopolitan aspirations of then Lagos Governor Mobolaji Johnson, were attuned to Nigeria’s new status as an oil rich nation that could now afford the modernist dreams imported by Slavic and Scandinavian Architects (Seculic, 2012).

Fig 5: Map of Northern and Southern Colonial Protectorates

11

…we have released Northern Nigeria from the leading strings of the Treasury. The promising and well-conducted youth is now on an allowance on his own and is about to effect an alliance with a Southern Lady of means. I have issued the special license and Sir Frederick Lugard will perform the ceremony. May the union be fruitful and the couple constant! The Nigerians are not designed to be a great Trust but a great Federation.

On the 1914 Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria.

(Kirk-Greene, 1968, p.30)

As Lagos became the commercial hub, a new form of apprenticeship emerged. Iga Boi (to serve) became the practiced mode of apprenticeship for Igbos. During the apprenticeship, an Oga (Boss) trained the apprentice in a particular trade for a specified period.

Upon completion, the Oga settled the apprentice with resources sufficient for the establishing of a similar business. The Nwa Boi (apprentice) now an Oga was then to repeat the process with an apprentice of his own (Ejo-Orusa et al., 2019, p. 9). The Nwa Boi system had two key consequences: 1.) The culture of making amongst the Igbo was rapidly replaced by a new culture of trade entirely alien to the culture; that of buying and reselling with a markup. 2.) Igbo culture is typically patriarchal and therefore the Nwa Boi was restricted to males. Women, who within the protection of the culture had freedom to practice crafts, were suddenly limited to working as maids, Seamstresses, or Hairdressers in Lagos. As South-Eastern states established capital cities in the 1980s and 90s, the practice spread to home.

12

Note: Barring the very few crafts which were gendered for spiritual reasons, practice was open to men and women alike. Though priority was always given to men because upon marriage, the women were to be integrated into a new Umunna.

The colonial program of condemnation and disassemblage was designed to be followed concurrently by the process of reassemblage. Invariably, in the unified structure of forced acculturation, the process of reassemblage was nothing but the reconstitution of the Igbo cultural world in accordance with the colonial vision and design.

(Ejo-Orusa et al., 2019, p. 41-42)

Paradigms of Belonging The life of the modern Igbo individual is a tale of two parts: the city-dweller and the villager. The city-dweller spends most of the year living and working in a modern paradigm. The villager emerges during holidays, festive seasons, or key family engagements. Despite the relatively short amount of time the city-dweller spends in the village, there remains a tendency towards the visual display of wealth and success while in the village. It is common for individuals to rent houses in the city but build lavish homes in the village. This is not due to economic reasons but to the mentality that one’s city life is constantly in flux, but the village is the anchor. While in city mode, he joins culturally rooted social clubs through which he maintains a constant connection to his village self.

13

At such gatherings, traditionally symbolic objects are preferred to modern equivalents. For example, the choice of clay bowls and plates over ceramics for the storage and sharing of Oji (Kola nuts), traditionally patterned or tailored clothing, and Nkwu (palm wine) over beers or spirits. Therefore, amongst the Igbo, market opportunities for culturally recognised materials engineered to modern product standards and able to satisfy nostalgic and utilitarian demands exist. This is most salient to the middle and upper classes who have leisure enough to attempt a balancing of modern life with the Igbo worldview. The worldview provides a mechanism for understanding how people evaluate life, and how this evaluation offers a charter of action and justice for behaviour. The way in which people view reality as context dependent (Ohia, 2006, p. 475).

Amongst the Igbo, the relationship between culture and place is often communicated proverbially Ihe di woro ogori azuala na ahia.

What was secret is revealed in the marketplace.

Onye a kporo apari, o na-ehi n’amanna ya, abughi apari.

A presumed fool who sleeps in his father’s house is no fool.

Ha na e si na uno a mara nma we na puta na nma.

The beauty one displays in public was with them right from their home.

14

The process of realigning worldviews might begin with an examination of how the loci of crafts have been spatially transformed relative to modern life. In the tradition Igbo context, crafts were at the centre of life from material sourcing to product display. For example, a poorly cut piece of wood would limit the craftsman’s productivity, and so will insufficiently clay. These were of greater consequence prior to the advent of motorized tools. Markets today are understood as a space or gathering for the purpose of commerce. But for the Igbo it was a space for skill sharing, intracultural exchange, leisure, camaraderie, and display. To understand this in a modern context, picture an art gallery inside a market inside a school inside a theatre with a public forum attached to it- all open-air (The forum in Igbo context is known as the market square and is the Igbo equivalent of the Greek Agora). This model too was erased with colonisation.

Fig 6: Masquerade performances were/are often held at market squares

15

Fig 7: A pre-Colonial Pottery Making Family

Fig 8: Crafts as cultural exports. Abuja Arts & Crafts Village

Fig 9: Projects in the remnant spaces of the city. Apo Mechanic Village, Abuja

16

As Nigerian cities grew in the 1990s, the loci of crafts were forced to the periphery of modern life. The craftsman, having lost the respect accorded by culture and the financial stability hitherto relied on, was reinterpreted as an agent of informality. The apprentices not engaged in trade were classified as Ndi Oru Aka (Hand workers).

Mechanics, Welders, Electricians, and other modern trade skills grew in clustered cooperatives at the periphery of cities, creating slum industrial parks. In Igboland however, the new system of cooperatives was not adopted. Artisans unable to find an Oga in the city were relegated to backyard makers of small wares, and farm hands for hire. They had lost ground.

In 2020, Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhari marked the Independence Day celebrations with the launch of the Artisan Scheme under the federal government’s Survival Fund. 330,000 artisans and transport operators were awarded grants of N30,000 (the equivalent of the monthly minimum wage). Amongst these were Ndi Oru Aka. Unfortunately, it failed to address the inability of these sectors to scale into viable industries prior to and after the lockdowns. What is required is a rethinking of the incentives for which development goals can be acculturated in the Igbo milieu. By aligning aspirations with collective choice agreements still practiced

by Igbos, common pool resourcing could be effective in addressing growth capital deficiencies. Thus, the invisible hand of the commons embedded in Igbo culture, could inspire a necessary cooperative, catalysing the transformation of thing-making into placemaking.

17

CHAPTER III: BUILDING FOR A GLOBAL COMMONS

18

A global commons The medieval European concept of the commons emerged from the way in which communities managed collectively owned land and resources (IASC). Nowadays, the set of commons has expanded to include domains of ideas and intellectual property. In 1968, Garrett Hardin argued that resources shared in common will be mismanaged due to the self-interest of individuals (Hardin, 1968). “Since the early 80s, scholars … like Elinor Ostrom have disagreed with Hardin’s analysis and documented evidence of sustainably managed commons outside private property rights or governmental interventions” (IASC). Today, the environment is treated as a de facto common.

Intergovernmental schemes and agreements like the UN’s SDGs, the Kyoto protocol, the Paris Agreement, and other tariff and non-tariff barriers have been defended as pursuant to the goal of environmental and ecological sustainability. The Carbon Credit System was created and formalized in the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 (Effected in 2005) as a coalition of nations committed to reducing greenhouse emissions. It was an extension of Article 2 of the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Human institutions and ways of organizing activities affect the resilience of the environment. Ideal conditions for governance are increasingly rare. Critical problems, such as transboundary pollution, tropical deforestation, and climate change, are at larger scales and involve nonlocal influences. Promising strategies for addressing these problems include dialogue among interested parties, officials, and scientists; complex, redundant, and layered institutions; a mix of institutional types; and designs that facilitate experimentation, learning, and change.

Deitz, Ostrom, and Stern; 2003. Struggle to govern the commons

19

Policies that provide a real or implicit price of carbon could create incentives for producers and consumers to significantly invest in low-GHG products, technologies and processes. Such policies could include economic instruments, government funding and regulation.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007

Following the agreement, the Marrakech Accords stipulated how market mechanisms were to be used to achieve the Kyoto framework. This consolidated the Marrakech Declarations previously signed in 1994 in Morocco (UNFCCC, V. 10-11-01; 5:29), as a prelude to the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations (MTN) conducted within the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) framework- an institution which became the World Trade Organisation (WTO, The Uruguay round). The Kyoto Agreement created a system in which carbon credits can be bought and sold. In Europe, the system has been adopted by all EU nations and the UK, under the supervision of the European Commission’s European Trading Scheme (European Commission, 2016). By 2008, the United States and Australia had ratified the agreement and adopted it in principle.

Proponents of the system argue that by treating emissions as a commodity, businesses can better manage their activities using data driven predictive models. To wit, tools have been developed for the production, management, and trading of carbon credits in forest conservation, waste, and water management using tools like REDD+ (Maalouf et al., 2020). The scheme emphasized the concept of Additionality in the creation of carbon credits. Additionality is the 20

net financial benefit a project accrues as a result of its revenue from carbon credits or regulatory incentives (The Gold Standard).

Critics of the system insist that while the carbon credit system can be effective in regulating emissions in developed nations, it is largely exclusionary to developing nations because these nations are forced to prioritize economic growth over environmental concerns. False.

When Shell, in collaboration with the British government, began operating in Nigeria’s Ogoni region of Rivers State in 1958, 96 wells were drilled and operated. The project was heavily resisted by the Ogoni people because the Oil spills polluted the river, the main source of food and livelihood of the Ogoni who were forcefully evicted from large swathes of the land and river. Between 1976 and 1991, 2,976 oil spills had reportedly dumped about 2.1 million barrels of crude oil unto Ogoni lands and rivers. This accounted for about 40% of Royal Dutch Shell’s worldwide oil spills (Crayford, 1996).

Fig 10: Oil from a leaking pipeline burns and pollutes environment of Goi-Bodo, a swamp area of the Niger delta Ogoniland, in 2004.

21

Fig 11: Greenpeace protested Shell’s exploitation and environmental degradation of Nigeria during the 1960s

The Nigerian government’s reliance on Oil and Gas revenues has meant that such crises, primarily those in the rural areas, go ignored.

While Nigeria is under enormous pressure to follow the herd of climate warrior nations, it finds itself in a predicament. The country sits on enormous gas reserves but must adopt stringent austerity measures and contradictory policies in order to satisfy IMF credit recovery schemes before being able to access Rapid Financing Instruments (IMF News, 2020).

22

Rethinking Value: Learning from Culture The traditional Igbo production cycle offers a rethinking of how we value environment in relation to our domestic, economic, and cultural lives. Resources were well known to the community, protected, and used in accordance with tacit and explicit laws and mores, and the benefit of future availability. Essentially, they were a series of accessible and renewable vaults.

A vault-based culture-industry integration and its value system could provide the economic, social, and cultural incentives necessary for the adoption of a new kind of industrial system. To this end, a cognitive shift in which culturally, economically, and materially sustainable practices are qualitatively and quantitively valued as assets, is necessary. By capitalising on global valuation and financing of sustainable practices, the Igbos and other cultural groups have an opportunity to escape the debt trap via a system of production of commodities by means of commodities.

Note: The idea of the production of commodities by means of commodities was inspired by economist Pierro Sraffa’s 1960 book of the same title, in which he attempted to create a physical numeraire predicated on the physical identity and direct commensurability of inputs and outputs, with which to measure the price of commodities.

23

24

VAULT: Commodities

Corn, Vegetables, Fuel (Dry Husks)

C

SEMI-PRIVATE

C

B

B

Crafts Spaces Teaching Spaces

B C

C

C

B C

B

A

A

VAULT: Commodities

Fruits, Palm oil, Kernel oil

Fig 12: Traditional Igbo House Vaults, and their place in the Home-Market political economy

25

VAULT: Household Use Potable Water

C

PRIVATE

C

Living Spaces Cooking Spaces Worship Spaces

C

A

PUBLIC

A

Meeting Spaces Communal Spaces

VAULT: Commodity

Food (Cassava), Starch (Many uses), Replantable Stems

26

The Rights of Nature Nature is not an object to be exploited and to be mistreated, but it is a subject that is cared for and respected. So it is a radical change to think of nature as a subject, not an object.

Natalia Greene, Pachamama Foundation, Ecuador (Rights of Nature documentary, 2020)

The Igbo are not the only group to express an intrinsic value for nature. In 1949 conservationist Aldo Leopold echoed the idea of a healthier, balanced, and harmonious relationship with nature (Leopold, 1968). In 1972, American Law Professor Christopher Stone published Should Trees Have Standing?, in which he proposed giving justiciable rights to nature (Stone, 1972). In the same year, US Supreme court Justice William Douglas issued a dissenting opinion based on Stone’s article in the 1972 Sierra Club vs Morton case, stating that “environmental objects should be able to sue for their own protection” (Sierra club v. Morton, 1972). The idea came to the fore when in 2008 at the Ecuador Constitutional Debate in Montecristi, advocates argued that nature be given the same rights as individuals and corporations (Akchurin, 2015). The motion passed and Pachamama was written into Ecuador’s constitution as a legal entity (Rapid Transition Alliance, 2018).

The Maori of New Zealand also regard nature as a crucial part of their national identity. A medium connecting them to their ancestors and anchoring them in place. When Polynesian explorers established settlements in New Zealand about 700 years ago, a culture of unity with nature was established.

27

I am the river, and the river is me.

The Whanganui River was to be a source of sustenance for the Iwi people and in turn they were obligated to protect and conserve it.

When the Maori Chiefs signed the treaty of Waitangi with the British government in 1840, they wrongly assumed that the British shared their reverence for land, nature, and the common use of resources.

Consequently, the Iwi and the Tuhoe have fought for over 140 years, to return resources to common ownership and rights to the river. They succeeded when the Te Urewera act (2014) granted the legal rights of a person to Te Urewera. Under the agreement, the Tuhoe will share management of the lands with the department of conservation but neither will own the land. The goal is to draw from Maori traditions, what is best for the land rather than a set of regulations.

How can a bunch of humans represent the voice of nature? It’s a board that does not represent humans. We have this delightful conversation about things like that stakeholder wants this and that person,…ahh. We don’t see humans. No. I am Nature. Nature is connected to everything. I have a memory that is timeless. I can’t see things in annual plans. For us what applies here is the 1,000 years of history. We don’t live in legislation.

Kirsty Luke, Chief Executive, Tuhoe Te Uru Taumatua On the protection of nature by legislation

28

CHAPTER IV: CULTURAL REINTEGRATION

29

Tactical Aspiration Other governments have taken a different approach. Iceland, in its 1971 nature conservation act, specified that humans and nature should engage in such a way that life or land be not needlessly wasted, nor sea, freshwater or air polluted (The Nature Conservation Act No. 44, Government of Iceland, 1999). Iceland’s pragmatic approach, while closely resembling the Igbo material doctrine in principle, offers a utilitarian argument for the proper management of natural resources more suited to the needs of the present. For the Igbo, this would mean building with nature using traditional values and modern tools, and financed with innovative sustainability-based value propositions, could result in a tactical aspiration capable of feeding the flame of the regional development agenda.

Agenda 2063 An integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens, representing a dynamic force in the international arena and Agenda 2063 is the concrete manifestation of how the continent intends to achieve this vision within a 50-year period from 2013 to 2063.

African Union Agenda 2063, The Africa We Want.

Crucially, tactical aspiration is not limited to the Igbos. When the African Union introduced Agenda 2063 under the aegis of the Africa Continental Free Trade Area Agreement in May 2013, a commitment was made by African leaders to the development of inclusive social and economic development, regional and continental integration, democratic governance, and security (AfCFTA Secretariat). It was 30

fundamentally understood as the regionalisation of sustainable development under a pan-African socio-cultural umbrella. At the heart of the strategic vision of Agenda 2063 lie key flagship programs and a roadmap which, monitored through qualitative and quantitative outcomes, will guide the process through a 10-year implementation phase. The key selling point of the project is rests in the ability of African nations to speak with one voice, particularly in relation to the global policy space and trade negotiations. By 2021, 36 African nations had ratified the agreement.

Notwithstanding, many within and beyond the continent doubt the ability of such top-heavy agreements to reconcile the multiplicity of cultures and peoples within Africa and address their varying needs in ways that would not trigger further conflicts. As governments signed declarations in Addis Ababa and Accra, violence raged across the Sahel and the voices calling for session amongst cultural groups within Nigerian screamed louder than ever.

There is however a place for such projects. The flagship scheme of Agenda 2063 outlined key initiatives crucial to accelerating Africa’s economic growth and cultural enrichment. Included on the list are initiatives which might better be tackled on a smaller regional scale of interconnected systems operating through self-governance. For example, the formulation of commodities strategy, establishment of an African economic forum, establishment of African financial institutions, and a museum of African legacy and heritage (AfCFTA Secretariat). Such initiatives can, at regional scales, be integrated into embedded cultural and economic development goals.

31

Fig 13: The African Continental Free Trade Agreement

32

CONCLUSION Having explored the deep cultural embeddedness of trade and production amongst the Igbo, the idea of new industrial systems capable of leveraging the unique aspects of Igbo cultural life seem less farfetched. A modern eye might cast aspersions at the idiosyncrasies of Igbo cultural practices like the reverence for Ala and her vaults, but these practices have within themselves a performativity through which the Igbo have continually developed systems of survival and economic stewardship. As the traditional Igbo house was, prior to colonisation, a place of shelter, manufacture, and stewardship of nature, the post-colonial context of global economic and environmental integration presents an opportunity for the reimagining of Igbo craft using modern tools and techniques. An opportunity as significant for the city-man as it is for the village-man. As critical for the survival of the struggling artisan as for the anchoring of the leisure classes. And as true within the Umunna as it is at the AU Secretariat or the UN General assembly.

As far as the building of culturally embedded economic systems with a care for nature is concerned, within the global commons in which we find ourselves, what holds true for one holds true for the others. The Igbo of the precolonial era understood this, and perhaps in a little while, we will.

33

34

APPENDIX

35

36

BENUE

KOGI UZO-UWANI

OHAUKWU

ENUGU

NSUDE

OBIOMA

ANAMBRA

OKUZUUKWAWU AWKA

OJI

EBONYI

ORIUZOR

EZZAMA

NIMO

AMUZU

ABAOMEGE

AWKA ETITI IGBOUKWU

UGWUEKE

CROSS RIVER

OVIM

UZUAKOLI OHAFIA

IMO

UBAKALA

ABIA

IKENEGBU MBARI

AROCHUKWU

RIVERS

AKWA IBOM

R

0

Shown above are the precolonial villages of Igbo Nigeria. They were also the loci of traditional crafts. There, the craftsmen sourced their raw materials within walking distance from their homes.

However, in modern development, the Igbo have opportunities of using those same materials in the establishing of indigenous developement.

They can also benefit fit from modern logistical mechanisms capable of speeding up the process without compromising cultural values.

0

10

37

20

30

40

50km

10

MAKURDI FIELDS

DEKINA FIELDS JAKURA QUARRY

GITTO COMPANY QUARRY

AWULEMA GRANITE QUARRY

ANKPA FIELDS

ANMUDA GRANITE QUARRY

KOGI

BEAUTIFUL ROCK QUARRY

EKINRIN -ADDE QUARRY

OJU FIELDS

YANDEV QUARRY

BENUE

KPAYONGO GRANITE QUARRY

ADIGA QUARRY

GBOKO QUARRY

BULLETINE COMPANY QUARRY

AJAOKUTA FIELDS

IGUMALE QUARRY

YAGBA FIELDS

BORINI PRONO QUARRY

ISI-UZO FIELDS

ITOBE QUARRY

ENUGU

UZO-UWANI FIELDS

NKALAGU FIELD UGBODO FIELDS

ROCK BRIDGE QUARRY

MAKURDI FIELDS

WULEMA RANITE UARRY

U LDS

UKPO FIELDS

BENUE

KPAYONGO GRANITE QUARRY

ADIGA QUARRY

EZEAGU FIELDS

ANAMBRA

ANMUDA GRANITE QUARRY

YANDEV QUARRY

NKANU FIELD

NNKANU -WEST FIELDS

OJI PITWOOD PLANTATION

MAMU RIVER FOREST RESERVE

NTEZI FIELD

EZILLO FIELDS

NGWO PINE FOREST

EBONYI IKWO FIELD

NNKANU -EAST FIELDS

GBOKO QUARRY

EZZA NORTH & SOUTH FIELDS

AJALI FIELD NNEWI FIELDS UMU-NNEOCHI FIELDS

ISHIAGU FIELDS

OSSOMALA FOREST RESERVE

OHAOZARA QUARRY

OHAFIA QUARRY

OBUDI FIELDS

IMO

INFRASTRUCTURE

ARO CHUKWU FIELDS IKWUANO FIELDS

EBONYI

Heavy Vehicle Routes

OZIZA FIELDS

RIVERS

OBUBRA QUARRY

New Additions to Heavy Vehicle Routes

OBI NGWA FIELDS

AKWA IBOM UGWENEGBO FIELDS

CALABAR FIELDS

Proposed Pipeline Extensions

MFAMOSING QUARRY

Existing Transmission Lines OBEAKU FOREST RESERVE

RIVER SIDE FIELDS

OHAFIA QUARRY

INFRASTRUCTURE

IBAMI FIELD

OBIEZE ISU FOREST RESERVE

Airports IKOT ANA FIELD

CALABAR FIELDS

BOM MFAMOSING QUARRY

Proposed Transmission Line Extensions Opportunity Adjacencies

CROSS RIVER

UGEP QUARRY

OSS RIVER

Existing Gas Pipelines Power Stations

AFIKPO FIELDS

RO CHUKWU ELDS

Train Stations Proposed Additions to Rail Lines

ONUEKE FIELDS

GBOKO EZZA QUARRY NORTH & SOUTH FIELDS

AMOSO FIELDS

ANA AirportsIKOT FIELD

Existing Rail Lines

NGOROKPALA FORESTS

IBOKO FIELDS

IBAMI FIELD

OBIEZE ISU FOREST RESERVE

ABIA UMUAHIA SOUTH FIELDS

IKWO FIELD

CROSS RIVER

UGEP QUARRY

OBOWO FIELDS

NTEZI FIELD

RIVER SIDE FIELDS

AMOSO FIELDS

UMU OBOM FIELDS

OGUTA FIELDS

UGBODO FIELDS

YANDEV QUARRY

AFIKPO FIELDS

ISIKWUATO FIELDS

OKIGWE FIELDS

ORLU FIELDS

EZILLO FIELDS

OBUBRA QUARRY

OZIZA FIELDS

IGUMALE QUARRY

KALAGU ELD

IBOKO FIELDS

ONUEKE FIELDS

MATERIALS Forests and Timber Plantations

Train Stations

Granite

Existing Rail Lines

Limestone / Travertine

Proposed Additions to Rail Lines

Sandstone

Heavy Vehicle Routes

Marble

New Additions to Heavy Vehicle Routes

Laterite

Existing Gas Pipelines

Builder’s sand

Proposed Pipeline Extensions

Stonedust

Power Stations

Grit Sand

Existing Transmission Lines

Gravel

Proposed Transmission Line Extensions

Coal

Opportunity Adjacencies

Kaolin Barite Sharp Sand

MATERIALS Forests and Timber Plantations Granite Limestone / Travertine Sandstone

38

COAL

NAT URA LG AS

HY DR O-E LEC TR IC

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

?

GE OT

AL RM HE

?

?

WATER 6 CLEAN AND SANITATION

7

AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY

15 LIFE ON LAND

ALIGNMENT

CITIES INNOVATION 12 RESPONSIBLE CONSUMPTION 11 SUSTAINABLE AND COMMUNITIES 9 INDUSTRY, AND INFRASTRUCTURE AND PRODUCTION

< 2 º C?

2025

2028

2030

2050

2023

In a global commons development framework, it is advantageous and necessary for the Igbo to align their development aspirations with REGIONAL global sustainability goals. This is important for attracting institutional DEVELOPMENT GOALS financing, modelling value changes and economic consequenes, and monitoring global trends which can be leveraged.

At the same time, the Igbo must resist globalist agendas that seek to interpret sustainable development goals as markets operating on the principle of comparative advantage.

39

7

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

6

EXPY

ALIGNMENT

ITSHA

U - ON

ENUG

INDUSTRIAL CORE

OLD

U-

ENUG

AD A RO

ITSH

ON

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT GOALS

40

Igbo Eze North

Igbo Eze North

Igbo Eze South

Igbo Eze South Udenu

Udenu

Nsukka NORTHERN CLUSTER

Nsukka NORTHERN CLUSTER Isi Uzo

ani

Isi Uzo

Uzo-Uwani

Igbo Etiti

Igbo Etiti

Enugu East Udi CENTRAL CLUSTER

Ezeagu

Enugu East Udi CENTRAL CLUSTER

STATE CAPITAL Enugu North Ezeagu

Enugu South Nkanu West

Nkanu East

SOUTHERN Oji RiverCLUSTER Awgu

STATE CAPITAL Enugu North Enugu South Nkanu West

Nkanu East

SOUTHERN Oji RiverCLUSTER Awgu

Aninri

Aninri

DEVELOPMENT CLUSTERS ACCORDING TO EXISTING SENATORIAL ZONES

Attempting regional development will necessarily involve the collaboration of the post-colonial government and constitution with embedded and culturally rooted systems of governance. The alignment must begin here. Within these zoned governance structures, the nwaboi system can then be aligned with modern apprenticeship programs geared towards development agendas which are represented and agreed at all levels of the political economy.

41

Igbo Eze North Igbo Eze South Udenu Nsukka

Isi Uzo

Uzo-Uwani Igbo Etiti

Enugu East Udi

Enugu North Ezeagu

Enugu South Nkanu West

nu

Nkanu East

Isi Uzo

Oji River

Awgu

NODES OF SOCIAL CAPITAL State Capital CityAninri

East

Local Government Areas Airport

u North

Manufacturing Industries

uth

LGA Boundaries

Nkanu East

Aninri

NODES OF SOCIAL CAPITAL State Capital City Local Government Areas Airport Manufacturing Industries LGA Boundaries LGA Loci of Urbanism Institutes of Higher Education Trades Training Institutions Local Apprenticeships

LGA Loci of Urbanism Institutes of Higher Education Trades Training Institutions Local Apprenticeships Untapped Potential; Energy Backed Probable margin of Influence Opportunity Corridors Urban Linkages

42

Federal State Local NGO De facto Community Leaders

STRATEGIES OF CONSENT

PARASTATALS Security Commerce Welfare Population Management

STRATEGIES OF CONSENT

Resource Management Judicial

43

ederal tate ocal GO e facto eaders

Lobby Corridors

PARASTATALS

Ohaneze Ndigbo is an Igbo socio-cultural organization which was founded to represent the interests of all Igbo communities within and beyond Nigeria. By recognising the institutional legitimacy of Ohaneze Ndigbo across parastatal levels, the Igbo may begin to feel the sense of place undergirding a culturally embedded development.

44

45 STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

Executive Exclusive List

Price Controls

Resource Exhaustion

Environmental Regulations

Rapid Population Growth

Water Sharing

Social Unrest

Global Commons Financing

Vocational Training

Tropical Modernism

Underserved Middle Class

Leveraging Equity

Cultural Craft Aesthetic

Material Innovations

Technological Development

Labour Suitability

Commons Barriers

Land Contestetion

Distribution Networks

Regional Water Security

Insufficient Technology

Insecurity in Transit

State of Freight

Labour Availability

State Support

Land Rights

Market Size

Geography

Access to Resources

Logistics (National)

Logistics (Regional)

VALUE CONSIDERATIONS

Taking the traditional Igbo house as a facilitator of natural and renewable vaults, a vault-based culture-industry integration and its system of valuations could provide the economic, social, and cultural incentives necessary for the adoption of a new kind of industrial system. To this end, a cognitive shift in which culturally, economically, and materially sustainable practices are qualitatively and quantitively valued as fungible assets.

ves for mental on

Sector Employment

Health Impact Awareness

GLOBAL COMMONS? : VALUING GOALS

1. No Poverty -Agricultural concentration + -Local manufacturing + -Timber for sustenance -Logistical networks +

3. Good Health And Well-being

6. Clean Water And Sanitation

7. Affordable And Clean Energy

-Water security + -Agricultural support + -Land-use concentration -Child care support +

-Biodegradable products + -Pollution aversion -Water reuse + -Potable water support +

-Viable energy sources + -Efficient energy use + -Local grid support + -Externalities -

8. Decent Work And Econonmic Growth

9. Industry, Innovation, And Infrastructure

11. Sustainable Cities And Communities

12. Responsible Consumption And Production

-Manufacturing + -Education and Training + -Gender inclusivity + -Labour rights +

-Resource conservation + -Lean infastructures + -Controlled extraction + -Systems’s integration +

-Access to services + -Green public realm + -Adequate Housing + -Densification +

-Material waste management + -Waste streams + -Rights of materials + -Efficient consumption +

16. Peace, Justice, And Strong Institutions

17. Partnerships For The Goals

sive ative

Climate ments

13. Climate Action

15. Life On Land

-Emission control + -Effluence control + -Ecosystem management + -Pollution impacts +

-Ecosystem contributions + -Integrative habitats + -Nature rights + -Building with nature +

-Security + -Conflict resolution + -Protection of rights +

-Duties of care; PPP + -Contract enforcement + -Duties of environments + -Trade constitutions +

By capitalising on global valuation and financing of sustainable practices, the Igbos and other cultural groups have an opportunity to escape the debt trap via a system of production of commodities by means of commodities.

46

11. Sustainable Communities

INSTITUTION:

Global Climate Agreements

GLOBAL COMMONS ORGANIZATION (GCO), SOUTH-EAST NIGERIA CHAPTER

12. Responsible Production & Consumption

Local Integration

Market Volatility

17. Partnerships

9. Industry

Green Cover

6. Clean Water & Sanitation

47

56%

Resilient Mining

13. Climate Action

15. Life on Land

Commons Legislation

THE ARCHINOMIC BLUEPRINT

16. Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions

Regenerative Forestry

Local PPP Projects

8. Work & Economy

Craft Revival & Resilience

Cultural Integration

1. No Poverty

For this new system to be effective, a constitution must be established in which the invisible hand of the commons is aquainted and accepted by the visible hand of Igbo culture.

48

Environmental Vaults

>ÌÕÀ> E * > Ì>Ì ÀiÃÌÃ TIMBER PLANTATIONS AND FORESTS -Contribution: Improved air quality, Soil preservation, Wildlife support, Water conservation, Maintainable supply of lumber -Valuation of CO2 sequestration and net contribution of forests

Materials TIMBER PLANTATIONS AND FORESTS -Contribution: Improved quality, Soil Trav, preservation, Wildlife support, -Stones: Sand,air Lime, Marb, Granite Water conservation, Maintainable supply of lumber -Sands/earth: Sharp, Stone dust, -Valuation of CO2 sequestration and net contribution of forestsLaterite, Clay, Grit, Gravel, -Timber: Hard and soft

Bamboo Reserves

ATIONS AND FORESTS

ity, Soil preservation, Wildlife support, e supply of lumber

and net contribution of forests

Materials BAMBOO FORESTS AND PLANTATIONS &RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO PDWHULDO VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU -Stones: Sand, Lime, Trav, Marb, Granite IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG PDUNHW RSSRUWXQLWLHV -Sands/earth: Sharp, Stone Laterite, -Valuation of local material security, and earth materials dust, conservation Clay, Grit, Gravel, -Timber: Hard and soft

RIVERS, LAKES, RESERVOIRS, PONDS, COLLECTED RAINWATER &RQWULEXWLRQ (IŴXHQFH FRQWURO ,UULJDWLRQ 3URWHFWLRQ RI OLIH LQ ULYHUV Low reliance of freshwater for industrial processes -Valuation of man-made and preserved natural water bodies

ATIONS AND FORESTS

BAMBOO FORESTS AND PLANTATIONS

ity, Soil preservation, Wildlife support, e supply of lumber

&RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO PDWHULDO VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG PDUNHW RSSRUWXQLWLHV

and net contribution of forests

-Valuation of local material security, and earth materials conservation

>ÌÕÀ> E > >`i 7>ÌiÀ Passive systems -Solar shade &RQWULEXWLRQ (IŴXHQFH FRQWURO ,UULJDWLRQ 3URWHFWLRQ RI OLIH LQ ULYHUV Low reliance of freshwater for industrial processes -Cooling and Ventilation -Valuation of man-made and preserved natural water bodies -Mosquitoes and snakes RIVERS, LAKES, RESERVOIRS, PONDS, COLLECTED RAINWATER

Passive systems -Solar shade &RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO IRRG VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU ORFDO IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG FUDIW OHJDF\ LQWHJUDWLRQ -Cooling and Ventilation 9DOXDWLRQ RI IRRG VHFXULW\ VXVWDLQDEOH FRPPXQLW\ EXLOGLQJ DQG :RUN -Mosquitoes and snakes

DS, COLLECTED RAINWATER

FARMS AND PLANTATIONS, FOOD AND FIBRE SECURITY

WLRQ 3URWHFWLRQ RI OLIH LQ ULYHUV al processes

d natural water bodies

DS, COLLECTED RAINWATER

WLRQ 3URWHFWLRQ RI OLIH LQ ULYHUV al processes

d natural water bodies

- ÕÀVià v ` E LÀi

49

FARMS AND PLANTATIONS, FOOD AND FIBRE SECURITY &RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO IRRG VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU ORFDO IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG FUDIW OHJDF\ LQWHJUDWLRQ 9DOXDWLRQ RI IRRG VHFXULW\ VXVWDLQDEOH FRPPXQLW\ EXLOGLQJ DQG :RUN

Technocultural Vaults

- E -Ì i Materials BAMBOO FORESTS AND PLANTATIONS &RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO PDWHULDO VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU -Stones: Sand, Lime, Trav, Marb, Granite IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG PDUNHW RSSRUWXQLWLHV -Sands/earth: Sharp, Stone Laterite, -Valuation of local material security, and earth materials dust, conservation Clay, Grit, Gravel, -Timber: Hard and soft

Natural materials Innovation BAMBOO FORESTS AND PLANTATIONS -Natural fibre Textiles -Terracotta -Valuation of local material security, and earth materials conservation -CNC machining: Wood, metal, stone &RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO PDWHULDO VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG PDUNHW RSSRUWXQLWLHV

>ÌÕÀ> >ÌiÀ > Ã Û>Ì Ã

Environment Natural materials Innovation -Air & Particulates pollution -Natural fibrepollution Textiles -Water -Terracotta -Material contamination:Toxins -CNC-Composting? machining: Wood, metal, stone

Passive systems -Solar shade &RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO IRRG VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU ORFDO IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG FUDIW OHJDF\ LQWHJUDWLRQ -Cooling and Ventilation 9DOXDWLRQ RI IRRG VHFXULW\ VXVWDLQDEOH FRPPXQLW\ EXLOGLQJ DQG :RUN -Mosquitoes and snakes Environment Materials -Air & Particulates pollution -Stones: Sand,pollution Lime, Trav, Marb, Granite -Water -Sands/earth: Sharp, Stone dust, Laterite, -Material contamination:Toxins Clay, Grit, Gravel, -Composting?

-Timber: Hard and soft FARMS AND PLANTATIONS, FOOD AND FIBRE SECURITY

Modern Construction Tech.

Construction Technologies -Speed: Important for local climate &RQWULEXWLRQ /RFDO IRRG VHFXULW\ ,QWHJUDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU ORFDO IDUPHUV ,QQRYDWLYH QDWXUDO PDWHULDOV XVDJH DQG FUDIW OHJDF\ LQWHJUDWLRQ -Robustness 9DOXDWLRQ RI IRRG VHFXULW\ VXVWDLQDEOH FRPPXQLW\ EXLOGLQJ DQG :RUN -Material efficiency FARMS AND PLANTATIONS, FOOD AND FIBRE SECURITY

Social Construction -Jobs Technologies -Speed: Important for local material climate use -Logistics dependent -Robustness -Proliferations into society -Material efficiency -Inclusivity

Passive Systems

Social Passive -Jobs systems -Solar shade -Logistics dependent material use -Cooling and Ventilation -Proliferations into society -Mosquitoes -Inclusivity and snakes

Externality Vau

Û À i Ì> -

Environment Natural materials Innov -Air & Particulates -Natural fibrepollution Textiles -Water -Terracotta -Material contamin -CNC-Composting? machining: Wood

Environment Aesthetics -Air & Particulates -Visual linguist -Water pollution -Form & Purpo -Material contamin -Cultural mem -Composting?

Biodiversity

Nature system Aesthetics -Apiculture; B -Visual linguist -Endangered -Form & Purpo -Biodiversity -Cultural mems

Social Construction -Jobs Technolo -Speed: Important for -Logistics depen -Robustness -Proliferations in -Material efficiency -Inclusivity Nature system Natural materials Innov -Apiculture; -Natural fibre TextilesB -Endangered -Terracotta -Biodiversity s -CNC machining: Wood

- V > iÃ

Social ‘Capital forma -Jobs -Creation of sa -Logistics depen -Mobilisationino -Proliferations -Investment of -Inclusivity

Education ‘Capital format -Trade skill advanc -Creation of sa -Skills & sector fit o( -Mobilisation -Child care and -Investmentsu of

Social Capital D

EducationTechnolo Construction -Trade skill advanc -Speed: Important for -Skills & sector fit ( -Robustness -Child care and -Material efficiency su

Vaults

ANTATIONS

Trav, Marb, Granite Stone Laterite, rth materials dust, conservation

UDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU DQG PDUNHW RSSRUWXQLWLHV

ft

novation ANTATIONS UDWLRQ DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU es DQG PDUNHW RSSRUWXQLWLHV

rth materials conservation

ood, metal, stone

à Û>Ì Ã

novation ates pollution ns amination:Toxins ood, metal, stone

ms

ND FIBRE SECURITY

DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU ORFDO QG FUDIW OHJDF\ LQWHJUDWLRQ

entilation XQLW\ EXLOGLQJ DQG :RUN nd snakes

ates pollution nTrav, Marb, Granite Stone dust, Laterite, amination:Toxins

ft

uction Tech.

nologies for local climate DQG LQFHQWLYHV IRU ORFDO

ND FIBRE SECURITY

QG FUDIW OHJDF\ LQWHJUDWLRQ

XQLW\ EXLOGLQJ DQG :RUN

nologies for local material climate use pendent s into society

s

ms

pendent material use sentilation into society nd snakes

Externality Vaults

Heritage Vaults

VAULTS

Û À i Ì> -> ÌÞ

Environment Natural materials Innovation -Air & Particulates pollution -Natural fibrepollution Textiles -Water -Terracotta -Material contamination:Toxins -CNC-Composting? machining: Wood, metal, stone

Environment Aesthetics -Air & Particulates pollution -Visual linguistics -Water pollution -Form & Purpose -Material contamination:Toxins -Cultural memory -Composting?

Biodiversity Nature systems Aesthetics -Apiculture; Butterfliies, Dragonfly -Visual linguistics -Endangered trees arboreta -Form & Purpose -Biodiversity strategy -Cultural memory

Social Construction -Jobs Technologies -Speed: Important for local material climate use -Logistics dependent -Robustness -Proliferations into society -Material efficiency -Inclusivity Nature systems Natural materials Innovation -Apiculture; -Natural fibre TextilesButterfliies, Dragonfly -Endangered trees arboreta -Terracotta -Biodiversity strategy -CNC machining: Wood, metal, stone

- V > ià E V ÕÃ Û ÌÞ Social ‘Capital formation’ -Jobs -Creation of savingsmaterial use -Logistics dependent -Mobilisationinto of Savings -Proliferations society -Investment of savings; local -Inclusivity

Education ‘Capital formation’ -Trade skill advancement -Creation of savings -Skills & sector fit of (Train for needs) -Mobilisation Savings -Child care and -Investmentsupport of savings; local

Social Capital Development

EducationTechnologies Construction -Trade skill advancement -Speed: Important for local climate -Skills & sector fit (Train for needs) -Robustness -Child care and -Material efficiency support

Igbo Aesthetic Traditions Nature systems Aesthetics -Apiculture; Butterfliies, Dragonfly -Visual linguistics -Endangered trees arboreta -Form & Purpose -Biodiversity strategy -Cultural memory

Cultural Technologies (CaT) Nature systems -Apiculture; Butterfliies, Dragonfly -Endangered trees arboreta -Biodiversity strategy *How have Igbos been doing things?

Li``i` -ÞÃÌi à v -ÕÀÛ Û> Cultural Technologies (CaT) *How have Igbos been doing things?

Education ‘Capital formation’ -Trade skill advancement -Creation of savings -Skills & sector fit of (Train for needs) -Mobilisation Savings -Child care and support -Investment of savings; local Aesthetics -Visual linguistics -Form & Purpose -Cultural memory

/ i i` i emerged fr managed c Cultural Technolog Ü>`>ÞÃ] - include do - Today, the *How have Igbos b V ° SDGs, the and other t defended a and ecolog System wa *À Ì V v of nations c i Ãà ð 1 Ìi` >Ì > }i ­1 a system in à `° ÕÀ 1 >Ì Ã ÕÀ «i> Materials & Resources -Resource -Resource protected, Cultural Technolog - iÝ« V Ì >Ü availability.

-

*How have Igbos b

Taking the natural and industry int could prov incentives of industria in which cu sustainable valued as f Û> Õ>Ì > Igbos and to escape t commoditi

i> vÀ>ÃÌÀÕVÌÕÀià E } ÃÌ Và Education -Trade skill Materials advancement & methods -Skills & sector fit (Train for needs) -Resource extraction -Child care and supportreplacing -Resource

Materials & methods -Resource extraction -Resource replacing

Green Capital Accumulation ‘Capital formation’ -Creation of savings -Mobilisation of Savings -Investment of savings; local

50

Materials & -Resource -Resource

NOTES 1. Brundtland Commission, Gro Harlem Brundtland, 1987. Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press) p. 16 2. Blog Editor, 2015. Five reasons to think twice about the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. Online 3. William Balfour Baikie, 1856. Narrative of an Exploring Voyage up the rivers of Kwora and Binue (commonly known as Niger and Tsádda) in 1854 with a map and appendices. ia600303.us.archive. org. John Mueray, Albemarle Street (published with a sanction of Her Majesty’s Government). Retrieved April 24, 2016.

4. Based on the dating of pottery found in 1978 at Okigwe (present day Awka), Anambra state by a team led by English Archaeologist Dr. Thursten Shaw, alongside a research team form the University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN). The team also discovered a mine for tool and pottery making for the stone civilization of Ibagwa (North of Nsukka, Enugu State).

5. Oliver Ifeanyi Anyabolu, 2000. Nigeria, past to the present: from 500 B.C. to the present (USA: Classic Publication Company) p. 12.

6. Emeka Ed Keazor, Pamela Smith-Shaw, 2015. Onunaekwuluora: The Legacy of Thurstan Shaw. http://asirimagazine.com/en/documentary-film-onunaekwuluora-thelegacy-of-thurstan-shaw/ 7. This significance did not extend to everyday utilitarian items such as cooking pots.

51

8. Elizabeth Allo Isichei, 1997. A History of African Societies to 1870. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) p. 247 9. Ogechi E. Anyanwu (Editor), Apollos Okwuchi Nwauwa (Editor), George Ogbonna Mbarah (Chapter Author), 2019. Culture, Precepts, and Social Change in Southeastern Nigeria: Understanding the Igbo.

(Kentucky: Lexington books) p. 52 10. The resources could be agricultural produce, livestock, or knowledge. Such contributions were of utmost importance during marriage ceremonies, funerals, coronations, and disputes.

11. Vincent Egwu, 2014. A Critical Survey of the Growth, Decline, and Sustainability of Traditional Pottery Practice among the Igbo of South-Eastern Nigeria. The Journal of Modern Craft. 7 (2), p.

123–139 12. Murtala Muhammad, 2019. The Emergence of Manufacturing Industry in Nigeria (1955-1978). Journal of Advances in Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 6, p. 807–823 13. Here the author refers to protection from competition and the securing of market share.

14. - 15. Maiwada Salihu, Elisha Renne, 2013. The Kaduna Textile Industry and the Decline of Textile Manufacturing in Northern Nigeria, 1955-2010. Populations Studies Centre, Institute for Social Research, 44(2), p. 171-196 16. Jeffrey Sachs, 2019. UN Millennium Development Library: Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Routledge; 1st ed.

52

17. Toyin Falola, Matthew Heaton, 2008. A History of Nigeria.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) p. 110 - 135 18. Nancy Neaher, 1979. Awka Who Travel: Itinerant Metalsmiths of Southern Nigeria. (Africa: Journal of the International African Institute). Vol. 49, No. 4, p. 352-366 19. Alfred Uzokwe, 2003. Surviving in Biafra: The Story of the Nigerian Civil War. (Nebraska: iUniverse) p. 1-7 20. Nigerian Ports Authority. Lagos Ports. https://nigerianports.gov. ng/lagos-port/ 21. Dubravka Seculic, 2012. Constructing Non-aligned Modernity: The Case of Energoprojekt. Association for Slavic, East European, & Eurasian Studies 44th Annual Convention. https://www.academia.edu/2542020/Constructing_Non-aligned_ Modernity_the_Case_of_Energoprojekt 22. A.H.M. Kirk-Greene, 1968. Lugard and the Amalgamation of Nigeria: A Documentary Record. (Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.) p. 30.

Evidence in the report confirmed that Lagos was indeed the Southern Lady of Means spoken of by Lugard.

23. Henry Ejo-Orusa, Destiny Lloyd, 2019. Reinventing The ‘Nwaboi’ Apprenticeship System: A Platform For Entrepreneurship Promotion In Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences. 8, p. 9 24. Ibid, p. 41 - 42

53

25. Barring the very few crafts which were gendered for spiritual reasons, practice was open to men and women alike. Though priority was always given to men because upon marriage, the women were to be integrated into a new Umunna.

26. Chinaeke Ohia, 2006. Eke-na-egwurugwu: The Causal Principles of Unity, Individuation, Multiplicity, and Differentiation in Igbo Metaphysics. (Owerri: Springfield Publishers Ltd) p. 475 & 478 27. A poorly cut piece of wood would limit the craftsman’s productivity, and so will insufficiently clay. These were of greater consequence prior to the advent of motorized tools.

28. The forum in Igbo context is known as the market square and is the Igbo equivalent of the Greek Agora.

29. Premium Times Nigeria, 2020. Artisans in 11 states, FCT receive N30,000 one-time grant – Presidency. Premium Times. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/423913artisans-in-11-states-fct-receive-n30000-one-time-grant-presidency 30. International Association For The Study of The Commons.

Retrieved March 2022. What Are Commons? iasc-commons.org/about-commons/ 31. Garrett Hardin, 1968. The Tragedy of the Commons: The population problem has no technical solution. Science, Vol 162, Issue 3859, p. 1243-1248 32. International Association For The Study of The Commons https://iasc-commons.org/ 54

33. Thomas Dietz, Elinor Ostrom, and Paul C. Stern, 2003. The struggle to govern the commons. Science 302 (5652): 1907-12 34. IPCC Working Group III, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers, IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. Working Group III, IPCC. p 29 - 31 35. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Marrakesh Accords & The Marrakesh Declaration.

Version: 10-11-01; 5:29 http://unfccc.int/cop7/documents/accords_draft.pdf 36. World Trade Organization. Understanding The WTO: Basics, The Uruguay Round. https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/fact5_e.

37. European Commission, 2016. EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). Climate Action https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/eu-emissions-trading-systemeu-ets_en 38. Armani Maalouf, Mutasem El-Fadel, 2020. A novel software for optimizing emissions and carbon credit from solid waste and wastewater management. Science of Total Environment. p. 714 39. The Gold Standard. Offsetting And The Low-Carbon Transition. https://www.goldstandard.org/resources/faqs#faqs_displaypage_1-21 40. Steven Crayford, 1996. The Ogoni Uprising: Oil, Human Rights, and a Democratic Alternative in Nigeria. Indiana University Press.

55

Africa Today, Vol. 43, No. 2, Conflict and Conflict Resolution in Africa. p. 183-197 41. International Monetary Fund, IMF News, 2020. Nigeria’s IMF Financial Assistance to Support Health Care Sector, Protect Jobs and Businesses https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/04/29/na042920nigerias-imf-financial-assistance-to-support-health-care-sectorprotect 42. The idea of the production of commodities by means of commodities was inspired by economist Pierro Sraffa’s 1960 book of the same title, in which he attempted to create a physical numeraire predicated on the physical identity and direct commensurability of inputs and outputs, with which to measure the price of commodities.

43. Issac Goeckeritz (Producer), Hal Crimmel (Producer), María Valeria Berros (Writer), Shawn Murdock (Editor), 2020. The Rights of Nature: A Global Movement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuFNmH7lVTA 44. Leopold, A. (1968). A sand county almanac, and sketches here and there. London: Oxford University Press.

45. Christopher Stone, 1972. Should Trees have Standing? (USA: Oxford University Press) 46. Sierra Club v. Morton, 1972. 405 U.S. 727, 745–747 (S. Ct. 1972) 47. Maria Akchurin, 2015. Constructing the Rights of Nature: Constitutional Reform, Mobilization, and Environmental Protection 56

in Ecuador. Journal of Law and Social Enquiry. Volume 40, Issue 4, Fall 2015, p. 937 - 968 48. Rapid transition Alliance, 2018. Buen Vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-boliviaand-ecuador/ 49. Issac Goeckeritz (Producer), Hal Crimmel (Producer), María Valeria Berros (Writer), Shawn Murdock (Editor), 2020. The Rights of Nature: A Global Movement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuFNmH7lVTA 50. New Zealand History. The Treaty of Waitangi. The Treaty in Brief. https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/treaty/the-treaty-in-brief 51. New Zealand Legislation. Te Urewera Act 2014 https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2014/0051/latest/whole. html 52. Government of Iceland, 1999. The Nature Conservation Act No. 44. p. 1 – 20 53. African Union. Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want. https://au.int/en/agenda2063/overview 54. AfCFTA Secretariat, African Union. About the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) https://afcfta.au.int/en/about 55. African Union. Flagship Projects of Agenda 2063. https://au.int/en/agenda2063/flagship-projects 57

58

ILLUSTRATIONS Abuja arts and crafts village https://africancityguide.com/places/abuja-arts-and-craft-village/ Akwete cloth https://craftatlas.co/crafts/akwete-cloth Apo mechanic village https://www.sunnewsonline.com/mechanic-village-where-crimeprostitution-hold-sway/ British empire exhibition metalwork display at the Nigerian Pavilion, 1925 https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20speople-a-vast-windowdisplay-the-british-empire-exhibition-of-1924-5/ Kaduna textiles mill https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Artists-depiction-of-themill-to-be-constructed-at-Kaduna-1955-Courtesy-of-the-David_ fig8_276987570 Naraguta leather village https://www.bellanaija.com/2021/02/tayo-aina-promoting-africaseries/ Ogoni protests against shell https://i2.wp.com/www.todaysecho.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ shell-protest.jpg?ssl=1

59

Oil from a leaking pipeline burns in Goi-Bodo, a swamp area of the Niger delta, in 2004. Photograph: Reuters https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/feb/12/ ogoni-widows-testify-the-hague-shell-alleged-complicity-killings The African Continental Free Trade Agreement https://www.yumpu. com/en/document/view/63547736/the-african-continental-free-tradeagreement

60

BIBLIOGRAPHY Achebe, C. (2013). There Was a Country: A Personal History of Biafra. (London: Penguin).

AfCFTA Secretariat, African Union. About the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). https://afcfta.au.int/en/ African Union. Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want. https://au.int/en/agenda2063/overview African Union. Flagship Projects of Agenda 2063. https://au.int/en/agenda2063/flagship-projects Akchurin, M. (2015). Constructing the Rights of Nature: Constitutional Reform, Mobilization, and Environmental Protection in Ecuador. Journal of Law and Social Enquiry. Volume 40, Issue 4, Fall 2015, p. 937 – 968.

Anyabolu, O. (2000). Nigeria, past to the present: from 500 B.C. to the present (USA: Classic Publication Company) p. 12.

Anyanwu, O. E. (Editor), Nwauwa, A. O. (Editor), Mbarah, G. O. (Chapter Author) (2019). Culture, Precepts, and Social Change in Southeastern Nigeria: Understanding the Igbo. (Kentucky: Lexington books) p. 52.

Appadurai, A. (1988). The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) Reprint ed.

Baikie, W. B. (1856). Narrative of an Exploring Voyage up the rivers of Kwora and Binue in 1854 with a map and appendices. ia600303.us.archive.org.

61

Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: towards a new modernity.

(London: Sage Publications).

Bellacasa, M. P. (2017). Matters of Care: Speculative Ethics in More Than Human Worlds. University of Minnesota Press.

Blockstein, D.E., Wiegman, L.A.W., Council, N., Firm, P. (2010). The climate solutions consensus. Washington D.C.: Island Press.

Blog Editor (2015). Five reasons to think twice about the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ southasia/2015/09/23/five-reasons-to-think-twice-about-the-unssustainable-development-goals/ Brookings Institute, Africa Growth Initiative. Learning to Compete. Working Paper No.8. https://www.brookings.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2016/07/l2c_wp8_chete-et-al-1.pdf Brundtland Commission, Gro Harlem Brundtland (1987).

Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press) p.

16.

Carpenter, J. P. (2000). Negotiation in the Commons: Incorporating Field and Experimental Evidence into a Theory of Local Collective Action. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics (JITE) / Zeitschrift Für Die Gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 156(4), 661–683. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40752237 Cheung S.N.S. (1991). Common Property Rights. In: Eatwell J., Milgate M., Newman P. (eds) The World of Economics.

62

The New Palgrave. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-21315-3_12 Crayford, S. (1996). The Ogoni Uprising: Oil, Human Rights, and a Democratic Alternative in Nigeria. Indiana University Press. Africa Today, Vol. 43, No. 2, Conflict and Conflict Resolution in Africa. p. 183-197.

Dietz, T., Ostrom, E., Stern, P. C. (2003). The struggle to govern the commons. Science 302 (5652): 1907-12.

Duerksen, M. (2021). Nigeria’s Diverse Security Threats.

Africa Center for Strategic Studies.

Egwu, V. (2014). A Critical Survey of the Growth, Decline, and Sustainability of Traditional Pottery Practice among the Igbo of South-Eastern Nigeria. The Journal of Modern Craft. 7 (2), p. 123– 139.

Ejo-Orusa, H., Lloyd, D. (2019). Reinventing The ‘Nwaboi’ Apprenticeship System: A Platform For Entrepreneurship Promotion In Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences. p. 8.

Ekwuru, E. G. (1999). The Pangs of An African Culture in Travail. (Totan Publishers Ltd) p. 41.

Elyachar, J. (2007). Markets of dispossession: NGOs, economic development, and the State in Cairo. (Durham, Nc: Duke University Press).

Escobar, A. (1995). Encountering development: the making and unmaking of the third world. (Princeton, 63

N.J. Oxford: Princeton University Press).

Escobar, A. (2008). Territories of Difference: Place, Movements, Life, Redes. (USA: Duke University Press).

European Commission (2016). EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). Climate Action. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/eu-emissions-trading-systemeu-ets_en Falola, T., Heaton, M. (2008). A History of Nigeria.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) p. 110 – 135.

Ferguson, J. (2006). Global shadows: Africa in the neoliberal world order. (Durham N.C.: Duke University Press).

Ferguson, J. (2015). Give a man a fish: reflections on the new politics of distribution. (Durham: Duke University Press) p. 178.

Ferguson, J., Gibson, T. (2015). Give a man a fish: reflections on the new politics of distribution. Durham: Duke University Press.

Fukuyama, F. (2018). Identity: the demand for dignity and the politics of resentment. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Galbraith, J.K. (2012). Inequality and Instability: A Study of the World Economy Just Before the Great Crisis. (New York Oxford University Press).

Goeckeritz, I. (Producer), Crimmel, H (Producer), Berros, M. V. (Writer), Murdock, S. (Editor), (2020). The Rights of Nature:

64

A Global Movement. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuFNmH7lVTA Gollin, D. (2019). Structural Transformation and Growth without Industrialisation, Background Paper, p. 3.

Government of Iceland (1999). The Nature Conservation Act No. 44. p. 1 – 20. https://www.ust.is/library/Skrar/Atvinnulif/Log/Enska/The_Nature_ Conservation_Act.pdf Graeber, D. (2001). Toward an anthropological theory of value: the false coin of our own dreams. (New York: Palgrave).

Graeber, D. (2016). Utopia of Rules, The: On Technology, Stupidity, and the Secret Joys of Bureaucracy. (Melville House Publishing) Reprint edition.

Gregory, C.A. and Strathern, M. (2015). Gifts and commodities. (Chicago, Il: Hau Books).

Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. Vol 162, Issue 3859, p. 1243-1248.

Harrison, L.E., Huntington, S.P. (2006). Culture matters: how values shape human progress. (New York: Basic Books).

Harriss, J. (2002). Depoliticizing development: the World Bank and social capital. (London: Anthem Press).

Hawken, P. (2010). The Ecology of Commerce Revised Edition, The: A Declaration of Sustainability. Harper Business; Revised edition.

65

Heller, M. (2010). The Gridlock Economy How Too Much Ownership Wrecks Markets. (Basic Books).

Herrendorf, B., Rogerson, R., Valentinyi, A. (2014).

Handbook of Economic Growth: Growth and Structural Transformation, Elsevier, vol. 2, p. 855-941.

International Association For The Study of The Commons.

(Retrieved March 2022). What Are Commons? iasc-commons.org/about-commons/ International Monetary Fund, IMF News, (2020). Nigeria’s IMF Financial Assistance to Support Health Care Sector, Protect Jobs and Businesses. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/04/29/na042920nigerias-imf-financial-assistance-to-support-health-care-sectorprotect IPCC Working Group III (2007). Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers, IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. Working Group III, IPCC. p. 29 – 31.

Isichei, E. A. (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) p. 247.

Isichei, E. A. (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) p. 247 Jake Spring (2021). Brazil demand for U.S. to pay upfront stalls deal to save Amazon forest. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/ business/environment/brazil-demand-us-pay-upfront-stalls-dealsave-amazon-forest-2021-04-15/ 66

Keazor, E. E., Smith-Shaw, P. (2015). Onunaekwuluora: The Legacy of Thurstan Shaw. http://asirimagazine.com/en/ documentary-film-onunaekwuluora-the-legacy-of-thurstan-shaw/ Kirk-Greene, A.H.M. (1968). Lugard and the Amalgamation of Nigeria: A Documentary Record. (Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.) p. 30.

Lal, D., Myint, H. (1996). The political economy of poverty, equity, and growth: a comparative study. (Oxford: Clarendon Press).

Langer, A., Ukiwo U. (2020). Nigeria’s Federal Character Commission (FCC): a critical appraisal. Oxford Journal of development studies, Taylor & Francis online. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13600818.2020.1727 427 Leopold, A. (1968). A sand county almanac, and sketches here and there. (London: Oxford University Press).

Leopold, A. (1992). The River of the Mother of God And Other Essays by Aldo Leopold. (London: Oxford University Press).

Lomborg, B. (2019). Prioritizing Development: A Cost Benefit Analysis of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Cambridge University Press.

Maalouf, A., El-Fadel, M. (2020). A novel software for optimizing emissions and carbon credit from solid waste and wastewater management. Science of Total Environment. p. 714.

67

Maalouf, A., Mutasem El-Fadel, M. (2019). Life cycle assessment for solid waste management in Lebanon: Economic implications of carbon credit. Waste Research. 37: p.14–26.

Mackenzie, D., Muniesa, F., Siu, L. (2008). Do Economists Make Markets?: On the Performativity of Economics. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press).

Magnussen, W. (2012). Politics of Urbanism: Seeing Like a City. (USA: Routledge); 1st edition.

March, J.G., Simon, H.A. and Harold Steere Guetzkow (1993).

Organizations. (Cambridge, Mass., Usa: Blackwell).

Mcintosh, M. (2013). The necessary transition: the journey towards the sustainable enterprise economy. Sheffield, Uk: Greenleaf Publishing.

Morris, I. (2013). The Measure of Civilisation: How Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations. Profile Books Moyo, D., (2010). Dead Aid: Why aid is not working and how there is another way for Africa. Penguin; 1st edition.

Muhammad, M. (2019). The Emergence of Manufacturing Industry in Nigeria (1955-1978). Journal of Advances in Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol 5 Iss 6, p. 807–823.

Murray, C. (2015). Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1980 (USA: Basic Books) Neaher, N. C. (1979). Awka Who Travel: Itinerant Metalsmiths of Southern Nigeria. Africa: Journal of the 68

International African Institute Vol. 49, No. 4 (1979), p. 352-366.

New Zealand History. The Treaty of Waitangi. The Treaty in Brief. https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/treaty/the-treaty-in-brief New Zealand Legislation. Te Urewera Act (2014). www. legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2014/0051/latest/whole.html Nwakunor, G. A. (2015). Forgotten Brides: Companies That Colonialisation Built In Nigeria. The Guardian, Nigeria. https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/cover/forgotten-bridescompanies-that-colonialisation-built-in-nigeria/ Odum, H.T. (1996). Environmental accounting: emergy and environmental decision making. (New York, Ny: Wiley).

Ohia, C. (2006). Eke-na-egwurugwu: The Causal Principles of Unity, Individuation, Multiplicity, and Differentiation in Igbo Metaphysics. (Owerri: Springfield Publishers Ltd) p. 475 & 478 Omorogbe, P. (2022). How Trees Are Falling To Nigeria’s Energy Crisis. Nigerian Tribune. https://tribuneonlineng.com/how-trees-are-falling-to-nigeriasenergy-crisis/ Onwuejeogwu, M. (1981). An Igbo civilization: Nri kingdom & hegemony. Ethnographica.

Osborne, T. and Rose, N. (1999). Governing Cities: Notes on the Spatialisation of Virtue. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 17(6), pp. 737–760.

69

Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. (UK: Cambridge University Press).

Ostrom, Elinor (2010). Beyond markets and states: Polycentric governance of complex economic systems. American Economic Review 100, no. 3 (2010): 641-72.

Polanyi, K. (2001). The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time. (Beacon press).

Premium Times Nigeria (2020). Artisans in 11 states, FCT receive N30,000 one-time grant – Presidency. Premium Times. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/423913artisans-in-11-states-fct-receive-n30000-one-time-grant-presidency. html Rapid transition Alliance (2018). Buen Vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador. https://www.rapidtransition.org/ stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/ Rodrik, D. (2016). Premature deindustrialization. Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 21, p. 1-33.

Sachs, J. (2012). The price of civilization: reawakening American virtue and prosperity. (New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks).

Sachs, J. (2015). The Age of Sustainable Development.

(Columbia University Press) Illustrated edition.

Sachs, J. (2019). UN Millennium Development Library: Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the 70

Millennium Development Goals. Routledge; 1st ed.

Sachs, J. (2019). UN Millennium Development Library: Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals. (Routledge) 1st edition.

Salihu, M., Renne, E. (2013). The Kaduna Textile Industry and the Decline of Textile Manufacturing in Northern Nigeria, 19552010. Populations Studies Centre, Institute for Social Research, 44(2), p. 171-196 Scott, J. (1999). Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. (Yale University Press) Revised ed.

Scott, J. (2011). The art of not being governed: an anarchist history of upland Southeast Asia. (New Haven, Conn.; London: Yale University Press).

Scott, J. (2018). Against the Grain: A Deep History of the Earliest States. (Yale University Press) Reprint edition.

Seculic, D. (2012). Constructing Non-aligned Modernity: The Case of Energoprojekt. Association for Slavic, East European, & Eurasian Studies 44th Annual Convention. https://www.academia.edu/2542020/Constructing_Non-aligned_ Modernity_the_Case_of_Energoprojekt Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

Sierra Club v. Morton (1972). 405 U.S. 727, 745–747 (S. Ct. 1972).

71

Slattery, K. Under the direction of Dr. Leon Litvack, Retrieved March 20, 2022. The Igbo People - Origins & History, School of English, Queens University of Belfast. http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/igbo/igbo1.htm Solsvik, T. (2021). Brazil must show Amazon protection is working, top donor Norway says. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/brazil-must-showamazon-protection-is-working-top-donor-norway-says-2021-04-14/ Sraffa, P. (1979). Production of commodities by means of commodities: prelude to a critique of economic history. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Stevensen, H. (2017). Global Environmental Politics: Problems, Policy and Practice. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Stiglitz, J. E. (2013). The price of inequality. (New York: W.W. Norton).

Stiglitz, J. E. (2020). People, Power, And Profits: progressive capitalism for an age of discontent. S.L.: W. W. Norton.

Stone, C. (1972). Should Trees have Standing? (USA: Oxford University Press).

Suárez-Krabbe, J., Carrales, J. C. F, (2021). Transdisciplinary Thinking from the Global South. Whose Problems, Whose Solutions? (USA: Routledge)

72

The Gold Standard. Offsetting And The Low-Carbon Transition. https://www.goldstandard.org/resources/faqs#faqs_displaypage_1-21 Thomas, N. (1991). Entangled Objects: Exchange, Material Culture and Colonialism in the Pacific. Harvard University Press.

Ukaegbu, J. O. (1991). Igbo Identity and Personality Vis-àvis Igbo Cultural Symbols. Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, Facultad de Filosofia.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Marrakesh Accords & The Marrakesh Declaration.

Version: 10-11-01; 5:29. http://unfccc.int/cop7/documents/accords_draft.pdf Uzokwe, A. (2003). Surviving in Biafra: Story of the Nigerian Civil War. (Nebraska: iUniverse) p. 1-7 Watts, J. (2021). Negotiating with your worst enemy: Biden in risky talks to pay Brazil to save Amazon. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/apr/11/negotiatingwith-your-worst-enemy-biden-in-risky-talks-to-pay-brazil-to-saveamazon Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society: An outline of interpretive sociology. Berkeley: University Of California Press.

World Trade Organization. Understanding The WTO: Basics, The Uruguay Round. https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/ whatis_e/tif_e/fact5_e.htm 73

74