Price Trends in the International Peanut Industry / 06
Science and Technology
Pangenomics: A New Chapter in Peanut Breeding/ 14
. The new approach allows for enhanced possibilities in marker-assisted selection. _
Laws and Regulations
Last Stop for the Codex on Maximum Limits / 18
. In June, the Committee on Contaminants in Food terminated the effort to establish a standard on aflatoxin for ready-to-eat peanuts.
_
Industrial Processing
Peanut Roasting / 28
Peanut Market Data
Charts & Tables / 31
Peanut Farming
_ “Much more than an agricultural crop” / 34
. Adri Botha walks us through the past, present, and future of the peanut industry of South Africa.
_
Peanuts as a Superfood
_ Boiled Peanuts, there is Something About Them / 46
. This distinctive way of cooking the kernels is a great tradition of the US South.
_ Market Trends
This section of the wpm deals with the dynamics of the demand and supply of peanuts in the international markets. We will try to keep track of the changes in peanut consumption in the main areas of the world, the factors that can affect production, and the price shifts of the various peanut products.
_ Industrial Processing
This area of the magazine focuses on shellers as well as companies transforming peanuts into consumer products. We will focus on current industry standards, quality issues, new technologies and the different industrial solutions adopted by producing countries. A special section will be dedicated to new products and tools for peanut processing developed by the best manufacturers.
_ Science and Technology
The activities of the universities and other research institutes engaged in scientific research on peanuts are of paramount importance for the future of the business. We will follow the main discoveries, from the latest issues concerning peanut genetics to the development of projects on pathogens or the impact of peanut consumption on human health. The consequences of scientific research on the future of the industry are hard to overstate, so we will be putting them in perspective in order to try to understand where the sector is heading in the long term.
_ Laws and Regulations
The Laws and Regulations section of World Peanut Magazine analyses the impact of new legislation and regulations affecting the production and trade of peanuts. The main issues treated in this section are governmental measures directly affecting international trade (such as the introduction of tariffs or quotas), health safety issues (such as the establishment of Maximum Residue Limits for certain substances) but also legislation impacting distribution, packaging and sales.
_ Peanut as a Superfood
This section offers peanut professionals news and insights into the world of peanut consumption and all its aspects. Typical news is related to findings concerning the nutritional values of peanuts, the impact of peanut consumption on human health, and the development of peanut-based food.
_ Peanut Farming
The primary production is where the peanut business starts, of course, so we will have a dedicated section for all events, activities, techniques and equipment related to growing peanuts in different parts of the world. The general idea is to bring farming in the producing countries closer to all peanut professionals so that they can have a better grasp of the business from a grower’s perspective and maybe on what the future of peanut farming may look like.
16
Time for Truth in the Tax War?
As Donald Trump’s deadlines approach, many countries are racing against the clock to negotiate agreements with the US administration in an effort to minimize the impact of import duties on their exports. Others — perhaps also ideologically opposed to the Trump administration — are preparing retaliatory measures.
As far as the peanut business is concerned, it remains to be seen what will happen between the US and key trading partners such as Mexico, Canada, Europe and China.
This year, with Argentina and Brazil harvesting bumper crops and being the most competitive origins in the market, no major impact from tariffs is expected overall — at least not for the importing markets. In a more balanced supply and demand scenario, however, the effects could be far more disruptive.
Turning to the market, we are clearly riding waves of oversupply, driven by larger crops from nearly every origin. In the Northern Hemisphere, planting is complete, and it appears that no significant acreage reductions have been made. As for Argentina and Brazil, it is still under discussion what will happen with the upcoming planting season. All signs point toward a reduction in hectares — but the million-dollar question is, by how much?
Much will depend on how much input costs can be reduced. In Argentina, for example, land rental prices are coming down — though probably not by as much as needed. Still, lower farmer stock prices are forcing farmers to negotiate every penny they spend. The next eight weeks will be decisive, not only in shaping this story’s outcome but also in determining the size of the Northern Hemisphere crops. We will be following this closely.
On a positive note, peanut consumption remains strong worldwide, confirming the excellent momentum our industry is enjoying with peanuts increasingly positioned as a healthy food choice. Let’s keep this trend going!
In this issue, we will present price data and long-term trade trends by analyzing the export prices of the major players in the international peanut trade. We will take a close look at peanut farming and industry developments in South Africa through the insights of Adri Botha, head of the Groundnut Forum. In our food trends section, we’ll explore a traditional Southern snack: boiled peanuts. Our industrial processing feature will focus on roasting, while the science and technology section will examine pangenomics — a new approach to marker-assisted breeding. Finally, we’ll report on the recent Codex Alimentarius decisions on peanuts from their June session.
Price Trends in the International Peanut Industry
As industry professionals worldwide know, peanuts lack a clear price reference that trade operators can rely on when making buying and selling decisions.
Other major commodities, such as corn and wheat, can refer to the Chicago Board of Trade for reliable quotes and future values, or even to secondary markets like the Minneapolis Grain Exchange or the Kansas City Board of Trade.
In the case of peanuts, there are indeed some published local market references — for example, futures at the Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange in China (whose trends we publish in every issue of WPM), the in-shell sales price in Argentina reported by the BCCBA (Córdoba Cereals Stock Exchange) and prices related to domestic trade in the US, published by the Department of Agriculture. When it comes to international trade, however, prices are typically defined on a contract-by-contract basis, influenced by many factors: quality, cultivar, processing type, safety standards (particularly aflatoxin levels) and even subjective elements such as long-term partnerships between buyer and seller, the reliability of the parties involved, the level of service provided, and so on.
In this issue we decided to examine long-term price trends among the most important importing and exporting countries to identify potential patterns. We are focusing exclusively on shelled peanuts (HS 1202.42), which represent about 65% of global peanut trade — approximately 3 million metric tons. Our data sources include the International Trade Centre, an agency of the World Trade Organization and the United Nations, and, for European Union import prices, elaborations based on Eurostat’s Foreign Trade database.
The chart above illustrates the average price trends of the main exporting countries over the past decade. One country clearly stands out with significantly higher prices: China. This is largely due to China’s export of shelled peanuts predominantly of the Virginia variety, which commands much higher prices than Runner or other types.
Among the other five main exporters, we also observe notable differences in pricing trends. India, for instance, has diverged from the group in several seasons — such as in 2018 and 2024 — when its average prices fell below those of its peers. US export prices have also fluctuated, sometimes exceeding the world average (as in 2022 and 2024), and at other times falling below it, notably in 2016 and 2017.
Even when considering global trade and pricing, peanut market trends often reflect local or regional dynamics. We can generally identify four main trading areas where key countries concentrate their activity:
1. North America, with trade mainly between the US, Canada and Mexico.
2. Southeast Asia, encompassing Indian exports to Indonesia, China, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam, as well as Chinese exports (mainly processed peanuts) to Japan, Korea, Thailand and Malaysia.
3. Latin America to Europe, particularly exports from Argentina and Brazil to the EU, the UK and Russia.
4. Africa to China, mainly involving exports from Senegal and Sudan.
Exports from Argentina to Germany and the UK consistently show lower average prices compared to other destinations. This is likely due to the presence of major bird food dealers — a sector with significantly lower price points — in these two countries.
India’s export prices also vary considerably by destination. Shipments to Russia, where India competes primarily with Argentina and especially Brazil, have seen both rising prices and increased volumes in recent years (21,494 tons in 2024, compared to half that amount or less in the previous three years). Thailand is another market where India achieves relatively high prices, while Indonesia tends to see lower-priced exports — likely reflecting the large volumes involved, consistently exceeding 200,000 tons annually over the last five years and approaching 300,000 tons in 2024.
US exports show the widest variation by destination, as well as significant shifts over time. Japan has traditionally paid premium prices for US peanuts, though these have aligned with global averages in the last couple of years. Meanwhile, Italy and Denmark saw price spikes in 2023 and 2024, with a growing trend also noted in the Netherlands. By contrast, the US’s two largest markets, Canada and Mexico, have maintained below-average prices — likely a reflection of the high trade volumes, which approached a combined 200,000 tons over the decade covered in this analysis.
For China’s exports, two destinations particularly stand out in terms of pricing: Japan, consistently paying above USD 2,000 per ton on average, evidently for higher-quality products; and the Philippines, which has the lowest average prices among China’s key markets.
Compared to other major exporters, Brazil shows the least variation in average export prices across its main destinations. Among these, the Netherlands commands the highest prices, while Russia and Algeria — Brazil’s two largest markets — reflect the lowest average prices.
Finally, we examined European Union import prices from key origins, using monthly averages from Eurostat’s Foreign Trade database. China, in line with earlier observations, often appears with higher prices, largely due to its Virginia peanut exports — although its prices have aligned more closely with other suppliers in recent years. India shows the greatest price fluctuations over time, while the three main suppliers to the EU — Argentina, the US and Brazil — tend to follow similar price trends.
PAN GENOMICS
A New Chapter in Peanut Breeding
The new approach allows for enhanced possibilities in marker-assisted selection
Traditionally, genetic studies were based on a single reference genome, which limited the understanding of the species’ full genetic diversity. Today, pangenomics integrates genomic data from multiple accessions, including wild relatives, ladraces and elite cultivars, providing a comprehensive view of the genome and its variations. In peanut ( Arachis hypogaea), pangenomics has become a great approach to identifying genes that influence important traits such as yield, seed quality, disease resistance, or drought and heat tolerance. This knowledge is a powerful tool for breeding better peanut varieties that can perform well in the field and meet the needs of producers, processors and international markets.
During recent years, high-quality peanut pangenomes have been constructed by sequencing core sets of diverse genotypes. A recently published study describes how researchers generated a peanut pangenome by sequencing eight key accessions, including wild relatives, traditional landraces and modern cultivars (Zhao et al., 2025). Thanks to this work, scientists identified over 50,000 gene families, including many genes that were not present in the original peanut reference genome. Some of the most important findings were structural variants such as fragments of DNA that were deleted, duplicated or rearranged, which were linked to traits like seed size and weight. For example, a 275-base pair deletion in a gene called AhARF2-2 was related to the production of larger seeds. Changes in another gene, CKX6, were associated with bigger seeds.
The availability of pangenomes has significantly enhanced the precision of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and markerassisted selection. These methods compare genetic differences across a population and identify which genes are linked to specific traits. Using a pangenome as a reference, GWAS can now identify genes that might have been missed before. This is especially important when dealing with complex traits, controlled by many genes, like yield and seed quality, which are essential for the international competitiveness of the peanut sector.
A recent study using GWAS and pangenomics analyzed 199 different peanut lines and identified many genetic markers linked to traits like pod weight, seed size and oil content (Guo et al., 2024). This is an example of how the development of molecular markers can then help breeders identify plants with desirable traits at an early stage, making breeding faster and more precise.
The growing importance of pangenomics in peanut research was demonstrated during the recent AAGB (Advances in Arachis through Genomics and Biotechnology) conference, held in Goa, India. Scientists from several peanut-producing countries shared how they are already using pangenomic tools to improve cultivar performance under local conditions and improve export competitiveness. Talks within the pangenomic session included topics like accelerating breeding using custom pangenome graphs and utilising GWAS to detect genetic determinants of disease resistance, seed germination and dormancy. The discussions in this session highlighted how pangenomics is becoming a key component of peanut-breeding strategies worldwide.
Ongoing efforts in peanut pangenomics are focused on building more inclusive pangenomes by incorporating underrepresented genetic diversity, especially from wild Arachis species. At the same time, there’s a growing interest in functional annotation, integrating transcriptomics, epigenomics and phenotypic data to better understand gene function and regulation. Over time, this will help breeders and farmers develop peanut varieties that are more productive, more resilient and better adapted to biotic and abiotic stresses.
References
Zhao K., Xue H., Li G., Chitikineni A., Fan Y., Cao Z., Lu X., Zhao K., Zhang L., Qiu D., Ren R., Gong F., Li Z., Ma X., Wan S., Varshney R., Wei C. & Yin D. Pangenome analysis reveals structural variation associated with seed size and weight traits in peanut (2025). Nature genetics.
Guo M., Deng L., Gu J., Miao J., Yin J., Li Y., Fang Y., Huang B., Sun Z., Qi F., Dong W., Lu Z., Li S., Hu J., Zhang X. and Ren L. Genomewide association study and development of molecular markers for yield and quality traits in peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) (2024).
BMC Plant Biology
Last Stop for the Codex on Maximum Limits
In June, the Committee on Contaminants in Food terminated the effort to establish a standard on aflatoxin for ready-to-eat peanuts.
After years of work by the Electronic Working Group tasked with elaborating a standard for the maximum limits of aflatoxin in “Ready-to-Eat” peanuts, and seven sessions of the CCCF (Codex Committee on Contaminants in Food), participants at the Bangkok meeting last June realized it was impossible to proceed and brought the process to a stop. The effort to elaborate regulatory standards aimed at reducing aflatoxin in peanuts will now rely on the activity of the group revising the Code of Practice for preventing and reducing aflatoxin contamination in peanuts, led by Brazil.
The table on page 23 provides a summary of the steps taken over the years in the attempt to establish a maximum limit for RTE peanuts—an attempt that encountered obstacles too significant to overcome. One issue, as the working group soon realized, was the definition of the product itself. Prior to the establishment of the working group and the first CCCF session in 2017, a maximum limit had already been set for peanuts intended for further processing (FFP) at 15 ppb (or 15 µg/kg). The initial idea was to follow the blueprint used for tree nuts, for which a maximum limit of 10 ppb had been adopted for RTE products.
As we reported in the second issue of World Peanut Magazine , the CCCF decided to task JECFA (the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives) with evaluating the effects of exposure to different aflatoxin levels (15, 10, 8, and 4 ppb) on human health.
By the end of 2016, JECFA completed its work and sent two basic messages:
1. Enforcing a maximum level of 10, 8, or 4 µ g/kg in RTE peanuts would have little additional impact on reducing dietary exposure to aflatoxins for the general population compared with a level of 15 µ g/kg.
2. At a level of 4 µ g/kg, the proportion of the world market for RTE peanuts rejected would be approximately double that rejected at a level of 15 µ g/kg (about 20% versus 10%).
In essence, according to JECFA, setting a strict limit such as 4 ppb would not significantly improve food safety but would harm global trade.
Some countries, however, were not persuaded by these conclusions. After several rounds of comments—some countries advocating for a 10 ppb limit, others for 15 ppb—the European Union (EU) asked the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to independently assess the impact of increasing the EU’s 4 ppb limit to 10 ppb on public health. By 2018, EFSA concluded that such an increase could raise the cancer risk for consumers of peanuts and peanut butter by a factor of between 1.6 and 1.8. The EU, unsurprisingly, rejected the India-led proposal. The CCCF decided to delay the process (keeping it at Step 4, see chart on page 23) and issued a new call for data in 2021, with a deadline in October. The Electronic Working Group was re-established with EU support.
In 2024, an important milestone was reached with agreement on the definition of RTE peanuts:
“Ready-to-Eat Peanut is a product intended for direct human consumption, not intended to undergo an additional processing/treatment that has proven to reduce levels of aflatoxins, before being used as ingredients in foodstuffs, otherwise processed, packed in all types of packaging such as consumer or
bulk, labeled as ‘RTE Peanuts’. It includes but is not restricted to (i) raw shelled peanuts, (ii) raw in-shell peanuts, (iii) roasted in-shell peanuts, (iv) roasted/blanched shelled peanuts, (v) fried shelled peanuts with or without skin, (vi) coated peanuts, (vii) seasoned peanuts, (viii) smoked peanuts, (ix) salted and cooked peanuts, (x) peanut butter.”
But last June, at CCCF18 in Bangkok, the working group had to throw in the towel. The main objections concerned the data used for sampling—a matter already raised in 2024. The US representative pointed out that “The data analysis provided to the EWG only looked at data from 2014–2016, with no comment on why 2017–2024 data were not included,” further noting that “The data analysis is missing important calculations for proposing a ML (e.g., median, 95th percentile, rejection rates)” and that “There is inadequate geographical representation in the data.” Similar concerns were echoed by other countries.
Yet perhaps bigger issues remained. For the US, the limit itself was market-damaging:
“As noted in Section III, JECFA83 concluded that enforcing an ML of 10, 8, or 4 μg/kg in RTE peanuts would have little further impact on reducing dietary exposure to aflatoxins for the general population compared with setting an ML of 15 μg/kg. At an ML of 4 μg/kg, the proportion of the world market of RTE peanuts rejected would be approximately double the proportion rejected at an ML of 15 μg/kg (about 20% versus 10%). No justification is provided for 10 μg/kg beyond ‘RTE peanuts should have a lower ML than peanuts meant for further processing.’”
The EU focused on health concerns:
“The EU cannot agree on the proposed ML of 10 μg/kg for aflatoxin total in ready-to-eat peanuts because the presence of aflatoxins in food is a health concern.”
China underscored the lack of practicality:
“According to Tables 1, 3, and 4, the lower level of total aflatoxins in flour-coated peanuts (12.4 μg/kg) and the mean values in Brazil (44.27 μg/kg) and India (14.1 μg/kg) all exceed the proposed ML of 10 μg/kg for RTE peanuts. This indicates that enforcing a 10 μg/kg ML may render significant portions of current RTE peanut production—particularly flourcoated peanuts and products from major producing regions— non-compliant with the Codex standard. China therefore considers the proposed 10 μg/kg ML for total aflatoxins in RTE peanuts impractical under present conditions.”
With the maximum limit proposal effectively dead, attention now turns to the Brazil-led work on revising the Code of Practice for reducing aflatoxin in peanuts. The CCCF largely approved the working group’s proposal with minor changes, notably the removal of roasting as a process claimed to reduce aflatoxin—something many members felt lacked supporting evidence. The EU commented:
“Roasting (paragraph 66) indicates that roasting can reduce total aflatoxins content to a certain degree. However, it is unclear to what extent the aflatoxins are removed or metabolized, potentially resulting in compounds of unknown toxicity.”
With relatively minor revisions, the proposal is now advancing to the final steps of the Codex process. As the CCCF report states, the committee “agreed to forward the revised Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Aflatoxin Contamination in Peanuts (CXC 55-2004) (Appendix V) to CAC48 for adoption at Step 5/8 (with the omission of Steps 6 and 7).”
Prior to 2017 OUTCOME. 1. Codex Alimentarius already had a 15 µg/kg ML for total aflatoxins in peanuts “for further processing” (FFP). 2. Many countries apply stricter limits (e.g., 10 µg/kg or lower) for RTE peanuts due to direct human consumption. 3. Industry and governments asked Codex to set a global ML for RTE peanuts to harmonize trade standards.
2017 - CCCF11 - Rio de Janeiro OUTCOME. 1. Establishement of an Electronic Working Group (EWG) specifically to develop Maximum Levels (MLs) for total aflatoxins in Ready-to-Eat (RTE) peanuts 2. The EWG was chaired by India, with open invitations extended to all members to join. 3. The group’s tasks included:A. Drafting a proposed ML for total aflatoxins in RTE peanuts. B. Developing an associated sampling plan
2019 - CCCF13 - Yogiakarta OUTCOME. 1. The group discussed a sampling plan aligned with CXS 193-1995, extending approaches used for peanuts destined for further processing. 2. Participants stressed the need for distinct RTE vs. FFP data, as previous submissions had not clearly differentiated between the two categories
2021 - CCCF14 - On line OUTCOME. The EWG continued data collection, especially on RTE consumption patterns and contamination levels.No formal proposals yet.
2022 - CCCF15 - On line OUTCOME. 1 EWG presented a draft ML proposal and sampling plan. 2. ML values debated: 10 µg/kg vs 15 µg/kg, but no agreement reached on the ML or the definition of “RTE peanuts.” 3. Work returned to Step 2/3 (early drafting stage).
2023 - CCCF16 - Utrecht OUTCOME. 1. Still no consensus on the ML or sampling plan. 2. Delegates stressed the need for a clear, practical definition of “RTE peanuts” before setting an ML. 3. Timeline extended (tentatively targeting CCCF18 in 2025).
2024 - CCCF17 - Panama City OUTCOME. 1. Agreement reached on the definition of “Ready-to-Eat Peanuts.” 2. However, work on the ML and sampling plan was put on hold after discussions highlighted: A. Data gaps. B. Diverging views on risk management.
2025 - CCCF18 - Bangkok OUTCOME. 1. CCCF agrees to discontinue work on the ML for RTE peanuts. 2. More time should be given for the implementation of the revised Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of aflatoxin contamination of peanuts
The step procedure for elaborating codex standards
Before a decision is made to undertake the development of a new standard or other text, a project proposal is prepared and discussed at Committee level.
The Codex Alimentarius
The Codex Alimentarius (Latin for "Food Code") is a collection of internationally recognized standards, guidelines, and codes of practice adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). It was established in 1963 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
What is its purpose?
_ To protect consumer health.
_ To ensure fair practices in international food trade.
_ To harmonize food standards globally.
What does it include?
_ Maximum residue limits for pesticides.
_ Food additives and contaminants limits (like aflatoxins).
_ Food hygiene standards.
_ Nutrition and labeling guidelines.
_ Codes of practice (such as for aflatoxin prevention).
Is it legally binding?
_ No, Codex standards are voluntary.
_ However, they are widely used as a reference by governments when setting national regulations.
_ Under the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), Codex is the recognized international reference for food safety standards.
Peanut Roasting
In previous issues of World Peanut Magazine, we have explored various stages of peanut processing, such as shelling and blanching. Now, as we follow the value chain further, we arrive at a distinctly different step:
Roasting
.
Raw peanuts and blanched peanuts are still considered raw products because the processes they undergo do not include any heat treatment aimed at cooking the kernels. Roasting, however, does exactly that — it cooks the peanuts, enhancing their natural flavor and reducing their natural microbiological load.
The purpose of roasting is precisely to cook the peanuts. This heat treatment marks the critical difference between raw and cooked kernels. Naturally, the industrial specifications for roasted peanuts differ significantly from those for raw or blanched peanuts. In addition to standard physical and chemical specs, roasted peanuts must meet strict microbiological requirements. Roasting also develops key sensory qualities appreciated by consumers — color, taste, texture, crunch — while ensuring the product is safe for direct human consumption.
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) for roasting facilities are far more stringent than those applied to shelling or blanching plants. Any contamination introduced after roasting must be prevented through welldesigned hygiene protocols, including hand washing, changing clothes and footwear, controlled air circulation and thorough equipment cleaning. Additionally, specialized personnel are required — operators who receive specific training to minimize the risk of accidental contamination of the finished product.
Types of Roasting Processes
DRY ROASTING
Uses an oven to cook the kernels with direct or indirect hot air
_ OIL ROASTING
Uses a fryer to cook the kernels in hot oil
Both methods can start with blanched or unblanched kernels as raw material.
Roasting temperature and exposure time have a direct impact on flavor development. Higher temperatures and longer exposure result in a stronger flavor, darker color and drier texture. Lower temperatures and shorter roasting times produce milder flavors and lighter colors. Each manufacturer’s challenge is to fine-tune these variables to meet specific consumer preferences.
Oxidation is a critical chemical process that must be carefully managed. The natural oils in peanuts begin to oxidize when exposed to heat and oxygen — a reaction that, if not controlled, leads to rancidity and off-flavors. To halt this process, peanuts must be packed properly, using strategies designed to minimize oxygen exposure. The most common methods are vacuum packing (removing air) or modified atmosphere packing (replacing air with inert gases, such as nitrogen). Without this protection, oxidation continues, compromising product quality.
After roasting, several additional processing steps may be applied, including salting, flavoring, coating, grinding into paste or peanut butter, granulation and more.
peanut exports of brazil - kernels (mt)
eu 27 imports, tm (shelled - 1202.42) &
TOTAL JAN-JUN 133,433 - 134,057 - 108,105 - 122,473
TOTAL JAN-MAY 262,180 - 252,043 - 240,757 - 267,132
eu 27 imports, tm (prepared hs 2008.11)
TOTAL JAN-MAY 8,926 - 12,330 - 10,822 - 12,123
china future prices (settle value - rbm)
peanut exports of argentina - kernels (mt)
TOTAL JAN-JUN 328,257 - 354,711 - 220,492 - 334,853
“Much More than an Agricultural Crop”
Adri Botha walks us through the past, present and future of the
peanut industry of South Africa
ADRI BOTHA is the Chair of the South Africa Groundnut Forum , the national industry association, and has decades of experience in peanuts. We had an extensive conversation regarding the evolution of the sector in South Africa, its challenges, its potential and its relevance for both the economy and the culture.
// Adri, could you provide us with an overview of peanut farming in South Africa? What is the approximate planted area, and which regions are the main producers? Groundnut production in South Africa has a long history, both as a source of food security and as a cash crop. The crop is well-suited to the country’s climate and forms part of the traditional summer grain rotation in semi-arid regions, and over the decades groundnuts have remained a commercially significant commodity, with South Africa recently still being a net exporter of high-quality Spanish peanuts, particularly sought after for confectionery use in European and Far Eastern markets.
The cultivation of groundnuts in South Africa began on a modest scale in the early twentieth century but as knowledge of the crop and markets grew, more commercial interest developed, particularly after World War II. By the mid-twentieth century, the crop had gained prominence in the Free State, North West and other regions, where the climate, characterised by warm summers and low humidity, proved ideal for peanut farming. The significant expansion in production areas was supported by the availability of new cultivars, government extension services and the development of processing infrastructure.
In the 1990s and early 2000s, the industry experienced a period of adjustment. The deregulation of the oilseeds sector in South Africa around
1994 had a profound impact on the groundnut industry. This shift formed part of the country’s move away from a heavily controlled agricultural system to a more open, market-driven approach, in line with global economic liberalisation trends at the time. Before 1994 the groundnut industry operated under an Oilseeds Control Board, which regulated production, pricing, grading, marketing and imports/exports. With deregulation the Board was dissolved, price controls and fixed procurement systems were removed and farmers and traders were allowed to negotiate prices freely based on supply and demand, which opened the market to competition but also exposed farmers to price volatility and greater risk.
The open market attracted private companies and traders into processing, grading and marketing, and while some inefficiencies were eliminated, and innovation improved in certain parts of the value chain, a handful of larger processors and buyers came to dominate the market.
Without centralised coordination or incentives, planting decisions were driven by market trends and weather expectations. Groundnuts had to compete with other crops like maize and sunflower, and later soybeans which often offered lower production and price risk alternatives. The result, compounded by an increase in the cost of labour and farming machinery, was a decline in national groundnut production with variable year-to-year planting volumes.
State-supported funding for research, cultivar development and extension services diminished significantly as the responsibility moved more towards funding by the industry. Breeding programs slowed and limited development of new cultivars for local conditions resulted.
In response to the vacuum left by the deregulation, industry players began participating in voluntary associations and forums to coordinate sector-wide issues and fund research, and to advocate for common interests.
Despite these challenges, the industry has remained resilient. Several processors and traders have continued to invest in quality systems, aflatoxin control and market development, both locally and internationally.
Today, peanut farming in South Africa is a well-established sector, primarily concentrated in the drier, summer rainfall regions. The Free State, North West and Northern Cape are traditionally the major production areas, with some activity also in Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal. The planted area varies annually depending on weather patterns and market conditions but generally falls within a range of 52,000 metric tons (shelled) per season.
There is also renewed focus on supporting smallholder participation, improving certified seed availability and adopting improved cultivars with better yield potential, high oleic content, disease resistance and drought tolerance. Industry collaborations with local and international institutions like the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) and ICRISAT are helping these efforts and will ensure that South African farmers remain globally competitive.
// Do you anticipate an expansion in peanut cultivation in the coming years? What factors might support or limit this growth? There is cautious optimism about the potential for expansion in peanut cultivation in South Africa, but it will depend on addressing several limiting and enabling factors.
Both local processors and export markets are showing positive demand for high-quality, aflatoxin-safe peanuts, with a shift toward healthier, plant-based protein options. South Africa has a stable local demand of around 65,000 metric tons per year with an average of 30,000 metric tons per year destined for peanut butter manufacturing and another 30,000 metric tons per year toward other direct consumption products. Due to a decrease in local production during the past two decades, export volumes have similarly declined; however, the opportunity to expand into our existing and new markets remains a very viable scenario once production increases again.
Research and availability of cultivars with better yield potential, disease resistance and drought tolerance –– particularly through breeding and trail partnerships like those with ICRISAT and the ARC mentioned before –– ensure that peanuts remain and grow as an attractive option compared to other crops.
Government and private sector projects are aiming to bring more small-scale and emerging farmers into commercial groundnut production through training, input support and market access. While the Free State, North West and Northern Cape still offer ideal agroclimatic conditions for groundnut farming, industry role-players are exploring underutilised potential in provinces like Limpopo and Mpumalanga.
Processing capacity is not yet fully utilised and new role-players are entering the sector every year which boosts farmer confidence and could incentivise greater plantings, supported by the higher income potential from peanut production –– especially as peanuts generally fare better in extreme climate seasons as compared to maize and sunflowers.
// How is the peanut industry structured in South Africa? Are farming and shelling typically integrated within the same companies, as in Argentina, or are these functions handled by separate, specialized entities, as is common in the United States? In South Africa, the commercial side of the industry is mostly made up of specialised and independent players with some vertical integrated operations. In some cases, farming and shelling would be combined, but shelling and processing are most typically handled by processing facilities located in the production areas, which have seasonal contracts with farmers and in some instances cultivate peanuts themselves as part of their extended operations and structures.
Substantial investment was made by processing facilities during the past decades to allow for bulk intake, drying and storage of in-shell farmer stock. This was required to address farmers moving towards mechanisation and away from manual harvesting and extended field drying practices that have been common since the early days of groundnut production in South Africa.
These processing facilities will then sell directly to the local manufacturing sector (peanut butter, snacks and other human consumption demands), supply products for export or even be involved on some scale in the manufacturing of value added items such as smaller peanut butter brands and ready-for-use packaging. Collaboration across the value chain is therefore essential for quality control and traceability.
Small holder farmers, especially where co-ops have been established, may deliver their crop to the processing facilities, but in many instances subsistence farmers may utilise a part of their crop for home use and sell off the rest in informal and community markets.
// What are the main peanut cultivars grown in South Africa today? How have these evolved in recent years? By far, most of the commercially grown cultivars in South Africa have been specifically developed for local conditions, primarily by the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) and its partners, and the fast majority grown are Spanish-type groundnuts. This preference is largely due to their shorter growing season, compact growth habit and adaptability to the country’s semi-arid production regions with a maturity cycle which aligns with the local rainfall patterns and planting windows. These local cultivars offer a combination of high shelling percentages, good blanchability (important for peanut butter and confectionery), disease resistance (particularly to leaf spot and rust), tolerance to drought and variable rainfall and low aflatoxin susceptibility. Examples of widely planted cultivars include SelliePlus, Anel, Kwarts and Akwa. Newly registered ARC-developed, Spanish-type cultivars are now also entering the commercial cycle. Unlike countries such as the United States and Argentina, where Runner-type groundnuts are commonly grown due to their suitability for large-scale mechanised farming and processing, South Africa has found that these cultivars do not perform as well under local conditions. Their longer growing periods increase production risks in the country’s short summer rainfall season, making them more sensitive to diseases and climate stress –– resulting in lower yield stability. In both trials and limited commercial plantings, Runners have consistently underperformed compared to the locally bred Spanish-type cultivars, particularly in terms of yield and processing quality. Consequently, the South African groundnut industry has remained focused on optimising and advancing Spanish-type genetics better suited to local conditions.
// We understand you collaborate with ICRISAT on breeding programs. What are the key traits you prioritize when developing or selecting new peanut varieties? Yes, we engage with ICRISAT and other partners to strengthen the genetic base of our local cultivars. There is also substantial investment through a few private initiatives from processors developing or selecting specific cultivars for cultivation by their contracted farmers. In recent years, trial, breeding and selection efforts have focused on:
_ Enhancing genetic diversity to improve resilience to pests, disease and climate stress
_ Introducing early-maturing cultivars to support climate adaptation
_ Developing varieties with improved aflatoxin resistance
_ Finding cultivars with higher oleic content
_ Strengthening seed system support to ensure access to certified, high-quality seed for both commercial and smallholder farmers
_ Maintaining the much sought after colour, size and shape of our existing cultivars as important local and international market-driven traits
// What are the major disease pressures affecting peanut crops in South Africa? How are farmers and researchers addressing these challenges? As with other international origins, groundnut production in South Africa also faces several disease and pest pressures that can significantly reduce yield and quality if not effectively managed. Among the most common challenges are leaf spot diseases (early and late), rust and, increasingly, nematodes, which are becoming a serious threat in several production regions.
Fungal leaf diseases remain a recurring issue, particularly in high-humidity seasons or where crop rotation is limited. Traditionally, fungicides have been used as a core management tool, alongside resistant cultivars and timely planting. Pressure is mounting, however, to reduce chemical dependency due to environmental and health concerns, as well as rising input costs.
Nematode infestations, especially root-knot nematodes, pose an escalating threat, particularly in irrigated and sandy soils. Infestation can cause poor root development, stunted plant growth, yield loss and greater susceptibility to secondary infections. Nematode pressure tends to build up in continuous cropping systems or where limited rotation options exist. Fortunately, our industry is supported by an excellent researcher in this field and various re -
search projects are underway to better understand the prevenance and management opportunities of this threat.
The availability of effective chemical agents to manage pests and diseases in groundnuts is becoming more constrained. Many of the historically used products, including nematicides and certain fungicides, are under review or being withdrawn due to:
_ international pressure to phase out substances deemed hazardous to human health (e.g. carcinogenic, endocrine-disrupting or environmentally persistent chemicals)
_ local regulations aligned with international food safety and environmental standards
This regulatory trend is important for long-term sustainability and consumer safety, but it also presents a serious short-term risk for small crops like groundnuts, where fewer registered and cost-effective alternatives exist. Groundnuts are considered a minor crop in terms of planted area and market size when compared to maize, wheat or soybeans and as a result agrochemical companies are often reluctant to invest in the costly registration process for crop protection products specific to peanuts. This creates a gap in available and approved chemical options, leaving farmers with limited tools to manage critical pests like nematodes effectively. Projects are underway to support greater engagement from agrochemical companies, who must be encouraged to fund the registration of existing chemicals for use in peanuts, particularly products that are already in use in other crops but not officially labelled or registered for groundnut use in South Africa.
// Aflatoxin contamination is a global concern in peanut production. What specific strategies are used in South Africa to manage and mitigate this risk? Given the risks associated with Aflatoxin, together with market and regulatory requirements , South Africa has adopted a multi-layered and collaborative approach to monitoring and mitigating this risk across the entire value chain.
All formal role players in the South African groundnut industry, including shellers, processors, exporters, importers, traders and storage facilitators, are required to be HACCP -certified and to implement comprehensive Aflatoxin management programs. These programs include strict protocols for harvesting at optimal maturity, proper drying and moisture control, clean storage and handling, and regular sampling and laboratory testing. These form part of the industry’s overall food safety compliance framework and are also aligned with export requirements.
At farm level, producers are required to include aflatoxin control in
their Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) plans. These GAP plans must assess and mitigate aflatoxin risk factors such as planting date and cultivar selection, field history and rotation, timely and careful harvesting, and avoidance of physical kernel damage. This aspect is regulated by the Department of Agriculture, which provides oversight and guidance to ensure compliance, especially where a product enters the formal market chain.
An increased focus of the South African approach concerns collaboration with accredited laboratories across the country. These labs work with processors, importers, exporters and retailers to independently test and report on aflatoxin levels in peanuts and peanut products. Efforts are currently underway to independently consolidate seasonal data across local production, exports and imports, allowing the industry and government regulators to identify emerging aflatoxin trends, respond proactively to seasonal or geographic risks, strengthen import control and border inspection processes, and enhance traceability and consumer safety.
In addition, the South African Groundnut Forum actively participates in the National Food Safety Forum, a multi-stakeholder platform involving regulators, researchers, laboratories and representatives from various food sectors. This forum plays a key role in sharing information on food safety concerns while tracking import and export rejections due to aflatoxin and MRL issues. This level of alliance ensures that South Africa remains in step with international standards and can quickly adapt to emerging risks.
A key example of the importance of robust aflatoxin controls was the first-ever national peanut butter recall in 2024, a serious and unprecedented incident for our industry. It was later found that the contamination originated from poor transport and post-harvest handling practices in a southern African exporting country. The company involved is not an active participant in the organised industry structures, and unfortunately did not follow the established industry standards for aflatoxin control. Following the incident and proper investigation by regulatory authorities, the offending company was fined for non-compliance and failure to meet food safety and logistical standards. The recall prompted a public and regulatory reassessment of how to manage risk from external suppliers and underlined the importance of ensuring all market participants regardless of size or origin are held to the same standard. As an industry, we are calling on regulators to strengthen oversight of cross-border imports and companies operating outside the formal, organised structures. Participation in industry bodies not only
facilitates information sharing and compliance but also helps ensure that everyone is aligned in protecting public health and the industry’s reputation.
// Are there any distinctive or widely adopted peanut farming practices in South Africa that you think are worth highlighting? Several peanut farming practices in South Africa have been adapted specifically to suit the country’s semi-arid climate, variable rainfall and diverse farming systems. While many farmers rely on global best practices, they also incorporate techniques tailored to local challenges and opportunities. Farmers, particularly in drier regions, use conservation tillage or minimum tillage systems to preserve soil moisture, improve soil structure and reduce erosion. These practices are especially valuable in sandy soils, where groundnuts are typically grown, and contribute to improved resilience in dryland production systems.
There is a strong focus on precision planting, with growers optimising row spacing and seeding depth to suit specific cultivars and field conditions. This not only supports better plant development but also improves uniformity, facilitates mechanical harvesting, and helps reduce the risk of disease build-up through better airflow between rows.
Farmers are encouraged to select cultivars based on region-specific performance, rather than a one-size-fits-all approach, and producers work closely with the processing extension agents and seed suppliers to match the right variety to their local conditions.
South African farmers widely adopt crop rotation systems to maintain soil health and reduce pest and disease pressure. Groundnuts are often rotated with maize, sorghum or sunflower, which helps break the cycle of soilborne pathogens and nematodes. This practice also supports long-term sustainability and productivity, including yield potential of subsequent crops.
// Is there anything else you’d like to add—perhaps insights about trends, innovations or policy issues affecting the sector? There are a number of important and encouraging developments in the South African peanut sector that go beyond production and trade and which speak to the cultural, nutritional and innovation landscape that peanuts are a part of.
Peanuts have long been part of traditional South African cuisine, used in a variety of home-cooked meals, sauces and snacks, as groundnuts remain an affordable and accessible source of protein
and energy, especially in rural and low-income communities with cultural relevance and versatility continuing to make them a staple ingredient in many households.
The dense energy content, long shelf life and affordability of peanut butter continue to make it a strategic food product for addressing child malnutrition, supporting cognitive development and improving food security, and should continue to play an important role in national nutrition strategies, particularly in school nutrition programmes and food aid efforts.
The industry has project plans underway to support NGOs and government agencies in including locally produced and responsibly sourced peanut butter in food schemes. While the focus is primarily on public health, it does create market opportunities for local processors and farmers, particularly those aligned with food safety and aflatoxin compliance.
South African manufacturers are increasingly attuned to global consumer trends, and this is reflected in the product development space. Peanut-based products are now being formulated to meet demands for low-sugar and low-salt variants; natural, preservative-free ingredients; plant-based, high-protein snacks and functional or niche foods such as peanut-based protein bars and spreads fortified with vitamins and minerals.
On the policy front, the industry continues to engage with regulators to ensure clear and supportive labelling regulations, robust
border control and import standards to protect against substandard imports, and improved market access for smallholders, including access to certified seed, finance and infrastructure
A key challenge we continue to raise is the need for stronger enforcement of compliance among non-participating entities. The 2024 peanut butter recall was a stark reminder that when certain players operate outside of organised structures and standards, it can threaten not only public health, but the reputation of the entire industry. There are discussions underway to highlight and promote the need for required participation in recognised industry bodies as a condition for market access.
Going forward, the future of the sector will continue to depend heavily on collaboration between farmers, processors, traders, government, researchers and manufactures. Whether it’s through data sharing on aflatoxin, co-investment and collaboration in R&D, or joint efforts to expand local consumption and nutrition awareness, these partnerships are essential to building a resilient, inclusive and competitive peanut industry in South Africa.
Peanuts are much more than just an agricultural crop. They’re a key part of South Africa’s food culture, a building block in national nutrition strategies, and an emerging player in global value chains driven by health, safety and sustainability. With the right support and continued innovation, the industry is well positioned to grow and thrive.
Boiled Peanuts: There Is Something about Them
This distinctive way of cooking the kernels is a great tradition of the US South
As the website of the National Peanut Board explains, ‘Not only are boiled peanuts called “the caviar of the South,” but they are also the official state snack of South Carolina. From Labor Day on into the holiday season, boiled peanuts are abundantly available at roadside stands, gas stations, ball games, festivals, and anywhere else people gather for fun.’
Richard Carlisle is a sales manager at LMC Manufacturing. As he works for one of the industry’s best known equipment companies, he obviously knows a lot about processing peanuts. But, as it turns out, he also knows how to cook them, especially when it’s time to fix them the southern way: salty and boiled. We asked him a few questions about this intriguing cooking practice.
// We understand that most of the boiled peanuts consumed are homemade. Can you tell us how to prepare them? I usually start with fresh green peanuts. Even if they’ve been pre-cleaned, I always rinse them off well. While a lot of people boil them on the stove, I prefer using a big pot over a gas burner outside; it’s part of the fun. Once the water is boiling, I add salt, usually about a cup per gallon of water depending on how salty you want them. They boil for two to three hours until the peanuts are soft and easy to eat. After that, I let them sit in the hot, salty water for another couple of hours to soak up more flavor. During this process feel free to snack on them as they soak to make sure you take them out at just the right flavor for your preference.
// Is there any particular ‘secret’ to obtaining great boiled peanuts? There’s no real secret, just good peanuts, plenty of salt and enough time. But I’d say the real ‘key’ is doing it with people you enjoy being around. That’s when they taste the best.
// Where in the US are peanuts consumed in this particular way? Boiled peanuts are big in the Southeastern US, especially in Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina and Florida. You’ll see them sold at roadside stands and farmers’ markets during the warmer months.
We talked to Richard Carlisle, sales manager at LMC Manufacturing, about this cooking practice.
// Do you know when this tradition started? I’m not sure of the exact date, but boiled peanuts go way back in the South. They’ve been around since at least the 1800s, mostly because they were easy to make and cheap. Over time, they just became part of the culture.
// Is the preparation or consumption of boiled peanuts attached to any particular event (cultural, sporting or other) or tradition? Definitely. They’re popular at football games, especially college games, and also at outdoor events like festivals and fairs. In the summer, it’s common to stop at a roadside stand and grab a warm cup on the way home.
// Most consumers, I think both in the US and around the world, mostly associate peanuts with being roasted or fried. How do they react when they first taste boiled peanuts? Most people are surprised at first. The texture is totally different; it’s more like a cooked bean than a crunchy snack. Some people are unsure at first bite, but usually they end up liking them once they get used to it.
// Anything you wish to add on this subject? Boiled peanuts are more than just a snack in the South; they’re part of the experience. Whether it’s a tailgate, a cookout or just a weekend hangout, there’s something about them that brings people together.
This issue of the World Peanut Magazine has been completed thanks to the efforts of:
Tracy Grondine USA
American Peanut Council,
Jane Zheng China
Qingdao Shengde Foods Co. LTD
Kishore Tanna, Rutuparna
Dole, Khushwant Jain
India
IOPEPC
Adri Botha South Africa
South Africa Groundnut Forum
LMC manufacturing
Renata Cantoro Argentina
fma (Argentina Peanut Foundation)
Gabriela Alcorta
Soledad Bossio
Javier Martinetto
Edoardo Fracanzani
Sebastián Della Giustina Argentina
cam (Argentina Peanut Chamber)
Graphic Design and illustrations. Sebastián Della Giustina. ese-estudio.com.ar · @ese.estudio.ok
Typography. Journalist by Sergio Rodriguez / Work Sans by Wei Huang / Noto Sans /
Cámara Argentina del Maní 20 de Septiembre 855 “A”.
(X5809AJI) General Cabrera · Córdoba, Argentina Tel +54 358 4933118
