Astronomical Observations In Landscape Architecture

ASTR ONOMICAL OB SERV A N CE S IN L AND SCAPE AR CHIT E CT U RE CAITLIN ROY A1705837 6 OCTOBER 2021 WORD COUNT: 3331 MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE AND MASTER OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE (BY COURSEWORK) FINAL YEAR LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE PROJECT ASSIGNMENT TWO – RESEARCH FOR DESIGN COURSE TEACHER: TANYA COURT

C ONTENTS

INTRODUC TION About

Page 01

C A S E S T UD I ES

Ritual Centres + Stone Circles Page 06 - 07

C O N C L US I O N

Designing for the Future Page 18

C A S E S T UD I ES INTRODUC TION

Astonomy vs Astrology

Vernacular Observatories

Page 02

Page 08 - 09

R EFER EN C ES Footnotes Page 19

C A S E S T UD I ES NARRATIV ES OF THE SKY

Built Observatories, Calendars + Sundials

ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIA Page 10 -13 Page 03

TIME AND L OCATION

C A S E S T UD I ES

Maps

Contemporary Interpretations

Page 04 - 05

Page 14 - 17

R EFER EN C ES Image list Page 20

R EFER EN C ES Bibliography Page 21

I NTROD UC TI O N ABOUT Throughout history the night sky has been used as a way of navigating time, dates, direction, moral teachings, and beliefs. From case study research within four categories, ritual centres and stone circles, vernacular observatories, built observatories and sundials, and modern interpretations, it is determined that there are at least three ways in which the sky can be reflected into the land or in landscape architecture through design. These include; the design orientates to become an astronomical mapping device similar to a calendar or calculator; the design orientates to allow one to observe the night skies; the design is ornamented with and or positioned through astrological symbology to display cultural or religious significance, storytelling, and spirituality.

The ways in which celestial bodies have informed the prehistoric built form is a study called archaeoastronomy. “the branch of archaeology that deals with the apparent use by prehistoric civilizations of astronomical techniques to establish the seasons or the cycle of the year, especially as evidenced in the construction of megaliths and other ritual structures.”1 Archeoastronomy will be explored in the earlier case studies with the inclusion of prehistoric vernacular and man-made structures at a time when knowledge and understanding about the universe was little to non-existent. As the case studies move away from the definition of prehistorical structures, and toward contemporary designs, the exploration is directed other ways towards how the night and skies celestial bodies can inform design knowing what we know about the universe today.

Figure 1: Long exposure of the night shy, Photographer Greg Ashman

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I NTROD UC TI O N ASTRONOMY VS ASTROLOGY In current times Astronomy is seen as a science and Astrology, a pseudo-science, however, in ancient times these two practices weren’t seen as separate. With mankind’s need to establish correlation between life on earth and meaning from the sky, the celestial sphere influenced many cultures and religions whether it be in a social context or the built form.

“Astronomy is a science that studies … planets, stars, asteroids, galaxies; and the properties and relationships of those celestial bodies.”

“Astrology … is the belief that the positioning of the stars and planets affect the way events occur on earth”.2

Figure 2: Drawing from Popular Astronomy by Simon Newcomb, Astronomy

Figure 3: The 2 Star Signs, Astrology

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Figure 4: Herschel’s View of the form of the universe featured in Popular Astronomy by Simon Newcomb

NARRATI V ES O F TH E SK Y ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIA

“the sky is a reflection of the land” and “everything on the land is reflected in the sky” 3 In Aboriginal Australian culture the night sky informs practical and social aspects.

Practically, the stars correlate with certain landscape features and indicates where to find food and water while the orientation of these starts guide the direction of travel.

For example, in the milky way there are a series of dark patches. In many Aboriginal languages a sky emu is seen in one of these dark patches. As the sky emu shifts direction in the night sky throughout the year, it gives information regarding the breeding cycle on the land emu; breeding season; mating season; nesting season and birthing season (fig 5).

In a social aspect, the stars like in other cultures, were seen as ancestors, humans and animals and portrayed dreaming stories in which people could learn from.

The Seven Sisters dreaming story is known across many of the language groups. From Kokatha Country, Nyeeruna made from the stars of Orion pursues the Yugarilya 7 sisters in the Pleiades star cluster. Kambugudha their elder sister fights back to protect her younger sisters (fig 6). The dreaming story teaches people that respecting women is important and there are punishments for those who don’t.

There are similarities with Aboriginal Australian totemic features in the night sky to that of many other cultures. Constellations and figures in Greek astrology have already been mentioned earlier but there is quite a similarity to Incan astrology with connection of sky to land.

In particular, both in the Milky Way in Indigenous Australian and Inca astrology, features the sky emu and rainbow serpent, and mother and baby llama and serpent respectively (fig 8). The Milky Way itself relates to the Karrawirra pari (River Torrens) in Australia and Vilcanota River near Machu Picchu.

Figure 5: Sky Emu Directions, A. breeding season, B. mating season, C. nesting season and D. birthing season

There are many cultures of the world who observed astronomy and mapped its movements to calculate time. With time being an important instrument for daily life it makes sense that people looked to the sky for their spiritual beliefs. Some of the earliest astrological cultures included Egyptian (8000 BC), Babylonian (5000 BC), Indian (3300), and Chinese (1300 BC) each with their own calendars and symbols for understanding the sky.

However Indigenous Australia may have the oldest astronomy with records of human existence dating back 65,000 years ago with evidence of stone circles located all over Australia.

Figure 7: AIATSIS Map of Australia

Figure 6: Star mapping of seven sisters dreaming story

With over 250 Indigenous languages in Australia (including 800 dialects) (fig 7) and records being lost overtime due to colonial invasion, interpretations of dreaming stories vary on the most part but there are some similarities.

Figure 8: Milky Way with Aboriginal Australian and Inca Astrological symbolism

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Figure 9: Map of the world with locations of case studies

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C ASE STUD I E S Ritual centres were prominent before the development of urban civilisations along the great rivers of Eurasia. Two of which Nabta Playa and Gobekli Tepe have similarities to stone circles, like Stonehenge.

Nabta Playa was a stone circle present in 9000 BC in Abu Simbel (today, southern Egypt). It is believed to be the first astonomical structure that acted as a calendar for seasons and harvesting, tracking constellations and a ceremonial space.

The circle is approximately 4m in diameter and each of the stone pairs either align with true north tosouth and north-east to south-west (fig 11). The arrangement followed the movement of the sun as well as constellations Arcturus, Sirius, Alpha Centauri and Orion.

Gobekli Tepe built in approximately 9000 BC is understood to have been a ritual centre of attraction and pilgrimage located in the province of Urfa in south-eastern Turkey (fig 12). There is much speculation that this ruin could have been the world’s first observatory.

The site consists of several circular dry-stone walls and 3m tall monolithic limestone pillars with carvings and inscriptions of a range of different animals, insects and constellations including a scorpion and the constellation Sirius. There is understanding that there wouldn’t have been a roof and therefore allowed for open air stargazing.

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Some believe that the site was aligned with the night sky, particularly the star Sirius, as after its depression below the horizon for many years it appeared again in 9300BC, increased in brightness over the centuries and was worshiped by the local people, as it was years later in the same region.

Megalithic structures such as stone circles were prominent in northern and western Europe during the Neolithic Age (10200 BC – 4500 BC) and early Bronze Age (4000 BC – 2000 BC). Many stone circles were designed as celestial observatories and were to correlate with the movement of the moon and stars and other aspects of astrology. It is estimated there may have been up to 4000 of these structures between 3000BC and 1300BC (fig 14).

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RITUAL CENTRES + STONE CIRCLES

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Figure 11: Nabta playa, Egypt plan

Figure 12: Gobekli Tepe, Turkey

Figure 13: Limestone pillar with engraving Heelstone

Stonehenge, known worldwide as one of England’s tourist attractions, has records that date back to approximately 3000BC (fig 18).

The circle is believed to have been used as a burial and ceremonial space. It measures 100 meters in diameter with a 4.9 m heel stone at the northeast entrance to the circle.

This entrance was astronomically aligned with the northern most rising moon (and not the sun) similar to the Callanish stone circle in Scotland (fig 15) and the Cromlech stone circle in France (fig 16) “… as would have been typical for early agrarian-based societies.”4 When the Beaker people arrived and transformed the structure around 2500 BC, the astonomical alignment changed from lunar monument to that of a solar one. The axis of the stones moved east 3 degrees eastward to coincide with the rising midsummer sun and four large stones were placed in a rectangular formation to align with the summer and winter solstice (fig 17).

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Figure 15: Callanish stone circle

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Figure 14: Distribution of stone circles foun in the UK

Figure 16: Cromlech stone circle

Figure 17: Stonehenge solar and lunar diagram

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Figure 18: Stonehenge

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C ASE STUD I E S VERNACULAR OBSERVATORIES Vernacular in the built form uses materials and building techniques sourced locally.

Many vernacular observatories use the existing landforms around them such as mountains and rocks. For those abandoned and left in ruins they carry speculation and uncertainty about their astronomical claims not only because of their lost records but vernacular nature.

Between the ninth and 13th centuries the vernacular canyon site of Chaco Canyon in New Mexico became home to ancient Puebloans. Ancestral Puebloans looked to the sky for pastoral guidance and the timing of ancestral ceremonial events.

Pueblo Bonito, Spanish for ‘beautiful town’ started construction in 920 CE where at the time was based at the foot of a massive cliff that has since caved in. Alignment of the D-shaped settlement is on a cardinal point facing north-south with a longitudinal eastwest. There is a strong median wall down the north- south centre aligning with the midday sun and the positioning of the other nearby settlements are to that of solar and lunar movements (fig 11).

Kimney Rock Pueblo, located nearby to Pueblo Bonito, is a pair of chimney like structures built on a hill ridge. It is possible that these two chimneys were used as alignment tools for lunar events (fig 12).

The thirteen towers at Chankillo, a ceremonial site in Peru, is situated on the crest of a low hill that runs north south in between other built forms of the settlement.

This vernacular landscape acts as an observatory and calendar when certain parts of the towers line up with the winter and summer solstice, temporal equinox sun, anti-zenith sun and zenith sun (fig 13) when stationed at the observing points.

Noon sun

Exuinox

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Figure 12: Kimney Rock, Chacho Canyon Pueblo Bonito

Machu Picchu, located Peru and once home to ancient Incas in 15th and 16th centuries, is known as a location for solar and stellar observation (fig 17).

The plan of the sacred plaza is orientated along the axis of the December solstice sunset and the June solstice sunrise (fig 14) and many window and door openings face toward significant celestial bodies. In particular the Torreon (fig 15) aligns to view the rising solstice sun and the rise of the Pleiades star cluster. In ancient times Incas worshipped the Pleiades both at a practical level for agriculture and spiritual level with their beliefs.

Two small shallow basins, positioned north – south to each other are carved in the floor of a building on the site (fig 16) When filled with water and the sun hits the basins the lights are reflected onto different parts of the surrounding walls. These basins, called mortars, are a type of sundial.

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Figure 11: Plan Pueblo Bonito, Chacho Canyon and diagram in relation to other towns

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Figure 14: Machu Picchu Orientation

June Solstice sunrise

Pleiades Rises

Figure 13: Elevation of the Thirteen Towers at Chankillo, Peru

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Figure 16: Mortars, Machu Picchu

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December solstice sunset

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Figure 15: Torreon, Machu Picchu

Figure 17: Machu Picchu

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C ASE STUD I E S BUILT OBSERVATORIES + SUNDIALS The Great Pyramids of Giza consisting of 3 pyramids Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) built c. 2550 BC; Khafre (Chephren) built c. 2520 BC and; Menkaure (Mykerinus) built c. 2490 BC are located on the west bank of the Nile River, northern Egypt (fig18 and 23). They were built as royal tombs for three different Pharos in which they are named after. Made from vernacular materials limestone, granite, mortar, basalt and mud there is there is still uncertainty as to how the pyramids were impressively built to this scale and preciseness during this era.

The pyramids face almost true north and use cosmic mathematics and symbolism that act as a calendar for agricultural purposes.

“The Pyramid of the sun, for example, is aligned with sunrise on 11 February (start of agricultural season, clearing of the field,), sunset on 30 April (the onset of the rainy season and the time for planting) and 13 August (the ripening of the first corn cobs), and sunrise on the 29 October, the end of the rainy season” Although all three pyramids have celestial alignment, the Pyramid of Khufu has the clearest alignment. Air shafts embedded within the pyramids are said to have the additional purpose of observing constellations and aligning with two in particular. Orion as the first and the other, Sirius, representing the celestial king and queen, Osiris and Isis (fig 19). The idea is that the pathways will facilitate the Pharos’ journey to the heavens.

In addition, the spatial arrangement of the three pyramids have been speculated to resemble Orion’s belt (fig 20) and similarly so do other ancient pyramid schemes, such as Xi’an Pyramids in China (fig 21) and Teotihuacan in Mexico (fig 22).

Teotihuacan became one of the largest cities during its 800 years of growth from around 150BC until its fall around 750CE. Little is known about the inhabitants of Teotihuacan but the Aztecs, who built their own city further south and a millennium later gave the site its name Teotihuacan meaning ‘the place where gods were born’.

The city has three pyramids similar to the Great Pyramids of Giza and were designed to look like the surrounding mountains and align with Pleiades in the east. The three pyramids in the complex include: Pyramid of the Moon, Pyramid of the Sun and Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent.

The Pyramid of the Sun is off alignment of true north by 17 degrees but lines up with the same sunrise and sunset dates as the Great Pyramid and follows the 260-day agricultural calendar.

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Figure 18: Site plan of the Pyramids of Giza complex, Egypt

When observing from the top of the Pyramid of the Sun on the spring and autumnal equinox (20 March and 23 September) the sun rises from the top of the mountain Cerro Papayo in the east Sirius

Figure 19: Section of the Great Pyramid

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Figure 20: Constellation of Orion

Orion

Figure 21: Xi’an Pyramids, China

Figure 22: Teotihuacan in Mexico

Figure 23: Great Pyramids of Giza

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C ASE STUD I E S BUILT OBSERVATORIES AND SUNDIALS Jantar Mantar located in Jaipur, New Delhi is an observatory with large scale masonry structures acting as astronomical instruments (fig 36). Built in the early 18th century the observatory holds 20 different types of fixed instruments that measure, solar, lunar and or celestial bodies in relation to many directional guides. Here are 12 of the most common instruments on site.

1. Great Samrat Yantra is an equinoctial sundial at a large scale the sun casts a shadow at intervals on the east and west quadrant index and steps. (fig 24) 2. Small Samrat Yantra is an equinoctial sundial at a smaller scale set at a 27-degree slope. (fig 25) 3. Rama Yantra consists of cylindrical structures open to the sky, a central pillar that measures altitude and azimuth of the sun and celestial bodies. (fig 26) 4. Jai Prakash is a concaved spherical sun dial in the ground that has a viewing point at ground and underground levels.

A small circle of metal is suspended in the middle of the sphere and pulled taught at ground level casting a shadow of solar movement (seen from ground) and acts as a guide for night observations (seen at lower ground level) inverted image of the sky mapped on marble strips. (fig 27)

6. Nadivalaya Yantra has a north and south face running parallel with the equator.

This instrument is an equinoctial sundial but measures the summer and winter sun separately. (fig 29) 7. Daksinottara Bhitti is an instrument that measures the median altitude of the sun and zenith distance of celestial bodies. It is based on a meridian dial. (fig 30)

Figure 24: Great Samrat Yantra

Figure 25: Small Samrat Yantra

Figure 26: Rama Yantra

Figure 27: Jai Prakash

Figure 28: Digamsa Yantra

Figure 29: Nadivalaya Yantra

Figure 30: Daksinottara Bhitti

Figure 31: Unnatamsha Yantra

Figure 32: Mishra Yantra

Figure 33: Yantraraja

Figure 34: Rasivalaya Yantra

Figure 35: Chakra Yantra

8. Unnatamsha Yantra appears as a metal circle divided into 4 and is an instrument that measures the altitude of celestial bodies. (fig 31) 9. Mishra Yantra is a mix of 5 different instruments but quite clearly has an equinoctial sundial form. (fig 32) 10. Yantraraja is a suspended bronze astrolabe, an early astronomical tool. (fig 33) 11. Rasivalaya Yantra consists of 12 gnomon dials aligned with the 12 different zodiac constellations when they first hit the horizon. It measures ecliptic coordinates of celestial bodies. (fig 34) 12. Chakra Yantra consists of two vertically positioned metal circles with a diagonal bar and is used to measure celestial bodies. (fig 35)

5. Digamsa Yantra is used to determine the azimuth of celestial objects by aligning oneself with the central metal plate in the instrument to the celestial body in the night sky. (fig 28)

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Figure 36: Jantar Mantar

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C ASE STUD I E S MODERN INTERPRETATIONS Moving away from ancient times and the vernacular, modern interpretation of the night sky and celestial bodies takes a shift towards ornamental symbology embedded in the ground plane, facades, or installations.

A perfect example of this is the Kaurna Learning Circle completed at the University of Adelaide. Amongst other landscape facilities on the site, it features Wangu poles a light installation of seven poles which were designed by Kaurna and Ngarrindjeri Artist and landscape architect Paul Herzich (fig 37). The number Seven holds significance in Kaurna culture in relation to the seven sisters dreaming story and the seven springs in the Tjilbruke dreaming story.

The artwork presents Kaurna dreaming stories, ancient ceremonial practices, and traditional life along the river. These include Kaurna men and women carrying out tasks (illuminated green), land and water animals, as well as circular dots representing stars at the top (illuminated white) and the bottom (illuminated blue) showing the relationship “…between the Wardlipari (the milky way) and the Karrawirra pari (River Torrens)”5(fig 37).

“Purlirna kardlarna ngadluku miyurnaku yaintya tikkiarna.

Wardlipari is the home river in the Milky Way. The stars are the fires of the people living there.

Yurarlu yurakauwi trruku-ana padninthi Wardlipari.

Yurakauwi the rainbow serpent goes into the dark spots in the Milky Way. Ngaiyirda karralika kawingka tikainga yara kumarninthi.

When the outer world and the sky connect with the water the two become one.” 6 Atelier Erg Town hall in Biot, France has a large square outdoor pavilion with constellations embedded into the concrete (fig 39 and 40). This design was by artist Luca Mengoni and the glass stones were made

by Biot glass artists who coloured these stars blue with blue powder and phosphorescent powder for contracts against the concrete surface (fig 38).

This design is quite a literal translation from sky to ground but having the outlook over the declining hill below may be purposeful for stargazing and alignment with the art.

Figure 37: Wangu Poles, Adelaide, Oxigen

Figure 38: Atelier Erg Town Hall Constellations

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Figure 39: Atelier Erg Town Hall Ground Level

Figure 40: Atelier Erg Town Hall Ground Level

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C ASE STUD I E S MODERN INTERPRETATIONS Another landscape that features ornamental symbology but with perhaps a more indepth concept is Kona Galaxy Garden located in South Kona, Hawaii (fig 41).

Designed by artist and garden designer Jon Lomberg the garden is representative of the milky way. A radio map of the milky way was used as the guiding form for the planting plan but further to that each plant or flower symbolises a celestial feature: • • • •

hibiscus and vincas flowers = nebulae dracaena and red bromeliad plants = globular clusters spotted-leaf gold dust croton plants = star fields red and black lava cinder making walking trails = red dwarves, interstellar dust, and burnt-out stars. (fig 42)

The concept was that the plants and flowers are symbolic of stars, they grow and then die.

With a scale that is 1,000 light-years per foot one can walk through the milky way design and experience it from many angles. At the centre of the garden there is a water fountain which symbolises the black hole.

In line with the same conceptual richness but evidently larger in scale is Landscape Architect Charles Jenckes’ Garden of Cosmic Speculation in Scotland. Rather than having direct forms taken from the sky, this garden explores the physics and elements of the cosmos through illusions, ground manipulation and colour. There are 40 major garden areas or features and the names for some of the sections of the gardens do relate to the universe ie the universe cascade, Black hole terrace (fig 43) and comet bridge.

The universal cascade is a descending staircase that records the story of the universe over 13 billion years with 25 landings each marking an important moment in space evolution. The steps end at the bottom of the hill into a pond of dark water representing the mystery of the universe’s origin (fig 44).

Figure 41: Kona Galaxy Garden

Figure 42: Kona Galaxy Garden planting

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Figure 43: Black hole terrace, Garden of Cosmic Speculation, Scotland

Figure 44: Universe Cascade, Garden of Cosmic Speculation, Scotland

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C ONC LUSI ON DESIGNING FOR THE FUTURE There are many ways that astrological aspects of the night sky can inform landscape design. It seems intrinsically that it should be, as many cultures have a deep historical connection to the sky. It is notice that ancient and historical landscapes have been used to calculate the astronomical movements to inform practical aspect like agriculture and comfortable living within different environments.

In modern times the idea of practical measurement observation has shifted to observation for education and enjoyment.

In addition, celestial forms although have been used in ancient time, more as keeping record, is modern used as symbolic embellishments. This can be evident in the base of a plan or elevation for a site, a pattern artwork embedded within in the fabric of the built form, or an informed tool for an overarching concept. Each of these contemporary ideas have been idealised with the knowledge that astrology and astronomy aren’t synonymous as they were in ancient times.

Finally designing for the future with astrological forms could utilise techniques from history or modern time. Each of the case studies explored all have different purposes but all could be utilised today for observation with the aim to measure or learn and embellish in the form or the detail. Any of the of the case studies could be used as a guide even in modern times as the celestial sphere is still relevant to the human experience and questioning existence.

Figure 1: Long exposure of the night shy, Photographer Greg Ashman

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REFRENC ES FOOTNOTES “Archaeoastronomy definition and meaning”, Collins English Dictionary, 2021.

1

What’s the difference between astronomy and astrology?, American Astronomical Society, 2019.

2

“Indigenous astronomy, geography, and star maps”, The University of Melbourne, 2021.

3

Ching, Francis D. K., Jarzombek, Mark M., and Prakash, Vikramaditya. A Global History of Architecture.

Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2010.

Accessed October 6, 2021. ProQuest Ebook Central.

4

“Kaurna Learning Circle”, The University of Adelaide, 2021.

5

Dr Lewis Yarluburka O’Brien AO,Kaurna Warra Karrpinthi, Language Committee,Flinders University of South Australia, 2016 cited in Baker 2019.

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REFERENC ES IMAGE LIST Figure 1: Long exposure of the night shy, Photographer Greg Ashman Figure 2: Figure 3: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 10: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 11: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 15: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 16: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 17: Figure 18: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 19: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 20: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 21: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 22: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 23: Figure 24: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 25: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 26: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 27: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 28: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 29: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 30: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 31: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 32: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 33: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 34: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 35: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 36: Figure 37: Figure 38: Figure 39: Drawing in interpretation by Caitlin Roy Figure 40: Figure 41: Figure 42: Figure 43: Figure 44:

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REFERENC ES BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

2.

American Astronomical Society. 2019. What’s the difference between astronomy and astrology?. [online] Available at: <https://aas.org/faq/ whats-difference-between-astronomy-andastrology#:~:text=Astronomy%20is%20a%20 science%20that,relationships%20of%20those%20 celestial%20bodies.&text=Astrology%2C%20on%20 the%20other%20hand,way%20events%20occur%20 on%20earth.> [Accessed 6 September 2021].

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3.

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Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia.

“Constellation.” Encyclopedia Britannica, April 14, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/science/ constellation.

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