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Solid Fuels

Combustion and Gasification

A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books

Founding Editor

L.L.Faulkner

Columbus Division, Battelle Memorial Institute and Department of Mechanical Engineering

The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

1. Spring Designerís Handbook, Harold Carlson

2. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design, Daniel L.Ryan

3. Lubrication Fundamentals, J.George Wills

4. Solar Engineering for Domestic Buildings, William A.Himmelman

5. Applied Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics, G.Boothroyd and C.Poli

6. Centrifugal Pump Clinic, Igor J.Karassik

7. Computer-Aided Kinetics for Machine Design, Daniel L.Ryan

8. Plastics Products Design Handbook, Part A: Materials and Components; Part B: Processes and Design for Processes, edited by Edward Miller

9. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.

10. Vibrations of Shells and Plates, Werner Soedel

11. Flat and Corrugated Diaphragm Design Handbook, Mario Di Giovanni

12. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design, Alexander Blake

13. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints, John H. Bickford

14. Optimal Engineering Design: Principles and Applications, James N.Siddall

15. Spring Manufacturing Handbook, Harold Carlson

16. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Lewis H.Bell

17. Gears and Their Vibration: A Basic Approach to Understanding Gear Noise, J.Derek Smith

18. Chains for Power Transmission and Material Handling: Design and Applications Handbook, American Chain Association

19. Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook, edited by Philip A. Schweitzer

20. Gear Drive Systems: Design and Application, Peter Lynwander

21. Controlling In-Plant Airborne Contaminants: Systems Design and Calculations, John D.Constance

22. CAD/CAM Systems Planning and Implementation, Charles S.Knox

23. Probabilistic Engineering Design: Principles and Applications, James N. Siddall

24. Traction Drives: Selection and Application, Frederick W.Heilich III and Eugene E.Shube

25. Finite Element Methods: An Introduction, Ronald L.Huston and Chris E. Passerello

26. Mechanical Fastening of Plastics: An Engineering Handbook, Brayton Lincoln, Kenneth J.Gomes, and James F.Braden

27. Lubrication in Practice: Second Edition, edited by W.S.Robertson

28. Principles of Automated Drafting, Daniel L.Ryan

29. Practical Seal Design, edited by Leonard J.Martini

30. Engineering Documentation for CAD/CAM Applications, Charles S.Knox

31. Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications, Jerome C. Lange

32. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified Graphical and Analytical Techniques, Lyndon O.Barton

33. CAD/CAM Systems: Justification, Implementation, Productivity Measurement, Edward J.Preston, George W.Crawford, and Mark E.Coticchia

34. Steam Plant Calculations Manual, V.Ganapathy

35. Design Assurance for Engineers and Managers, John A.Burgess

36. Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications, Jasbir Singh

37. Potential Flows: Computer Graphic Solutions, Robert H.Kirchhoff

38. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design: Second Edition, Daniel L.Ryan

39. Electronically Controlled Proportional Valves: Selection and Application, Michael J.Tonyan, edited by Tobi Goldoftas

40. Pressure Gauge Handbook, AMETEK, U.S. Gauge Division, edited by Philip W.Harland

41. Fabric Filtration for Combustion Sources: Fundamentals and Basic Technology, R.P.Donovan

42. Design of Mechanical Joints, Alexander Blake

43. CAD/CAM Dictionary, Edward J.Preston, George W.Crawford, and Mark E. Coticchia

44. Machinery Adhesives for Locking, Retaining, and Sealing, Girard S.Haviland

45. Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Jon R.Mancuso

46. Shaft Alignment Handbook, John Piotrowski

47. BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engineers: Boilers, Combustion, Fluid Flow, and Heat Transfer, V.Ganapathy

48. Solving Mechanical Design Problems with Computer Graphics, Jerome C.Lange

49. Plastics Gearing: Selection and Application, Clifford E.Adams

50. Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, William C.Orthwein

51. Transducers in Mechanical and Electronic Design, Harry L.Trietley

52. Metallurgical Applications of Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena, edited by Lawrence E.Murr, Karl P.Staudhammer, and Marc A.Meyers

53. Magnesium Products Design, Robert S.Busk

54. How to Integrate CAD/CAM Systems: Management and Technology, William D.Engelke

55. Cam Design and Manufacture: Second Edition; with cam design software for the IBM PC and compatibles, disk included, Preben W.Jensen

56. Solid-State AC Motor Controls: Selection and Application, Sylvester Campbell

57. Fundamentals of Robotics, David D.Ardayfio

58. Belt Selection and Application for Engineers, edited by Wallace D.Erickson

59. Developing Three-Dimensional CAD Software with the IBM PC, C.Stan Wei

60. Organizing Data for CIM Applications, Charles S.Knox, with contributions by Thomas C.Boos, Ross S.Culverhouse, and Paul F.Muchnicki

61. Computer-Aided Simulation in Railway Dynamics, by Rao V.Dukkipati and Joseph R.Amyot

62. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design, P.K. Mallick

63. Photoelectric Sensors and Controls: Selection and Application, Scott M. Juds

64. Finite Element Analysis with Personal Computers, Edward R.Champion, Jr., and J.Michael Ensminger

65. Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Dale Ensminger

66. Applied Finite Element Modeling: Practical Problem Solving for Engineers, Jeffrey M.Steele

67. Measurement and Instrumentation in Engineering: Principles and Basic Laboratory Experiments, Francis S.Tse and Ivan E.Morse

68. Centrifugal Pump Clinic: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Igor J. Karassik

69. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Alexander Blake

70. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John H.Bickford

71. High Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Marsbed H.Hablanian

72. Pressure Sensors: Selection and Application, Duane Tandeske

73. Zinc Handbook: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design, Frank Porter

74. Thermal Fatigue of Metals, Andrzej Weronski and Tadeusz Hejwowski

75. Classical and Modern Mechanisms for Engineers and Inventors, Preben W.Jensen

76. Handbook of Electronic Package Design, edited by Michael Pecht

77. Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Materials, edited by Marc A.Meyers, Lawrence E.Murr, and Karl P.Staudhammer

78. Industrial Refrigeration: Principles, Design and Applications, P.C.Koelet

79. Applied Combustion, Eugene L.Keating

80. Engine Oils and Automotive Lubrication, edited by Wilfried J.Bartz

81. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified and Graphical Techniques, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lyndon O.Barton

82. Fundamental Fluid Mechanics for the Practicing Engineer, James W. Murdock

83. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, P.K.Mallick

84. Numerical Methods for Engineering Applications, Edward R.Champion, Jr.

85. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Earl Logan, Jr.

86. Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Werner Soedel

87. Steam Plant Calculations Manual: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, V.Ganapathy

88. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lewis H.Bell and Douglas H.Bell

89. Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance, Richard H.MacNeal

90. Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lawrence E.Nielsen and Robert F.Landel

91. Mechanical Wear Prediction and Prevention, Raymond G.Bayer

92. Mechanical Power Transmission Components, edited by David W.South and Jon R.Mancuso

93. Handbook of Turbomachinery, edited by Earl Logan, Jr.

94. Engineering Documentation Control Practices and Procedures, Ray E. Monahan

95. Refractory Linings Thermomechanical Design and Applications, Charles A.Schacht

96. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Applications and Techniques for Use in Design, Manufacturing, and Inspection, James D.Meadows

97. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, John H.Bickford

98. Shaft Alignment Handbook: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John Piotrowski

99. Computer-Aided Design of Polymer-Matrix Composite Structures, edited by Suong Van Hoa

100. Friction Science and Technology, Peter J.Blau

101. Introduction to Plastics and Composites: Mechanical Properties and Engineering Applications, Edward Miller

102. Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design, Alexander Blake

103. Pump Characteristics and Applications, Michael W.Volk

104. Optical Principles and Technology for Engineers, James E.Stewart

105. Optimizing the Shape of Mechanical Elements and Structures, A.A.Seireg and Jorge Rodriguez

106. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery, VladimÌr Stejskal and Michael Val öek

107. Shaft Seals for Dynamic Applications, Les Horve

108. Reliability-Based Mechanical Design, edited by Thomas A.Cruse

109. Mechanical Fastening, Joining, and Assembly, James A.Speck

110. Turbomachinery Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, edited by Chunill Hah

111. High-Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Marsbed H.Hablanian

112. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Workbook and Answerbook, James D.Meadows

113. Handbook of Materials Selection for Engineering Applications, edited by G.T.Murray

114. Handbook of Thermoplastic Piping System Design, Thomas Sixsmith and Reinhard Hanselka

115. Practical Guide to Finite Elements: A Solid Mechanics Approach, Steven M.Lepi

116. Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics, edited by Vijay K.Garg

117. Fluid Sealing Technology, Heinz K.Muller and Bernard S.Nau

118. Friction and Lubrication in Mechanical Design, A.A.Seireg

119. Influence Functions and Matrices, Yuri A.Melnikov

120. Mechanical Analysis of Electronic Packaging Systems, Stephen A. McKeown

121. Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Jon R.Mancuso

122. Thermodynamics: Processes and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.

123. Gear Noise and Vibration, J.Derek Smith

124. Practical Fluid Mechanics for Engineering Applications, John J.Bloomer

125. Handbook of Hydraulic Fluid Technology, edited by George E.Totten

126. Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, T.Kuppan

127. Designing for Product Sound Quality, Richard H.Lyon

128. Probability Applications in Mechanical Design, Franklin E.Fisher and Joy R.Fisher

129. Nickel Alloys, edited by Ulrich Heubner

130. Rotating Machinery Vibration: Problem Analysis and Troubleshooting, Maurice L.Adams, Jr.

131. Formulas for Dynamic Analysis, Ronald L.Huston and C.Q.Liu

132. Handbook of Machinery Dynamics, Lynn L.Faulkner and Earl Logan, Jr.

133. Rapid Prototyping Technology: Selection and Application, Kenneth G. Cooper

134. Reciprocating Machinery Dynamics: Design and Analysis, Abdulla S. Rangwala

135. Maintenance Excellence: Optimizing Equipment Life-Cycle Decisions, edited by John D.Campbell and Andrew K.S.Jardine

136. Practical Guide to Industrial Boiler Systems, Ralph L.Vandagriff

137. Lubrication Fundamentals: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, D.M. Pirro and A.A.Wessol

138. Mechanical Life Cycle Handbook: Good Environmental Design and Manufacturing, edited by Mahendra S.Hundal

139. Micromachining of Engineering Materials, edited by Joseph McGeough

140. Control Strategies for Dynamic Systems: Design and Implementation, John H.Lumkes, Jr.

141. Practical Guide to Pressure Vessel Manufacturing, Sunil Pullarcot

142. Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques, and Applications, edited by Peter J.Shull

143. Diesel Engine Engineering: Thermodynamics, Dynamics, Design, and Control, Andrei Makartchouk

144. Handbook of Machine Tool Analysis, loan D.Marinescu, Constantin Ispas, and Dan Boboc

145. Implementing Concurrent Engineering in Small Companies, Susan Carlson Skalak

146. Practical Guide to the Packaging of Electronics: Thermal and Mechanical Design and Analysis, Ali Jamnia

147. Bearing Design in Machinery: Engineering Tribology and Lubrication, Avraham Harnoy

148. Mechanical Reliability Improvement: Probability and Statistics for Experimental Testing, R.E.Little

149. Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators: Design, Applications, and Calculations, V.Ganapathy

150. The CAD Guidebook: A Basic Manual for Understanding and Improving Computer-Aided Design, Stephen J.Schoonmaker

151. Industrial Noise Control and Acoustics, Randall F.Barron

152. Mechanical Properties of Engineered Materials, WolÈ Soboyejo

153. Reliability Verification, Testing, and Analysis in Engineering Design, Gary S.Wasserman

154. Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids: Third Edition, I.G.Currie

155. Intermediate Heat Transfer, Kau-Fui Vincent Wong

156. HVAC Water Chillers and Cooling Towers: Fundamentals, Application, and Operation, Herbert W.Stanford III

157. Gear Noise and Vibration: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, J. Derek Smith

158. Handbook of Turbomachinery: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Earl Logan, Jr., and Ramendra Roy

159. Piping and Pipeline Engineering: Design, Construction, Maintenance, Integrity, and Repair, George A.Antaki

160. Turbomachinery: Design and Theory, Rama S.R.Gorla and Aijaz Ahmed Khan

161. Target Costing: Market-Driven Product Design, M.Bradford Clifton, Henry M.B.Bird, Robert E.Albano, and Wesley P.Townsend

162. Fluidized Bed Combustion, Simeon N.Oka

163. Theory of Dimensioning: An Introduction to Parameterizing Geometric Models, Vijay Srinivasan

164. Handbook of Mechanical Alloy Design, edited by George E.Totten, Lin Xie, and Kiyoshi Funatani

165. Structural Analysis of Polymeric Composite Materials, Mark E.Tuttle

166. Modeling and Simulation for Material Selection and Mechanical Design, edited by George E.Totten, Lin Xie, and Kiyoshi Funatani

167. Handbook of Pneumatic Conveying Engineering, David Mills, Mark G. Jones, and Vijay K.Agarwal

168. Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, Second Edition, William C. Orthwein

169. Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication: Second Edition, Bernard J. Hamrock, Steven R.Schmid, and Bo O.Jacobson

170. Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology for Microelectronic Assemblies, edited by Karl J.Puttlitz and Kathleen A.Stalter

171. Vehicle Stability, Dean Karnopp

172. Mechanical Wear Fundamentals and Testing: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Raymond G.Bayer

173. Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics, E.Shashi Menon

174. Solid Fuels Combustion and Gasification, Marcio L.de Souza-Santos

175. Mechanical Tolerance Stackup and Analysis, Bryan R.Fischer

176. Engineering Design for Wear, Raymond G.Bayer

177. Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Werner Soedel

178. Refractories Handbook, edited by Charles A.Schacht

179. Practical Engineering Failure Analysis, Hani Tawancy, Halim Hamid, Nureddin M.Abbas

180. Mechanical Alloying and Milling, C.Suryanarayana

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Progressing Cavity Pumps, Downhole Pumps, and Mudmotors, Lev Nelik Design of Automatic Machinery, Stephen J.Derby

Mechanical Vibration: Analysis, Uncertainties, and Control, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Haym Benaroya

Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Arun Shukla

Spring Design with an IBM PC, Al Dietrich

Mechanical Design Failure Analysis: With Failure Analysis System Software for the IBM PC, David G.Ullman Copyright

Solid Fuels

Combustion and Gasification

Modeling, Simulation, and Equipment Operation

Marcio L.de Souza-Santos

State University at Campinas São Paolo, Brazil

Transferred to Digital Printing 2005

Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the author(s) nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage, or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. The material contained herein is not intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any specific situation.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

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A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN:0-8247-0971-3

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Copyright©2004byMarcelDekker,Inc.AllRightsReserved.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Current printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Copyright

…the history of science—by far the most successful claim to knowledge accessible to humans—teaches that the most we can hope for is successive improvement in our understanding, learning from our mistakes, an asymptotic approach to the Universe, but with the proviso that absolute certainty will always elude us.

The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark Ballantine Books, 1996

to Laura, Daniel and Nalva

Preface

Contrary to general perception, the importance of coal and biomass as energy resources continues to increase. Special attention has been given to biomass due to its renewable and overall zero carbon dioxide generation aspects. Therefore, it is not surprising that the number of professionals and graduate students entering the field of power generation based on solid fuels is increasing. However, unlike specialized researchers, they are not interested in deep considerations based on exhaustive literature reviews of specialized texts. Obviously, works in that line are very important; however they assume an audience of accomplished mathematical modelers. Therefore, they do not have the preoccupation of presenting the details on how, from fundamental and general equations, it is possible to arrive at a final model for an equipment or process. Those beginning in the field are not interested in the other extreme, i.e., simple and mechanistic description of equipment design procedures or instruction manuals for application of commercial simulation packages. Their main preoccupations are:

• Sufficient familiarity with the fundamental phenomena taking place in the equipment or processes

• Knowledge of basic procedures for modeling and simulation of equipment and systems.

• Elaborate procedures or methods to predict the behavior of the equipment or processes, mainly for cases where there are no commercially available simulators. Even when simulators are available, to be able to properly set the conditions asked as inputs by the simulator, to evaluate the applicability of possible solutions, and to choose among various alternatives.

• The use those instruments to help solve problems and situations in the field.

• Building confidence for decision making regarding process improvements and investments.

On the other hand, experience shows that a good route to acquire real and testable understanding of a subject in processing is to develop models and their respective computer simulators. The feeling of accomplishment achieved when one is capable of developing one’s own simulator, however simple, is fantastic. This would be the crowning achievement of accumulated knowledge in the subject. The simulation program becomes a source of improvements, not to mention leading to a whole set of other advantages, as detailed later.

The book is essential to graduate students, engineers, and other professionals with a strong scientific background entering the area of solid fuel combustion and gasification, but needing a basic introductory course in mathematical modeling and simulation. The text is based on a course given for many years for professionals and graduate students.

In view of the hands-on approach, several correlations and equations are cited from the literature without the preoccupation on mathematical demonstrations of their validity. References are provided and should be consulted by those interested in more details.

Despite the specific focus on combustion and gasification, the basic methods illustrated here can be employed for modeling a wide range of other processes or equipment commonly found in the processing industry. Operations of equipment such as boilers, furnaces, incinerators, gasifiers, and any others associated with combustion or gasification phenomena involves a multitude of simultaneous processes such as heat, mass and momentum transfers, chemical kinetics of several reactions, drying, and pyrolysis, etc. These should be coherently combined to allow reasonable simulation of industrial units or equipment. This book provides the relevant basic principles.

It is important to emphasize the need for simple models. As mentioned before, most field or design engineers cannot afford to spend too much time on very elaborate and complex models. Of course, there are several levels to which models can be built. Nevertheless, one should be careful with models that are too simple or too complex. The low extreme normally provides only superficial information while the other usually takes years to develop and often involves considerable computational difficulties due to convergence problems or inconsistencies. In the present text, the model complexity is extended just to the point necessary to achieve a reasonable representation of the corresponding equipment. For instance, the examples are limited to two dimensions and most of the models are based on a one-dimensional approach. This may sound simplistic; however, the level of detail and usefulness of results from such simulations are significant. Additionally, the book can also be used as an introduction to more complex models.

The main strategy of the book is to teach by examples. Besides the significant fraction of industrial equipment operating with suspensions of pulverized solid

fuels, the specific cases of moving and fluidized bubbling beds have been selected because they:

Cover much of the equipment related to combustion and gasification of solid fuels found in industry. In the particular case of fluidized beds, the fraction of equipment employing that technique has continually increased. In fact several more conventional boilers and furnaces operating with suspensions have been retrofitted to fluidized beds. Allow easy-to-follow examples of how simplifying assumptions regarding the operation of real industrial equipment can be set.

Permit relatively quick introduction of fundamental equations without the need for overly complex treatments.

Provide simple examples applying model and simulation techniques and how these can be put together to write a simulation program. Allow easier comparisons between real operational data and simulation results.

In addition, the book contains basic descriptions of combustion and gasification processes, including suspension or pneumatic transport. Several fundamental aspects are common and can be applicable in studies of any technique, such as: zero-dimensional mass and energy balances, kinetics of gas and solid reactions, heat and mass transport phenomena and correlations, and pressure losses though air or gas distributors.

Although the basic concepts of momentum, heat, and mass transfer phenomena can be found in several texts, the fundamental equations for such processes are included here, minimizing the need to consult other texts. Concepts usually learned in graduate-level engineering courses will be sufficient. The same is valid for thermodynamics, fundamentals of chemical kinetics, and applied mathematics—mainly concerning aspects of differential equations.

To summarize, the book:

• Shows several constructive and operational features of equipment dealing with combustion and gasification of solid fuels, such as coal, biomass, and solid residues, etc.

• Presents basic aspects of solid and gas combustion phenomena

• Introduces the fundamental methodology to formulate a mathematical model of the above equipments

• Demonstrates possible routes from model to workable computer simulation program

• Illustrates interpretations of simulation results that may be applied as tools for improving the performance of existing industrial equipment or for optimized design of new ones

It is organized as follows. Chapter 1 presents some generally applicable notions concerning modeling and simulation. Chapter 2 shows main characteristics of solid fuels, such as coals and biomasses. Chapter 3 introduces basic concepts equipments. Chapter 4 provides formulas and methods to allow first calculations regarding solid fuel processing. Chapter 5 describes the fundamental equations

of solid-gas systems and main characteristics of combustion and gasification of zero-dimensional models with the objective of allowing verification of overall relations between inputs and outputs of any general process, including combustors and gasifiers.

Chapter 6 introduces a very basic and simple first-dimension model of a gas of mass, energy, and momentum transfer equations. Chapter 7 describes the using the case of moving-bed combustor or gasifier. Chapters 8 and 9 introduce methods to compute gas-gas and gas-solid reaction rates. Chapter 10 introduces and constitutive equations and methods that may be used to build a computer modeling of drying and pyrolysis of solid fuels. Chapter 11 presents auxiliary

reactor. Of course, it is not the intention to present any model for flames; that is beyond the scope of this introductory book. However, it is useful to introduce standard considerations regarding mathematical modeling and the application first example of a model for solid fuel combustion and gasification equipment, program to simulate the model introduced in Chapter 10.

Chapter 12 shows how to put together all the information previously given described earlier. Chapter 13 repeats the same approach used for Chapter 7, but now pertaining to bubbling fluidized-bed combustors and gasifiers. Chapters 14 and 15 provide correlations and constitutive equations that together with combustors, boilers, and gasifiers. Chapter 16 has the same objective for the

in order to build a workable simulation program. The chapter also presents comparisons between measured parameters obtained from a real operation of moving-bed gasifier and results from a simulation program based on the model several already given enable the writing a computer program for fluidized bed cases of fluidized bed combustors as Chapter 12 for moving bed combustors and gasifiers.

Almost all the chapters include exercises. They will stimulate the imagination and build confidence in solving problems related to modeling and simulation. The relative degree of difficulty or volume of work expected is indicated by an increasing number of asterisks—problems marked with four asterisks usually require solid training in the solution of differential equations or demand considerable work.

Acknowledgments

It is extremely important to acknowledge the help of various colleagues whom I had the pleasure to work with, in particular to Alan B.Hedley (University of Sheffield, U.K.), Francisco D.Alves de Souza (Institute for Technological Research, São Paulo, Brazil), and former colleagues at the Institute of Gas Technology (Chicago). I appreciate the collaboration of several students and friends, who pointed out errors and made suggestions. I also thank John Corrigan and the staff of Marcel Dekker, Inc. for their help during all the aspects of the publication process. Finally, I am also grateful to the State University of Campinas (UNICAMP) and colleagues at the Energy Department of Mechanical Engineering for their support.

Nomenclature

ai parameters or constants (dimensionless)

a general parameter or coefficient (dimensions depend on the application) or ratio between the radius of the nucleus and the original particle or Helmoltz energy (J kg-1)

â activity coefficient (dimensionless)

A area (m2) or ash (in chemical reactions)

ae air excess (dimensionless)

b exergy (J kg-1)

B coefficient, constant or parameter (dimensions depend on the application)

c specific heat at constant pressure (J kg-1 K-1)

C constants or parameters to be defined in each situation

COC1(j) coefficient of component j in the representative formula of char (after drying and devolatilization of original fuel) (dimensionless)

COC2(j) coefficient of component j in the representative formula of coke (due to tar coking) (dimensionless)

COF(j) coefficient of component j in the representative formula of original solid fuel (dimensionless)

COF(j) coefficient of component j in the representative formula of original solid fuel (dimensionless)

COT(j) coefficient of component j in the representative formula of tar (dimensionless)

COV(j) coefficient of component j in the representative formula of volatile fraction of the original solid fuel (dimensionless)

d diameter (m)

dP particle diameter (m)

Dj diffusivity of component j in the phase or media indicated afterwards (m2 s-1) activation energy of reaction i (J kmol-1)

É factor or fraction (dimensionless)

Ébexp expansion factor of the bed or ratio between its actual volume and volume at minimum fluidization condition (dimensionless)

É514 total mass fractional conversion of carbon fmoist mass fractional conversion of moisture (or fractional degree of drying)

ÉV mass fractional conversion of volatiles (or degree of devolatilization)

Éfc mass fraction conversion of fixed carbon

Ém mass fraction of particles kind m among all particles present in the process (dimensionless)

Éair air excess (dimensionless)

Éfr fuel ratio factor used in reactivity calculations (dimensionless)

F mass flow (kg s-1)

g acceleration of gravity (m s-2) or specific Gibbs function (J/kg)

G mass flux (kg m-2 s-1) variation of Gibbs function related to reaction i (J kmol-1)

h enthalpy (J kg-1)

H height (m)

HHV high heat value (J kg-1)

i inclination relative to the horizontal position (rad)

I variable to indicate the direction of mass flow concerning a control volume (+1 entering the CV; -1 leaving the CV)

jj mass flux of component j due to diffusion process (kg m-2 s-1)

kj kinetic coefficient of reaction i (s-1) (otherwise, unit depends on the reaction)

kt specific turbulent kinetic energy (m2 s-2)

k0i

preexponential coefficient of reaction i (s-1) (otherwise, unit depends on the reaction)

Ki equilibrium coefficient for reaction i (unit depend on the reaction and notation)

K0i preexponential equilibrium coefficient for reaction i (unit depend on the reaction and notation)

l mixing length (m)

L coefficient used in devolatilization computations (dimensionless)

Lgrate length of grate (m)

LT length of tube (m)

LHV low heat value (J kg-1)

n number of moles

nCP number of chemical species or components

nCV number of control volumes

nG number of chemical species or components in the gas phase

nS number of chemical species or components in the solid phase

nSR number of streams

Nj mass flux of component j referred to a fixed frame of coordinates (kg m-2 s-1)

M mass (kg)

Mj molecular mass of component j (kmol/kg)

NAr Archimedes number (dimensionless)

NBi Biot number (dimensionless)

NNu Nusselt number (dimensionless)

NPe Peclet number (dimensionless)

NPr Prandtl number (dimensionless)

NRe Reynolds number (dimensionless)

NSc Schmidt number (dimensionless)

NSh Sherwood number (dimensionless)

p index for the particle geometry (0=planar, 1=cylindrical, 3= sphere)

pj partial pressure of component j (Pa)

P pressure (Pa)

q energy flux (W m-2)

rate of energy generation (+) or consumption (-) of an equipment or system (W)

r radial coordinate (m)

ri rate of reaction i (for homogeneous reactions: kg m -3 s1; for heterogeneous reactions: kg m-2 s-1)

R equipment radius (m)

R universal gas constant (8314.2 J kmol-1 K-1)

RC rate of energy transfer to (if positive) or from (if negative) the indicated phase due to convection [W m3 (of reactor volume or volume of the indicates phase)]

Rcond rate of energy transfer to (if positive) or from (if negative) the indicated phase due to conduction [W m3 (of reactor volume or volume of the indicated phase)]

Rh rate of energy transfer to (if positive) or from (if negative) the indicated phase due to mass transfer between phases [W m-3 (of reactor volume or volume of the indicated phase)]

Rj rate of component j generation (if positive) or consumption (if negative) by chemical reactions (kg m -3 s -1). If in molar basis (~) the units are (kmol m -3 s -1 ).

Rkind,j rate of component j generation (if positive) or consumption (if negative) by chemical reactions. Units vary according to the “kind” of reaction. If the subscript indicates homogeneous reactions the units are kg m-3 (of gas phase) s-1, if heterogeneous reactions in kg m-2 (of external or of reacting particles) s-1.

RM,G,j total rate of production (or consumption if negative) of gas component j [kg m-3 (of gas phase) s-1]

RM,S,j

total rate of production (or consumption if negative) of solid-phase component j [kg m-3 (of reacting particles) s-1]

RQ rate of energy generation (if positive) or consumption (if negative) due to chemical reactions [W m-3 (of reactor volume or volume of the indicated phase)]

RR rate of energy transfer to (if positive) or from (if negative) the indicated phase due to radiation [W m-3 (of reactor volume or volume of the indicated phase)]

Rheat heating rate imposed on a process (K/s)

s entropy (J kg-1 K-1)

S cross-sectional area (m2). If no index, it indicates the cross-sectional area of the reactor (m2).

t time (s)

T temperature (K)

T*reference temperature (298 K)

Te ration between activation energy and gas constant ( ) (K)

u velocity (m s-1)

U gas superficial velocity (m s-1) or resistances to mass transfer (s m-2)

ureduc reduced gas velocity (dimensionless)

v specific volume (m3 kg-1)

V volume (m3)

x coordinate or distance (m)

xj mole fraction of component j (dimensionless)

X elutriation parameter (kg sms1)

y coordinate (m) or dimensionless variable

Y rate of irreversibility generation at a control volume (W)

wj mass fraction of component j (dimensionless)

W . rate of work generation (+) or consumption (-) by an equipment or system (W)

z vertical coordinate (m)

Z compressibility factor (dimensionless)

GreekLetters

α coefficient of heat transfer by convection (W m-2 K-1)

αm relaxation coefficient related to momentum transfer involving solid phase m (s-1)

β coefficient (dimensionless) or mass transfer coefficient (m s-1)

χ number of atoms of an element (first index) in a molecule of a chemical component (second index) unit vector (m)

ε void fraction (dimensionless)

ε‘emissivity (dimensionless)

εt dissipation rate of specific turbulent kinetic energy (m2 s-3)

γ tortuosity factor

Φ Thiele modulus

Γ rate of fines production due to particle attrition (kg s-1)

η efficiency or effectiveness coefficient

τ efficiency coefficient

ϕ particle sphericity

thermal conductivity (W m-1 K-l)

Λ parameter related to mass and energy transfer

µviscosity (kg m-1 s-1) or chemical potential (J kg -1)

vij stoichiometry coefficient of component j in reaction i

θ angular coordinate solid particle friability (m-l)

ρ density (unit depends on the reaction and notation)

ρp apparent density of particle (kg m-3)

ρj mass basis concentration of component j (kg m-3) (in some situations the component j can be indicated by its formula)

shear stress tensor (Pa)

ω Pitzer’s acentric factor (dimensionless)

ϕ air ratio (dimensionless)

σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant (W m-2 K-4)

σv Standard deviation for distributed energy devolatilization model chemical component formula

ζ particle porosity (m3 of pores/m3 of particle)

ψ mass transfer coefficient (s-1 if between two gas phases, kmol m-2 s-1 if between gas and solid)

Ω parameter of the Redlich-Kwong equation of state related to mass and energy transfers.

Other

(dimensionless) or (only in Appendix C) a parameter

gradient operator

Laplacian operator

Superscripts

rector or tensor

–time averaged

fluctuation or perturbation

~in molar basis

relative concentration (dimensionless)

‘number fraction

“area fraction

“‘volume fraction

sfor particles smaller than the particles whose kind and level are indicated in the subscript

Numbers as subscripts may represent sequence of variables, chemical species or reactions. In the particular case of chemical species the number would be equal to or greater than 19. In the case of reactions it will be clear when the number indicates reaction number. The numbering for components and reactions

is shown in Tables 8.1 to 8.5.

0at reference or ideal condition

a at the nucleus-outer-shell interface

A shell or residual layer

airair

appapparent (sometimes this index does not appear and should be understood, as in, for instance ρp =ρp,app) aroaromatic ashash

avaverage value

b based on exergy

B bubble

bexprelated to the expansion of the bed bribridges bulkbulk

c critical value

C convection contribution (in some obvious situations, it would represent carbon)

carcarbonaceous solid

charchar

condconduction contribution

CIPcoated inert particle

CPreferred to the chemical component

COF, COV, COTsee main nomenclature above

CSPCoke Shell Particle

CVreferred to the control volume or equipment cyrelated to the cyclone system

d related to drying or dry basis

D bed

dafdry and ash-free basis

difdiffusion contribution

distdistributor

E emulsion

entalrelative to enthalpy

entrorelative to entropy

eq equilibrium condition

exerrelative to exergy

f formation at 298 K and 1 atm

flfluid

F freeboard

fcfixed-carbon

fuelrelated to fuel

Ggas phase

h transfer of energy due to mass transfer

H related to the circulation of particles in a fluidized bed (in some obvious situations, it would represent hydrogen)

homrelated to homogeneous (or gas-gas) reactions

hetrelated to heterogeneous (or gas-solid) reactions

i

reaction i (numbers are described in Chapter 8)

I as at the feeding point

∞ at the gas phase far from the particle surface

iCO component number

iCV control volume (or equipment) number

iSR stream number

j chemical component (numbers are described in Chapter 8)

J related to the internal surface or internal dimension

K related to the recycling of particles, collected in the cyclone, to the bed

l chemical element

L at the leaving point or condition

lamlaminar condition

m physical phase (carbonaceous solid, m=1; limestone or dolomite, m=2; inert solid, m=3; gas, m=4)

mratio mixing ratio

M mmass generation or transfer

maxmaximum condition

mbminimum bubbling condition

minminimum condition

mfminimum fluidization condition

moistmoisture or water

monmonomers

mtpmetaplast

oriforifices in the distributor plate

N nucleus or core (in some obvious situations, it would represent nitrogen)

O at the referred to external or outside surface (in some obvious situations, it would represent oxygen)

p particle (if no other indication, property of particle is related to apparent value)

P at constant pressure

perperipheral groups

poresrelated to particle pores

plenumaverage conditions in the plenum below the distributor plate or device

Q chemical reactions

r at reduced condition

R related to radiative heat transfer

realrelated to real or skeletal density of solid particles

satat saturation condition

S solid phase or particles (if indicated for a property, such as density, it means apparent particle density)

SRreferred to the stream

sitimmobile recombination sites

T terminal value or referred to tubes tartar

tomixing-take-over value

turturbulent condition

U unexposed-core or shrinking-core model

v related to devolatilization

V volatile

W wall

X exposed-core model

Y related to entrainment of particles

Prefacev Nomenclaturexi

1Basic Remarks on Modeling and Simulation1

1.1 Experiment and Simulation1

1.2 A Classification for Mathematical Models10

1.3 Exercises17

2Solid Fuels18

2.1 Introduction18 2.2 Physical Properties19 2.3 Chemical Properties21 2.4 Thermal Treatment24 2.5 Gasification and Combustion35

2.6 Exercises37

and Processes38

3.1 Introduction38

3.2 Elements of Gas-Solid Systems38

3.3 Moving Bed43

3.4 Fluidized Bed48

3.5 Suspension or Pneumatic Transport63

3.6 Some Aspects Related to Fuels67

4Basic Calculations69

4.1 Introduction69

4.2 Computation of Some Basic Parameters70

4.3 Tips on Calculations80

4.4 Observations83 Exercises83

5Zero-Dimensional Models86

5.1 Introduction86

5.2 Basic Equations87

5.3 Species Balance and Exiting Composition93

5.4 Useful Relations99

5.5 Summary for 0D-S Model105

5.6 Flame Temperature106 Exercises109

6Introduction to One-Dimensional, Steady-State Models112

6.1 Definitions112

6.2 Fundamental Equations113

6.3 Final Comments125 Exercises126

7Moving-Bed Combustion and Gasification Model127

7.1 Introduction127

7.2 The Model128 Exercises144

8.1 Homogeneous/Heterogeneous Reactions146

8.2 Numbering Chemical Components147

8.3 A System of Chemical Reactions147

8.4 Stoichiometry150

8.5 Kinetics152

8.6 Final Notes157 Exercises159

9Heterogeneous Reactions160

9.1 Introduction160

9.2 General Form of the Problem163

9.3 Generalized Treatment172

9.4 Other Heterogeneous Reactions174 Exercises174

10Drying and Devolatilization178

10.1 Drying178

10.2 Devolatilization181 Exercises208

11Auxiliary Equations and Basic Calculations209

11.1 Introduction209

11.2 Total Production Rates209

11.3 Thiele Modulus214

11.4 Diffusivities215

11.5 Reactivity218

11.6 Core Dimensions219

11.7 Heat and Mass Transfer Coefficients220

11.8 Energy-Related Parameters222

11.9 A Few Immediate Applications225

11.10 Pressure Losses233 Exercises243

12Moving-Bed Simulation Program and Results245

12.1 Introduction245

12.2 From Model to Simulation Program245

12.3 Samples of Results254 Exercises261

13Fluidized-Bed Combustion and Gasification Model264

13.1 Introduction264

13.2 The Mathematical Model264

13.3 Boundary Conditions276 Exercises280

14Fluidization Dynamics282

14.1 Introduction282

14.2 Splitting of Gas Injected into a Bed283

14.3 Bubble Characteristics and Behavior288

14.4 Circulation of Solid Particles291

14.5 Entrainment and Elutriation300

14.6 Particle Size Distribution302

14.7 Recycling of Particles304

14.8 Segregation305

14.9 Areas and Volumes at Freeboard Section306

14.10 Mass and Volume Fractions of Solids307

14.11 Further Studies308 Exercises308

15Auxiliary Parameters Related to Fluidized-Bed Processes309

15.1 Introduction309

15.2 Mass Transfers309

15.3 Heat Transfers312

15.4 Parameters Related to Reaction Rates322

16Fluidized-Bed Simulation Program and Results323

16.1 The Block Diagram323

16.2 Samples of Results326

16.3 Exercises364

Appendix AThe Fundamental Equations of Transport Phenomena366

Appendix BNotes on Thermodynamics372

B.1 Heat and Work372

B.2 Chemical Equilibrium Equation374

B.3 Specific Heat376

B.4 Correction for Departure from Ideal Behavior376

B.5 Generalized 0D-S Models379

B.6 Heat Values386

B.7 Representative Formation Enthalpy of a Solid Fuel387

Appendix C Possible Improvements on Modeling Heterogeneous Reactions389

C.1 General Mass Balance for a Particle390

C.2 Generalized Energy Balance for a Particle390

Appendix DImprovements on Various Aspects396

D.1 Rate of Particles Circulation in the Fluidized Bed396

D.2 Improvements on the Fluidized-Bed Equipment Simulator (FBES)399

Appendix EBasics of Turbulent Flow400

E.1 Momentum Transfer400

E.2 Heat and Mass Transfers403

E.3 Reaction Kinetics404

Appendix F Classifications of Modeling for Bubbling Fluidized-Bed Equipment406

F.1 Main Aspects406

Appendix GBasics Techniques of Kinetics Determination408 References412

Another random document with no related content on Scribd:

à travers la brume de la petite vallée. Puis cette brume se fendit, se volatilisa, et la vallée elle-même apparut, modeste et charmant paysage : l’eau sinueuse, le mince village tapi sur la rive proche, le pont frontière.

— … Tiens ! Ma Sœur… Sœur Madeleine, n’est-ce pas ? Par exemple ! Il y a longtemps qu’on ne vous voyait plus !

Le pont franchi, et aussi le poteau tricolore, c’est le douanier, encore coiffé de son vieux calot bleu-horizon, qui reconnaît la petite converse. Avant qu’elle fût postulante, le monastère l’envoyait souvent au chef-lieu français, pour faire des commissions ou des emplettes.

— Bonjour, monsieur Roblin.

— Ah ! Vous vous rappelez mon nom ? C’est gentil. Alors voilà que vos courses vous ramènent chez nous ? Et vous nous apportez le soleil ?

Ça a beau être une petite nonne, l’ex-sergent du train (blessé au pied gauche, croix de guerre) se redresse, boutonne son dolman et équilibre son calot sur ses gros cheveux châtains. Et il continuerait bien à causer, si une voiture de drapier ambulant ne s’engageait sur le pont et ne le forçait à couper l’entretien…

— Vous repasserez bien ce tantôt ? crie-t-il en courant au-devant de la voiture.

Mais il n’entend que ces mots au vol :

— Adieu, monsieur Roblin !

Et quand il en a fini avec les papiers du voiturier nomade, la petite nonne a disparu au coude de la route, derrière le rideau de peupliers.

Assise sur le coussin noir du train, elle égrène maintenant son chapelet, très lentement, bercée par la chanson rythmée que les roues modulent sur les rails… Tout s’est passé comme il fallait ; la voyageuse n’a pas eu un instant d’hésitation ni d’anxiété. Moins

d’une lieue entre la douane et le chef-lieu. Au chef-lieu, ce n’est pas difficile d’aller à la gare, de grimper sur une des banquettes de bois pour hausser sa figure jusqu’aux grandes affiches jaunes où sont écrites les heures des trains, encadrant une carte très claire qui dessine tout l’est de la France et un morceau de la Suisse. Après quoi l’on va prendre son billet de troisièmes et l’on attend cinq quarts d’heure, assise sur la même banquette de bois où l’on a grimpé tout à l’heure. On attendrait bien davantage. Attendre n’est rien, quand on a discipliné ses nerfs à n’agir que sur les ordres d’autrui, comme le soldat auquel le centurion dit : « Va là-bas ! » et il y va ; « Reste ici ! » et il y reste. Le couvent rend familières l’immobilité et l’attente : peu à peu, pour la moniale, ces deux ennemies de l’agitation du monde prennent de la douceur, comme la cellule.

Le train est un omnibus matinal qui se faufile sans hâte de station en station, un train pour les campagnards. Quand il s’arrête ou qu’il repart, il secoue ses chaînes comme un forçat en corvée. Madeleine, dans son compartiment, n’a pas de vis-à-vis. A l’autre bout, les deux coins sont occupés, l’un par une vieille femme en noir, à ample jupe et à corsage plat, coiffée d’un bonnet blanc bien propre et qui garde auprès d’elle un panier où remue quelque chose d’invisible ; l’autre, par un soldat bleu, qui, sans doute, rejoint le prochain régiment d’artillerie. Aux haltes, il s’arrête de ronfler, mais il ne se réveille pas. Le paysage, peu à peu, s’accidente et s’anime. Quelque chose de vif et de joyeux, que depuis longtemps la petite prisonnière ne ressentait plus, la pénètre par moments. Une ride d’inquiétude passe aussitôt sur la calme surface de son cœur. Mais tout de suite elle a recours à sa sainte patronne.

— Est-ce que c’est mal d’être contente ?… Non, n’est-ce pas ? La campagne au soleil, c’est l’œuvre du Bon Dieu ? Ma chère patronne, vous savez bien que je veux seulement aller où il me dit d’aller et faire ce qu’il veut que je fasse. Je vois tout cela très clair jusqu’à un certain moment. Après, par exemple, je ne vois plus. Mais je suis sûre que vous me le direz, le moment venu…

Toute la douceur de l’automne, cet air qu’elle respire en contient l’essence. Elle se sent vivre aussi près de Dieu qu’au couvent, mais d’une vie plus consciente, moins engourdie. La plénitude de cette vie a même quelque chose d’excessif, qui fatigue le cerveau et le corps après les avoir suractivés. Et puis, de toute la nuit précédente, Madeleine, préparant son départ, n’a pas fermé les yeux. Ses paupières s’appesantissent. Maintenant c’est invincible. Elle ne résiste pas ; accotée dans l’angle dur du wagon, elle s’endort, et le chapelet de buis, entre ses fins doigts exsangues qui le serrent, s’endort aussi.

IX

Même dans les trains qui flânent aux stations et ne se hâtent point de l’une à l’autre, on fait tout de même des lieues et des lieues, entre l’aube et le coucher du soleil. D’ailleurs, vers deux heures après-midi, Madeleine a quitté le train campagnard, qui terminait sa course placide dans une vaste gare bruyante. Elle a attendu, après s’être dûment informée, sur un quai de la gare, où bientôt s’est précipité en trombe de fumée, de vapeur, de grincements de freins et de sifflets, un autre train, celui-ci formidable, plein de voyageurs, où la petite nonne noire à coiffe blanche a eu bien du mal à trouver une place… Et à peine elle était assise que les portières claquaient, repoussées, verrous rabattus, et que le train raidissait de nouveau sa musculature à travers un paysage qui tournoyait, comme pris de folie, et semblait, accroché aux mouvantes portées du télégraphe, monter et descendre, telle une image au bout d’un fil.

Et boire, et manger, parmi tout ce tintamarre et cette ruée éperdue ?

Voilà des complications qui n’embarrassent guère une petite converse ! Il y a justement, à côté de Madeleine, un monsieur d’une quarantaine d’années, convenablement mis, cheveux et moustache noirs, cravate jaune et grosse perle fausse, agrafe du stylo à la poche de sa veste, un monsieur qui n’a l’air ni d’un paysan, ni d’un ouvrier, ni d’un domestique, un monsieur très convenable, très

prévenant. Il a prié Madeleine de prendre le coin qu’il occupait ; il ne la dérange pas lorsqu’elle égrène son chapelet, mais il lui dit poliment quelques mots quand elle remet les grains de buis dans sa poche. Et comme on allait atteindre une certaine ville qu’il lui a nommée, il l’a prévenue qu’on avait le temps de descendre, de boire un verre de bière et d’acheter d’excellents petits pains fourrés de jambon. Madeleine est descendue, elle a acheté et grignoté le pain au jambon. Mais au lieu de boire un verre de bière, elle s’est abreuvée le long du quai au jet même d’une fontaine sur laquelle on avait écrit lisiblement, au-dessus de l’attache d’une chaînette portant une petite tasse d’étain : Eaupotable.

Peu à peu, la nuit s’est abattue sur la région montueuse où le train engouffre sa tempête de feu, de fumée, de fracas ; au passage de cette trombe les tunnels ont l’air de s’écrouler. Jamais de sa vie Madeleine n’a connu pareille vitesse, et le cœur lui battrait certainement si elle n’était pas assurée qu’il ne peut rien lui arriver avant que certaines choses, qu’elle doit faire, soient accomplies. Comme le soldat du centurion, elle obéit à un appel : mais le divin centurion par qui elle est appelée n’appelle point où l’on ne saurait arriver. Madeleine est maintenant à l’aise dans son encoignure. Le monsieur au stylo a momentanément quitté la place qu’il occupait auprès d’elle et cause, dans le couloir du wagon, avec deux femmes jeunes qui ont l’apparence de bonnes endimanchées. Madeleine glisse son chapelet dans sa poche, croise ses mains sur le creux de sa robe, ferme les yeux.

— Chère sainte patronne, je me confie à vous, j’ai sommeil. Protégez mon sommeil et réveillez-moi quand il le faudra…

Aussitôt sa pensée s’embrouille doucement, comme un écheveau de laine remué par la main d’un enfant. Elle voit en songe la porte au cadre disjoint… le bracelet de Stéphanie… les fils du télégraphe qui montent et descendent… Puis, tout d’un coup, net comme si elle était agenouillée devant le tableau de la chapelle froide, le Christ descendu de sa croix avec ses paupières entr’ouvertes et la plaie

vivante de son côté… Vision d’un instant ; aussitôt qu’elle s’est effacée Madeleine dort.

Elle dort longtemps.

— Mademoiselle !… Mademoiselle !… Excusez-moi si je vous réveille.

Madeleine ouvre les yeux, parfaitement calme et tout de suite consciente. L’oraison jaculatoire qu’elle a inventée, l’oraison du réveil, est déjà sur ses lèvres : « Sainte Vierge Marie, faites-moi telle que vous me voulez ! »

— Mademoiselle, reprend le monsieur au stylo, je vous demande pardon… Je voyais que vous dormiez fort… Et dans une petite demiheure nous serons à la frontière suisse.

Les yeux gris-poussière de la jeune fille sont fixés sur lui, et il en soutient assez fermement le regard. Comme elle n’a rien répliqué, il continue :

— On est assez sévère à la douane suisse. Alors c’est pour vous dire… On va jusqu’à faire déshabiller des dames.

Madeleine ne bronche pas.

— Mais naturellement vous avez un passeport bien en règle.

Madeleine n’a aucun passeport. Il ne lui en a pas fallu pour entrer en France, le matin de son évasion : le couvent de la Quarantaine et la douane sont en relation de bon voisinage. Certes, elle n’a pas omis de prévoir qu’elle avait encore une frontière à passer pour atteindre le but de son voyage. Mais, ne possédant aucun moyen de résoudre d’avance la difficulté, elle s’en est remise à la Providence. A présent que le monsieur au stylo lui parle justement de cela, elle l’écoute tout en se tenant sur ses gardes. Pour elle, rien n’arrive par hasard : c’est presque un blasphème d’appeler hasard les arrangements de la Providence.

Le monsieur tire un gros portefeuille de sa veste, un portefeuille bourré de papiers. Une des poches laisse aussi passer des lisières de

billets de banque. Il tend sa carte à Madeleine, avec un : « Permettez-moi, mademoiselle… » et Madeleine lit sur le rectangle blanc :

« EnricoBertini, représentant de commerce, Rosario. »

Mais elle ne répond toujours rien.

— Si vous n’avez pas de passeport, reprend-il à voix plus basse, on ne vous empêchera pas seulement de passer la frontière, mais on vous fera des tas d’ennuis. Ce serait dommage ; on voit que vous êtes une demoiselle très convenable… Tenez, je puis peut-être vous tirer d’embarras. Voulez-vous venir avec moi dans le couloir, on sera mieux pour causer ?

Elle le suit, sans l’ombre d’une hésitation. Appuyés tous deux à la paroi trépidante, elle l’écoute, il parle :

— Je recrute en ce moment des vendeuses pour le commerce des tissus, en Argentine. Oh ! je ne vous propose pas d’en être… J’ai tout ce qu’il me faut : deux demoiselles françaises avec lesquelles vous m’avez peut-être vu causer. Et je dois en retrouver trois autres, des Italiennes, à Milan ; toutes cinq s’embarqueront mercredi avec moi, sur le JulioCesare… Alors, vous concevez, nous sommes au complet, et vous voudriez venir que je ne pourrais pas vous emmener. Mais j’ai là, dans mon portefeuille, trois passeports de dames françaises bien en règle : la troisième dame s’est trouvée souffrante au dernier moment et n’a pas pu partir. Si vous voulez en profiter ?…

Il a dit toute cette fin un peu précipitamment, parce que les prunelles gris-poussière regardaient jusqu’au fond de ses yeux à lui, de ses yeux bruns de méridional. Madeleine répond simplement :

— Je vous remercie, monsieur.

Alors, il reprend de l’assurance.

— Vous comprenez… Ce que j’en fais, c’est pour vous rendre service. Moi… je n’ai rien à y gagner… C’est pour vous rendre service…

— Est-ce que j’aurai à répondre ?… ou à signer quelque chose ? questionne Madeleine.

— Rien du tout… absolument rien, mademoiselle. Je suis connu du personnel de la douane. Il n’y a pas trois mois que j’y suis passé, dans l’autre sens. On ne vous demandera rien. On ne vous dira rien. C’est moi qui parlerai pour vous, comme pour les deux autres dames. Vous n’aurez qu’à vous tenir avec elles… Les voici justement… Je vous les présente, n’est-ce pas ?… Mademoiselle Maria… Madame Henriette… Et vous ? Mademoiselle…

— Madeleine.

— Mademoiselle Madeleine… Voilà… Nous approchons. Restez ensemble, n’est-ce pas, ne me perdez pas de vue, ne parlez à personne. Si l’on vous parle, ne répondez rien, absolument rien, même aux employés de la gare et aux douanes. Si l’on insiste, faites signe que vous ne comprenez pas… Je me charge de tout. Vous allez sur Milan, n’est-ce pas ?

Madeleine ne répond rien.

— Eh bien ! à la frontière italienne, ce sera tout pareil… Quand on est bien connu, comme moi, vous concevez…

Il s’éloigne. Les deux Françaises auraient bonne envie d’engager la conversation avec leur nouvelle connaissance. Mais Madeleine a déjà repris ostensiblement son chapelet ; les grains de buis coulent lentement entre ses doigts. Les deux femmes, échangeant un regard, s’écartent.

Le train, après trois quarts d’heure d’arrêt à la douane, a repris sa course un peu ralentie à travers le décor effrayant des montagnes. Madeleine et Bertini sont de nouveau assis côte à côte. Comme Madeleine se tait, Bertini est bien forcé de se féliciter luimême pour le coup du passeport.

— Vous avez vu, mademoiselle Madeleine ? Vous avez passé comme une lettre à la poste. Ni vu, ni connu. Avec moi, on n’est jamais pris… Vous comprenez, quand on a roulé comme moi en Russie, dans les deux Amériques et dans tous les recoins de l’Europe… Si vous avez besoin de quelqu’un qui connaît Milan, je suis

à votre disposition ! Et tenez ? voulez-vous me faire le plaisir d’accepter à déjeuner avec ces deux dames françaises et moi ? On causera plus tranquillement qu’ici… Et peut-être vous déciderez-vous à nous suivre en Argentine… Un pays de Cocagne, mademoiselle… Une jeune fille comme vous à Rosario ou à Buenos-Aires ramasse une fortune en cinq ans… Alors, n’est-ce pas ? Vous déjeunez avec nous à Milan, Trattoria del Duomo… Bonne maison, où je suis bien connu. C’est dit ?

— Si je le puis, répond paisiblement Madeleine.

— Ah ! je comprends, fait Bertini, songeur. On doit vous attendre à l’arrivée.

Madeleine ne dit ni oui ni non, et la conversation, pour le moment, en reste là.

Il est d’ailleurs bien vrai qu’à la douane frontière, Bertini n’avait pas exagéré son influence. La voyageuse n’a pas eu à ouvrir la bouche pour accomplir les formalités du passage. Elle a d’ailleurs observé qu’un employé filtrait le groupe des trois protégées de Bertini en les faisant passer par la consigne des bagages et, de là, regagner le quai. Elle n’a rien perdu des conciliabules de cet employé avec Bertini et avec un douanier galonné. Que lui importe ? Repliée sur sa propre conscience, elle n’a pas cessé de converser avec les mystérieuses puissances qui la protègent. Et des versets qu’elle aime dans les Écritures ont chanté dans sa mémoire ; celui-là par exemple :

« Ils saisiront impunément les serpents, et, s’ils boivent quelque chose de mortel, cela ne leur fera pas de mal. »

Et encore cette fin de chapitre de l’Évangile, où sont racontées les embûches des pharisiens contre Jésus, et qui se termine ainsi :

« Mais lui, déjouant leurs desseins, passait… »

Pour couper court à toute conversation, elle a repris son chapelet, puis, le dos appuyé sur le dossier de la banquette, elle a fermé les yeux : les grains du chapelet sont immobiles entre ses

doigts croisés. Le train roule dans un tunnel interminable : c’est la masse neigeuse des Alpes qui passe par-dessus la tête de Madeleine. Madeleine n’ouvre pas les yeux, même quand Bertini lui dit le nom du tunnel et lui recommande le paysage sur lequel il va déboucher, après quinze kilomètres de nuit. Madeleine n’ouvre pas les yeux, mais elle ne dort pas. Elle a prié avec ardeur, et maintenant, réconfortée, baignée de lumière intérieure, elle médite.

Son chemin, elle le connaît parfaitement, et les traits qui le marquent sur la carte sont dessinés sur l’écran rose de ses paupières. Elle sait qu’elle n’ira pas à Milan, bien qu’elle ait, autant par inspiration mystérieuse que par prudence paysanne, pris son billet pour la grande ville. Elle sait à quelle station elle doit descendre, une cinquantaine de kilomètres avant la frontière italienne. Elle sait à quelle heure elle y arrivera. Et, tout en conversant avec sa chère patronne, elle organise, sous les apparences du sommeil, le plan de son évasion du train : car elle se sent surveillée.

Voici ce qu’elle fera.

Quelques minutes avant la station fixée, elle sortira tout naturellement du compartiment et s’en ira ostensiblement au lavabo. Là, elle ôtera sa coiffe blanche et s’enveloppera la tête du petit châle noir qu’elle porte sur ses épaules. A l’arrêt, elle descendra tranquillement avec les autres voyageurs qui changent de train, comme elle, et, sans se hâter, gagnera la salle d’attente. Le train repartira sans elle…

— Et si Bertini te voit descendre ? objecte la sainte patronne.

— Mais, chère patronne, s’il se préoccupe de moi, vous savez bien qu’il cherchera ma coiffe blanche…

Et c’est Madeleine qui a eu raison. Il faut avouer que son évasion a été facilitée par la descente simultanée d’une trentaine de jeunes Américaines, tout un collège touristique conduit par une dame à cheveux gris. La petite forme noire de Madeleine s’est glissée au buffet dans le remous de ces frémissantes péronnelles… Hasard ?… Non pas… Alors, miracle ? Oh ! non… Accord amical des menus

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