PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

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PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7 Rosa María Laguna-Ruz1 and Nicolás Aranda-Pérez2 1 Filosolar Association, Seville, Spain 2 Greenartech S.L., Cordoba, Spain

Synonyms PV Rooftop Installation

Definitions Photovoltaic (PV) self-consumption installation refers to the system composed by solar PV panels, inverter, and the balance of the system to produce renewable electricity for the use in the place that is generated or, in other words, that is generated and consumed by the same owner. According to the different types of consumption and selling, there are different schemes as described by (IEA et al.

2019) which depend on countries regulation. In this definition, it is not mentioned the type of legislation because it will be out of the scope of this encyclopedia; instead it will be centered on the technical and sustainable development goals perspective as well as challenges and strategies toward its implementation. There are two main types of installations: first, off-grid which refers

to systems that are isolated or stand-alone, and, second, grid-connected which means that there is a grid infrastructure in place and the system is connected to it avoiding the lack of electricity.

PV Self-Consumption Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG 7 Introduction Energy is essential for the development of a society; it contributes to increase the well-being in a wide sense from sanitary to education and economical perspective. This is the reason behind its incorporation to Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in its seventh statement which highlights the importance to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all (United Nations 2015).

Regarding solar energy is of major interest in developing countries, as recognized by Shahsavari and Akbari (2018) that underlines the potential of this source of energy due to the geographical location. The irradiance received is in average significantly higher compared to developed countries as shown in Fig. 1.

From IEA Report (IEA et al. 2019), it can be observed different data regarding the use of sustainable sources that indicates the evolution in 2 reference years 2010 and 2017. Although, there is a relevant work to do to reduce inequalities, there has been an improvement in the different indicators such as renewable energy installation. PV

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Affordable and Clean Energy, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71057-0_150-1

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PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 1 Global horizontal radiation (Solar GIS 2016)

self-consumption could play a key role in its contribution to SDG7 as in developing countries the grid is not sufficiently evolved, and its costs are not sufficient to be paid off.

According to the same report, as much as 1.4 billion people around the world lack access to electricity, some 85% of them in rural areas. As the solar equivalent hours are high (Mohanty & Muneer 2014) and the costs of PV panels has decreased significantly (Prata 2019), this could lead toward a generalized implementation in rural and urban areas. This would have as a result a social impact making real the access to energy, by generating new business models based on sustainable energy and avoiding the use of conventional fossil fuels for electricity generation, among others.

This analysis will be focused on the opportunity of PV rooftops installations for addressing the SDG7 challenges (Fig. 2). Additionally, an action could be taken to accelerate its implementation while explaining the state of the art of this technology.

Technical Description The configuration of PV self-consumption installations, attending to technical criteria, can be divided in two main branches: 1. Off-grid PV self-consumption 2. Grid-connected PV self-consumption Both can be designed with or without storage, but nowadays economically it is not yet available on a competitive price; although, in a foreseeable future, is possible that this technology will add reliability and improved grid management. Nowadays, there are several companies that are offering Li-ion or lead-acid batteries for home storage applications, and the diminution of costs is being improved continuously. Moreover, there is a lot of research in new storage solutions that could lead to a technology breakthrough which is out of the scope of this study.

The basic configuration of this type of installations is solar PV modules, an inverter to convert direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) into alternating one and the load.

As can be seen from Fig. 3, the elements that composed an installation are:

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 2 Sustainable development goals highlighting the affordable and clean energy target (United Nations Statistics Division 2019)

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diesel and off-grid PV are in more detail evaluated in the publication of Sarasa-Maestro (SarasaMaestro et al. 2016) that will add self-sufficiency to the system. As indicated in that publication from an environmental perspective, the use of PV self-consumption without grid connection is the more sustainable alternative.

These elements needed to be designed according to different parameters such as the radiation (equivalent solar hours), the surface availability, and the investment costs of the installation. The use for industrial applications is often paid off more rapidly due to the compatibility of working and solar hours. However, in case of off-grid installations, it will be other variables to be taking into account such as the access to basic needs (artificial light, solar water pumps for irrigation, electricity for appliances, or off-grid

PV panel

PV panel

Battery

Charge regulator

MPPT tracker

MPPT tracker

Inverter Inverter Grid

Energy kWh meter

Load Energy meter

kWh

Load

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 3 Different configurations from grid-connected to off-grid PV self-consumption installations. (Adapted from (Luthander et al. 2015))

1. PV panels 2. Inverter 3. Energy management system and electric protections 4. Net metering 5. Electric storage (optional) 6. Connection to grid (depending on the location) This is a generic configuration focused on entirely sustainable system to accomplish the SDG7 target. Other hybrid systems combining

refrigerators)(Harrison et al. 2020).

In order to have a complete picture of the system, it is important to bear in mind that PV generation is considered as a renewable energy source, because the irradiation of the sun does not have the limited existence of fossil fuels.

However, it should be taken into account that this option also has someway a negative environmental impact, as any other kind of energy source.

The most relevant problem related to the photovoltaics refers to the manufacturing process of PV

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PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

cells, which could involve high quantities of energy consumption, and also heavy metals are present in their waste products. Apart from that, the visual environmental impact of the transport of electricity through high voltage overhead lines, as well as medium sized for the case of distribution systems, is an issue and is being taking more seriously as time pasts. In order to reach the desired sustainable development, a compromise should be agreed to meet the target but taking into account environmental impact and trying to minimize it as was emphasized in Electric Energy Systems (Gomez-Exposito et al. 2017).

The systems also defer according to its location from urban to rural areas. The first ones can be located at buildings of several floors and need more surface as well as the costs are divided among the community, and it is more economically feasible. Regarding industries are also usually located nearby these urban areas. On the other hand, in rural areas, it is more useful for off-grid and can have more active role governments to avoid the expensive grid infrastructure investment and the economic model toward the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals. In summary, the business model should be approached in a different manner.

Self-consumption installations have an important role to play in developing economies due to its ability to be adapted to different scenarios and locations without the need of an intensive capital upfront investment. Recent studies from IEA and IRENA (IEA et al. 2019) have analyzed the evolution of electricity access from rural to urban areas: As can be read from Fig. 4, the increase of access to electricity has been more significant in rural areas rather than in urban areas where it has been constant through the last 18 years. There is a tendency toward the increase in isolated locations due to the evolution of renewables together with the accomplishment of other SDGs that has, consequently, an augmented level of standard of living.

Other analysis from a geographical perspective gives a more accurate idea of which countries have a developed electricity grid as shown in Fig. 5; the least access to electricity appears to

take place in Africa. Therefore, the role of PV offgrid self-consumption installations is more relevant in these countries.

The learning curve of PV modules manufacturing joint to PV drastic reduction of costs (Yao & Cai 2019) can have as a result a major penetration in rural areas and help to trigger also the off-grid electrification. According to IRENA report (IRENA & ADFD 2020), the off-grid solar solutions contribute to as much as 85% of all off-grid energy technologies. Therefore, the importance of rooftops installations is highlighted again. The next graph shows the relevance of off-grid solutions in rural areas compared to those in urban which are, majorly, grid-connected.

The graphic analysis shown in Fig. 6, how in many countries the off-grid installations, such as Ethiopia, Myanmar has a weight of 60%, while there is a lot of room for improvement in others such as Rwanda or Kenya among others. On the other hand, grid-connected constitutes a high proportion in Bangladesh and Cambodia meaning that the grid infrastructure is more consistent.

Moreover, the proportion of off-grid installations is significantly higher in rural areas in which the grid connection is not available.

The decision on implementing self-consumptions installations can be technically done regardless of having or not grid connection; however, the financial viability is favor if there is in place a payment scheme for electricity exchange to the grid.

Another aspect to take into account is to assess the viability of the installations or at least to evaluate the degree of subsidies that are necessary in order to quantify the investment needed. The economics of PV self-consumption installations depend on the location, surface, and feed-in tariffs in place (or other similar financial aids). The publication from Espinoza et al. (2019) analyzes the feasibility of PV rooftop installations in a developing country; this should be considered beforehand to establish the right regulation in place.

From the techno-economic reflection performed, it is important to land the concepts on particular cases studies in which we will try to give concrete examples from two different experiences: first, from the agro-food sector in a

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7 100,000 96,000 92,000 88,000

Population

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 4 Share of population with electricity access in urban and rural areas (The World Bank 2018)

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84,000 80,000 Urban 76,000 Rural

72,000 68,000 64,000 60,000 2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

Year

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 5 Access to electricity (% of population) in year 2018 (The World Bank 2018)

developed country, which can be the case of industry in developing economies, and, second,

from a NGO project in Africa with an important social perspective. Both will help to visualize the

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PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

a. Urban Kenya Rwanda Myanmar Ethiopia Camboia Bangladesh 0

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Off-grid

0.6

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No electricity

b. Rural Kenya Rwanda Myanmar Ethiopia Camboia Bangladesh 0

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0.6 No electricity

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 6 Type of electricity connectivity from (a) urban to (b) rural areas in different developing countries (IEA et al. 2019)

impact that this technology can have from a real case study perspective together with the macroanalysis to provide a holistic approach to the challenges and how can be tackled.

PV Self Consumption Installation Examples for Rural Development PV Self-Consumption Installation in a Wine Cellar

The ďŹ rst example chosen is related to a PV selfconsumption installation wine cellar located in Montilla, province of CĂłrdoba, Southern Spain.

This Andalusian region is recognized for its

wines, and the peculiarity of this company is that they focus on organic production. By doing this, grapes are fed without using chemical components, following natural processes which contribute to improving the quality of the ground. For all this, the wine cellar is an example of sustainability within the viticulture world and can serve as an example of the use of PV self-consumption installations for developing countries.

According to the World Bank (The World Bank 2016), agriculture will be crucial and accounted for 1/3 of global domestic product (GDP) in 2014. The same source indicates 65%

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

of working adults made a living through this economic activity. Therefore, it will be vital the decarbonization of this field as well as improving the living standards of this population.

Additionally, the wine cellar represents one of many farming activities that take part in many developing countries. A high percentage of this land usage is for farming activities, mainly vegetables, fruits, cereals, olives, and vines, among others. According to Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (Willer et al. 2020), from the 2.4 million organic producers, more than three quarters are in developing countries.

This winery cellar generates about 83% of its own energy thanks to a rooftop PV installation, working since December 2018 (Bodegas Robles Technical Team 2020). It consists of a 20 kW three-phase inverter and 64320Wp panels. These are tilted 30 degrees southward.

The building in Fig. 7 is where the tanks are located. Wine is stored in huge ceramic or metal tanks that can contain up to 5–10 k liters. This is necessary for the fermentation process, during which grape juice is naturally turned into wine.

There is a singularity within wine cellar facilities, and it is that a relevant percentage of the annual energy consumption is concentrated between August and September due to the harvest season. It is during these months when grapes are collected and wine elaborated. Thanks to the nature of PV installations and the facts that abundance of irradiation and scarcity of heat are powerful factors to increase generation, these 2 months are two of those with highest generation (Fig. 8).

Grapes are usually collected at the end of the summer, as previously explained, although it depends on the variety of vines and the climatology of each year. When the trucks leave the fields after the collection, they arrive to the wine cellar to deliver their product. First of all the trucks are weighted and different properties of the grapes measured, and then several cleaning and filtering processes follow to obtain the juice. At these stages, heavy machinery is used, which requires certain quantity electricity to operate, and the upcoming wine transformation, involving further filtering and pumping of liquids through the

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different pipes and into and out of wine tanks.

When the harvest is finished, most of the machines mentioned above are stopped. Luminary and refrigeration of containers and tanks remain as primary consumption sources within the factory during the rest of the year.

Apart from that, the wine cellar also offers cultural visits in order to show the winemaking world to those interested, as well as wine testings.

That is something to be taken into account, which sums up to the total use of electricity all along the year.

Outside harvest season the nonused electricity is fed into the grid, which plays its part of contributing of enhancing the percentage of renewables within the energy mix.

According to their carbon footprint study, this wine cellar is saving 14 tons CO2 annually thanks to this installation (Bodegas Robles Technical Team 2020). This could be the first step of the transition to renewable resources within this agricultural sector. It was the first wine cellar in the region to install a PV rooftop system; nowadays further companies of this sector are duplicating this idea.

Figure 9 shows a detail of generation and consumption from December 2019 to April 2020.

Total self-generation is split into two different shades of green: dark green for self-consumption and light green for the exported energy. It can be seen that more than 50% monthly is self-consumed. It can be as well appreciated that the generation is higher in spring than in winter months due to the usual decrease of solar resource during that period of the year. The peculiarity of this graphic is that the total consumption, showed in grey, decreases during March and April. This is someway related to the lack of activity due to the COVID-19, which provoked the suspension of wine tastings and visits as well as it limited the activity on site. However, the process of wine production and storage did not stop.

Finally, from the graphic it is interesting to analyze that not all the monthly PV generation is used for consumption, part of it goes to the grid.

This happens as a photovoltaic cell only generates electricity during daylight hours. In February and March, it happened many days that during the day,

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PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 7 Image of the PV rooftop installation (Bodegas Robles Technical Team 2020)

the PV system generated more than to cover the instantaneous consumption; however, electricity was also needed at hours without self-generation, or while self-generation was lower than consumption.

Monetary considerations and costs will not be included within the scope of the article, just a brief mention that the implementation of self-generation implies a reduction of electricity prices for any domestic or industrial customer, as can be understandable from the numbers showed above.

As a final thought, the payback time of a medium installation like this one showed here could be scarcely 5 years.

Self-Consumption Installation on a Medical Center in Ivory Coast (Project)

This is a medical, social, and educational center, also called “dispensary” located at the east from Abidjan, capital of Ivory Coast. It was built in this rural area in the early 1980s with the aim of providing medical service, especially for expectant mothers and children. People coming to the

place are from the closest eight villages surrounding the center which are reachable by foot. Each year around 12,000 people benefit from its services. Above all, it provides medical and nutritional aid, birth rates in the region are high, women usually have their first child before the age of 16, and families tend to be big. Besides, the center offers lessons for children that had to left school at some point before finishing the complete academic period, mainly due to their parents requiring them to help during harvest season or in the case of girls for giving birth at an early age. Sewing, baking, and cooking lessons are offered for women to encourage them to earn their own salary and be independent. Finally, among their services it gives the population the opportunity to develop their catholic faith.

According to the World Bank, the Ivorian population overcrossed 23.7 million inhabitants in 2016, which is half and about a third of the Spanish and French figures, respectively. However, according to the International Energy Agency, their annual electricity generation was around

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

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Monthly PV generation of the wine cellar in 2019 12%

4,500 Monthly PV generation

11% 10% 10%

10%

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PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 8 Energy production per month of the PV rooftop installation. (Adapted from (Bodegas Robles Technical Team 2020))

Comparison of wine cellar consumption vs. PV generation (kWh) 4,500 Total facility consumption

4,000 3,500 3,000

Energy to grid

2,500 2,000 Self consumption from PV

1,500 1,000 500

Energy from grid

Dec-19

Jan-20

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PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 9 Generation and consumption example of the wine cellar. (Adapted from (Bodegas Robles Technical Team 2020))

8700GWh (2015), which is not more than 3% and 1.5% of the total generation in Spain and France, respectively. In terms of the energy mix, the main

source consists of gas, being the shares hydropower and petrol relatively small–medium. PV energy is almost null. For this reason, the need

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PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

of developing this kind of energy source is more than necessary, not only because of the high electricity prices but also because of the compromise of the human being as part of the nature to preserve this ecosystem where nature is in its purest state, except when human activity takes place, especially related to fossil fuels industries and pollution.

The dispensary is supplied by the utility company of the area with a 50 kW connection. If the power used exceeds this capacity, the supply is not cut but a penalty is applied. It happens during summer months, mainly due to the use of air conditionings. The supply of energy is differentiated into three different parts of the day; each one costs differently. Nuit corresponds to 00:00 to 7:30 (off-peak hours), Jour from 7:30 to 18:30, and Pointe from 18:30 to 00:00 (peak hours). This last one is the most expensive period (in 2018 94 CFA/kWh, CFA is Franc de la Communauté Financière d’Afrique), followed by jour and then the nuit as the cheapest (in 2018 57 CFA/kWh).

The currency in Ivory Cost is the franc CFA; currently 14 countries in this African region use it (Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo, among others). 656.51 CFAs makes 1 €.

The consumption in 2018 of the medical and social center by period is shown in Fig. 10.

The total annual is about 13 million CFAs; this is about 20,000 €. It has been calculated that the 50 kW PV rooftop installation would help to reduce 40% approximately of the total annual energy consumption. If all that quantity is saved, lots of improvements could be applied to the center, in order to purchase new medical equipment, maintain properly the installations, and buy more medicaments. This is a project that is in process, led by a Spanish cooperation association.

The reason for selecting 50 kW for the installation is that, according to the Ivorian legislation, it is not allowed to have a self-consumption capacity higher than the contracted power. This is a common practice in many countries. There is a reason behind that: if the self-generated power exceeds the hired capacity, it can be exported to the grid. And it can happen that the grid might not

be well prepared for reverse power flows, which could make protections to trip.

The state of the art of small solar inverters, usually called string inverters, is usually sized between 2.5 and 20 kW. In order to supply the desired capacity, a series of inverters are required for this project, until the sum of 50 is reached. The key point of the project was where to install the inverters at the dispensary. They could be either located all together at the connection point with the external grid, distributed, or separated through the site. The difference between both options is the losses. Since the distance in meters of cables is greater until consumption points, electrical losses would also be greater if the inverters were installed together at the main connection boards.

On the other side, there is a possibility of connecting one inverter, or more if required, at each electrical board. There are a total of six electrical boards distributed through the whole center, each of them supplying different parts of it.

The project was born in July 2018 during a volunteering program. One of the targets of the project was to reuse the main electrical components, in order to follow their idea of sustainability and give second lives to products that can still be used before deposing them. Thanks to a promotion campaign and the solidarity of some companies, solar string inverters and panels have been donated for this project. A total of four string inverters were received, sized from 3.8 to 15 kW, that have been used in private laboratories but can still last many years. Besides, 245Wp new panels have been donated, nonused as they had been superseded by newer and more powerful models. As of July 2020, the next step to complete this project is to install the system. Civil and electrical works for the installation will be done by a local electricity company, specialized in electrical installations.

The above-mentioned example shows how a project can be developed thanks to an international cooperation and by hands of volunteers (see Fig. 11) and not always the economics but also by non- profit associations projects can pioneer through education and stand-alone installations the first renewable systems that will lead the transformation toward a more sustainable future.

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

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2018 monthly electricity consumption 18,000 16,000

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Consommation jour Consommation pointe Consommation nuit

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 10 Electricity consumption of the center (Ilomba social center (2020)) PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7, Fig. 11 Volunteer at the medical center working on the design of the PV rooftop installation.

(Source: own production)

Challenges and Actions Among the challenges to be addressed the Nobel laureates (Banerjee and Duflo 2019) pointed out that is not always the case that a technology that is feasible in developed countries, in economic and technical terms, such as PV rooftops installations, can be directly extrapolated to developing ones.

There are different cultural, policy, and organizational differences that need to be considered, and overall, the adequate design and implementation on the field is critical to determine whether there is room for its development or not.

The right financial instruments need to be in place to de-risk investments as commented Pay-

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PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

As-You-Go schemes, avoiding subsidies to fossil fuel and carbon pricing or green bonds, are different alternatives as prioritized in the UN Report Accelerating SDG7 Achievements (UNDESA 2019). Additionally, social enterprises catalyze the spread of PV rooftop installations, particularly in rural areas.

Additionally, other burdens to overcome will involve the dissemination of renewable energy among the population, the stakeholder engagement from the quadruple helix perspective to work in the same direction and enhance the coordination among actors involved. Social innovative approaches toward the acceptance of the new technology and technical skills will favor the adequate ecosystem to be able to develop adaptable solutions to the environment.

Moreover, there is a strong linkage between education and the consumption of energy; therefore the actions of the different SDG should be developed in parallel. Furthermore, the beforehand discussed economic limitations should be overcome by stablishing the regulatory and policy framework to boost energy access in education environment. Joint to the financial sector, an ecosystem to tackle the different barriers to its implementation, needs to be considered. The publicprivate partnerships are suggested to introduce renewable PV rooftop installations in schools and universities. This method would foster the community-driven sense and public awareness of its benefits.

Concerning the actions that could be taken in order trigger the development of PV self-consumptions installations, there are a wide range of measures correctly managed could support its evolution as envision by (Shahsavari and Akbari 2018): capital subsidies, feed-in tariffs, low rate loans, supports scheme to net metering and selfconsumption, international aid, tax credit policy, carbon tax or cap-and-trade, technological and R&D incentives, skilled workforce, and increasing awareness of environmental impact.

Finally, digitization could play a key role in boosting and making easy to manage PV installations, through mobile phones. The rapid diminishing of Internet of Things (IoT) sensors cost involves the adaptation of control and remote

operations as well as data visualization and analysis of PV performance and link it with applications such as irrigation, refrigeration and smart farming (Antony et al. 2020).

Conclusions As closing thoughts, the study indicates the main role of solar rooftop installations to accomplish the SDG7 targets. Technical solutions at a competitive price are available for developing countries; however, it is important to find the policy and financial tools to de-risk the investments that allow the evolutions toward more sustainable and affordable energy production and consumption.

Equally important are business models that can be adapted to the culture and situation of society in these countries; the existence of social enterprises together with education and stakeholder engagement are essential for this market to bloom. It is also of prior importance the role of cooperation and international aid in developing countries, not only because of the economics but also for interacting and making friendly and understandable the use of this technology.

In the case of rural areas, in which the grid connection starting costs are significantly high, off-grid self-consumption installations are more decisive to boost and achieve the Sustainable Development Goal 7.

Cross-References ▶ Electricity Generation from Renewable Resources ▶ Energy Infrastructure for Sustainable Development ▶ Innovation for Off-Grid Solar Rural Electrification ▶ Universal Access to Energy and Sustainable Development Acknowledgments We would like to thank Ilomba Medical Centre and Bodegas Robles for the data provided regarding energy. Additionally, we would like to acknowledge Filosolar Association for the experience shared in cooperation projects.

PV Self-Consumption Installations: Challenges and Action to Achieve SDG7

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