Nutrition now 8th edition

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EIGHTH EDITION

Nutrition Now Judith E. Brown

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Contents in Brief Preface xviii UNIT 1

Key Nutrition Concepts and Terms

1-1

UNIT 2 The Inside Story about Nutrition and Health 2-1 UNIT 3

Ways of Knowing about Nutrition

Nutrition, Attitudes, and Behavior

21-1

UNIT 22

Diet and Cancer

22-1

UNIT 23

Good Things to Know about Minerals

UNIT 24 Dietary Supplements 3-1

UNIT 25

UNIT 4 Understanding Food and Nutrition Labels 4-1 UNIT 5

UNIT 21 Phytochemicals

24-1

Water Is an Essential Nutrient 25-1

UNIT 26 Nutrient–Gene Interactions in Health and Disease 26-1 5-1

UNIT 6 Healthy Dietary Patterns, Dietary Guidelines, MyPlate, and More 6-1 UNIT 7 How the Body Uses Food: Digestion and Absorption 7-1

UNIT 12 Useful Facts about Sugars, Starches, and Fiber 12-1

Alcohol: The Positives and Negatives

UNIT 15

Proteins and Amino Acids

15-1

UNIT 16

Vegetarian Dietary Patterns

16-1

UNIT 17

Food Allergies and Intolerances 17-1

UNIT 18

Fats and Health 18-1

UNIT 19

Nutrition and Heart Disease

UNIT 20

Vitamins and Your Health 20-1

28-1

UNIT 32 The Multiple Dimensions of Food Safety 32-1

UNIT 11 Disordered Eating: Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa, Binge-Eating Disorder, and Pica 11-1

UNIT 14

Nutrition and Physical Performance

UNIT 31 Nutrition and Health Maintenance for Adults of All Ages 31-1

UNIT 10 Weight Control: The Myths and Realities 10-1

Diabetes Now

UNIT 28

UNIT 30 Nutrition for the Growing Years: Childhood through Adolescence 30-1

UNIT 9 Obesity to Underweight: The Highs and Lows of Weight Status 9-1

UNIT 13

UNIT 27 Nutrition and Physical Fitness for Everyone 27-1

UNIT 29 Good Nutrition for Life: Pregnancy, Breastfeeding, and Infancy 29-1

UNIT 8 Calories! Food, Energy, and Energy Balance 8-1

Aspects of Global Nutrition

33-1

Appendix A Table of Food Composition

A-1

UNIT 33

Appendix B Reliable Sources of Nutrition Information B-1

13-1

Appendix C Aids to Calculations 14-1

C-1

Appendix D Table of Intentional Food Additives D-1 Appendix E Cells E-1 Appendix F Feedback and Answers to Nutrition Up Close and Review Questions F-1 Glossary

19-1

23-1

References Index

GL-1 R-1

I-1

Con t e n t s in Brie f

v

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Contents UNIT 1 Key Nutrition Concepts and Terms 1-1 The Meaning of Nutrition Nutrition Defined

1-2

1-2

Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc/Blend Images/Corbis

Foundation Knowledge for Thinking about Nutrition

1-5

Who Are the Food Insecure? 1-6 Calories 1-6 Nutrients 1-6 Other Substances in Food 1-7 Nutrition Up Close Nutrition Concepts Review 1-17

Review Questions

1-17

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

1-18

UNIT 2 The Inside Story about Nutrition and Health 2-1 Nutrition in the Context of Overall Health 2-2

The Nutritional State of the Nation The Importance of Food Choices 2-5

2-3

Diet and Diseases of Western Civilization 2-5 Our Bodies Haven’t Changed 2-5 Different Diets, Different Disease Rates The Power of Prevention 2-8

2-7

Improving the American Diet 2-9 What Should We Eat? 2-10 Nutrition Surveys: Tracking the American Diet

2-10

Nutrition Up Close Food Types for Healthful Diets

Review Questions

2-11

2-11

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

2-12

UNIT 3 Ways of Knowing about Nutrition 3-1 How Do I Know if What I Read or Hear about Nutrition Is True?

Profits, Prophets, and Proof

3-2

3-2

nutrition timeline 1744

Scurvy recognized

First record of ice cream in America at Maryland colony

PhotoDisc

vi

PhotoDisc

1734

First coffeehouse in America opens in Philadelphia

Courtesy of Wellcome Library, London

1702

First Thanksgiving feast at Plymouth colony

PhotoDisc

1621

C o n te n ts

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How to Identify Nutrition Truths

3-6

Sources of Reliable Nutrition Information

3-7

The Methods of Science 3-9 Developing the Plan 3-9 The Hypothesis: Making the Question Testable 3-10 The Research Design: Gathering the Right Information Obtaining Approval to Study Human Subjects 3-14 Implementing the Study 3-14 Making Sense of the Results 3-14

3-11

Nutrition Up Close Checking Out a Fat-Loss Product

Review Questions

3-15

3-15

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

3-16

UNIT 4 Understanding Food and Nutrition Labels 4-1 Nutrition Labeling 4-2 Key Elements of Nutrition Labeling Standards

4-2

Dietary Supplement Labeling 4-8 Structure or Function Claims The COOL Rule 4-9

Organic Foods

4-9

4-9

Labeling Organic Foods

4-9

Other Nutrition Labeling Systems 4-10 Calories on Display 4-11 Upcoming Nutrition Label Revisions Beyond Nutrition Labels 4-12

4-11

Nutrition Up Close Understanding Food Labels

4-14

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

4-16

UNIT 5 Nutrition, Attitudes, and Behavior 5-1 Origins of Food Choices

5-2

We Don’t Instinctively Know What to Eat 5-2 Food Preferences 5-3

Food Preferences and Choices Do Change

5-5

Alistair Berg/Digital Vision/Getty Images

Review Questions

4-14

How Do Food Choices Change? 5-6 Successful Changes in Food Choices 5-7

1762

1771

1774

Ojibway and Sioux war over control of wild rice stands

Sandwich invented by the Earl of Sandwich

Potato heralded as famine food

Americans drink more coffee in protest over Britain’s tea tax

PhotoDisc

1750

Lind publishes “Treatise on Scurvy,” citrus identified as cure

PhotoDisc

1747

Co n t e n t s

vii

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Does Diet Affect Behavior?

5-8

Malnutrition and Mental Performance 5-9 The Future of Diet and Behavior Research 5-11 Nutrition Up Close Improving Food Choices 5-12

Review Questions

5-12

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

5-13

Digital Vision/Alamy

UNIT 6 Healthy Dietary Patterns, Dietary Guidelines, MyPlate, and More 6-1 Healthy Eating: Achieving a Balance between Good Taste and Good for You 6-2 Characteristics of Healthy Dietary Patterns 6-3 Healthy Dietary Patterns Identified for the United States National Guides for Healthful Diets 6-5

Dietary Guidelines for Americans

6-4

6-6

MyPlate 6-9 ChooseMyPlate.gov Healthy Eating Messages 6-9 Healthy U.S.-Style Dietary Pattern 6-10 The DASH Eating Plan 6-13 The Healthy Mediterranean Dietary Pattern 6-13 Realities of the Food Environment 6-14 Portion Distortion 6-15 Bon Appétit! 6-17 Nutrition Up Close The Pros and Cons of Fast Food Dining

Review Questions

6-19

6-19

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

6-20

UNIT 7 How the Body Uses Food: Digestion and Absorption 7-1 My Body, My Food

7-2

How Do Nutrients in Food Become Available for the Body’s Use?

7-2

Digestive Disorders 7-9 Constipation 7-9 Ulcers 7-11 Heartburn 7-11 Irritable Bowel Syndrome Diarrhea 7-11 Flatulence 7-12

7-11

nutrition timeline 1833

1862

1871

Protein and amino acids identified, followed by carbohydrates and fats in the mid-1800s

Beaumont’s experiments on a wounded man’s stomach greatly expand knowledge about digestion

U.S. Department of Agriculture founded by authorization of President Lincoln

Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats determined to be insufficient to support life; there are other “essential” components

viii

© Bettmann/Corbis

1816

Lavoisier (“the father of the science of nutrition”) discovers the energyproducing property of food Stefano Bianchetti/CORBIS

1775

C on t en t s

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Nutrition Up Close Carbohydrate, Fat, and Protein Digestion

Review Questions

7-13

7-13

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

7-14

UNIT 8 Calories! Food, Energy, and Energy Balance 8-1 Energy! 8-2 The Body’s Need for Energy

8-2

Where’s the Energy in Foods? 8-5 Most Foods Are a Mixture 8-7 Energy Density 8-8 How Are Food and Energy Intake Regulated by the Body?

Keep Calories in Perspective 8-10 Nutrition Up Close Food as a Source of Calories

Review Questions

8-8

8-11

8-12

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

8-13

UNIT 9 Obesity to Underweight: The Highs and Lows of Weight Status 9-1 Variations in Body Weight How Is Weight Status Defined?

Body Mass Index 9-3

9-2 9-2

Overweight and Obesity 9-3 Body Fat and Health: Location, Location, Location Assessment of Body Fat Content 9-8 What Causes Obesity? 9-8 Obesity: The Future Lies in Its Prevention 9-11

9-12

Underweight Defined 9-12 Underweight and Longevity in Adults

9-12

Toward a Realistic View of Body Weight Size Acceptance

9-13

9-13

Nutrition Up Close Are You an Apple?

Review Questions

9-15

9-15

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

9-16

Scott Goodwin Photography

Underweight

9-5

1910

1912

Pure Food and Drug Act signed by President Theodore Roosevelt to protect consumers against contaminated foods

Pasteurized milk introduced

Funk suggests scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra caused by deficiency of “vitamines” in the diet

PhotoDisc

1906

Atwater publishes Proximate Composition of Food Materials

Bettman/CORBIS

1896

First milk station providing children with uncontaminated milk opens in New York City

Bettman/CORBIS

1895

Co n t e n t s

ix

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UNIT 10 Weight Control: The Myths and Realities 10-1 Weight Control Nation 10-2 Weight Loss versus Weight Control 10-2

John E. Kelly/Photolibrary/Getty Images

Weight Control

10-4

Weight-Control Methods: The Evidence 10-5 Successful Weight-Control Programs 10-7 Obesity Surgery 10-8 Weight Loss: Making It Last 10-10 Nutrition Up Close Setting Small Behavior Change Goals 10-13

Review Questions

10-13

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

10-14

UNIT 11 D isordered Eating: Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa, Binge-Eating Disorder, and Pica 11-1 Eating Disorders 11-2 Anorexia Nervosa 11-2 Bulimia Nervosa 11-5 Binge-Eating Disorder 11-6 Pica 11-7 Proposed Eating Disorders 11-9 Resources for Eating Disorders 11-10 Prevention of Eating Disorders 11-11 Nutrition Up Close Eating Attitudes Test

Review Questions

11-12

11-13

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

11-13

UNIT 12 Useful Facts about Sugars, Starches, and Fiber 12-1 Carbohydrates 12-2 Simple Sugar Facts 12-3 The Alcohol Sugars—What Are They? 12-6 Artificial Sweetener Facts 12-7 Complex Carbohydrate Facts 12-10 Glycemic Index of Carbohydrates 12-14

Carbohydrates and Dental Health

12-15

There’s More to Tooth Decay Than Sugar Per Se

12-16

nutrition timeline 1916

1917

1921

Goldberger identifies the cause of pellagra (niacin deficiency) in poor children to be a missing component of the diet rather than a germ as others believed

First dietary guidance material produced for the public released; title is “Food for Young Children”

First food groups published—the Five Food Groups: Milk and Meat; Vegetables and Fruits; Cereals; Fats and Fat Foods; Sugars and Sugary Foods

First fortified food produced: iodized salt, needed to prevent widespread iodine-deficiency goiter in many parts of the United States

x

LunaseeStudios/ Shutterstock.com

1914

First vitamin discovered (vitamin A)

PhotoDisc

1913

C o n te nts

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Lactose Maldigestion and Intolerance How Is Lactose Maldigestion Managed?

12-17

12-19

Nutrition Up Close Does Your Fiber Intake Measure Up?

Review Questions

12-20

12-21

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

12-22

UNIT 13 Diabetes Now 13-1 The Diabetes Epidemic 13-2 Health Consequences of Diabetes 13-3 Type 2 Diabetes 13-3 Managing Type 2 Diabetes 13-5 Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes 13-8 Type 1 Diabetes 13-9 Gestational Diabetes 13-10 Hypoglycemia 13-11 Diabetes in the Future 13-11 Nutrition Up Close Calculating Glycemic Load

Review Questions

13-12

13-12

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

13-13

UNIT 14 Alcohol: The Positives and Negatives 14-1 Alcohol Facts 14-2 The Positive 14-2 The Negative 14-3 Alcohol Intake, Diet Quality, and Nutrient Status How the Body Handles Alcohol 14-5 What Causes Alcohol Dependency? 14-8

14-4

Nutrition Up Close Effects of Alcohol Intake 14-9

Review Questions

14-9

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

14-10

Protein

ROSENFELD/AGE Fotostock

UNIT 15 Proteins and Amino Acids 15-1 15-2

Functions of Protein 15-2 Amino Acids 15-4 Protein Quality 15-5 Food as a Source of Protein

15-7

1930s

1937

1938

1941

Essential fatty acids identified

Vitamin C identified in 1932, followed by pantothenic acid and riboflavin in 1933 and vitamin K in 1934

Pellagra found to be due to a deficiency of niacin

Health Canada issues nutrient intake standards

First refined grain enrichment standards developed

PhotoDisc

1929

American Society for Nutritional Sciences and the Journal of Nutrition founded

PhotoDisc

1928

Co n t e n t s

xi

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Nutrition Up Close My Protein Intake

Review Questions

15-10

15-11

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

15-11

UNIT 16 Vegetarian Dietary Patterns 16-1 Perspectives on Vegetarian Dietary Patterns

16-2

Creatas/Fotosearch

Reasons for Vegetarianism 16-2 Health Implications of Vegetarian Dietary Patterns 16-4 Dietary Recommendations for Vegetarians 16-5 Where to Go for More Information on Vegetarian Diets 16-10 Nutrition Up Close Vegetarian Main Dish Options

Review Questions

16-11

16-11

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

16-12

UNIT 17 Food Allergies and Intolerances 17-1 Food Allergy 17-2 Prevalence of Food Allergy 17-2 Adverse Reactions to Foods 17-3 Diagnosis: Is It a Food Allergy? 17-6 Treatment of Food Allergies 17-7 Prevention of Food Allergies 17-7

Food Intolerances 17-7 Lactose Maldigestion and Intolerance 17-8 Sulfite Sensitivity 17-8 Red Wine, Aged Cheese, and Migraines 17-9 MSG and the “Chinese Restaurant Syndrome” 17-9 Food Allergy and Intolerance Precautions 17-9 Nutrition Up Close Gluten-Free Cuisine

Review Questions

17-10

17-10

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

17-11

UNIT 18 Fats and Health 18-1 Fat Intake and Health 18-2 Facts about Fats 18-2 Types of Fat 18-4 The Essential Fatty Acids 18-7 Hydrogenated Fats 18-8

nutrition timeline 1941

1946

1947

1953

1956

First Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) announced by President Franklin Roosevelt on radio

National School Lunch Act passed

Vitamin B12 identified

Double helix structure of DNA discovered

Basic Four Food Groups released by the U.S. Department of Agriculture

C

C T

G

G

PhotoDisc

C T A C G

A T G

T

C G

A

C

PhotoDisc

Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum

A

xii

A

G

T

C o n te nts

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Cholesterol 18-9 Food Sources of Fat 18-11 The Low-Fat Era Is Over 18-12 Nutrition Up Close The Healthy Fats in Your Diet

Review Questions

18-15

18-15

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

18-16

UNIT 19 Nutrition and Heart Disease 19-1 Nutrition and Heart Disease

19-2

A Primer on Heart Disease 19-2 Who’s at Risk for Heart Disease? 19-5 Healthy Dietary Patterns for Heart Health

19-7

Nutrition Up Close Evaluate Your Dietary and Lifestyle Strengths for Heart Disease Prevention 19-10

Review Questions

19-10

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

19-11

UNIT 20 Vitamins and Your Health 20-1 Vitamins: They’re on Center Stage 20-2 Vitamin Facts 20-2 What Do Vitamins Do? 20-3 Vitamins and the Prevention and Treatment of Disorders 20-10 Preserving the Vitamin Content of Foods 20-13 Vitamins: Getting Enough Without Getting Too Much 20-14 Nutrition Up Close Antioxidant Vitamins: How Adequate Is Your Diet? 20-22

Review Questions

20-22

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

20-23

UNIT 21 Phytochemicals 21-1 ©JIL Photo/Shutterstock.com

Phytochemicals: The “What Else” in Your Food 21-2 Characteristics of Phytochemicals 21-3 Functions of Phytochemicals in Humans 21-4 Food Sources of Phytochemicals 21-8 Naturally Occurring Toxins in Food 21-8

1966

1968

1970

1972

Food Stamp Act passed, Food Stamp program established

Child Nutrition Act adds school breakfast to the National School Lunch Program

First national nutrition survey in U.S. launched (Ten State Nutrition Survey)

First Canadian national nutrition survey launched (Nutrition Canada National Survey)

Special Supplemental Food and Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) established

PhotoDisc

1965

Co n t e n t s

xiii

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Nutrition Up Close Have You Had Your Phytochemicals Today? 21-9

Review Questions

21-10

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

21-10

UNIT 22 Diet and Cancer 22-1 What Is Cancer? 22-2

Digital Vision/Getty Images

How Does Cancer Develop? 22-2 What Causes DNA Damage? 22-3

Fighting Cancer with a Fork

22-4

How Do Healthy Dietary Patterns Help Prevent Cancer?

Bogus Cancer Treatments 22-6 Nutrition Up Close A Cancer Risk Checkup

Review Questions

22-4

22-7

22-7

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

22-8

UNIT 23 Good Things to Know about Minerals 23-1 Mineral Facts

23-2

Getting a Charge Out of Minerals 23-2 Selected Minerals: Calcium 23-4 Osteoporosis 23-5 Selected Minerals: Iron 23-13 Selected Minerals: Sodium 23-16 Nutrition Up Close The Salt of Your Diet

Review Questions

23-27

23-27

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

23-28

UNIT 24 Dietary Supplements 24-1 Dietary Supplements 24-2 Regulation of Dietary Supplements 24-2 Vitamin and Mineral Supplements: Enough Is as Good as a Feast Herbal Remedies 24-5 Prebiotics and Probiotics 24-7 Final Thoughts 24-9 Nutrition Up Close Supplement Use and Misuse

Review Questions

24-4

24-11

24-11

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

24-12

nutrition timeline 1978

1989

1992

1997

Dietary Goals for the U.S. issued

First Health Objectives for the Nation released

First national scientific consensus report on diet and chronic disease published

The Food Guide pyramid is released by the USDA

RDAs expanded to Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)

USDA

1977

xiv

C o n te nts

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UNIT 25 Water Is an Essential Nutrient 25-1 Water: Where Would We Be Without It? Water’s Role as an Essential Nutrient Meeting Our Need for Water 25-4 Water Deficiency 25-5 Water Toxicity 25-5

25-2

25-2

The Nature of Our Water Supply 25-6 Water Sources

25-6

Nutrition Up Close Foods as a Source of Water

Review Questions

25-9

25-9

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

25-10

UNIT 26 N utrient–Gene Interactions in Health and Disease 26-1 Nutrition and Genomics

26-2

Genetic Secrets Unfolded 26-2 Nutrient–Gene Interactions 26-4 Single-Gene Defects 26-4 Genetics of Taste 26-5 Nutrition Tomorrow 26-6 Nutrition Up Close Nature and Nurture 26-7

Review Questions

26-7

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

26-8

UNIT 27 N utrition and Physical Fitness for Everyone 27-1

The “Happy Consequences” of Physical Activity What Is Physical Fitness? 27-3 Flexibility 27-7 Fueling Physical Activity 27-8 Achieving Physical Fitness 27-9

27-2

Nutrition Up Close Exercise: Your Options

27-12

Review Questions

27-12

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

27-13

Bill Milne/StockFood Creative/Getty Images

Physical Activity: It Offers Something for Everyone 27-2

2003

2015

Folic acid fortification of refined grain products begins

Sequencing of DNA in the human genome completed; marks beginning of new era of research in nutrient– gene interactions

Increasing rates of obesity and type 2 diabetes become global epidemics

Richard Anderson

1998

Co n t e n t s

xv

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UNIT 28 Nutrition and Physical Performance 28-1

Kablonk! RF/Golden Pixels LLC/Alamy

Sports Nutrition 28-2 Basic Components of Energy Formation during Exercise Nutrition and Physical Performance 28-4 Hydration 28-7 Nutrition-Related Concerns of Athletes 28-10 Ergogenic Aids: The Athlete’s Dilemma 28-11

28-2

Nutrition Up Close Testing Performance Aids

28-13

Review Questions

28-13

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

28-14

UNIT 29 G ood Nutrition for Life: Pregnancy, Breastfeeding, and Infancy 29-1 Nutrition and a Healthy Start in Life Improving the Health of U.S. Infants

Nutrition and Pregnancy

29-2

29-3

29-3

Critical Periods of Growth and Development 29-3 Developmental Origins of Later Disease Risk 29-4 Prepregnancy Weight Status, Pregnancy Weight Gain, and Pregnancy Outcomes The Need for Calories and Key Nutrients during Pregnancy 29-6 What’s a Good Diet for Pregnancy? 29-10

Breastfeeding

29-5

29-12

What’s So Special about Breastmilk? 29-12 Is Breastfeeding Best for All New Mothers and Infants? 29-12

How Breastfeeding Works Nutrition and Breastfeeding

Infant Nutrition

29-13 29-14

29-14

Infant Growth 29-15 Infant Feeding Recommendations 29-17 The Development of Healthy Eating Habits Begins in Infancy Nutrition Up Close You Be the Judge!

Review Questions

29-18

29-20

29-21

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

29-22

UNIT 30 N utrition for the Growing Years: Childhood through Adolescence 30-1 The Span of Growth and Development The Nutritional Foundation 30-2 Characteristics of Growth in Children

30-2

Nutrition for the Growing Years

30-8

30-2

Nutrient Needs of Children and Adolescents 30-10 Helping Children Learn the Right Lessons about Food 30-14 Nutrition Up Close Obesity Prevention Close to Home 30-15

Review Questions

30-15

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

xvi

30-16

C o n te nts

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UNIT 31 N utrition and Health Maintenance for Adults of All Ages 31-1 Nutrition for Adults of All Ages 31-2 The Age Wave 31-2

Diet and Health Promotion for Adults of All Ages 31-4 Nutrient Needs 31-4 Dietary Recommendations for Adults of All Ages 31-5 Physical Activity Recommendations for Adults 31-8 Nutrition Up Close Does He Who Laughs, Last?

Review Questions

31-10

31-10

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

31-11

UNIT 32 The Multiple Dimensions of Food Safety 32-1 Threats to the Safety of the Food Supply 32-2 How Good Foods Go Bad 32-2 Causes and Consequences of Food-Borne Illness Other Causes of Food-Borne Illnesses 32-5

32-3

Preventing Food-Borne Illnesses 32-8 Food Safety Regulations 32-8 Food Safety Basics 32-9 Nutrition Up Close Food Safety Detective

Review Questions

32-15

32-15

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

32-16

State of the World’s Health 33-2 The “Nutrition Transition” 33-2 Food and Nutrition: The Global Challenge The Future 33-8

33-4

Nutrition Up Close Ethnic Foods Treasure Hunt

Review Questions

33-9

33-9

Nutrition Scoreboard Answers

33-10

©Stephane Bidouze/Shutterstock.com

UNIT 33 Aspects of Global Nutrition 33-1

Appendix A Table of Food Composition A-1 Appendix B Reliable Sources of Nutrition Information B-1 Appendix C Aids to Calculations C-1 Appendix D Table of Intentional Food Additives D-1 Cells E-1

Appendix E

Appendix F F eedback and Answers to Nutrition Up Close and Review Questions F-1 Glossary

GL-1

References Index

R-1

I-1 Co n t e n t s

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Preface “Everything should be made as simple as possible. But not simpler.”

—ALBERT EINSTEIN

Welcome to the 8th edition of Nutrition Now, an introductory, science-based, and application-oriented textbook for your nutrition courses. The text contains multiple critical thinking and decision-making activities for students, organized around key nutrition concepts and specific learning objectives. It is part of a learning system that includes access to Cengage’s MindTap and its interactive and critical thinking activities, and many other resources for instructors and students.

This edition of Nutrition Now catches up with advances in the field of nutrition.

We now have the 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans with its strong emphasis on healthy dietary patterns and physical activity, revised nutrition labels and labeling regulations, additional facts about nutrient–gene interactions in health and disease, and a better understanding of the influence of epigenetic factors on health risks related to dietary patterns. Realities about the usefulness of dietary supplements are becoming front-page news. Scientific consensus about dietary fat and health has taken a 180° turn, and new knowledge about the causes of obesity is changing approaches to its prevention and management. These and many other developments in nutrition knowledge are included in the 8th edition of Nutrition Now and its pedagogical features. Nutrition Now continues to be oriented toward enhancing instructors’ teaching experiences and helping students build a firm foundation of scientific knowledge and understanding about nutrition that will serve them well throughout their careers and life.

Pedagogical Features There are 33 units in Nutrition Now, and all but the first unit can be used in any order. Each unit begins with learning objectives, and content and review questions at the end of the units are organized around the learning objectives. Student group and individual activities based on real-life situations are presented online in MindTap, along with a variety of videos, review questions, and interactive learning activities.

Activities include taste testing to identify genetically determined sensitivity to bitterness, developing a dietary behavioral change plan, anthropometry lab, designing fraudulent nutrition products, a physical activity assessment, and an assessment of three days of dietary intake.

Features presented in the text are updated and expanded in this edition: ●●

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Nutrition Scoreboard, a first-page feature of each unit, pretests student knowledge and understanding of specific nutrition-related topics. The questions have been updated and now include at least four questions per unit. Answers for the Nutrition Scoreboard questions are located at the end of units.

New photos, figures, tables, and graphs appear in the units.

Take Action, Reality Check, and Nutrition Up Close features have been revised in a number of units to correspond to updated nutrition content.

Review Questions have been updated and expanded. Units provide 15–20 review questions.

The Glossary is expanded to include definitions for new terms introduced into the text.

P refac e

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Content Changes in the Eighth Edition To keep the list of changes appearing in this edition to a reasonable length, I have attempted to select and list the substantial changes.

Unit 1: Key Nutrition Concepts and Terms ●●

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A section on Food Security and Sustainable Diets has been added; content on Food Terrorism is reduced.

Nutrition Concept #9 content is updated to reflect the 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

Unit 2: The Inside Story about Nutrition and Health ●●

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Content presented on chronic inflammation and oxidative stress is rewritten and reorganized.

Content has been updated to reflect content from the 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

Content on nutrient–gene interactions and the causes of obesity are updated.

Information presented on diet and disease rates is revised.

Unit 3: Ways of Knowing about Nutrition ●●

Many of the tables and Illustrations have been revised or updated.

Unit 4: Understanding Food and Nutrition Labels ●●

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Much of the content of this unit has changed due to new nutrition labeling regulations.

Content addressed in the features is updated.

Information on the labeling of GMO foods has been added.

Unit 5: Nutrition, Attitudes, and Behaviors ●●

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New content appears on the genetics of taste and food preferences.

Content on trends in and drivers of food choices have been updated.

An added section relates to strategies for improving diets in groups of people.

Unit 6: Healthy Diets, Dietary Guidelines, MyPlate, and More ●●

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Replaced content on the 2010 Dietary Guidelines with information from the 2015 Dietary Guidelines.

Updated content on MyPlate materials.

Multiple tables and the Take Action feature are updated.

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Unit 7: How the Body Uses Food: Digestion and Absorption ●●

Added content on gut microbiota.

Unit 8: Calories! Food, Energy, and Energy Balance ●●

Updated content on satiety and determination of total calorie need.

Unit 9: Obesity to Underweight: The Highs and Lows of Weight Status ●●

Added content on obesity–environment interactions, dietary patterns and obesity development, added sugars and genetic susceptibility to obesity, and the influence of the microbiome on obesity development.

Unit 10: Weight Control: The Myths and Realities ●●

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Updated and revised content on causes and treatment of obesity, and on weight-loss diets.

Updated content on calorie deficits needed for weight loss.

Unit 11: Disordered Eating: Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia, and Pica ●●

Updated content based on revised DMS-V standards.

Unit 12: Useful Facts about Sugars, Starches, and Fiber ●●

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Updated nutrition labeling standards and recommended intake level for added sugars.

Modified content on dietary fiber based on the 2015 Dietary Guidelines report.

Added table and expanded discussion on the glycemic index of carbohydrates.

Unit 13: Diabetes Now ●●

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Expanded content on prediabetes, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome.

Updated content on healthy dietary patterns, glycemic index, and diabetes, and on standards of care for diets for people with diabetes.

Unit 14: Alcohol: The Positives and Negatives ●●

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Expanded presentation on fatty liver disease and steatohepatitis.

Updated content on fetal alcohol spectrum disorder.

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Unit 15: Proteins and Amino Acids ●●

Added content on health effects of protein intake.

Unit 16: Vegetarian Diets ●●

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Added content on vegetarian-style healthy dietary patterns.

Increased information on macrobiotic vegetarian diets, health implications of vegetarian dietary patterns, and meat and dairy analogs.

Unit 17: Food Allergies and Intolerances ●●

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Added/updated content on gluten-free foods, celiac disease, and non-celiac gluten sensitivity.

Updated information on the causes and prevention of food allergies.

Unit 18: Fats and Cholesterol in Health ●●

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Added content on the functions of adipocytes and of body fat stores.

Updated content on low-fat diets and health, and on dietary fat intake recommendations.

Added content on white and brown adipose tissue.

Unit 19: Nutrition and Heart Disease ●●

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Updated content on dietary recommendations for the prevention and treatment of heart disease.

Added content on lipoprotein particle size and function, and on non-HDL cholesterol.

Added content on genetic factors related to heart disease risk.

Added content on food sources of polyunsaturated fats and processed meats.

Unit 20: Vitamins and Your Health ●●

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Updated and revised tables on vitamin functions, deficiency, toxicity, and food sources.

Returned vitamin K to Table 20.5.

Updated content on the antioxidant vitamins.

Unit 21: Phytochemicals ●●

Updated content on functions of phytochemicals.

Unit 22: Diet and Cancer ●●

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Revised and updated section on how cancer develops, including acquired gene mutations.

Updated content on dietary factors associated with cancer development.

Unit 23: Good Things to Know about Minerals ●●

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Updated and reorganized content on osteoporosis.

Updated diagnostic standards for hypertension.

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Unit 24: Dietary Supplements ●●

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Deleted content on functional foods and cholestatin.

Extensively modified content on effects of herbal remedies and benefits of vitamin and mineral supplements.

Updated content on pre- and probiotics.

Unit 25: Water Is an Essential Nutrient ●●

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Modified content on water sources, deleted content on safety of bottled water.

Expanded content on functions of water and water balance.

Updated water intake recommendations based on the 2015 Dietary Guidelines report, and updated content on the safety of bisphenol A.

Unit 26: Nutrient–Gene Interactions in Health and Disease ●●

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Expanded presentation of epigenetics, gene variants, gene functions, phenotype, environmental triggers, and genetic tests.

Added the example of sitosterolemia to Table 26.2.

Unit 27: Nutrition and Physical Fitness for Everyone ●●

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Revised information on calculation of maximum and target heart rates.

Updated physical activity recommendations based on the 2015 Dietary Guidelines report.

Unit 28: Nutrition and Physical Performance ●●

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Updated content on protein and carbohydrate intake and muscle recovery and muscle cell synthesis, and on carbohydrate loading.

Updated information on healthy dietary patterns and physical health and performance.

Updated content on dehydration and water intoxication.

Added content on anabolic steroids and caffeine, and updated functions of ergogenic aids.

Unit 29: Good Nutrition for Life: Pregnancy, Breastfeeding, and Infancy ●●

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Modified presentation of infant mortality rates.

Updated content on dietary recommendations for pregnancy, breastfeeding, and infancy, and on vitamin and mineral supplement recommendations.

Unit 30: Nutrition for the Growing Years: Childhood through Adolescence ●●

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Updated dietary recommendations and section on benefits of healthy dietary patterns.

Expanded discussion of importance of portion size.

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Updated resources available from MyPlate.

Updated content on obesity during childhood and adolescence, school-based programs for obesity prevention, current status of nutrient intake, and advice for developing good eating habits in children.

Updated information on resources available from MyPlate.

Unit 31: Nutrition and Health Maintenance for Adults of All Ages ●●

Updated content on protein need, nutrition and longevity, and healthy dietary patterns for adults.

Unit 32: The Multiple Dimensions of Food Safety ●●

Updated information on antibiotic overuse, irradiation, bisphenol A, causes and symptoms of food-borne illnesses, botulism in Alaska, and food safety rules.

Unit 33: Aspects of Global Nutrition ●●

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Updated content to present information on levels of human development rather than economic development indicators.

Expanded content on the nutrition transition.

Appendices and Glossary ●●

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Updated food composition tables.

The Appendix containing the U.S. Food Exchange System has been replaced with an appendix presenting Aids to Calculations. This appendix includes examples of how to convert nonmetric to metric measurements, nutrient unit conversions, percentage calculations, volume equivalents, and weights and measures equivalents.

Modified the Glossary to reflect additions and revisions made in the eighth edition of Nutrition Now.

Resources for the Instructor ●●

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Nutrition MindTap for Nutrition Now. Instant Access Code, ISBN-13: 9781305868304.

MindTap is well beyond an e-book, a homework solution or digital supplement, a resource center website, a course delivery platform, or a learning management system.

More than 70 percent of students surveyed said it was unlike anything they have seen before. MindTap is a new personal learning experience that combines all your digital assets—readings, multimedia, activities, and assessments—into a singular learning path to improve student outcomes.

Diet & Wellness Plus The Diet & Wellness Plus app in MindTap helps you gain a better understanding of how nutrition relates to your personal health goals. It enables you to track your diet and activity, generate reports, and analyze the nutritional value of the food you eat! It includes more than 55,000 foods in the database, custom food and recipe features, the latest dietary references, as well as your goal and actual percentages of essential nutrients, vitamins, and minerals. It also helps you to identify a problem behavior and make a positive change. After completing a wellness profile questionnaire, Diet & Wellness Plus will rate the level of concern for eight different areas of P r e face

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wellness, helping you determine the areas where you are most at risk. It then helps you put together a plan for positive change by helping you select a goal to work toward— complete with a reward for all your hard work.

The Diet & Wellness Plus app is accessed from the app dock in MindTap and can be used throughout the course for students to track their diet and activity and behavior change. There are activities and labs in the course that have students access the app to further extend learning and integrate course content.

Instructor Companion Site Everything you need for your course in one place! This collection of book-specific lecture and class tools is available online via www.cengage .com/login. Access and download PowerPoint presentations, images, instructor’s manual, videos, and more.

Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero Cengage Learning Testing Powered

by Cognero is a flexible online system that allows you to: author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions create multiple test versions in an instant deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want Global Nutrition Watch Bring currency to the classroom with Global Nutrition Watch from Cengage Learning! This user-friendly website provides convenient access to thousands of trusted sources, including academic journals, newspapers, videos, and podcasts, for you to use for research projects or classroom discussion. Global Nutrition Watch is updated daily to offer the most current news about topics related to nutrition.

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Acknowledgments Trudy Brown, Managing Content Developer, Life and Earth Sciences, and Yolanda Cossio, Publisher of Life and Earth Sciences for Cengage, provided an impressive level of energy and support for this new edition and its pedagogical features. They are very good at what they do, and it shows. The results of their efforts are reflected in the design, photographs, features, and online materials supporting this edition of Nutrition Now. The clever and thought provoking cover design for this edition of Nutrition Now by Michael Cook provides a great introduction to the quality of the work presented within the pages. The very helpful feedback provided by Dr. Steven Nizielski and Dr. Eugene Fenster from their review of Nutrition Now is much appreciated.

It is said that instructors adopt a specific textbook but that students play a major role in instructors’ decision to keep it. I am honored that you chose to adopt Nutrition Now and deeply pleased with the thought that students are helping you decide to keep it.

Reviewers’ feedback is the lifeline of text writing, and the reviewers of the seventh edition conveyed very useful advice that was incorporated into the eighth edition. The advice led me to some very interesting places on specific topics that changed my thinking and writing. Thank you for the helpful information and please keep your comments coming.

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1

UNIT

Key Nutrition Concepts and Terms

NUTRITION SCOREBOARD 1 Calories are a component of food.

True/False

2 Nutrients are substances in food that are used by the

body for growth and health.

True/False

3 Inadequate intakes of vitamins and minerals can harm

health, but high intakes do not.

True/False

4 “Dietary Reference Intakes” (DRIs) provide science-

based standards for nutrient intake.

True/False

Answers can be found at the end of the unit.

Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc/Blend Images/Corbis

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After completing Unit 1 you will be able to: ●●

●●

Explain the scope of nutrition as an area of study.

Demonstrate a working knowledge of the meaning of the 10 nutrition concepts.

The Meaning of Nutrition ●●

Explain the scope of nutrition as an area of study.

What is nutrition? It can be explained by situations captured in photographs as well as by words. This introduction presents a photographic tour of real-life situations that depict aspects of the study of nutrition.

Before the tour begins, take a moment to make yourself comfortable and clear your mind of clutter. Take a careful look at the photographs shown below and on the next two pages, pausing to mentally describe in two or three sentences what each photograph shows.

Not everyone who thinks about the photographs will describe them in the same way.

Reactions will vary somewhat due to personal experiences, interests, beliefs, and cultural background. An individual trying to gain weight will probably react differently to the photograph of the person on the scale than someone who is trying to lose weight. The photo of a dad measuring his son’s growth progress may bring back memories of the “measuring wall” you knew as a child, and how you were encouraged to eat your vegetables to grow up strong and tall. Depending on your background, you may recognize the photo of ham hocks, greens, and beans as your favorite holiday meal. If the foods are unfamiliar, you may wonder what they are or why is there so much meat on the plate. The final photo, showing a crowd of children and adults at a soup kitchen, may have reminded you that food is essential for life.

Although knowledge about nutrition is generated by impersonal and objective methods, it can be a very personal subject.

Nutrition Defined In a nutshell, nutrition is the study of foods and health. It is a science that focuses on foods, their nutrient and other chemical constituents, and the effects of food and food constituents on body processes and health. The scope of nutrition extends from food choices to the effects of diet and specific food components on biological processes and health.

Gary Conner/PhotoEdit

nutrition The study of foods, their nutrients and other chemical constituents, and the effects that foods and food constituents have on health.

1-2

U N IT 1

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Phil Schermeister/Encyclopedia/Corbis

Royalty free/Corbis Photodisc

T h e Meanin g o f N utritio n

1-3

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Photodisc

Christian Science Monitor/Getty Images

Budimir Jevtic/Shutterstock.com

1-4

U N IT 1

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Nutrition Is a “Melting Pot” Science The broad scope of nutrition makes it an interdisciplinary science. Knowledge provided by the behavioral and social sciences, for example, is needed in studies that examine how food preferences develop and how they may be changed. Information generated by the biological, chemical, physical, and food sciences is required to propose and explain diet and disease relationships. The knowledge and skills of mathematicians and statisticians are needed to develop and implement appropriate research designs and analysis strategies that produce objective, reliable research results. The study of nutrition will bring you into contact with information from a variety of disciplines.

Nutrition Knowledge Is Applicable As you study the science of nutrition, you will discover answers to a number of questions about your own diet, health, and eating behaviors. Is obesity primarily due to eating habits, physical inactivity, the food environment, or your genes? How do you know whether new information you hear about nutrition is true? Can sugar harm more than your teeth? Can the right diet or supplement give you a competitive edge? What is a healthful diet and how do you know if you have one? If improvements seem warranted, what’s the best way to go about changing your diet for the better? These are just a few of the questions that will be addressed during the course of your study of nutrition. You will take from this learning experience not only knowledge about nutrition and health, but also skills that will keep the information and insights working to your advantage for a long time to come.

Foundation Knowledge for Thinking about Nutrition ●●

Demonstrate a working knowledge of the meaning of the 10 nutrition concepts.

You don’t have to be a bona fide nutritionist to think like one. What you need is a grasp of the language and basic concepts of the science. The purpose of this unit is to give you that background. The essential topics covered here are explored in greater depth in units to come, and they build on this foundation of knowledge. With a working knowledge of nutrition terms and concepts, you will have an uncommonly good sense of nutrition.

food security Access at all times to a sufficient supply of safe, nutritious foods. food insecurity Limited or uncertain availability of safe, nutritious foods—or the ability to acquire them in socially acceptable ways.

NUTRITION CONCEPT # 1 Humans need enough food to live, and they need the right amount and assortment of foods for optimal health. In the best of all worlds, the need for food is combined with the condition of food security.

People who experience food security have access at all times to a sufficient supply of the safe, nutritious foods that are needed for an active and healthy life. They are able to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways; they do not have to scavenge or steal food in order to survive or to feed their families. It is important to note that food security emphasizes access to an adequate supply of nutritious food rather than simply sufficient food. Food insecurity exists whenever the availability of safe, nutritious foods—or the ability to acquire them in socially acceptable ways—is limited or uncertain (Illustration 1.1).1 Adults who live in food-insecure households are more likely to have poor-quality diets, to be obese, and to have hypertension, heart disease, or diabetes than adults who are poor but food secure.2 The ready availability of inexpensive, high-calorie foods; poverty; the absence of local supermarkets; limited opportunities

David Bacon/Alamy

Food is a basic need of humans.

Illustration 1.1 “It is possible to go an entire lifetime without knowing about people’s experiences with hunger.”

—Meghan LeCates, Capital Area Food Bank

F oundati on Kn ow l edg e for T hinkin g a b out N utritio n

1-5

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have

two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise, come in for a blowing-up.

The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala, shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.

Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde bush:—