Abstract. Asaresultoftheirinstitutionalassignments,highlyspecializedinformationtechnology(IT)personnel oftenfindthemselvesinunpredictableandcomplexsituationswithahighlevelofdifficulty.Thecomplexityofthe taskstobecarriedoutandthemanagementofthesetaskshavesetnewchallengesforthiscategoryofpersonnel. Itisallthemoreimportant,therefore,thatthepersonnelemployedshouldacquiredifferentiatedstresscontrol techniquesduringqualifyingtrainingtodevelopalong-termperformancecapability.Followingupontheearlier mentionedchallenges,anassignment-specificstressinoculationtrainingforhighlyspecializedITpersonnelisbeing introducedagainstthebackgroundofrelevantstressorsinthecontextofIT.
Keywords: Stress,stressinoculationtraining(SIT),resilience,highlyspecializedITpersonnel.
INTRODUCTION
Duetotheconstantandevolvingtechnologicalprogress, thecompetitivenessofenterprisesiscloselyconnected withtheperformanceofhighlyspecializedinformation technology(IT)personnel(e.g.,softwaredevelopmentand integration;ITarchitecture;IT;processautomationinartificialintelligence;informationanddataanalyses;andIT security[25].Theaforementionedgroupofpeopleisdistinguishedinparticularbyassignment-specificcapabilities andskillsthatenablethemtoacquireorder-basedqualificationsandtocontinuouslyadaptthesequalificationsto extremesituations[8].Overall,peoplewhoworkinITare oftenconsideredahigh-levelasset(Ridl&Zwettler,2010). Therefore,torenderpersonnelrecruitmentmoreeffective andpreventpersonnelfluctuation,personneldevelopment measuresformaintainingandenhancingperformanceand buildingmentalresilienceareincreasinglymovingintothe organizationalfocus[1, 21, 33]besidesthestrategicfields ofactionofrecruitmentandstaffretention(Reichsteiner, 2016;[2];[31]).
Whenconsideringmeasuresformaintainingand enhancingperformancewithinthemeaningofresilience, adiscussionofthefactorofstressisofsubstantive
significance[14].Inthiscontext,stressisdescribedas anunspecific(psycho-physiological)responsetoburdens (stressors).Especiallyintheworkplace,bothphysicaland mentalwell-beingcanbemassivelyaffected[20, 33].The impairmentitselfoftenhasanegativeimpactontheproductivity,effectiveness,andqualityofwork[6].Itappears allthemoreimportanttonotputthefocusongetting ridofallstress-inducingfactorsintheworkplace(which isimpossible),butratherandinparticularonenhancing resilience,whichisunderstoodtosignifyresistanceto stressandtrauma[3, 11].Resiliencepermitsoverloadsituationsattheworkplacetobeadequatelydealtwithasfar aspossiblewithoutthestaffbecomingmentallyweakened bythem[7].
SPECIALCHALLENGES,CONSEQUENCES, ANDAPPROACHESTOSOLUTIONSINIT
ItisrepeatedlyemphasizedthattheorganizationalframeworkconditionsinITareoftencharacterizedbyprojectspecificstructures,whichareaccompaniedbylong-term stressfactors,suchastimepressure,frequentlychanging goals,andhighworkloadLongeneckeretal.[26]emphasize
that,accordingtoITprofessionals,alackofplanning securityduetothejob,aswellasunproductiveresource allocationandchanging(oftencontradictory)objectives, oftenprevailinITwork.Frequentandabruptchangesin changeprocesses,unrealisticexpectations,andineffective teammanagementwereallstressors.Veryhigh-quality requirementsandtheneedforconstantcareerexpansion dueto(1)theconstantdevelopmentsinthecyberworldand (2)thewiderangeoftechnicalactivitiesrequiredfurther stressedthem[40].Bothwereaccompaniedbylowlevels of(alsoalackofinterestin)interpersonalteamwork[8, 41]. Inadequatesocialandcommunicationskills,therefore, oftenleadtoconflictualdisputesbetweenmanagersandIT staff[26].Inthiscontext,highlyspecializedITstafftendto belessinterestedinunderstandingothers,makingefficient andsolution-orientedcommunicationalmostimpossible, especiallywhenmanagersarenotITexpertsthemselves[8].
Furthermore,roleambiguityandtheexperienceofcompetitionasdysfunctionalvariableshaveanegativeimpacton socialcohesionwithinITteams[42].Rao&Chandraiah[34] pointedout,however,thatbothjuniorandseniorIT managersexperiencejobstress,whichcorrelatesnegatively withmentalhealth.
Furthermore,Tsaietal.[40]emphasizedthatinadequate copingwiththisstraincarriestheriskofahigherabsentee rate,burnout,orthedesireforachangeofoccupation.
Moreover,furtherresearchshowsthatinIT,ahigh levelofoccupationalstressstronglyincreasestheriskof developingdepressionandconsuminglargeamountsof alcoholasacopingmechanism(Darshanetal.,2013;[42]). Furthermore,therearereportsofaharmfulsleep–wake cyclethatdegradesperformanceowingto(ITbranchspecific)overtimeornightshifts[22].
Asnotedearlier,Rao&Chandraiah[34]pointout thatorganizationscouldintroducestressmanagement programsthatshouldencompassindividuallyoriented strategies,suchasrelaxationtechniques,biofeedback,or meditationtominimizestress.Inthiscontext,Gerlmaier andLatniak[10]highlighttheimportanceoffactors,such ascreatingindividualleeway,providingopportunitiesfor recreationattheworkplace,orthequalityofmanagement ofITspecialists.Inaddition,Raghavanetal.[32]report that,amongotherthings,flexibleworkinghours,adequate supportofemployees,orsubject-relatedtrainingcanalleviatestressors,suchasroleambiguityandtheabsence ofleewayfordecision-makingandimprovetheoverall perceptionofworkstress.Bolharietal.[5]emphasized timeandagainthatITspecialists,notwithstandingtheir (very)stressfuljobsthatputagreatstrainonthem,have sofarbeenunabletogainsignificantexperiencewith stressmanagementprograms.Buildingontheseresults, Shanthi(2016)suggestsstressmanagementprograms,a workplacedesignthatincludesphysicalactivity,programs aimedatachangeinlifestyle,theidentificationofstressors, orasupportingorganizationalcultureasmeansofcounteractingthenegativeeffectsofstress.
STRESSMANAGEMENT
Inthiscontext,stressmanagementisregardedasageneric termthatencompassesmethodsandtechniquesforreducingmentalstrain[24].Itaimsattheadaptivehandling andsuccessfulmanagementofexternalandinternalstressors[24, 37, 39].Stressmanagementismadeupofseveral segmentsbuildingononeanother,which,intheirentirety, includeallaspectsofsuccessfulcopingwithstrain.
AspartofaresilienceprojectfortheBundeswehrMilitaryPolice,Steingräberetal.[39]designedanassignmentspecificstressmanagementconceptwiththeobjective of(1)contributingtostresscompetencewithinextreme groups,thereby(2)achievinglong-termmentalstrengthening[4, 12, 21, 35, 39].Inthisway,whenselecting techniquesandmethods,adistinctionwasmadebetween stressprevention,stresscontrol,andstressmanagement. Theconceptisbasedontheidentificationofareasofaction thatestablishalinkbetweenstressanditsmanagement withinthescopeofbalancingstrainandcompensation[29].
Meichenbaum[30]assertedthatwherethebuildupof stresscompetenciesisconcerned,stressinoculationtraining(SIT)isusedinmostcases,asstresscompetenciesdo notdevelopfromavoidancebutbysuccessfullydealing withchallenges.
Assignment-SpecificSIT
SITisacomplexbehavioraltrainingrequiringtheuseof cognitiveandmotorskillstobuildupcompetenciesin copingwithstressduringitspeakphase.Broadlyspeaking, SITcanbeseenasaninstrumentintendedtoinduce artificialstresstomaketheindividualsaffectedapplyand trainthestresscontroltechniquestheyhavepreviously acquired[30].
SITcanbecarriedoutinanassignment-specificmannerandadaptedtoallfieldsofactivity.Consequently, basedonstressmanagementaccordingtoSteingräber etal.[39],anassignment-specificSITwasdesignedfor highlyspecializedITpersonnel.Thisassignment-specific SITistoenablethetargetgroupto(1)recognizeandanalyzedysfunctionalemotions,thoughts,imaginings,and behaviorsandlinkthemtotriggeringstressors;(2)train problem-solvingstrategies;(3)activelyregulateemotions andstress;(4)usemaladaptiveresponsesascuesforactivatingtheirstresscontroltechniques;(5)acquiresufficient knowledgeabouteffectivestresscontroltechniquesand enhancetheirself-reflectionandtheirrepertoireofstress controltechniqueswithaviewtocopingwith(un)expected stressors.Assignment-specificSITismadeupof(1)a psycho-educativecommunicationofknowledgewitha (2)self-reflectioncomponent(informationandpractice phase);(3)thepracticeofstresscontroltechniquesand interventions;and(4)asystematicstressinduction(handsonphase)wherethecontentspreviouslylearnedaretobe applied.
Itisimperativethatthepsycho-educativecommunicationofknowledgeshouldsensitizeindividualstothe subjectofstress,includingstressinanorganizationalcontext,and,inparticular,containanin-depthunderstanding oftheimpactofstressandtheinterdependenciesbetween stresscontroltechniquesandstressresponses[39].This communicationofknowledgemustnotbelookedatin isolationbutplannedasacombinationoftheoryand practice.
Theabilityandwillingnesstoengageinself-reflection hasspecialsignificancewhenacquiringahighlevelof stressresistance[13].Self-reflectionisunderstoodasa deliberateconfrontationwithoneselftoenhanceone’sperspectivethroughnewinsightsintosituationsandoneself. Self-reflectioncanbedescribedasresult-orientedifconclusionsforfutureactionorwithregardtoone’sownperson aredevelopedinitscourse[15].
Fromthelargenumberofstresscontroltechniques,the oneslistedbelowhaveprovedlearnableandfeasibleasfar asassignment-specificSITisconcerned:
1. Self-verbalization:Self-verbalizationseekstoalter conceptualself-instructiontoproduceproblemorientedcopingstrategiesandreducearousalin stressfulsituations[38].
2. Goal-Setting/Segmentation:Goal-setting/segmentationreferstostrategiesthatcanbeusedtofocus attentionandresourcesonagoalortobreakup goalsintosmallerintermediategoalsthatareeasier toattain(Miecznik,2013).
3. Relaxationtechniques:TheshortversionofprogressivemusclerelaxationaccordingtoJacobsonisa possibletechniqueinthiscontext[19].Itaimsto induceastateofrelaxation,especiallywhenapplied inaphaseofhighstress.
4. Arousalcontrol:Thistechniquereceivesthemost attentioninconnectionwithassignment-specificSIT: Itisaboutcontrollingthephysiologicalimpactofa stressresponseandfocusesontechniquesforcontrollingbreathingortheheartrate[27].
EffectivesystematicstressinductionrequiresasupportiveSITatmosphere.TheSITatmospheresignifiesatraining frameworkthatenablesthestresslevelrequiredfora challengetobeachievedandthatpermitsandpromotes theapplicationoftherelevanttechniques.Thetraining frameworkmustbechosenandshapedinsuchaway thatstress-reducingfactors(lackofseriousness,relativizationoftherelevance)donotaffectandinterferewith thesystematicstressinduction.Anatmospheresupportiveofpracticeduringthesystematicstressinductionis characterized,forinstance,by(1)arealisticreplication ofthetrainingsituationandthestressamplifiers(inthis caseinconformitywithassignment-specificactivitiesin theITsector);(2)varietyregardingthestressors(multifactorialstrain);and(3)sensitivityandgoalorientation
Figure1. SystematicstressinductionduringanassignmentspecificSIT.
oftheinstructorsvis-à-visthetrainingprogramandthe trainingparticipants.Itisimportanttoensurethatfactors withadetrimentaleffectonassignment-specificSITshould beeliminatedbeforethestartoftrainingandthatboth theinstructorsandthetrainingparticipantsshouldbe preparedandsensitizedaccordingly.Inaddition,themore realisticandsupportivethetrainingphase,thegreaterthe learningprogressthatcanbemade(Meichenbaum,2016). Theassignment-specificSITisshowninFigure 1.The modelisexplainedinmoredetaillater.
Dependingonthetrainingproject,systematicstress inductioncanbeundertakenaspartofindividualor grouptraining.Inbothvariants,assignment-specificand nonassignment-specificactivities(tasks)maybeincorporatedasabasis(oflong-termstressamplifiers).The individualactivitiesarecomplementedandintensifiedby focusedshort-termstressamplifierstoincrease,maintain, orreducetheindividualstresslevelwithinthedesired framework.
Assignment-specificactivitiesaretaskscloselyrelatedto thereal-lifeactivitiesoftherelevantassignment/order.In thecaseofasystemsanalyst,forinstance,suchactivities mayincludethecustomizeddevelopmentofasoftware orhardwaresystem.Foronething,thefocusmaybeon basicexpertiseviaprogramminglanguages,systemmodeling,andrequirementsengineeringbutalsooninterdisciplinarycompetenciessuchasabstractthinking,analytical skills,andexcellentcommunicationskillsasanindividual accomplishmentor,inthecaseofadevelopmentteam,as agroupaccomplishment.
Short-TermStressAmplifiers
Short-termstressamplifiersareaddedtasks/activities employedinafocusedmanner,besidestheassignmentspecificactivities.Theiruseaimstodeliberatelycomplicate theassignment-specificactivitiesthroughmultifactorial challenges.Theycanbemodeledsincetheirintensitycan bechangeddependingonthesituation,whichistosay
thatthestresslevelofthetrainingparticipantscanalso beadaptedindividuallyandinaccordancewiththesituation.Dependingonthetask,theycanbeallocatedto thecategorieslistedbelow:(1)(Sensory-)motorskillsare definedasthevisibleexecutionofmovementsandbasic skills[16].InthecontextofIT,thecoordinatingcapability, forexample,istobehighlightedinparticular.(2)Cognitive skillsareusedtosolveproblemsandcarryouttasks.The (complex)abilitytosolveproblems,suchastheanalysis offaultysoftwareandhardwaresystems,isregardedas animportantindividualskillinthiscontext,whichenables theindividualtorecognizetheproblem,understandit,and solveitbylogicallylinkingcauseandeffectchains[9]. (3)Cognitive-motorskillsthatconnectthecognitivemechanismswithmotorperformance[28].Thefaultlessuseof the10-fingersystemis,amongotherthings,fundamental totheunderlyingcontexthere.(4)Socialskillsthatpermit effectiveactioninsituationsofcommunicationandinteraction.Communicationskills,teamworkabilities,leadership qualities,interculturalcompetencies,criticalfaculties,and theabilitytodealwithconflictareallcomponentsofsocial skills[17].Socialskillsaretobeassignedacentralrole, especiallyintheframeworkofproject-typeITstructures.
Overall,theshort-termstressamplifierscomplementthe assignment-specificornonassignment-specificactivities, whichrepresentlong-termstressamplifiers,bymultifactorialburdens.Dependingonthestresslevelrequired, thetasksassignedtothetrainingparticipantsmaybe increasedorreducedintermsofdifficultyorfrequency.
Long-TermStressAmplifiers
Long-termstressamplifiersmustbeconstruedasmeaning permanentstressors.Liketheirshort-termcounterparts, theyareaimedatstresslevelmodelingandimpactingon theperformanceofthe(non)assignment-specificactivities. However,long-termstressamplifiersarenotonlyapplied selectivelybutalsooveralongerperiod.Furthermore,they canbemodeledandadaptedintermsoftheirintensity,if necessary.Long-termstressamplifiersmaybecategorized inthecontextofthissystematicstressinductionduringan assignment-specificSITasfollows:
• Framework-relatedlong-termstressamplifiers.They refertoallgeneralassignmentandtask-relatedfactorsconcerningtheconditionsoftheexercise.Inthe caseofasystemanalysis,suchconditionscouldbe theallottedamountoftime,thesizeofthesystem tobeanalyzed,avarietyofprogramminglanguages, ortheresourcesmadeavailable,forexample.Hence, theyconstituteadditionallong-termstressamplifiers, which,followingonfromthetask,arepermanently presentbutcanbemodeled,ifneedbe.
• Perception-relatedlong-termstressamplifiers.They refertoallfactorsthathaveanegativeeffectonthe processingofsensorystimuli.Thesestressamplifiers
canbeauditory(e.g.,loudsustainedbackground noiseinterferingwithpickingupimportantpiecesof information)orvisual(e.g.,darknessthatimpedes therecognitionofsystem-relevanthardwareorthe operationofinstruments).Ifthesensesofsmell,taste, ortoucharerelevanttothetraining,olfactory,gustatory,andtactilestressamplifiersalsobelonginthe abovecategory(e.g.,burntsmelltosimulateashort circuitoradefectivehardwarecomponent).
• Environment-relatedlong-termstressamplifiers. Theyrefertoallfactorsarisingfromenvironmental conditions.Forexample,thesecouldencompassthe targeteduseofheat,ornarrowspacesandheavy piecesofequipmentthatseverelyrestrictfreedomof movementorcauseincreasedphysicalstrain.
• Person-relatedlong-termstressamplifiers.Theyrefer toallfactorsarisingfromhumansources.Forexample,theseinclude“nuisance”callsorstress-inducing behaviorsofaco-workerorcustomertowardthe trainingparticipants(e.g.,constantquestioningof themeasurescarriedout,contradictorybehavior ofroleplayers).Afurtherperson-relatedlongtermstressamplifier—anditisimperativethatthis beconsidered—resultsfromthegroupofparticipants/observers.Thepresenceofsuperiorsorthe sizeoftheobservergroupcouldinteraliaresultin persistentassessmentorperformancestress.
Inaddition,withinSIT,long-termstressamplifiersthat donotlendthemselvestomodelingmustbeconsidered too.Basically,itisuptotheinstructorsthemselvesto decidewhetherthedesiredstresslevelhasbeenattained andwhichstressamplifiershouldbeadaptedtowhat extent.Table 1 givesasurveyofthetypesofstressorsthat canbeemployed,theircharacteristics,andthemannerin whichtheycanbeimplementedbyshort-termorlong-term stressamplifiers.
SITStressLevels
Astresslevelof60–70%istobeaimedforduringthe assignment-specificSITtorequirethetechniquestobe appliedwhile,atthesametime,avoidingoverburdening. Toolittlestresswouldnotcallforthetechniquestobe applied,whiletoomuchstresswouldputthetrainingparticipantsinastatesimilartomereendurancewhereserious attemptsatregainingcontrolarenotpermitted[36].Therefore,itisnecessary,inparticular,thattheinstructorsconductingtheassignment-specificSITshouldoperationalize thestresslevels,astheyhavetoadaptthestressamplifiers inaccordancewiththerequirementsofthesituation.
Theparalleluseofbiofeedbackisasuitablemeansof expoundingthepossibleeffectofassignment-specificSIT andencouragingself-reflectioninthetrainingparticipants asanimpetusforaprocessofgrowth.Biofeedbackis understoodtomeangeneratingawarenessofphysical
Table1. Task-relatedstressors. StressorsDescriptionsPossibleImplementations
PerceptualstressPerceptionistheprocessofthesensoryorganspickingup andprocessingenvironmentalstimuli.Overloadorlackof stimulimayhaveastressingeffect.
Conflictofinterests betweenparticipants andthecustomer
Aconflictofinterestsarisesfromtheclashofdifferent interests.Solvingtheconflictcanhaveastressingeffectand, amongotherthings,requirestheabilitytodealwithconflict, theabilitytoworkinateam,toleranceforotheropinions, etc.“Losing”thisconflictmayresultincognitive dissonance.
TimepressureTimepressuremeansbeingpressuredtomeetcertain deadlines.Thisstateofaffairsisperceivedasstressing.
LossofinformationReductioninthevalueofinformationduringthe informationflowofacommunicationphase.Missingor limitedinformationandpoorcommunicationresultin ignoranceanduncertainty.
PressuretoperformPressuretoperformsignifiesthepsychologicalpressurethat arisesfrombeingforcedtodoverywell.
AssessmentstressAnassessmentisavaluejudgmentaboutastateofaffairs,a situation,attributesoraperson.Anassessmentcanhavea stressingeffect,especiallyifapersonwishestodowell.
Lossofteam automatisms
Ateamisanactivegroupofindividualswhoseoverall performanceexceedsthesumoftheindividual performancesbecauseofthewayinwhichtheteam memberscooperate.Thebreakupofwell-rehearsedteams mayhaveastressingeffectsincecommunicationand cooperationaredisruptedandtheteammembershaveto attunethemselvestoanewperson.
Increasedambientnoise Fieldofviewrestriction Darkness
Burntsmell
Thetrainingparticipantsaregiven contradictoryinformationaboutaproblemand havetofindaconsensus.
Noagreementonthesolutionwiththecustomer
Limitedtimeformissionaccomplishment Timepressurefrominstructors
Timereductionduringtaskperformance
Restrictedcommunicationasaresultofa telephone/anInternetconnectionsusceptibleto malfunction,forexample.
Divergentinformation
Wronginformationbythecustomer
Exerciseasacompetition
Negativefeedbackonthecurrentperformance Demandingaveryhighminimumperformance level
Performanceinductionbyobservers(e.g., superiorsobviouslyobservewhatishappening)
Allocationofnewteams
Breakupoftheusualteamstructuresand reassignmentofroles
Incorporationofahandicap(e.g.,individual trainingparticipantsareprohibitedfrom communicatingforseveralminutes)
Table2. Threestresslevelsandthechallengesassociatedwiththem. 30–40%StressLevel60–70%StressLevel100%StressLevel Lowstresslevel;thefocusisontestingthe techniques;notassignment-specific(but anassignment-specificcontextispossible)
Moderatestresslevel;missionand assignment-specificstress;applicationofthe techniquesinanassignment-specificcontext; applicationofthetechniquesanecessity
Maximumstresslevel;lossofcontrol; tunnelvision;persistencebehavior; applicationofthetechniquestaughtnot possible
PracticeApplication/ChallengeOverburdening
processes,suchasbreathingortheheartrate[18].These areparticularlysuitedtoillustratingthestresslevelon thebasisofobjectiveparametersinthecourseofrealtimeevaluationandusingthestressleveltoenhance self-reflection.Theabove-mentionedclassificationofthe individualstresslevelsrequiredforSITcanbeseenin Table 2
IndividualStressManagementandStressLevel
Individualstressmanagementisunderstoodtomeanthe entirerepertoryoftechniquesforstressprevention,stress control,andstressmanagementaswellastheir(successful) application[39].
Thefollowingapplies:Themorediverseandbetter rehearsedthetechniquesofintervention,themoreeffective
andaccuratetheiremployment.Itisonlywhenthetraining participantsprocessthesituationsexperiencedandbenefitfromthem(e.g.,coursesofactionforsimilarfuture situations,knowledgeabouttheirownresponses,and adaptiveactionsforsubsequentsituations)thattheywill beabletoenhancetheirstressresistanceandperform theirassignment-specificactivitieswithoutasignificant performancedegradation(feedbackloop).
SUMMARYANDOUTLOOK
Insummary,areviewoftheliteratureshowsafocus onbothqualitativeandquantitativeinvestigationsthat identifyandassessrelevantstressorsintheworkplace.
Furthermore,itwaspossibletoidentifyalargenumber
ofrecommendedmethodsand/ormeasuresforenhancingstressresistance.Theseextendfromgeneralmeasures suchastheindividualidentificationandeliminationof stressors,tocomplexstressmanagementstrategiesat theorganizationallevelorindividualstressmanagement programs.Itemerges,however,thattheseprogramsare merelymentionedaspotentialmeansofstressmanagementwithoutgoingintothevariouscauseandeffectchains inthesenseofprevention,control,orcoping.Sofar,the majorityofthestudiesfocusonstressmanagementwithoutexaminingstresscontrolinanacutestresssituationas experiencedbyITexperts.
Inconclusion,itshouldbenotedthatapreventively effectiveSITforhighlyspecializedITprofessionalsthat isorientedtowardthecurrentchallengescanmakea decisivecontributiontoexpandingtheirindividualperformancelimits.However,itisimperativethatpracticable andsuitablestresscontroltechniquesbetaughtduringthe preparationofthetraining.Therealismofthetrainingis asalientkeytosuccessinthiscontext.Asaconsequence, itisnecessarytoadequatelyidentifyandappropriately considertherespectivetaskandassignment-specificstressorsandtheircomplexity.Inaddition,itisimportantto continuouslyevaluateand,ifnecessary,adaptboththe effectivenessandefficiencyofthetraininginviewofthe constantchangesintheprofessionalfieldofinformation technology.
Furthermore,thetrainingmodelpermitsinterdisciplinaryimplicationstobederivedforthespecificpreparationofhighlyspecializedpersonnel.Forinstance,it wouldbeconceivable,toextendtheunderlyingmodel toexecutivepersonnel(Brinkmannetal.,manuscriptin preparation).Besides,itistobenotedthattheone-time conductofSITisnotnecessarilysufficientforthelasting promotionofdifferent(stress-reducing)effects.Alongtermeffectcallsforstresscontroltechniquestobeapplied overalongperiodoftimeandtobesupplementedby stresspreventionandstressmanagementtechniques.It willbecomeallthemorechallengingtoachievesustainable results,especiallyiftheassignment-specificSITfailstotake accountoftherelevantorganizationalparticularities.This observationisalsoemphasizedbyMeichenbaum[30]in thesensethatgoingbeyondtheindividualiscalledfor.
Hence,owingtothesituationalandextremelyindividual(stress)responsesduringSIT,itmakessensetouse biofeedbackforobjectivelyobservingtheindividualstress level.Foronething,thiswouldfacilitatethemodelingof theindividualstressamplifiersbythoseconductingthe training,andforanother,itwouldpromotethetraining participants’self-reflectiononthebasisofobjectiveparameters.Also,additionaltechnology-basedtoolssuchasthe useofvirtualrealitytechnology(VRtechnology)would havetobeconsideredentirelyappropriate.Inparticular, thelattercouldcontributetogreatlymarginalizingthe costsofanassignment-specificSIT.Fromaholisticperspective,SITisacomplextoolthatposesspecialchallenges
notonlyforthetrainingparticipantsbutalsoforthose conductingthetraining.Itisbynomeansacure-all. Onthecontrary,thetransactionalconsiderationofstresstriggeringvariablescontinuestoexist.Itisnecessary, therefore,toexpand,intensify,andpromoteinterventions atthegroupandorganizationallevel.
COMPETINGINTERESTS
Theauthorsdeclarenocompetinginterestsinthesubmittedmanuscript.
FUNDING
Thisresearchreceivednospecificgrantfromanyfunding agencyinthepublic,commercial,ornot-for-profitsectors.
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