DepartmentofPoliticalScience,NasarawaStateUniversity,Keffi,Nigeria E-mail:josephineoguine002@gmail.com
Abstract. Inthepasttenyears,underPutin’sleadership,RussiahasmadeacomebacktoAfrica,thesecond-largest andmostpopulouscontinentintheworld.Tofulfilitsgoalofbecomingaworldwidepowerhouse,Russiahasaltered itsperspectiveonAfrica.Russiaisnowmoreprosperousandstablethanitwasinthe1990s.Theassessmentand evaluationofmanybodyofliteratureledtothedevelopmentoftheresearchtechnique.Thepaper’smainobjective wastoexaminehowRussia’sforeignpolicytowardAfricancountrieschangedaftertheturnofthemillenniumand helpedtoadvanceitsquickactions.ThearticlealsofillsagapintheliteratureonRussianforeignpolicytoward Africangovernmentsafter2000.Itassessesthesocioeconomicinteractionsbetweenthetwonations’strengths, weaknesses,opportunities,anddangers.ItalsoshowsthatRussia’seffortsinAfricahavehadagreaterimpact onthedysfunctionalincapacityofAfricannationstofitinwithnormativesettings.Thetextconcludesbyurging AfricannationstouniteandembraceAfricansocialism.
Keywords: Africa-Russia,ForeignPolicy,NaturalResources,Russia-Nigeria,ComparativePolitics.
INTRODUCTION
Inthe17thand18thcenturies,Russiafounditdifficult toscrambleforAfricancountriestocolonize.However, AfricancountriessuchasEthiopia,Somalia,Mozambique, Angola,Egypt,andLibyatooksolaceintheSovietUnion’s anti-imperialisticideology.Inthemid-19thcentury,the thenSovietUnionsupportedAfricananti-colonialmovementsaspartofitsideologybyprovidingmilitaryaid andadvisorstoailing/warcountriesafterWorldWarII. RussiaincreaseditsconcentrationonEthiopiaduetoWesternpenetrationintoAfricabyprovidingarms,military advisers,andmedicalaid.Consequently,therelationship betweenRussiaandEthiopiaduringtheItalian-Ethiopian warpositivelyimpactedthetwo’countries’economies.For Ethiopianstudents,Russiahasalsoofferedtechnicalassistanceingoldminingoperations,geologicalsurveys,and careeracquisition.Afterthe1917revolutionaryturmoil, theskillsmentionedabovegavetheEthiopiansanedge overotherAfricancountriestoserveasconsultantstothe GovernmentofEthiopia[13].Inthe1980s,theeconomy ofAfricawasunderstrain,andrelationswithWestern countriesjeopardizedtheSovietinterestinAfrica.Like
otherworldsuperpowers,Russiahasthesameinterest andmindsettoinfluenceAfricaandexploititsenormous economicpotentialwithuntappednaturalresources.
Inthe21stcentury,severalleaders,officials,andforeignministersvisitedmanyAfricancountries,suchas Eritrea,Ethiopia,andKenya[6].In2006,Russiahostedthe G8Summit;aftertheSummit,Putinpersistentlyshowed interestinAfricaandofferedsolutionstoAfrica’senergy problemstoenhancethecontinent’sdevelopment.In2007, PresidentVladimirPutinwasthefirstRussianleaderto visitSub-SaharanAfricaandhegesturedRussia’sintention toboostsocio-economictieswiththeAfricans.In2015, PresidentVladimirPutinposited,“TheRussianFederationisdevelopingpolitical,tradeandeconomic,and military-technicalcooperation,andalliancesintermsof security,humanitarian,andeducationalfriendshipwith LatinAmericaandAfricanstates.”Societalevolution broughtanewapproachtohandlingcontentiousAfrican issuestopropelpositivechangeandshowRussia’srising powerinternationallyafterUkraineandtheSyrianWar. ThestrugglesagainstISISinSyriahavegivenMoscow credencetobeingasuperpowerincounteringterrorism inAfrica.Thisstatushasstrengthenedthecountry’squest
AsidefromtheUnitedStates,Russiaisthesecondlargestproducerandexporterofarmoriesglobally[16]. Sincetheglobalfinancialcrisis,severalsanctionsandother internationalpolicieshaveimprovedRussianeconomic activities.Takingintoaccountthearmssalesdeal,thisisa panaceaforRussiatoactivelyrebuildeconomic,political, andmilitaryrelationshipsacrossAfrica.Togainmore groundinAfrica,theideologyofarmorysaleshasgiven MoscowbusinessconcessionsinseveralAfricancountries suchasSudanandEritrea.Currently,theRussia-Africa policyisfocusedonbilateraltradeandeconomicand politicalpartnershipandisinterestedinhumanitarian servicesineducationandmilitaryadviceandsecurity aid(Giles,2013).
SWOTANALYSISEVALUATIONOF RUSSIAN-AFRICA
EconomicActivities
RussiaandAfricancountriesthrivedineconomicties. Thediversificationofgeographicaldistributioninthe rangeofgoodstradedintermsofrailmaterial,fertilizer, pipes,andhightechnologyequipmentwasadoptedby botheconomiestoboostbilateraltraderelationshipsand economicactivities.ThetieisupheldbysomeAfrican countriessuchasSenegal,Eswatini,Gabon,Cameroon, andinvestmentagencies;italsohasrepresentativesin Madagascar,theDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,South Africa,Nigeria,andGhana[8].In2019,theJointdeclarationadoptedattheFirst-AfricanSummitinSochi supportedtheincreaseinRussian-Africantradevolume. TheSecretariatoftheRussia-Africapartnershipforumin 2020createdanassociationofEconomicCooperationwith AfricanStates(AECAS)bythePresidentoftheRussian Federation,andthisunitesRussiancompaniesandfinancialinstitutionswithtradeactivitiesintheAfricanmarket.
RussianminingcompaniesacrossAfricasigneddeals withtwentyAfricancountriestoextractmineralssuchas diamondinAngola;platinuminZimbabwe;Aluminum inGuinea;CentralAfricanRepublicgold,diamond,and uranium;andtheDemocraticRepublicofCongodiamond, copper,cobalt,andcoltan.Italsosignedanoildealwith AfricancountrieslikeAlgeria,Egypt,Mozambique,and Nigeria.RussianparastatalssuchasRosneftandLukoil acceptedthenegotiationdealbecausetheseresourcesare difficulttoaccessandarelocatedunderdeepwaterorin Arcticregions.SuchapartnershipwithRussiabringscapitalandtechnicalknow-howtotapintotheaforementioned naturalendowments.Theseagreements’detailsmadeit confidentialanddifficulttoevaluatetheactualvalueorthe tradebenefitstoAfricantreasuries.
Algeria,Angola,Egypt,Morocco,Nigeria,Sudan,Senegal,andZambiaareamongthetopAfricannationsthat purchaseRussianweapons,accountingforthemajorityof thecontinent’stotalarmsmarket(49%),whichisdominatedbyRussia(Fleurantetal.,2019).Inordertoconfront varioustypesofviolenceandinternalandregionalconflicts,Africancountriesareincreasinglywillingtoacquire moreadvancedweaponsandmilitaryequipment,such asfighterplanes,helicopters,tanks,andairdefencesystems(Waruru,2019).Russianweaponsarereasonably priced,simpletomaintain,dependable,andenduring.It isextremelyunwiseforRussiatouseitsrichesasleverage inan“arms-for-resources”agreement.The$20billionin commercebetweenRussiaandAfricaiswildlyunbalanced whenitcomestoarmingAfricannations.
TheRosatomprojectinjectednewenergyandpragmatismintotheAfrica-Russiapartnershiptie.Onthecontinent,Russiahasalsosignedanumberofnuclearpower agreements;in2020,Russia’sStateAtomicEnergyCorporationdidnotjustusefossilfuels.Itisdocumentedthat onlySouthAfricahasanoperationalnuclearpowerplant. However,severalAfricancountriesconsiderednuclear energyamorecost-effectivewaytomeetgrowingenergy demand.Rosatom,aRussian-ownedIndustrialplayer, offereda$25billionloantostartbuildingEgypt’sfirst nuclearpowerplant,thefacilitiesforwhichwouldcostan additional$60billion.Anagreementtoconstructtwomore inNigeriahasalsobeenreached.Nonetheless,RussiaproposesnegotiationswithmorethanseventeenAfricancountrieswithpilotnuclearenergyplantprojectsinEthiopia, Rwanda,Sudan,andZambia(Sukhankin,2019).
Education
DuringtheSovietera,thesoft-powereffortsupported 50,000Africanstogaintertiaryeducationintheiruniversitiesfrom1960to1991.Italsogave200,000scholars fromotherAfricancountriesvarioustrainingtoaidthe continent’sdevelopment.InthequestforRussiatoassist theeducationofAfricans,morethan8,000Africanstudentsgainedfullscholarshipstostudydiversecoursesin Russianhighschools[5,para.5].Forinstance,itsgraduates includeThaboMbeki,pastpresidentofSouthAfrica;Jose EduardoDosSantos,formerpresidentofAngola;and BharratJagdeo,ex-presidentofGuyana,tomentionbuta few.
Inthe21stcentury,over20,000studentswereenrolled inmostRussianuniversitiesandcooperatingwithvariousRussia-Africauniversityeducation.ForAfricanmilitarypersonnel,itprovidesaprofessionalmilitaryeducationprogramthatannuallytrains500Africanservice members.Thelimitednumberofcoursesintheircareer providesRussiaaplatformtoimpactmeaningfullyon civil-militarytrainingandtechnicsinAfrica,notnuclear engineering.Russiamaintainsastrongrelationshipwith Africaandencouragesabilateraltieineducationwith
thecontinent.Statisticshaveshownthatannuallyabout 15,000AfricansstudyatRussianuniversities,mainlyfrom Nigeria,Angola,Morocco,Namibia,andTunisia[3].
HumanitarianAid
OneofthecrucialaspectsofassistancetoAfricawasreducingthedebtburdenforcountriessuchasEthiopiainthe regionthatwereheavilyindebtedtoSovietcountries.RussiaprovidedhumanitarianaidtocountrieslikeEthiopia, Mali,andSomaliainexchangeforadebtwaiverof$20 billioninSoviet-eradebt[9].Theseaidshavepositively affectedtherelationshipsbetweenRussiaandthecountries oftheregion,gainingpeople’sheartsandminds.Putin announceddebtforgivenessandatriplingofcommerce withAfricainthenextfiveyearsattheRussia-Africa Summit.
Furthermore,Russianforeignpolicyispreoccupiedwith severalcriticalconcerns,includingtheconflictinSyria, Ukraine,andrelationswiththeUnitedStates,Europe,and China.Theincreasinginvolvementoftheinfluentialactors oftheworldpoliticallyandeconomicallyontheAfrican continentismoreofamaterialisttendency.Therelationshipsbetweendevelopedanddevelopingcountrieshave neverbeenbalanced[5].Despitetherenewedinterestthat RussiaandAfricaneed,therearetracesofimperialistic ideology,especiallyinarmssales,natural/mineralsexploration,andnuclearenergycooperation.
DisinformationCampaignstoWeakenDemocracy
Russia’sinterestinAfricahasintensifiedasaresultofits annexationofCrimeaandforaysintoeasternUkraine.The invasionprovidedaplatformformultilateralagreements betweencountriesthatupholdrules-basednormsand promoteliberaldemocracy.Thisforeignpolicyenhanced Putin’svisionthatsupportsthepost-liberalInternational WorldOrder[4].Russiahasshownadivergentinterestin Africaatthepoliticallevelbecauseitisinclineddemocratically.Therefore,ithasemployedalonger-termstrategyof meddlinginWesternpro-democracyandnon-supportof humanrightsandelectioninterferenceinAfricancountries todislodgetheideaofadoptinguniversalsuffragetoselect leaders.Itaccomplishedthisbycontestingdemocratic normsandthetenetsofaninternationalorderbasedon rules.ItexpressedworryoverRussianbackingforthe dictatorialregime’soppositiontodemocracy.TheRussians fosteredmistrustofdemocracyand,fromapoliticalperspective,sawitasamoreefficient,just,open,andinclusive formofgovernment.Thisworldview,whichholdsall politicalsystemstobemorallyandpoliticallyequal,benefitsfromtheelite-focused,transactional,anduncontrolled modelofMoscow.
Thrilledsupportersofthemilitarycoupdescendedon Bamako’sstreetsduringthecoupinMaliin2020tocelebratetheirtemporarywinoverthegovernment.Many
MaliancelebratorsraisedRussianflagsandportraitsof VladimirPutin,payingtributetoPutinforMalian-Russian collaborationandsupport.TheactshowedMali’srobust joint,cultural,andhistoricalties.AftertheMaliincident, RussiasponsoreddisinformationcampaignsinAfrica; thesebeganin2018withanintenseefforttoinfluencethe presidentialelectioninMadagascar.AftersigningasecuritycooperationagreementwithRussia,itwasachieved throughsocialmediaintheCentralAfricanRepublic (CAR),therebydistortingdemocracyinAfrica.
ThedisinformationcampaigninAfricacontinuedin Libyain2019toattractbothdomesticandinternational attentiontoviewersandfollowerstosupportthemessage ofanti-westerndemocracyinAfrica[1].OnLibyansocial mediaplatformslikeFacebookandTwitter,tonamea few,therewasalotofcriticismoftheWest,theUnited Nations,andUNideas.Russiahasstarted“franchising” itsmisinformationoperations,whichincludefosteringproRussianandanti-WesternsentimentinAfricannations. Thedisinformationtactics,meanwhile,areplacingfurtherstressonalreadyshakypoliticalinstitutionsinother Africannations.
ConservativeActions
VladimirPutinusedhissoftpowerduringthe2019RussiaAfricaSummitbypromisingmillionsofCOVID-19vaccinationstoAfricannationstohelpimmunizeAfrican populations.Thishigh-profileoutreachandconventional engagementskepttheAfricancontinentontrack,consideringAfrica’smostincrediblegeopoliticallong-andshorttermadvantagesandgains.Apartfromitsparticipation inanumberoftraditionalsecurity,economic,andcultural projectsthroughoutAfrica,alltheseoutreachandaidsare exchangedforvotesattheUnitedNations.Notably,the supportforAfricancountriesconstitutesthelargestvoting blocintheUnitedNations.
RUSSIAANDNIGERIA
ArmsandSecurityAcquisitions
From2000,Russiabecamethelargestarmssupplierto Africa,accountingfor35%ofallarmsexportstotheregion. Russiahassignedover20bilateralmilitaryagreements withAfricanstatestosellarmsandsecurityservicestothe area.AfricanleaderstaketotheRussianarmorybecause itisrelativelyaffordable,easytohandle,haslowmaintenancecosts,anddelivery-in-timetenets.Forinstance, whentheUnitedStateswaslackadaisicalinsellingarms toNigeriatofightBokoHaramin2014,Nigeriaturned toRussiabecauseofhumanrightsabusesbyNigerian soldiers.Nigeriaplacedanorderfor12Mi-35helicopter gunshipsfromRussia.
OilSector
TheoilboominNigeriasince1957hasrelativelydisplaced agriculture,whichwastheforemostsourceofthenation’s revenue.In2019,Russia-Nigeriahadabilateraltradetie toimprovetheefficiencyoftheNigeriaoilsector.Both governmentssignedaMemorandumofUnderstanding thatsealstheagreementtoliftcrudefromtheNigerian oilcompanyoffshorestoproducethefinestproductsfrom thecrude(Vanguard,2019).Thedealwastorevitalize theepilepticoilrefineriesthroughacollaborativerelationshipbetweentheNigerianNationalPetroleumCorporation(NNPC)andRussian-basedcompanies“Lukoil andGazprom”topromotecollaborationandrehabilitation betweenthetwocountriesacrosstheoilandgasvalue chain.Thetwocountries’partnershipcoverstheoilandgas industry’supstream,midstream,downstream,andservice sectors.Theaimofthesetiesforeseesthemovementof thecrudeindeepoffshoreexplorationtoenhancethe refiningofproductionproducts.Thesynergyhelpedmake petroleumproductsreadilyavailablesincethevarious refinerieswerewornandmalfunctioning.
TheinefficiencyinthetechnologyoftheNigeriannation tomanagetherefineriesandrelativelylapsesontheside oftheleadersovertimeledtotheentiredeplorablestateof thesefacilities.Itisveryimperativetomentionthatafter theUnitedStatesandEuropeoptedoutofthepurchase ofNigeria’scrude,between2015and2020,Indiawas oneofthelargestbuyersandconsumersofhercrude; spendingaboutN2trillionperannumrankedIndiafirst amongthetopfivebuyersofNigeriancrude(NBS,2021). Russia’ssupplyofitspetroleumproductatacheaperrate, cumacceptedpaymentinIndianrupeesagainstthedollar, madetheIndiangovernmentcalloffheragreementwith NigeriaandoptforRussianoilandgas.Theeconomic implicationofIndiansoptingoutofthedealduetoRussia’sdecisiontosellmoreoiltoIndiansatadiscounted officialBrentcrudeoilpriceof$107perbarrelin2022led toabackdropinNigeria’soilearnings(FinancialTimes, 2022).
Thesayingofwhat“affectsonecountryaffectsthe other”inanutshell,“nonationisanisland.”Nigeria’s dependenceonforeigncountriessuchasRussiaforpurifyingcrudecanthrowadevelopingnationoutofbalanceand hasatripleeffectoneconomicdevelopment;themultiplier effectonthegovernment,exporters,andconsumersof theseproductsfacesahard-hittingsituation.TheRussiaUkrainecrisisthatcommencedonFebruary24,2022,has throwntheNigeriannationintoalimitedsupplyofPremiumMotorSpirit(PMS),asvesselssupplyingtheproduct facedelaysinleavingthewarringzonesasscheduled.This situationhasnegativelyimpactedtheNNPC’sabilityto meetitscrudeoilsupplyobligationstothenationandthe downstreamsector.
Furthermore,shipownersavoidallocatingvesselsto receive,transportcrude,andbringbackrefinedproducts
toandfromRussiaduetohitsbyairfightersonsailing ships.Also,therefusaltooffervesselstosailacrossthe BlackandMediterraneanSeasattractshugepremiums fromtheinsurerstomovethecrudeandrefinedproducts. Theescalatingtensioninthewarzonesledtoasignificant increaseinthefreightrate;thefreightrateontankervessels rosefrom$10,000to$30,000perday(FinancialTimes, 2022).SequeltoRussia’sconductinsellinghercrude,it isprettyobviousitisscramblingforabroadermarket tomaximizeherrevenue.Concerningthetiebetweenthe RussianandNigeriangovernmentstorefinehercrudehas nobalanceoftrade;instead,it’smoreofRussianinterest.
Education
TheSecondRussia-AfricaSummitinSochi,attendedby40 Africanleaders,encouragedNigeriatobuildastrongertie withRussiatoexpandhumancapitaldevelopment.The Nigeriangovernmentadmittedthattherelationship(link) shouldgobeyondtradeandbusinesstoaddresssecuritychallengeslikecounter-terrorism,povertyeradication, humantrafficking,illicitfinancialflow,climaticchange, andmigration.Inanutshell,asidefromnation-building, itisimperativetoestablishahumaneandinclusiveaffiliation.In2020,therewasaBilateralEducationAgreement viatheFederalScholarshipsBoardtoofferascholarship, fullyfundedtofewermorethan78studentstotakeup coursesindifferentareasofspecializationsuchasgeneral medicine,aeronauticengineering,chemicaltechnology, nuclearphysics,andtechnology,mechatronicsandrobotic, andnanotechnologyandmicrosystemengineering(News AgencyofNigeria,2021).
Theideaofeducationandtechnologicaladvancementis onebothcountriescravedtorevitalizeandaddvalueto theeducationalsectorandexplorenewideasthatsupport technicaladvancementandinnovation.Thebilateralagreementholisticallyexpandedhumancapitaldevelopment andenhancedresearchanddevelopmentinNigeria.However,lookingattheslimopportunitiesfortertiaryeducationallocatedtomanyAfricancountries,Nigeriabenefits fromtheRussia-Nigeriafullscholarship,representinga steadygrowthofNigerianrecipientsintheundergraduate andpostgraduatescholarshipawards.Sofar,morethan 200Nigerianuniversitystudentshavebenefitedfromthe BilateralEducationProgramme[7].
RosatomNigeria
The“RosatomNigeria”projectinvolvedadoptingnuclear powertorevitalizeandexpandthepowersector.Itintends tousethesmallandmodularreactorstofixoff-gridpower challengesandrestoreNigeria’selectricitypowerchain. ItaimsatusingscienceandtechnologytoenhancesocioeconomicdevelopmentinNigeriaintermsofbuilding andinfrastructuremaintenance.Furthermore,theRussian governmentcollaboratedwithNigeriaviatheprojectto
initiateaneffectiveactionplantoenhanceanenvironmentallyfriendlysocietytocontainpollutionthataffectsthe ecosystem.
InferencesofRussianActivitiesinAfrica
Africa’sweaklegalandregulatorypolicies,suchasWagnerDisinformationandelitebasediplomacyinfluence haveexpandedRussianactivitiesinAfrica.Lackofunity amongAfricanleaders,long-termstayinoffice,andilladministrationoppressionofthemasseshavetriggereda highlevelofprotestandviolenceintheformofterrorism, insurgency,andmultiplecoupstooverthrowtheexisting government.Inthisregard,Russiadisplayedareputationalconcernwithitsintervention.Thefactremainsthat RussianmeddlingintheconflictinAfricaismoreprofitseekingthroughthesaleofarmsthansecurityadviceor services.Nigeriaisthe11thlargestoilproducerglobally andthelargestproducerinAfricaandproduceshighvalue,lightcrudeoilduetoitslowsulphurcontent (NNPC,2000).
From2018todate,war-tornAfricancountrieslikeMali andMozambique,tomentionbutafew,haveexperiencedpoliticalinstabilityandslowedeconomicgrowth anddevelopment.Therefore,thebilateralagreementon theinflowofcrudeandoutflowofrefinedproductsacross theMediterranean/BlackSeacannotbebalanced.Itis oneofthewaystohavea“sliceofcake”fromNigeria’s resourceendowment.Russiasecuredseaportstoaccess theBlackSeatoexpanditscapacitytobeadisruptive forcealongthecoastofAfricafornavalandmaritime activities.TheRussianideologyofanti-democracyisa weapontodestabilizetheWesternideasondemocracyand humanrightslawsontheAfricancontinent.Therefore, theRussiangovernmentadvocatesauthoritarianismover democracy.ThishasbecomeRussia’sbasisofargument; itpositsthat“democraticnormsandvalues”suchasthe ruleoflaw,fightingcorruption,enhancingsustainable economicgrowth,andlivingstandardsofhercitizens.All ofthesehavedirectimplicationsforAfricansocietyand development.
TheRussiansaimedatreversingdemocraticgovernance, normstoauthoritarianleadershipwheretheprincipleof blindsubmissiontoauthority,rejectionofpluralityas opposedtotheindividualoffreedomofthought,separationofpowers,democraticopinions,andactionrules. Itsupportsdisinformationcampaignsbymeddlinginthe electoralprocesses,disruptingandsabotagingthetenets ofdemocracy,bolsteringunlawfulanddishonestleaders, andcontinuesviolenceinwar-tornnations.Theresultant impactoftheviolationoftheprinciplesofgoodgovernanceonfragilecountriesislong-termpolitical,economic, anddevelopmentallapses.
Russiaisthekeyplayeringlobaltradeandhadanadded advantage.Itisthe14thlargestglobaleconomyexportingoil,coal,wheat,andsunflowerseeds.TheSanctions
Actshavedetrimentaleffectsoninternationaltrades;the imposedsanctionsincreaseRussia’spenaltiesfordestabilizingeconomicandpoliticalactivitiesinAfrica.These sanctionsarenotpunishmentsoradeterrentagainstfuture aggressionbutratheraninterventioninactiveconflicts. TheGlobalFragilityAct(GFA)waspassedin2019bythe U.Sgovernmenttoimprovetheglobalsecurityandreduce thethreatsofconflictspilloverbycreatingawaytowake thefragilestatestoprovideodds.However,Russiahas usedSyriatoestablishabaseinthemiddleeastandfight aproxywarwiththeUnitedStatestogaindiplomaticand economicrecognition.The(GFA)providedcountriesfaced violentprotest,governancefailure,exacerbatedbythe Coronaviruspandemic,anddemocraticrecession.Inthe fragile/weakstates,thepoliticalelitescreatedweakness, dividedsociety,andabettedcorruption,lowproductivity, andthuggery.
THEORETICALFRAMEWORK
TheRealisttheoryemphasizesthat’states’arethemost criticalactorsinglobalpolitics.Itpursuespowertosecure states’interests.Itisoftheviewthatstatesandgovernmentsshouldexercisesupremeorsovereignauthorityover adefinedterritory(Morgenthau,1978).Thecountriesatthe corecontroltheactivitiesofthecountriesattheperiphery fortheirinterestusingtheexpertpower.Forrealists,pursuingleadershippowerandpoliticalinterestareseparate fromtheeconomic,moral,andanyspheresofhuman endeavors.However,powerconsiderationmustcomefirst; actiontakeninthenameofeconomicwealthmustbeevaluatedonhowtheycontributetoordetractfromnational interest.Realists,forexample,maybeconcernedabout theirstate’seconomictieswithothercountriesregarding tradeagreementsanddirectinvestments,makingthem dependentonthem.
Theideologiesofmoralprinciplesandhumanrights policiesarenotacceptedbyrealistsasthepowerofdependentstatesmightevenbethreatened.Thisprovedthatconflictandcoerciontoachieveitsaimremaindominantinthis perspective.Furthermore,sinceeconomicanalysishardly explainswhytheprotectionistactionswereimplemented inthefirstplaceandalsoexhibitsstrongdependencies betweentheactors,thesepolicyreformswillcontinueto yieldcounterproductiveresults[10].
CONCLUSIONANDRECOMMENDATIONS
Since2006,Russiahassoughttobuilditspresenceand roleinAfrica.Theageofimperialismandscramblefor AfricasignificantlyimpactedAfrica’scontinentandleft aconsiderablepositiveandnegativelegacyconcerning contemporarysociety.Russia-Africatiemadeanimpactin termsofproject/infrastructuraldevelopmentandhumanitarianaidtoAfricancountries.Theseprojectsandaid
weregiveninreturnfornaturalresourcesfromAfrica. ThescholarshipawardsacrossdifferentAfricanregions benefitedmanywhosubjugatedAfricanstobeloyalto theRussiansandbuiltasphereofinfluenceonthecontinentbypromotingforeignpoliciesagainsttheUnited StatesandEuropeanUnion.Thetermsoftradewerevery imbalancedbetweenAfricansandRussians.Theeconomic policiesfavoredtheRussiansandexpressedmuchsuperiorityagainsttheAfricans.
Also,WesterneducationisatoolthatchangedAfrica’s socialandeconomicvaluesregardingdevelopmentalprocesses.Itinstilledconfidenceandappropriateknowledge toimprovethegrowthofAfricansocietytorejectpoverty, diseases,andignoranceinallsectorsoftheeconomy.In thiscontext,theinfluencersusethereferentandexpert powerstocontrolandmanipulatetheactivitiesofthe Africans.Thesetriggerleadershipheightsbecauseofthe highlevelofexpertise,capabilities,andabilitiestotransfer knowledge,skills,andinformationtothebeneficiariesfor areasonabledurationandpurpose.TheActors(Russians) attractedAfricansbyrenderinghumanitariananddevelopmentalaidtothemtobuildloyalty.TheRussiansrefused toshareacquiredknowledge,skill,andexperiencesto avoidself-defectionorbecomeexperts.
Occasionallyholdersoftheirtypeofpowerscanberigid, dogmatic,andevenselfish.TheRussiansprimarilyfocused onthe“gains”thataccompanytheirexploits.Asidefrom thepositivevaluesoftheRussianscholarshipaid,western educationcolonizesthemindoftheAfricanstoadopt westernideologiesandculture,therebyabandoningthe Africancultureandtradition.Thereisaneedtogoback tothedrawingboardandpromoteAfricaneducationas muchaswesternknowledgeplaysout.Africansocieties faceeconomicimpactfromRussianactivities.Theactor focusedonandinitiatedpoliciesandtechnologiesthat supportextractingresourcessuchasgold,diamond,cobalt, platinum,magnesium,andcrude,tomentionafew,from Africa[6].
ThedisinformationcampaignaimstodisruptAfrica’s internalpoliticalandsocialsystemstothwartU.Spolicies andobjectives.Wheredemocraticvalues,beithatespeech orvoters’manipulations,arepoorlyupheldbythestate. TheideamostlycreatedvotesupportforRussiainthe UnitedUnionCongress.Notably,in2019,countriescontributed30outofthe79votesinsupportofRussiain theUnitedNationsCongress(KremlinDocument,2019); thisideaismainlyforpoliticalgains.Toshowconcern forfragilestates,diplomatic,economic,andsecuritydeals havebeenstuckinseveralcountrieslikeAngola,Burkina Faso,Guinea,Mali,andMozambiquetoshowconcern forfragilestates.Thisdealinvolvesthecontributionof manytoinfrastructuralinvestment,politicalcooperation, counter-insurgencytraining,weaponexchange,andcampaignandpolicyadvice.Itisalsotailoredtomeetthe desiresofthelocaleliteand,mostnotably,atop-down interest.
Themercenaries’supportactivityfinancedbyRussia todealwithLibya,Syria,andeasternUkraineconflicts wasforpersonalinterest.TheUNinvestigatorsaccused theWagnergroupofabettinghumanabusesinfragile countries.TheoperationsoftheWagnermercenariesin MaliwereinlinetopushdisinformationaboutFrance’s counter-terrorismoperationinthecountry.TheKremlin’s effectivenessinseedingitspreferredvaccinenarratives amongAfricanaudiencesunderscoresitsconcertedeffort tounderminethem.Itdiscreditswesternpowerbypushingortappinganti-westernsentimentsacrossAfrica.Allof theabovepoliticalandeconomicaidstothecontinentball downtothepersonalinterestoftheRussians.
Furthermore,thesocial-economicideasintroducedby theRussiansweremoreofcapitalism.Againstallodds, propagatingexcessiveindividualismandexploitative activitiesinvulnerablecountriesintendstodividesocietyintohostilegroupsthatgenerallypromoteinequality viastrictforeignpolicies,creatingcompetitivenessinstead ofencouragingcooperationandtradebalancebetween countries.Thedividedsocietyhaspropelleddisunityin mostAfricannations;thesegapshavegiventheRussiantheedgetoemploydiversemanipulativetendencies toexploregainsfromtheAfricancontinent.Therefore, thepaperadvocatesmuchforunityamongAfricans toachieveacommongoaltoenhancetheAfricanizationofthecontinent.Africancountriesshouldstrive forliberation.Anindependentsocietyisself-reliantand hasfreedomfromothernations’economicandcultural dependence.
Additionally,contemporaryAfricancountriesarecharacterizedbycorruption,exploitativenature,selfishness, andunevendistributionofresourceswithinthenation; theseillbehaviorsareattributedtoAfricansfacingretard developmentandgrowthonthecontinent.Thereisa needforthedisciplineofmindsandselvesofAfrican leaderstopromotesanityinthesystem.Also,theideaof Africansocialismshouldbepromoted.Itentailssharing AfricanresourcesinanAfricanwaydistinctfromclassical socialism.
DISCLOSURE
Theauthorreportednoconflictsofinterestforthiswork.
AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS
Theauthormadesubstantialcontributionstoconception anddesign,acquisitionofdata,oranalysisandinterpretationofdata;tookpartindraftingthearticleorrevising itcriticallyforimportantintellectualcontent;agreedto submitittothecurrentjournal;andgavefinalapproval oftheversiontobepublished.
REFERENCES
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