The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent Abstract The following paper encompasses a broad study of the Indigenous inhabitants of St. Vincent and the Grenadines located in the lesser Antilles of the Caribbean (figure 1 & 2). For the purpose of the research and overall work, a physical/three-dimensional model and an architectural drawing of the Island are used in tandem with the text below to support the thesis.

The contents of the essay include general information and background history of the topic, an academic paper; as well as a critical reflection regarding the process of creating the model and its relevance to the Petroglyphs of St. Vincent. Moreover, the architectural drawing will be used as a figure depicting specific locations and geographical information. All research was crossed referenced for validity and scholarly texts, books and articles were examined. An attempt to find information from Indigenous sources and peoples was conducted (see references).

General History The migration of various peoples from Southern America to the Caribbean predates 25,000 years ago (D’Costa, par. 4-5). Of these groups, the Ciboney who arrived around 300 BC were displaced and conquered by the Taíno Arawak, circa 500 years later (Beckles 77-78). Subsequently, the Kalinagos invaded St. Vincent, killed all the Arawak men and married the women around 1000 AD (Sherlock 3-5). The Kalinago peoples named the Island Hairouna and defended the land from colonization after the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1482 for centuries (Kim 118). Around 1635-1675, a ship transporting enslaved Africans was wrecked on the coast of one of the Grenadine Islands, Bequia (Leland and Berger 14-15). The African survivors and later other Africans escaping slavery from surrounding islands were granted refuge by the Kalinago and intermarried.

Thus, forming the Afro-Indigenous culture known as the Garifuna1, who call the island Yurumein (Leland, Poluha and Prescod 4). Together the Kalinago and the Garifuna (also referred to as the Caribs of St. Vincent) 2 formed a resilient force that resisted colonizing efforts until 1719 when the French and British established settlements. In 1763, the Island of St. Vincent was ceded to Britain; however, the Carib peoples maintained the right to exist as an independent nation (Kim 126).

The Garifuna are also known as ‘Black Caribs’ (Leland and Berger 12).

Many Indigenous peoples of St. Vincent refer to themselves as Caribs (Sherlock 1). However, some sources suggest that the Kalinago people were labelled as Caribs meaning cannibal and hence the term Caribbean was derived (Fraser 60). The aforementioned statement may have been derived from a colonial, stereotypical understanding of the Indigenous peoples. Thus, for the purpose of this paper, the term Carib will be used as a broad term to describe the Indigenous peoples of St. Vincent until further clarification can be concluded.

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The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent Prologue I have always been fascinated with stories about the Caribs of St. Vincent. My mother often tells me of the thrills and fun memories she has of when Carib peoples took refuge in the high school she attended during a volcanic eruption in the 70s. Specifically of an amusing time when Carib children entered a science lab and demanded for juice (which really was chemicals for an experiment). An empowering tenacity persistently exuded from these stories, and I have grown to admire the resilience of the Caribs.

Introduction To begin, the Caribs of St. Vincent established formidable resilience to colonial control through the formation of the Garifuna, an Afro-Indigenous ethnogenetic group. In addition, the Caribs maintained territorial autonomy on the Island of St. Vincent through the employment of French alliances. Furthermore, the immortalization of Carib culture and identity persists through the Petroglyphs of St. Vincent in the form of rock art. Ultimately, the resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent is principally demonstrated in the amalgamation of African and French alliances and through culturally significant rock art.

Primarily, the unification of African and Kalinago peoples increased resilience to colonial control through the unification of anti-colonial and anti-slavery rhetoric. In the 1700s, the Kalinago formed an Afro-Indigenous ethnogenetic group in which enslaved Africans were granted refuge on the Island of St. Vincent (Walls, par. 5).

The amalgamation of cultures created the Garifuna nation and ultimately formed the “Carib Republic” where Africans and Indigenous became “one and the same nation” (Kim 125). By the mid-seventeenth century, the Garifuna population was increasing rapidly and soon became greater than that of the Kalinagos and Africans.

Together, the African-Kalinago group withstood European forces and repelled both English and French expeditions in the 1600s (Beckles 84). Thus, the increase in strength through cultural unity sanctioned St. Vincent as a refuge from colonial control. In addition, the merging of Kalinago anti-colonial and African antislavery motivations effectively halted European economic activity. The English and French sought to colonize the Caribbean in order to enslave African and Indigenous inhabitants on various plantations. However, the efficacious colonial resistance demonstrated by the Caribs of St. Vincent threatened neighboring slave plantations; insofar as fostering anti-slavery activity (Beckles 80-84). In turn, igniting revolutions against

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent colonial slave masters and effectively compromising colonization in the Caribbean. Overall, African and Kalinago relations invigorated defiance to colonial activity in St. Vincent during the 1600s until the Second Carib War, circa 1796 (Kim 118-120).

Secondarily, the Caribs formed an alliance with French colonizers as a tactic to maintain autonomy by creating conflict between Europeans; and in turn, resist British control. This military tactic was effective in preventing colonial control throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Specifically, during the Second Dutch War in the Caribbean, 1655-1667, the Caribs created rivalry by attacking the English seemingly in favor of the opposing French/Dutch alliance. In June of 1667, an English Governor received “intelligence” suggesting the attacks were “‘instigated’ by the French”. The resulting European rivalry created by the Caribs was used effectively in retaining full control over the Island at the time (Beckles 85). Furthermore, in the early 1700s the Caribs maintained considerable territory amongst French and British settlements on the island.

During this time the French aided the Caribs in protecting St. Vincent from the British out of fear of losing settled land in Martinique and Guadeloupe (Beckles 89). In the 1770s, Carib peoples adopted the French language and convinced the French colonizers to join forces with them to fight against the British. The Caribs along with the French, and their knowledge of the island, maintained control over the island during the First Carib war (1772-73) (Kim 119-120). Even after 1796 when French forces surrendered to the British, the Caribs continued to fight for their land. Ultimately, the British won by deporting more than 5000 Caribs to Roatán, near Honduras, and the remaining Caribs lost all ancestral claims to land in 1805 (St Vincent and the Grenadines Human Rights Association, par. 6). Nevertheless, the Caribs successfully eluded control for centuries and implemented many sophisticated tactics to withstand British forces. Regardless of the colonial triumph, the Caribs of St. Vincent demonstrated resilience and perseverance in protecting their ancestral land and culture.

Furthermore, the resilience of the Caribs was immortalized in the form of rock art depicting ancestral origin and culture; thus, reinforcing identity. The Petroglyphs of St. Vincent (see figure 3) yield significant connections to ancestral migration and cultural origin of the Caribs of St. Vincent. As a result of the various migrations of Indigenous groups from South America to the Antilles islands, the vast number of Petroglyphs on the island

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent suggest settlement over extended periods of time (Huckerby 240). This inherent connection to some of the first Indigenous inhabitants reflects cultural lineage to Southern America; and in turn, aids in understanding cultural origin. Thus, the Petroglyphs immortalize the history of migration to the Island and serves as a permanent reminder of the triumph of the Indigenous peoples on their journey to the Antilles islands. In addition, the Petroglyphs of St. Vincent demonstrates culture and teachings of the Caribs. The rock art reflects cultural beliefs and demonstrates history authentically determined by Indigenous inhabitants. Carib Folktales suggest that “the Earth was their primary deity along with the sun and the moon as animate objects” (Sherlock 7).

These beliefs are argued to be depicted in the Petroglyph drawings. Other accounts suggest the stones were used as sacred altars or to reflect religious significance (Brinton 419). Overall, all interpretations of the Petroglyphs lend to culturally significant and sacred meanings associated with the Carib peoples. Therefore, the Petroglyphs aid in cultural continuity as Indigenous beliefs and history persist through the engravings and immortalize Carib culture. Ultimately, the historical and cultural significance of the Petroglyphs aid in establishing/reinforcing Carib identity as permanent representations of Indigenous presence and beliefs.

Conclusion

Conclusively, the inherent resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent was demonstrated through resistance to colonial control and the preservation of culture and identity through the Petroglyphs on the Island. Through the formation of the Garifuna, African anti-slavery convictions amplified defiance to colonial control. Additionally, the solicitation of colonial rivalry through Carib and French alliances further reinforced territorial authority and effectively resisted British control. Finally, cultural survival and the preservation of Carib identity are eternally preserved through the Petroglyphs of St. Vincent.

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent

Personal Reflection As part of the research for this paper I created a three-dimensional model of St. Vincent out of clay and plaster. First, I started off with a level wooden base and then began molding a rough shape of the Island using clay at a scale of 1:12500 onto the piece of wood. Through following information I found on various sites I was able to mould the topography of the Island. The process included adding pieces of clay and then removing pieces in order to create ridges and valleys. In order to create a mould for plaster to be poured into I had to mould the negative space of the Island, essentially creating the opposite form of the Island to pour the plaster into. Once this was completed, I took a knife and carved a rough, earthy texture into the clay. I did this as an exercise to mimic the action of carving into rock similar to the process of creating the aforementioned Petroglyphs. After the desired texture was achieved I created a plaster mixture by adding equal parts water to equal parts plaster mix and poured the viscous liquid into the clay cast/formwork. I left the plaster to cure for 24 hours and then slowly carved the clay away from the solid plaster model.

I believe the creation of the model was an essential step in analyzing the resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent. The Island itself and its natural form holds great significance to the Caribs and [they] perceived it as part of their natural, ancestral, survival environment. In addition, the Caribs were almost impossible to subdue due to their nomadic nature and emphasis upon territorial acquisition as a response to the geographical features (Beckles 78-80). Thus, to a certain degree, the topographical form of the Island played a significant role in the Carib triumph over colonial control.

In addition, the creation of the model helped me better appreciate the Island due to the model’s scale. To me, a greater amount of significance can be associated with something as tangible as a model one can hold in their hands. Stories of the Island and images of it do not seem to yield the same result. Similarly, the Petroglyphs of St. Vincent yield great significance as the rock art immortalizes cultural beliefs and histories that were otherwise shared orally. The Petroglyphs reinforce the presence of Carib inhabitants on the Island and thus create an awareness of Carib identity and culture. In addition, I believe the process of creating something automatically makes the resulting product inherently meaningful and perhaps sacred. In the same sense Caribs and other Vincentian inhabitants are aware that an Indigenous person or persons spent time creating the forms depicted on the Petroglyphs. Thus, the rock art itself (as forms created by an Indigenous person) holds significance and represents culturally significant teachings in tandem. Overall, the model helps reinforce my own identity as I can now better imagine where my mom once lived; and the model is something I can cherish and pass down to future generations as a representation of my culture and identity. Ultimately, the creation of the model in tandem with research helped me formulate some of the arguments stated in the paper and to better understand some of the ideologies associated with rock art through my own perspective. Please find images of the plaster model and clay formwork below.

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent

Figure 3: Map depicting sites of the Petroglyphs of St. Vincent with associated names. (Some of the names are in the Garifuna language whilst others are post-colonial translations. Due to limited resources and research available the original names remain unknown). Note the overlapping Taíno Arawak and Kalinago territories. Please find below images of the Petroglyphs, as numbered above. Note: Images of the 13 Stones and Petit Bordell sites could not be found online.

References – The map was created by merging the images and information found on the following websites: World Heritage Site. Map of Rock Art of St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Web. Accessed 17 Feb 2022. https://www.worldheritagesite.org/tentative/id/5749.

Native Land Digital. Native Land. Web. Accessed 17 Feb 2022. https://native-land.ca/.

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent 1. Barrouallie3

2. Mount Wynne

Note: All of the following images were copied from the following source: Huckerby, Thomas. “Petroglyphs of St Vincent, British West Indies.” American Anthropologist 16.2 (1914): 238-244. New Era Printing Company. Web. Accessed 3 Feb. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1914.16.2.02a00040.

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The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent 3.Buccament

4. Sharpes Stream

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent 5. Indian Bay

7. Colonarie

6. Yambou

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent References Beckles, Hilary McD. “Kalinago (Carib) Resistance to European Colonisation of the Caribbean.” Caribbean Quarterly 54.4 (2008): 77–94. Routledge. Web. Accessed 11 Feb. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/00086495.2008.11829737.

The scholarly journal article was used to verify the validity of historical statements regarding the migration of Indigenous groups to the Caribbean and to examine ways in which the Kalinago resisted colonial rule.

Daniel G. Brinton. “On a Petroglyph from the Island of St. Vincent, W. I.” Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 41.1 (1889). Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Web. Accessed 4 Feb. 2022. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4061654.

The scholarly journal article was used to cross reference information about the Vincentian Petroglyphs, including assumed function and significance.

D’Costa, Krystal. “Who are the Indigenous People That Columbus Met?” Anthropology in Practice.

Scientific American, 12 Oct. 2018. Web. Accessed 11 Feb. 2022. https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/anthropology-in-practice/who-are-the-indigenous-people-that -columbus-met/#.

This blog was written by a Trinidadian born anthropologist and shares her findings regarding the history of the Indigenous peoples who inhabited the Antilles islands. This source was used to confirm findings on the first Indigenous groups who settled in St. Vincent.

Fraser, Adrian. “Revisiting the Carib Story.” Caribbean Quarterly 60.2 (2014). Routledge. Web. Accessed 10 Feb. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/00086495.2014.11671888.

This scholarly article was used to verify the validity of statements pertaining to the history of the Kalinago and Garifuna nations. In addition, the article provides a French perspective on the First and Second Carib wars. Adrian Fraser is a prominent Vincentian historian and provides a perspective from a person who was born and raised in St. Vincent and the Grenadines.

Huckerby, Thomas. “Petroglyphs of St Vincent, British West Indies.” American Anthropologist 16.2 (1914): 238-244. New Era Printing Company. Web. Accessed 3 Feb. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1914.16.2.02a00040.

The scholarly journal article provided insight about the Petroglyphs of St. Vincent, such as, location, assumed function and origin.

Kim, Julie Chun. “The Caribs of St. Vincent and Indigenous Resistance During the Age of Revolutions.” Early American Studies 11.1 (2013): 117-132. The McNeil Center for Early American Studies. Web. Accessed 11 Feb. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1353/eam.2013.0007.

The scholarly journal article was used to examine ways in which the Kalinago resisted colonial rule and the impact of colonization in St. Vincent and the Grenadines.

Leland, Andrea E and Kathy Berger. “The Garifuna Journey Study Guide”. Digital Commons. Columbia College Chicago, 1999. Web. Accessed 9 Feb. 2022. https://digitalcommons.colum.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=leland.

This study guide was created for the documentary entitled “The Garifuna Journey”. Unfortunately, I could not access the full documentary online, so the guide aided in my understanding of the content. It was created in conjunction with the National Garifuna Council and aided my understanding of the history of the Afro-Indigenous group that formed on the island of St. Vincent.

The Resilience of the Caribs of St. Vincent Leland, Andrea E., Lauren Poluha and Paula Prescod. “Yurumein - Homeland Study Guide”. Digital Commons. Columbia College Chicago, 2018. Web. Accessed 9 Feb. 2022. https://digitalcommons.colum.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=leland.

This study guide was created for the documentary entitled “Yurumein - Homeland” the second film proceeding “The Garifuna Journey”. Unfortunately, I could not access the full documentary online, so the guide aided in my understanding of the content. It was created in conjunction with the National Garifuna Council and aided my understanding of the history of the Afro-Indigenous group that formed on the island of St. Vincent.

Sherlock, Philip. West Indian Folk-Tales. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1996. Print.

The book was given to me as a young child from my mother who was born and raised in St. Vincent and the Grenadines. It tells stories of the Carib and Arawak people of the Caribbean and helped me to gain an understanding of the beliefs and history associated with the Indigenous of the Islands. For the purpose of the paper, I am regarding the book as a scholarly source.

St Vincent and the Grenadines Human Rights Association. RefWorld. UNHCR, 2007. Web. Accessed 12 Feb 2022. https://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce54c.html#:~:text=There%20are%20two%20identifiable%20 indigenous,others%20as%20'black%20Caribs'.

The website is run by the St Vincent and the Grenadines Human Rights Association and the information found was used to verify the general history of the Kalinago and Garifuna nations throughout the 1700s – 1900s.

Walls, Abi. Story Maps. Arcgis, 11 Nov 2018. Web. Accessed 15 Feb. 2022. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/90eabdf25b3b4ac2882218acc8c1f826.

The website provided information such as maps, general history and voice recordings from members of the Carib nation. The source provided authentic accounts of the Indigenous history of the island.