Resilient Urban Waterfront

edited by Beate Niemann

Resilient Urban Waterfront ISBN: 978-3-942100-45-8

Resilient Urban

Waterfront

Beate Niemann | Editor

Resilient Urban Waterfront

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Resilience as a Contemporary Approach to Future-Oriented Urban Development Beate Niemann

01 THEORY 17

Revitalisation of the Urban Waterfront in North America, Europe and Aus­tralia Beate Niemann, Theresa Werner

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Water Landscapes in Spanish Mediterranean Cities Pablo Martí Ciriquián

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Urban Waterfronts: The Design of the Human Scale Almudena Nolasco-Cirugeda, Leticia Serrano-Estrada

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Alicante City Landscape: Thin Transitions at the Sea Threshold Clara García-Mayor

02 Analysis 78 80 82

Mountain Chains and Wetlands Residential Use Public Transport

03 Projects 86 94 96 100 102 106 110 112 118 122 124 128 130 132 134 138 140

Poca Luz Unificar El Alicante Otium Waterfront Strandgut Land Lines Hashtag Strategy Arco De La Salud Green Delta Eco-Lab City Urban Landscape Connection The Leaf Isolation As An Opportunity Reactivating The Triangle Coastal Reactivation New Cultures Healthy Tours BV Link

04 Appendix 144 147 148 152

Authors | Contributors Participants Bibliography | Picture Credits Imprint

Resilience as a Contemporary Approach to Future-Oriented Urban Development The city of the 21st century finds itself confronted with an unprecedented abundance of requirements which it has to meet. Strategies for sustainable developments reach their boundaries due to the multi-crisis in sectors of nutrition, energy, climate, finance, economy, social issues and politics. The term Resilience thus becomes a central point of discussion within scientific discourse.

Resilience describes the upkeep of existing relations within a system and measures how changes in varying conditions, in driving forces and in other parameters affect these systems and how these maintain themselves.

Thus, resilience describes the competence of a system allowing it to keep up fundamental goals and its integrity while surrounding conditions have dramatically changed

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(cf. Chappin, van der Lei 2014). Terms like recycling of land, efficient use of land and densification of the centre are used to describe the classic challenges in urban design which lead to the identification of potential plots and their renewal for the urban society’s good. The urban waterfront – due to its exposed location within the city’s structure and its unique history of urban design and use in the European City – offers ideal conditions for catalytic developments leading towards a resilient city. Structural shifts from the post-industrial era and globalisation led to many port areas now being open for revitalisation.

On the threshold of city and water, the development of these areas can give an impetus as well as spatial and typological perspectives to the inner city plots.

© MVRDV

01 Urban Island and its Surroundings, 3Land, Basel, CH

From an urban planning point of view, the direct location by the water offers great potential for reviving the urban space, upgrading the city scape and developing high amenity values. Former port areas thus become a part of the existing inner city and take on important functions within the overall urban context. Often, their urban development marks the starting point to a widespread process of urban renewal.

Simultaneously, the waterfronts are faced with immense challenges: scarcity of resources and rising sea levels confront the urban waterfront with new, urgent tasks.

Thus, planners, urbanists and architects have to deal with the causes and consequences of the global climate change more than ever as well as to initiate sustainable

„Waterfronts are faced with immense challenges“ ideas and solutions for urban development. A paradigm shift from blueprint planning (linear and static) to adaptive planning that embraces change and involves regular and iterative processes of monitoring, assessment and scenario making is needed (cf. Sharifi, Yamagata, 2018).

Especially with the current renaissance of the inner city and its growing popularity as a residential area, the establishment of new, innovative mixed-use neighbourhoods in these zones appears to be an elementary component of the city’s future.

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Furthermore, modern cities are exposed by the global competition for attention and prosperity, in which soft location factors as well as the image and perception of cities are increasingly gaining significance.

Over the last decades, the waterfronts of many cities worldwide have changed considerably. These areas became residential neighbourhoods, cultural and creative centres with museums and shops and act as role models for the rest of the city and the entire region.

Š COBE

Unique locations on the waterfront could be used to generate a new positioning within this inter-urban competition. An attractive waterfront could serve as an invitation to the city. Therefore, it is important to use the potential that areas along rivers, canals, lakes or seas

offer and to integrate the water into urban development concepts in order to create places which contribute to a specific identity.

02 Former industrial Harbour Area Deutzer Hafen in Cologne, DE

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„Over the last decades, the waterfronts of many cities worldwide have changed considerably“ This topic is dealt with in the theoretical approach “Revitalisation of the Urban Waterfront in North America, Europe and Australia” by analysing the regional and historical background that led to certain developments in North America, Europe and Australia. The comparison of these developments focusing on differences and similarities is an important method in order to derive the consequences. It also helps to understand the characteristics of each so-called “planning league”. This term is introduced in order to subdivide the broad view on the topic and to organise it into smaller segments with common traits and origins.

Contemporary international projects of urban waterfront developments are used to link the theoretical approach to current practice. International scientific exchange, especially in cooperation with University of Technology Sydney and Urban Growth NSW, on research positions regarding local urban waterfront structures and ways to cope with these structures, acts as a major competence in this context of research.

The theoretical approach “Water Landscapes in Spanish Mediterranean Cities” offers insights into the role of water in Spanish cities, not only concentrating on coastal waterfronts but also taking rivers and wetlands into account. The unique settings of maritime waterfronts,

river waterfronts and other wetlands are differentiated and linked to cities like Barcelona and Valencia as well as smaller cities that are popular destinations for tourists such as Benidorm and Torrevieja. Each scenario represents a diversity of strategies and projects depending on the role and scale of the urban space.

The theoretical approach “Urban waterfronts: The Design of the Human Scale” contains analyses on the different designs of coastline promenades referring to seven regions at the Costa Brava – Dénia, Benidorm, Torrevieja and municipalities in the area of Alicante. Each region has unique geographical features and landscapes which results in a variety of designs and activities each responding to a certain setting. The role of the pedestrian is also focused on in order to highlight topics of liveability, sociability and security of waterfront areas.

“Alicante City Landscape: Thin Transitions at the Sea Threshold” – the fourth contribution to the chapter of theoretical approaches – explains the transitory situations at the sea threshold using Alicante’s city landscape as a reference.

The analysis is split into different areas of Alicante – the city, the north and the south – to point out the specific settings and transitions of each scenery and how they influence urban development. Environmental issues, for example the weather conditions as well as vegetation and landscape, are elaborated on in order to differentiate local conditions and resulting developments.

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„Activated water landscapes generate great positive impact on society“

The theory-based approach to the topic illustrates that the development of the urban waterfront is an issue that is highly relevant in every city or municipality located by the water. It needs to be regarded as a global issue and can not only be centred on one specific area.

Activated water landscapes generate great positive impact on society and have the ability to qualify sites as a successful long-term development for the urban area.

The necessity of focusing on the development of waterfront areas, especially in a resilient way, in order to provide future-oriented adaptive planning methods and sustainable solutions becomes a main focus in contemporary urban planning.

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Alongside large metropolises, smaller European cities are also confronted with the challenge of introducing integrative strategies for the urban development of vacant waterfront areas. Particularly the special economic situation in south European countries offers reasons for developing new strategies for the urban waterfront focusing on resilient design. Now, that the local economy has gradually recovered from the severe consequences of the financial crisis, innovative incentives as well as long-term perspectives on urban renewal pushing the city towards a resilient setting appear to be a more constructive mean than former development strategies were.

03 Fjord City in Oslo, NO

Wismar University organised an international research and design seminar in cooperation with Universidad de Alicante which included several interdisciplinary meetings of German and Spanish students complemented by lectures and workshops with German and Spanish professors of Architecture, Urban Planning and Landscape Design.

The aim of the seminar was the elaboration on approaches to resilient urban planning methods in the field of urban waterfront developments. In this context, the waterfront of the Spanish city of Alicante was used as a testing ground for the development of resilient strategies, processes and designs in order to generate design principles that work well for Alicante.

Experiences – ranging from theoretical as well as design-oriented research – gained in this process can also be transferred to other waterfront locations in European cities.

Alicante is the third most important city on the Spanish Mediterranean Coast following Barcelona and Valencia.

With its historic city centre, its attractive waterfront location, the port and the beaches, the city is a popular holiday destination and place for excursions. To maintain the importance of Alicante in the future, long-term perspectives for urban development must be illustrated taking into account the vacant spaces at the shoreline.

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Š COBE

04 Europahafen - Urban Waterfront Bremen, DE

In the context of this course, the designated planning area is located within the geographical triangle Alicante | Elche | Santa Pola. The future development of this area can be considered as an enormous opportunity for the entire region and also a great challenge as a vacant space where some facilities and uses have already been established in the past. The boundaries of the project area were flexible. The work implemented a wide reflection about creating a new waterfront and a new design for the existing area including new conceptions and assemblies that strengthen the waterfront in the long term. The students’ designs that are presented and set into dialog in this publication show a variety of different design-based approaches to the topic. A wide range of spatial figures, patterns

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and structures was extracted from the analytical part of the design process (mappings, comparisons, scenarios and concepts) in order to reveal the potential that the waterfront region offers.

The overall aim of the new development is the establishment of a new urban area that is closely linked to the city itself and is no longer an isolated fragment of Alicante. Mixed-use buildings and public spaces as well as varying densities and intensities regarding functions and the built structure are proposed means in order to generate a resilient urban waterfront.

Changes in the traffic infrastructure leading to new bike lanes and pedestrian zones by the water and the relocation of motorways also affect the future development of the waterfront. The accessibility is of major importance.

Another key factor is the reuse of already built structures and buildings – some of them are kept the way they are whereas others are provided with new functions such as cultural uses or leisure activities or are mixed with new typologies.

is provided and a contribution to scientific research on this topic is offered – a topic of high cultural, social, economic, political and ecological relevance.

This double task leads towards an actualised view on urban waterfronts and synthesised visions of future perspectives between spaces and societies. Resilient processes and designs in urban planning linked to the varying dynamics of each city become the central point of discussion especially in the context of future-oriented planning methods.

On the basis of the results from the theory-based as well as the design-based approach an innovative view on current challenges that urban waterfronts are facing

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Theory Resilient Urban Waterfront

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Revitalisation of the Urban Waterfront in North America, Europe and Australia Beate Niemann, Theresa Werner

Revitalisation of the Urban Waterfront in North America, Europe and Australia The image and role of the city by the water has changed substantially over the past decades: Whilst a century ago, shorelines surrounding major ports were dominated by port workers, ships and their high masts they are now characterised by modern buildings, upgraded promenades and diverse green areas. Due to an increasing inefficiency of the old port structures over time, a relocation of the ports to areas outside the main urban fabric set in. The resulting vacant areas in the city have been revitalised and restructured in various ways creating new neighbourhoods. Places located at the waterfront offer great potential for revitalising the urban space, enhancing the cityscape and creating high-quality developments.

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New neighbourhoods were created which have a chance to enrich and revive the existing city, to establish new functions and user groups and to provide attractive residential and work environments as well as spaces for recreation close to the shoreline.

This process of transformation already began in the United States of America in the 1960s. Since then, an impressive collection of waterfront projects has been created around the globe, ranging from San Francisco via Hamburg to Sydney. The central urban waterfront has been significantly upgraded in many major cities. Often, the shoreline developments and the orientation towards the water are highly appreciated internationally.

© COBE

01 Paper Island - Revitalisation of the Urban Waterfront in Copenhagen, DK

Since the revitalisation projects mentioned above have been developed for about 50 years already, research on the development of urban waterfronts has advanced by now. Globally however, the analysis of the current scientific debate reveals significant deficits. Whilst cities with urban waterfront projects in North America and Europe, especially in the United States of America and north-west Europe, are in the centre of discourse, waterfront projects in Asia and the southern hemisphere receive little to no attention.

Furthermore, current literature on that topic proves that there are significant similarities between waterfront projects within the same region. Reasons for this can be found in similar political, economic, cultural

„The urban waterfront has been significantly upgraded in many major cities“ and social conditions of the cities and the development.

They can be assigned to so-called „planning leagues“ according to their similar conditions.

The term „planning league“ describes the common origin as well as similar characteristics of the urban waterfront. At the same time, this involves an analytical approach that goes beyond the solely regarded spatial level but considers the waterfront developments holistically within the framework of their contextual conditions.

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© KCAP

02 Fredericia C - Transformation of a former Brownfield Area in Fredericia, DK

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In this context, authors and scientists have identified decisive similarities – especially for the realised urban waterfront projects in the northern states of the United States of America and north-west Europe (cf. Brownwill 2013, Ebner 2009, Hoyle 2000, Meyer 1999, Vormann 2015) – which can thereby be sorted into regional planning leagues.

The adoption of North American and European models and strategies (cf. Christiaanse 2015: p. 55) led to a development that had no individual character linked to regional conditions or historical backgrounds. Therefore, in the sense of the explanation stated above, an independent regional planning league within the Asian region cannot be found.

At the same time, these urban waterfront revitalisation projects in Europe and North America have had great impact on developments in Asia. Related to the economic growth in the 1990s, the importance of the urban waterfront in Asian metropolises has increased noticeably.

Sparse attention has been paid to an Australian planning league – as a representative example of the southern hemisphere – although it undoubtedly exists and can decisively contribute to the international debate on the revitalisation of urban waterfronts.

The lack of this planning league within current scientific debates will now be taken up and included into the following research. Starting from the development of urban design patterns at urban waterfronts in the North American – focusing on the northern states – and the north-west European planning leagues, developments on the Australian continent regarding waterfront projects will also be discussed. Furthermore, an attempt is being made at identifying significant similarities of an Australian planning league that go beyond the geographic location to then consolidate them within one planning league. In this context, it should be re-emphasised that demarcation lines between each regional planning league are not always clear and that overlaps exist.

In addition, the derivation of an Australian planning league is not intended to provide strict guidelines for future urban development projects at the urban waterfront but to elaborate on differentiated approaches and control mechanisms for urban waterfront development on an international level. Acting as investigation criteria the historical development of urban design patterns within each planning league, the structure and design of the port cities, the causes of decline around port structures in urban environments, the impetus for the new developments, the characteristics of contemporary urban planning at the waterfront and the specific regional planning regulations that strongly influence urban waterfront projects will be regarded.

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Urban Waterfront Projects of the North American Planning League Most cities that are part of the North American planning league were planned and founded during the 18th and 19th century and are thus still comparatively young. Their built structure is clearly defined and characterised by a grid pattern: a chessboardlike layout of streets going from North to South and from East to West and the built structures in between the streets forming the blocks.

Therefore, the cities are neither built around a compact ancient city nor is a central market apparent. Both characteristics are common terms in progressively developed European cities.

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Š B.I.G.

03 The Big U - Resilient Urban Transformation at New York´s Waterfront

The uniformity and continuity of the grid pattern reflects the social values of the North American population: the equally treated public spaces that are accessible to anyone represent the desire for political and economic equality as well as social and cultural harmony clearly. The lack of restrictions of any kind were supposed to ensure maximum economic development, especially for private enterprises (cf. Meyer 1999: p. 189).

The grid is a common layout found in the North American port cities which have mainly expanded on peninsulas with comparatively long shorelines. The majority of ports in North American cities was regarded as an integral part of the grid planning system and formed an extension of the road network into the water (cf. ibid: p. 53).

Accordingly, the historic ports of the North American cities are characterised by piers which are arranged perpendicular to the shoreline generating comb-like structures (cf. ibid: p. 189). As a result of this spatial structure, urban life not only concentrated on land areas but also established itself on the waterfronts (cf. Vormann 2015: p. 5).

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Š Field Operations

04 Seattle Waterfront

In addition, ports in many cities have been the driving force behind urban expansion and growth of population as well as prosperity through economic development. The city and its port were always and continue to be closely interwoven.

Until the middle of the 20th century, the significance of ports within the cities of the North American planning league lasted. Various factors have led to a decreasing use of the port areas close to the inner city leaving vacant land behind.

Globalisation, progress in maritime technologies such as the increasing use of containers for cargo shipping, massive loss of jobs, deindustrialisation, shrinking importance of the ports for local economies, decreasing cargo, aging port structures and the relocation of ports to larger areas outside the existing urban structures are causing economic decline of historic ports in North America (cf. Schubert 2002a: p. 319 ff). In connection to this, the inner cities of the affected port cities have also experienced desolation, decay and descent (cf. ibid.). In those North American cities,

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“So-called Festival Marketplaces were created between the shorelines and the inner city“

an urban waterfront revitalisation programme was initiated as early as the 1960s.

At that time, the redevelopment of port and urban waterfront areas was not seen as a secondary effect but rather as a natural component of a comprehensive urban renewal (cf. Hoyle 2000: p. 396).

From a historical perspective, city and port have always been correlating. Especially the North American urban waterfront projects Inner Harbor in Baltimore, Fisherman‘s Wharf in San Francisco and Battery Park in New York City are regarded as pioneering projects. Their most obvious feature is a focus on leisure- and tourism-related uses, partly supplemented by housing, offices and retail (cf. Schubert 2001: p. 49).

Thus, the renewed urban waterfront has been characterised by festivals, events and cultural institutions. In conjunctions with the planners‘ and investors‘ intention to create new public spaces at the waterfront in order to counteract the emerging trend of inner city decay and to achieve a more favourable image, so-called “festival marketplaces” were established between the shorelines and the inner city.

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“The main aim is to create a visual as well as a physical access to the water“

Financed by public-private partnerships, these have little in common with the image of the market as a place of encounter, exchange and communication. They are rather postmodern „retail landscapes“ (cf. Goss 1996: p. 221) where consumption becomes the main experience. Major aspects that have been criticised are the variability of the built environment, staging of public life and the high rate of investment-oriented decisions (cf. Schubert 2002a: p. 355). However, it must be emphasised that the concept of the festival market generated commercial success which even affected the inner cities positively (cf. ibid.).

The contemporary waterfront projects of the North American planning league, such as the New York Dryline and the developments along the East River, the Port of Los Angeles with the San Pedro Waterfront, or the Chicago Navy Pier, have further developed and contain some similar traits. The main aim is to provide a visual as well as a physical access to the water for residents and visitors. In order to do so, promenades and public spaces are being created at the waterfront leading to the removal of large-scaled traffic routes.

At the same time, public transport is being further developed to ensure the waterfront‘s reachability. New building structures no longer appear as commercial maladjusted objects within the city‘s structure but take the historical background of the surroundings into account and accordingly adjust their appearance. Regarding the functions located in these areas, the proportions of residential, office and leisure uses have recently become more balanced.

However, private investors’ interests especially in relation to the real estate sector are still being prioritised over residential interests which results in the majority of the residential spaces by the water being located in the high-priced sector (cf. Harms 2008: p. 6 ff, Heeg 2009: p. 77 ff, Smith, Garcia Ferrari 2012: p. 3, Yildiz et al., 2015: p. 490).

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© MIT CAU + ZUS + Urbanisten

As already indicated, private investors and companies play a significant role in the process of urban renewal in the North American planning league. Only few states have planning laws, thus there are neither consistent laws nor unified standard procedures (cf. Schubert 2002a: p. 354). Main reasons for this can be found in the North American legal system as well as in the citizens‘ unchanged self-conception: while state interventions are being rejected, decisions made by the private sector and municipalities are being glorified and gain main importance (cf. Streich 2011: p.

613). Thus, private investors step into the position of the “developer“. The investors‘ economic ambitions are valued much more than the planning done by public authorities. This way of planning also affects the waterfront‘s development: the highquality areas at the popular waterfront are especially subject to the investors‘ claims leading to commercial functions and high-priced residential buildings.

05 NY Meadowlands - Comprehensive Urban Transformation Draft for New York´s Waterfront

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“The ports have developed into archipelagos in the middle of undefined zones on the edge of the city“

Urban Waterfront Projects of the European Planning League In contrary to the city of the North American planning league, the history of the European planning league‘s city partly stretches back to the antiquity. This way, various typologies evolved generated by historic processes for example the medieval city, the cities of the 14th and 15th century or the industrialised city of the 19th century which introduced the separation of public and private spaces within the city and made the city a place of emancipation and individualisation.

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These developments were caused by a constant change of political, social and economic conditions. Therefore, plans and elevations of north-west European cities have also been subject of reoccurring change. As a result, there is no universal definition for the cities from this planning league but similarities can still be identified.

Relevant from today‘s point of view is, that the cities are distinctly structured and organised: besides the

© MVRDV

06 Urban Waterfront „Young City“ in Gdansk, PL

city centre – the Old Town – inner-city districts, suburbs as well as industrial and commercial areas are visible within the city‘s structure. The history of these cities reveals itself in the cityscape. A self-evident simultaneous existence of different functions is a common trait. A mix of uses – work, living, commerce and leisure – often exists in a dense way.

North-west European port cities experienced a severe paradigm shift, especially during the 19th century.

Whereas prior to the process of industrialisation, the city and the port have been forming a unit, the development of steam shipping and industrial processes of production as well as the rapid growth of the port itself led to a spatial separation between the city and its port

(cf. Schubert 2001: p. 54). This development was supported by the establishment of customs borders, fences and walls. An artificial barrier was created: both between land and sea and between city and port. The ports have developed into archipelagos in the middle of undefined zones on the edge of the city.

The main characteristic of the north-west European ports was the comb-like structure consisting of piers, large basins and long quaysides (cf. Ebner 2008: p. 63).

Despite the spatial separation between city and port, the significance of the ports was not to be underestimated: they had great impact on the growth of the economy, the trade and the population. During the 1960s,

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a decreasing significance and the dying of inner-city port areas emerged which can be compared to the processes in the North American planning league. For the following years or even decades, many of these areas were left unused. Only in the 1980s, first attempts at revitalising the vacant areas have been made.

Projects like Docklands in London, Kop van Zuid in Rotterdam and IJ-Plein in Amsterdam can be regarded as pioneering projects in the north-west European planning league. To fully comprehend their special features and characteristics, it is necessary to take a differentiated look at the planning league.

In contrary to the developments in the North American planning league that understood the process as a main aspect of the urban renewal, the revitalisation went along as a by-product. The unique quality of the urban waterfront areas has been recognised much later than in North America.

The project Docklands in London attracted attention in a negative way. Oversized projects, unreasonably large amounts of office areas, a monotonous building structure as well as planning processes led by private investors resulted in serious criticism. Other waterfront projects from the same period of time, e.g. Amsterdam and

07 Urban Waterfront Transformation HafenCity and the Elbphilharmonie in Hamburg, DE

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Rotterdam, set their focus on generating new residential areas with high density. The existing finger-piers became a testing ground for Dutch and Scandinavian housing projects (cf. Schubert 2010: p. 85).

During the 1980s a new trend emerged in the northwest European countries which increased especially in context with the contemporary urban waterfront projects: nowadays, the development of whole neighbourhoods became the starting point to a new development, not just the planning of a single building. By creating a masterplan for the whole area basic flexible urban structures are being introduced; in competitive procedures the architectural and urban landscape design is being decided on (cf. Christiaanse 2015: p.

54). Projects like HafenCity Hamburg, FredericiaC in Fredericia, RHEINCITY (3Land) in Basel, Deutzer Hafen in Cologne and Young City in Gdansk are representative examples of these developments.

“Municipal subsidiaries act in the sense of public interest by all means“

that are part of the area‘s identity, keeping up the maritime character as well as the local identity (cf. ibid.).

In the North American planning league this aspect seems to be of minor interest.

Regarding the landscape design though, the similarities between the two planning leagues are obvious: the establishment of high-quality public spaces located directly at the shoreline with access for every resident and visitor is of major interest. It has to be noted that the development of urban waterfront projects in north-west Europe has led to increasing importance of inclusive participation of the local population (cf. ibid.).

Contemporary urban waterfront projects in the northwest European planning league are characterised by the city‘s renaissance. More people tend to move back into the city which leads to increasing demands for housing that is accessible to all social needs and income classes.

With regard to prevalent legal regulations and control mechanisms of urban planning in north-west Europe a few similarities can be identified that are mainly caused

by EU-wide political and economic interdependencies.

Compared to the North American planning league a weaker influence of the private sector on the urban planning process is evident.

The vacant areas by the water offer great potential for absorbing the rising demands. No mono-functional structures should be built but strongly mixed functions such as living, commerce, offices, retail and leisure should be established. Further characteristics of the projects is the careful handling of historical structures

Although municipalities often depend on financial support from the private sector and, in many cases, therefore act as public-private-partnerships since the 1980s, the power to make a decision and the responsibility for the development still remains with the municipalities (cf. Marx 2003: p. 19).

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This also applies to the urban design of the waterfront.

A common mean for the process of revitalisation is the foundation of development-groups led by the city or the municipality. These companies are responsible for the management of the development, the administration, the marketing of land as well as the preparation of land but act in the sense of public interest by all means. This process is aiming at guaranteeing efficiency and quality during the process of development.

Urban Waterfront Projects of the Australian Planning League The Australian cities are, as the cities of the North American planning league, rather young settlements. The colonisation and establishment of first settlements on the Australian continent only began in the 1770s. Starting point of the settlements was the decision of where the harbours should be established (cf. Schubert 2002b, p.

419). The initial port cities Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Darwin have developed into the major cities in Australia and are also the capital cities of their state. More than half of the Australian population lives in one of these cities.

British influences were responsible for the development and the design of the city in the first place: property was valued high which resulted in large suburban areas outside the city centre characterised by single-homes. During the last decades, the North American planning style has increased its influence on the design of the Australian cities. The grid pattern can be found in the Central Business Districts, the CBDs, where high-rise buildings have been erected since the 1960s.

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During the second half of the 19th century, Australian harbours developed into industrial and infrastructural centres. Port industry and the industrial sector led to a rapid growth of the economy as well as the population.

Furthermore, city and port could not be considered as separated functions, both elements have always had a strong connection; a clear spatial separation as it can be found in north-west Europe was not evident (cf. Schubert 2002b: p. 421). When analysing the ports‘ layout and structure, similarities to the other planning leagues appear – long finger-piers with many moorings within large basins.

08 Comprehensive Urban Waterfront Bays Precinct in Sydney, NSW, AU

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© 3XN & BVN

09 Fish Market in Sydney‘s Bays Precinct, NSW, AU

After the Second World War, the significance of Australian ports decreased which was caused by less incoming ships as well as the use of larger ships at the same time.

Especially those ports located close to the CBD tended to become inexpedient since the aging structures were not useful any longer and adjustments to modern cargo processes have not been made (cf. Schubert 2002b: p. 434). Thus, new larger areas located outside the city‘s boundaries were developed to meet the requirements of larger ships and modern techniques.

In Australia, first processes of revitalisation of former port areas began in the 1980s (cf. Hoyle 2000: p. 398). Simultaneously, the city‘s residents recognised their inner cities as an attractive habitat: “Waterfront redevelopment has gone hand-in-hand with a broader renaissance of inner cities after decades of suburban dispersion.“ (Stevens 2004: p. 2). Representative examples are the waterfront projects Darling Harbour in Sydney, Docklands in Melbourne and South Bank Parklands in Brisbane.

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“Special attention was paid to facilities of the entertainment sector“

Main impulses starting redevelopments of the waterfront were generated by large events such as world exhibitions, applications for the Summer Olympic Games or cultural festivals which led to reactivation of the vacant areas at the shoreline by adding new functions (cf. Stevens 2004: p. 2). A specific focus was put on the establishment of the entertainment sector, cultural events, museums and exhibition halls as well as large shopping centres.

Focusing on leisure activities has been widely criticised since many spatial deficits emerged, especially from an urban planning point of view. New buildings do not refer to their environment and visual axes towards the sea were being blocked. Still, the urban waterfront became a main attraction for the Australian population which can be linked to a previous lack of leisure activities in many places (cf. Schubert 2002b: p. 433). In addition, the establishment of these functions was encouraged by the high priority of private investors whose interests were broadly promoted during the planning process (cf. Stevens 2003: p. 2).

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Š Cottee Parker Architects

10 Elizabeth Quay Perth – Proposal for a Landmark for the Urban Waterfront

Another characteristic of the early waterfront projects is the short period of time between development and realisation with reactive, non-coordinated planning within the whole process (cf. ibid: p. 432). Finally, it has to be noted that in Australia, too, the urban waterfront became accessible.

The establishment of public spaces at the waterfront is the central similarity of all waterfront redevelopments from the North American, the European and the Australian planning league.

Most recent waterfront projects in the Australian planning league, for example Bays Precinct and Barangaroo in Sydney, Southbank Precinct in Melbourne and Elizabeth Quay in Perth, have become even more diverse regarding the proposed usages. In these projects, more attention is now being paid to the development of inner-city housing and new jobs at the waterfront than twenty to thirty years ago (cf.

Wu, Chen 2012: p. 6). This is the result of increasing demand based on predicted

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„Waterfront redevelopment has gone hand-in-hand with a broader renaissance of inner cities after decades of suburban dispersion“

growth of population in metropolitan areas. Building higher became a common method due to the lack of available land in the city centre. Furthermore, the more recent revitalisation projects focus on long-term development since they are to be implemented successively and should include public support (cf. Oakley, Johnson 2011: p. 7).

In addition, particular attention is being paid to the fact that waterfront developments no longer need to be purely reactive but instead should be derived from larger, partially regional plans and strategies which provide a development perspective for the next twenty years. Accordingly, urban waterfront design is closely linked to topics ranging from sustainability, development of green spaces and urban renewal via trade and traffic to culture. The most current project Sydney Fish Market, which is part of the waterfront development Bays Precinct, handles the issue of sustainability as one of the major topics.

These long-term strategies however are often not developed by cities or municipalities but by state-organised planning institutions (cf. Wu, Chen 2012: p. 3). This marks a major difference in comparison to North America and Europe. Cities and municipalities in the Australian planning league can only influence the technical infrastructure and are therefore to be distinguished from the other planning leagues. Issues of regional and urban development as well as urban planning are each state‘s responsibility and thus restrict the influence on the design on a local level (cf. Schubert 2002b: p. 446).

The exclusion of local authorities in decision-making processes and the resulting confrontation with new developments at the waterfront they have had no influence on has often been criticised.

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Conclusion In this research, the developments of waterfront projects on the Australian continent and in North America and Europe were categorised into different individual planning leagues and were then compared to each other.

In this context, comparison does not imply equalisation but the elaboration on both differences and similarities.

Inter alia, differences refer to historical development processes of the urban space, the establishment of port cities, the relation between city and port, cause and intention of revitalisation of former port areas in processes of urban renewal as well as main planning and control mechanisms. Reasons for this can be found in the differentiated planning styles within the planning

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leagues which are rooted in the region‘s history. At the same time, distinctive similarities between the planning leagues were identified. Firstly, this is about the significance of the public space. All over the world, squares, parks, green areas and promenades by the water seem to attract people. Thus, cities try to meet these demands by offering new accessibility to areas by the sea and developing attractive public spaces there.

Furthermore, an adjustment of functions and uses has been made. While the first waterfront redevelopments were characterised by rather mono-functional structures, the most recent projects focus on mixed-use neighbourhoods. This leads to another characteristic

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that all three planning leagues have in common: the key players have recognised the weaknesses of the previous waterfront projects and are now trying to translate this knowledge into contemporary development processes.

Thus, urban waterfront projects convey a precise contemporary image of current situations and issues that society is confronted with. Often, they also illustrate the degree of flexibility that political, social and economic structures provide in each country or region. This factor has major influence on the approach towards a revitalised waterfront and varies between the regarded regions.

Finally, based on the gained insights the question still arises how a possible assessment of urban waterfront projects can be made. But this has to be answered by stating that a uniform assessment cannot be made since the planning styles, initiating situations, reasons for re-development, processes of planning permits, topics and results of revitalising the urban waterfront are too different from one another. Still, the information provided helps us understand the different designs of the waterfront projects based on their context within their planning league.

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Imprint The book Resilient Urban Waterfront is published in the context of international researches, colloquiums and workshops at Wismar University, Faculty of Architecture and Design and the University of Alicante, Department of Architecture, organised by the Chair for Urban Design and Regional Planning of Wismar University, Prof. Dr. Beate Niemann in cooperation with Prof. Matthias Ludwig, and the Chair for Building Sciences and Urbanism of the University of Alicante, Prof. Dr. Pablo Martí Ciriquián in cooperation with Prof. Dr. Almudena Nolasco-Cirugeda and Prof. Dr. Clara García-Mayor. Furthermore, this book is one result of Prof.

Dr. Beate Niemann‘s Research „Australia Waterfront Projects“ and the international scientific interchange as well as the academic dialogue with the University of Technology Sydney, NSW.

Texts by kind permission of the authors/contributors. Photos and illustrations by kind permission of the photographers/holders of the image rights.

The organising university partners wish to thank all guest speakers, participating students and other participants for their collaboration in this important experience and their great effort within this course in order to provide an innovative view on current challenges that urban waterfronts are facing.

Editor: Beate Niemann

Resilient Urban Waterfront is funded by DAAD German Academic Exchange Service in the programme HOCHSCHULDIALOG MIT SÜDEUROPA. We would like to thank the DAAD for the great experience and for making this project possible. The realisation would have been impossible without the support of the DAAD and the funds provided by the German Federal Foreign Office. It supported the establishment of a professional discourse with experts from a South European country.

Wismar University of Applied Sciences Faculty of Architecture and Design Urban Design and Regional Planning Prof. Dr. Beate Niemann www.fg.hs-wismar.de/en/faculty/personen/professoren/beate-niemann/

Every reasonable attempt has been made by the authors, editors and publishers to identify owners of copyrights. Any errors or omissions will be settled within the usual limits on receipt of appropriate notification.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Authors | Contributors: Clara García-Mayor Matthias Ludwig Pablo Martí Ciriquián Beate Niemann Almudena Nolasco-Cirugeda Leticia Serrano-Estrada Theresa Werner

Copy Editing: Johanna Brokjans Layout, Graphic Design and Typesetting: Johanna Brokjans Anna Saß

University of Alicante / Universidad de Alicante Departamento de Edificación y Urbanismo Prof. Dr. Pablo Marti Ciriquián

www.deu.ua.es/es/departamento-de-edificacion-y-urbanismo.html

www.fg.hs-wismar.de © 2019 Verlag University Wismar and the editor ISBN 978-3-942100-45-8